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THE 


ENCYCLOPEDIA    BRITANNICA 


ELEVENTH    EDITION 


FIRST  edition,  published  in  three  volumes,  1768—1771. 

SECOND  ten  1777—1784. 

THIRD  eighteen  1788—1797. 

FOURTH  twenty  1801— 1810. 

FIFTH  twenty  1815—1817. 

SIXTH  twenty  1823—1824. 

SEVENTH  twenty-one  1830—1842. 

EIGHTH  twenty-two  1853—1860. 

NINTH  ,  twenty-five  1875—1889. 

TENTH  ninth  edition  and  eleven 

supplementary  volumes,  1902 — 1903. 

ELEVENTH        „         published  in  twenty-nine  volumes,  1910 — 1911. 


COPYRIGHT 

in  all  countries  subscribing  to  the 
Bern  Convention 

by 
THE  CHANCELLOR,  MASTERS  AND  SCHOLARS 

of  the 
UNIVERSITY  OF  CAMBRIDGE 


All  rights  reserved 


THE 


ENCYCLOPAEDIA  BRITANNICA 


DICTIONARY 

OF 

ARTS,    SCIENCES,    LITERATURE    AND    GENERAL 

INFORMATION 


ELEVENTH    EDITION 


VOLUME  XII 

GICHTEL  to   HARMONIUM 


Cambridge,  England: 

at  the  University  Press 

New  York,   35  West  32nd  Street 
1910 


AEL5- 


Copyright,  in  the  United  States  of  America,  1910, 

by 
The  Encyclopaedia  Britannica  Company 


INITIALS  USED  IN  VOLUME  XII.  TO  IDENTIFY  INDIVIDUAL 

CONTRIBUTORS,1  WITH  THE  HEADINGS  OF  THE 

ARTICLES  IN  THE  VOLUME  SO  SIGNED. 


A.  A.  R.*    ARTHUR  ALCOCK  RAMBAUT,  M.A.,  D.Sc.,  F.R.S.,  F.R.A.S.  f 

Radcliffe  Observer,  Oxford.     Professor  of  Astronomy  in  the  University  of  Dublin  •<  Grant,  Robert. 
and  Royal  Astronomer  of  Ireland,  1892-1897. 

A.  C.  Se.  ALBERT  CHARLES  SEWARD,  M.A.,  F.R.S. 

Professor  of  Botany  in  the  University  of  Cambridge.     Hon.  Fellow  of  Emmanuel  -(  Gymnosperms. 
College,  Cambridge.    President  of  the  Yorkshire  Naturalists'  Union,  1910.  I 

A.  F.  P.  ALBERT  FREDERICK  POLLARD,  M.A.,  F.R.Hisi.S.  f 

Fellow  of  All  Souls  College,  Oxford.  Professor  of  English  History  in  the  University  I 
of  London.  Assistant  Editor  of  the  Dictionary  of  National  Biography,  1893-1901.  ] 
Author  of  England  under  the  Protector  Somerset  •  Life  of  Thomas  Cranmer  ;  &c. 

A.  Go.*  REV.  ALEXANDER  GORDON,  M.A.  jGrynaeus,  Simon; 

Lecturer  on  Church  History  in  the  University  of  Manchester.  Haetzer. 

A.  G.  B.*  HON.  ARCHIBALD  GRAEME  BELL,  M.lNST.C.E.  f 

Director  of  Public  Works  and  Inspector  of  Mines,  Trinidad.    Member  of  Executive  -j  Guiana. 
and  Legislative  Councils,  Inst.C.E. 

A.  H.-S.  SIR  A.  HouTUM-ScmNDLER,  C.I.E.  J  Gilan;  Ramadan. 

General  in  the  Persian  Army.    Author  of  Eastern  Persian  Irak.  I 

A.  He.  ARTHUR  HERVEY.  [ 

Formerly  Musical  Critic  to  Morning  Post  and   Vanity  Fair.     Author  of  Masters  -I  Gounod. 
of  French  Music  ;  French  Music  in  the  XIX.  Century.  l_ 

A.  H.  S.  REV.  A.  H.  SAYCE,  D.D.  f  Grammar-  Gvees 

See  the  biographical  article,  SAYCE,  A.  H.  \  *"" 

A.  J.  G.  REV.  ALEXANDER  JAMES  GRIEVE,  M.A.,  B.D.  f 

Professor  of  New  Testament  and  Church  History  at  the  United  Independent  College,  J  riaggnt  ({„  j,,,rf\ 
Bradford.     Sometime  Registrar  of  Madras  University  and  Member  of  Mysore  ] 
Educational  Service.  I 

A.  J.  H.  ALFRED  JAMES  HIPKINS. 

Formerly  Member  of  Council  and  Hon.  Curator  of  Royal  College  of  Music.    Member  .. 

of   Committee  of  the   Inventions  and   Music   Exhibition,    1885;   of  the  Vienna  H  Harmonium  (in  part). 

Exhibition,  1892  ;  and  of  the  Paris  Exhibition,  1900.    Author  of  Musical  Instruments  ; 

A  Description  and  History  of  the  Pianoforte  ;  &c.  L 

A.  L.  ANDREW  LANG.  /Gurney,  Edmund. 

See  the  biographical  article,  LANG,  ANDREW.  ^ 

ES  MARY  CLERKE. 

See  the  biographical  article,  CLERKE,  A.  M. 


A.  M.  C.  AGNES  MARY  CLERKE.  J"  Wali0... 

\  n 


A.  N.  ALFRED  NEWTON,  F.R.S. 


See  the  biographical  article,  NEWTON,  ALFRED. 


A.  Ne.  ALEXANDER  NESBITT,  F.S.A. 


Goatsucker;  Godwit; 
Golden-eye; 
Goldfinch;  Goose; 
Gos-Hawk;  Crackle; 
Grebe;  Greenfinch; 
Greenshank;  Grosbeak; 
Grouse;  Guacharo;  Guan; 
Guillemot;  Guinea-Fowl; 
Gull,  Hammer-Kop. 


XANDER  NESBITT,  F.S.A.  f  rl         „.  , 

Author  of  the  Introduction  to  A  Descriptive  Catalogue  of  the  Glass  Vessels  in  South •{  ulaAs>  Mtstory  o 
Kensington  Museum.  [     Manufacture  (in  part). 

A.  S.  C.  ALAN  SUMMERLY  COLE,  C.B.  f 

Assistant  Secretary  for  Art,  Board  of  Education,  1900-1908.     Author  of  Ancient  J.  Gold  and  Silver  Thread. 
Needle  Point  and  Pillow  Lace ;  Embroidery  and  Lace ;  Ornament  in  European  Silks ;  &c.  [ 

A.  Sy.  ARTHUR  SYMONS.  f  Goncourt,  De; 

See  the  biographical  article,  SYMONS,  A.  \  Hardy,  Thomas. 

1  A  complete  list,  showing  all  individual  contributors,  appears  in  the  final  volume. 

V 

1931 


vi  INITIALS  AND  HEADINGS  OF  ARTICLES 

A.  W.  H.*         ARTHUR  WILLIAM  HOLLAND.  f  Godfrey  of  Viterbo; 

Formerly  Scholar  of  St  John's  College,  Oxford.    Bacon  Scholar  of  Gray's  Inn,  1900.  \  Golden  Bull;   Habsburg. 

A.  W.  R.  ALEXANDER  WOOD  RENTON,  M. A.,  LL.B.  f  Ground  Ren*. 

Puisne  Judge  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Ceylon.     Editor  of  Encyclopaedia  of  the  -I  „      ,  ' 

Laws  of  England.  {  Handwriting. 

A.  W.  W.  ADOLPHUS  WILLIAM  WARD,  LL.D.,  Lrrr.D.  J  -,„,    ,    «,„•„, 

See  the  biographical  article,  WARD,  A.  W.  ne>  '      3rt> 

C.  P.  A.  CHARLES  FRANCIS  ATKINSON.  f  Grand  Alliance,  War  of  the; 

Formerly  Scholar  of  Queen's  College,  Oxford.    Captain,  1st  City  of  London  (Royal  •<  Grant,  Ulysses  S.  (in  part); 
Fusiliers).    Author  of  The  Wilderness  and  Cold  Harbour.  j  Great  Rebellion. 

C.  Gr.  CHARLES  GROSS,  A.M.,  PH.D.,  LL.D.  (1857-1909).  I" 

Professor  of  History  at   Harvard   University,   1888-1909.     Author  of   The  GUd-(  Gilds. 
Merchant;  Sources  and  Literature  of  English  History;  &c.  L 

C.  H.*  SIR  C.  HOLROYD.  J  „,.,.._   .,,  v   - 

See  the  biographical  article,  HOLROYD,  SIR  C.  \ tt    en>  s     r-  u 

C.  H.  C.  CHARLES  H.  COOTE.  fn  ..     .  ,.         ,. 

•Formerly  of  Map  Department,  British  Museum.  ^HaKluyt  (.in  part). 

C.  H.  Ha.  CARLTON  HUNTLEY  HAYES,  A.M.,  PH.D.  f  Gregory  Pokes  VIII.  to 

Assistant  Professor  of  History  in  Columbia  University,  New  York  City.    Member  •<       J?..     "_   ., " 
of  the  American  Historical  Association.  L  '  uulDerl- 

C.  J.  L.  SIR  CHARLES  JAMES  LYALL,  K.C.S.I.,  C.I.E.,  LL.D  (Edin.)  f 

Secretary,  Judicial  and  Public  Department,  India  Office.    Fellow  of  King's  College,     . 
London.     Secretary  to  Government  of  India  in  Home  Department,   1889-1894.  -i  ' 
Chief  Commissioner,  Central  Provinces,  India,  1895-1898.    Author  of  Translations 
of  Ancient  Arabic  Poetry;  &c. 

C.  L.*  CHARLES  LAPWORTH,  M.Sc.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  F.G.S.  f 

Professor  of  Geology  and  Physiography  in  the  University  of  Birmingham.    Editor  -j  Graptolites. 
of  Monograph  on  British  Graptolites,  Palaeontographical  Society,  1900-1908. 

TGlendower,  Owen; 
C.  L.  K.  CHARLES  LETHBRIDGE  K.INGSFORD,  M.A.,  F.R.HisT.S.,  F.S.A.  Gloucester,  Humphrey, 

Assistant  Secretary  to  the  Board  of  Education.     Author  of  Life  of  Henry   V.  J       Duke  Of; 
Editor  of  Chronicles  of  London,  and  Stow's  Survey  of  London.  |  ijaiiam    RjchoD' 

Hardy  ng,  John. 

C.  M.  CARL  THEODOR  MIRBT,  D.Tn.  r 

Professor  of  Church  History  in  the  University  of  Marburg.    Author  of  Publizistik  •<  Gregory  VII. 
im  Zeitalter  Gregor  VII. ;  Quellen  zur  Geschichte  des  Papstthums ;  &c. 

C.  Mi.  CHEDOMILLE  MIJATOVICH.  f 

Senator  of  the  Kingdom  of  Servia.     Envoy  Extraordinary  and  Minister  Pleni-  J  Gundulich 

potentiary  of  the  King  of  Servia  to  the  Court  of  St  James',  1895-1900  and  1902- 1 

1903. 

C.  M.  W.  SIR  CHARLES  MOORE  WATSON,  K.C.M.G.,  C.B.  r 

Colonel,  Royal  Engineers.     Deputy-Inspector-General  of  Fortifications,  1896-1902.  -<  Gordon,  General. 
Served  under  General  Gordon  in  the  Soudan,  1874-1875. 

C.  Pf.  CHRISTIAN  PFISTER,  D.-ES-L.  r  Greeorv   st   Of  T0urs. 

.      Professor  at  the  Sorbonne,  Paris.     Chevalier  of  the  Legion  of  Honour.     Author  -\  „  t  *c  . 

of  Etudes  sur  le  regne  de  Robert  le  Pieux.  [  Gunther  of  Schwarzburg. 

C.  R.  B.  CHARLES  RAYMOND  BEAZLEY,  M.A.,  D.LITT.,  F.R.G.S.,  F.R.HisT.S.  f" 

Professor  of  Modern  History  in  the  University  of  Birmingham.     Formerly  Fellow      Gomez;   Hakluyt 
of  Merton  College,  Oxford,  and  University  Lecturer  in  the  History  of  Geography. -<       /•     j,ari\ 
Lothian   Prizeman,  Oxford,   1889.     Lowell  Lecturer,   Boston,    1908.     Author  of  part). 

Henry  the  Navigator;  The  Dawn  of  Modern  Geography;  &c. 

C.  We.  CECIL  WEATHERLY.  f  rrftfmn 

Formerly  Scholar  of  Queen's  College,  Oxford.    Barrister-at-Law.  1  ura 

C.  W.  E.  CHARLES  WILLIAM  ELIOT.  Jr.      & 

See  the  biographical  article,  ELIOT,  C.  W.  \  uray'  Asa> 

D.  C.  To.  REV.  DUNCAN  CROOKES  TOVEY,  M. A.  /  fipav   Thnma<! 

Editor  of  The  Letters  of  Thomas  Gray ;  &c.  \  W 

*ALD  FRANCIS  TOVEY.  f" 

Author  of  Essays  in  Musical  Analysis:  comprising   The  Classical  Concerto,   Thel  ( 
Goldberg  Variations,  and  analysis  of  many  other  classical  works. 

D.  G.  H.  DAVID  GEORGE  HOGARTH,  M.A. 

Keeper  of  the  Ashmolean  Museum,  Oxford.      Fellow  of  Magdalen  College,  Oxford.     „  .. 
Fellow  of  the  British  Academy.     Excavated  at  Paphos,  1888;  Naucratis,  1899  and  H  Haucarnassus. 
1903;  Ephesus,  1904-1905;  Assiut,  1906-1907;  Director,  British  School  at  Athens, 
1897-1900;  Director,  Cretan  Exploration  Fund,  1899.  [ 

f  Gondomar,  Count; 

D.  H.  DAVID  HANNAY.  r       .  Ailian,,p    ^ar  of 

Formerly  British  Vice-Consul  at  Barcelona.    Author  of  Short  History  of  Royal  Navy,  1  u™  ,   '   w  ar . OI 

1217-1688;  Life  of  Emilia  Castelar;&c.  the:    Naval  Operations; 

I  Guichen;  Hamilton,  Emma. 


INITIALS  AND  HEADINGS  OF  ARTICLES  vii 

D.  LI.  T.  DANIEL  LLEUFER  THOMAS.  J 

Barrister-at-Law,    Lincoln's    Inn.      Stipendiary    Magistrate   at    Pontypridd    and  •>  Glamorganshire;  Gower. 
Rhondda.  I 

i.  DUGALD  

Minister  of  South  Grove  Congregational  Church,  Highgate.    Author  of  Constructive  i 


D.  Mn.  REV.  DUGALD  MACFADYEN,  M.A.  J  cias,  jonn; 

Minister  of  South  Grove  C  ~ 

Congregational  Ideals ;  &c. 


D.  M.  W.  SIR  DONALD  MACKENZIE  WALLACE,  K.C.I.E.,  K.C.V.O. 

Extra  Groom-in- Waiting  to  H.M.  King  George  V.    Director  of  the  Foreign  Depart- 
ment of  The  Times,  1891-1899.    Member  of  Institut  de  Droit  International  and  •!  Giers;  Gorchakov 
Officier  de  1'Instruction  Publique  of  France.     Joint-editor  of  new  volumes  (loth 
edition)  of  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica.    Author  of  Russia ;  Egypt  and  the  Egyptian 
Question;  The  Web  of  Empire;  &c. 

E.  A.  F.  EDWARD  AUGUSTUS  FREEMAN,  LL.D.  J  Goths  (in 

See  the  biographical  article,  FREEMAN,  E.  A.  \ 

E.  A.  J.  E.  ALFRED  JONES. 

Author  of  Old  English  Gold  Plate;  Old  Church  Plate  of  the  Isle  of  Man;  Old  Silver 

Sacramental  Vessels  of  Foreign  Protestant  Churches  in  England;  Illustrated  Catalogue  ~\  Golden  Rose  (in  part). 

of  Leopold  de  Rothschild's  Collection  of  Old  Plate ;  A  Private  Catalogue  of  The  Royal 

Plate  at  Windsor  Castle;  &c. 

E.  B.*  ERNEST  CHARLES  FRANCOIS  BABELON.  f 

Professor  at  the  College  de  France.     Keeper  of  the  department  of  Medals  and 
Antiquities  at  the  Bibhotheque  Nationale.    Member  of  the  Academic  des  Inscrip-  J  JJadrumetum 
tions  et  Belles  Lettres,  Pans.     Chevalier  of  the  Legion  of  Honour.     Author  of  | 
Descriptions  historiques  des  monnaies  de  la  republique  romaine ;  Traites  des  monnaies 
grecques  et  romaines ;  Catalogue  des  camees  de  la  bibliotheque  nationale.  [ 

E.  Br.  ERNEST  BARKER,  M.A.  f 

Fellow  and  Lecturer  in  Modern  History  at  St  John's  College,  Oxford.    Formerly  J.  Godfrey  of  Bouillon. 
Fellow  and  Tutor  of  Merton  College.    Craven  Scholar,  1895. 

E.  C.  B.  RT.  REV.  EDWARD  CUTHBERT  BUTLER,  O.S.B.,  M.A.,  D.Lrrr.  (Dublin).  [Gilbert  of  Sempringham, 

Abbot  of  Downside  Abbey,  Bath.    Author  of  "  The  Lausaic  History  of  Palladius  "1       St; 

in  Cambridge  Texts  and  Studies,  vol.  vi.  [  Grandmontines;  Groot. 

E.  C.  Sp.  REV.  EDWARD  CLARKE  SPICER,  M.A.  J 

New  College,  Oxford.    Geographical  Scholar,  1900.  \_  Glacier. 

E.  F.  G.  EDWIN  FRANCIS  GAY,  PH.D.  |~ 

Professor  of  Economics  and  Dean  of  the  Graduate  School  of  Business  Administration,  •<  Hanseatic  League. 
Harvard  University.  •{_ 

E.  F.  S.  D.         LADY  DILKE.  / 

See  the  biographical  article,  DILKE,  SIR  C.  W.,  Bart.  L 

E.G.  EDMUND  GOSSE,  LL.D.  J 

See  the  biographical  article,  GOSSE,  E.  \  "Dome. 

E.  H.  P.  EDWARD  HENRY  PALMER,  M.A.  / 

See  the  biographical  article,  PALMER,  E.  H.  1  Haflz. 

E.  J.  P.  EDWARD  JOHN  PAYNE,  M.A.  (1844-1904).  r 

Formerly  Fellow  of  University  College,  Oxford.     Editor  of  the  Select  Works  of  \  _  . 

Burke.     Author  of  History  of  European  Colonies;  History  of  the  New  World  called]  Grey,  2nd 
America;  The  Colonies,  in  the  "  British  Citizen  "  Series;  &c. 

Ed.  M.  EDUARD  MEYER,  PH.D.,  D.Lirr.  (Oxon),  LL.D.  (Chicago).  [ 

Professor  of  Ancient  History  in  the  University  of  Berlin.     Author  of  Geschichte  <  Gotarzes. 
des  Alterthums ;  Geschichte  des  alien  Aegyptens ;  Die  Israeliten  und  ihre  Nachbarstdmme.  [ 

E.  M.  W.  REV.  EDWARD  MEWBURN  WALKER,  M.A.  .  /Greece:  History,  Ancient, 

Fellow,  Senior  Tutor  and  Librarian  of  Queen's  College,  Oxford.  1      io  j^fi  B  c 

E.  0.*  EDMUND  OWEN,  M.B.,  F.R.C.S.,  LL.D.,  D.Sc.  f 

Consulting  Surgeon  to  St  Mary's  Hospital,  London,  and  to  the  Children's  Hospital, 

Great   Ormond   Street,    London.     Chevalier   of   the   Legion   of   Honour.      Late  J  Goitre*  Haemorrhoids 

Examiner  in  Surgery  at  the  Universities  of  Cambridge,  London  and  Durham.  Author  I 

of  A  Manual  of  Anatomy  for  Senior  Students. 

E.  Pr.  EDGAR  PRESTAGE.  r 

Special    Lecturer   in    Portuguese    Literature   in   the    University   of    Manchester.  _       ^,     __ 

Examiner  in  Portuguese  in  the  Universities  of  London,  Manchester,  &c.     Commen-  J  Goes,  Damiao  De; 
dador,  Portuguese  Order  of  S.  Thiago.     Corresponding  Member  of  Lisbon  Royal  1  Gonzaga. 
Academy  of  Sciences,  Lisbon  Geographical  Society,  &c.     Editor  of  Letters  of  a 
Portuguese  Nun;  Azurara's  Chronicle  of  Guinea;  &c. 

E.  R.  LORD  LOCHEE  OF  GOWRIE  (Edmund  Robertson),  P.C.,  LL.D.,  K.C.  f 

Civil  Lord  of  the  Admiralty,  1892-1895.    Secretary  to  the  Admiralty,  1905-1908.  -s  Hallam,  Henry. 
M.P.  for  Dundee,  1885-1908.    Fellow  of  Corpus  Christi  College,  Oxford. 

E.  S.  G.  EDWIN  STEPHEN  GOODRICH,  M.A.,  F.R.S.  r 

Fellow  and  Librarian  of  Merton  College,  Oxford.     Aldrichian  Demonstrator  of  -{  Haplodrili. 
Comparative  Anatomy,  University  Museum,  Oxford. 

F.  C.  C.  FREDERICK  CORNWALLIS  CONYBEARE,  M.A.,  D.Tn.  (Giessen).  r 

Fellow  of  the  British  Academy.      Formerly  Fellow  of  University  College,  Oxford.  \  Gregory  the  Illuminator. 
Author  of  The  Ancient  Armenian  Texts  of  Aristotle;  Myth,  Magic  and  Morals;  &c.  |_ 

F.  G.  M.  B.        FREDERICK  GEORGE  MEESON  BECK,  M.A.  f  Goths  (in  part) 

Fellow  and  Lecturer  in  Classics,  Clare  College,  Cambridge.  \ 


viii  INITIALS  AND  HEADINGS  OF  ARTICLES 

F.  G.  S.  F.  G.  STEPHENS.  f 

Formerly  Art  Critic  of  the  Athenaeum.  Author  of  Artists  at  Home;  George  Cruik-  J  riifco^  c:.  T«I.- 
shank;  Memorials  of  W.  Mulready;  French  and  Flemish  Pictures,  Sir  E.  Landseer;}  uucert>  bir  Jol"». 
T.  C.  Hook,RA.;&c.  I 

F.  H.  D.  REV.  FREDERICK  HOMES  DUDDEN,  D.D.  f 

Fellow,  Tutor  and  Lecturer  in  Theology,  Lincoln  College,  Oxford.     Author  of  "|  Gregory  I. 
Gregory  the  Great,  his  Place  in  History  and  Thought;  &c.  L 

F.  H.  H.     FRANKLIN  HENRY  HOOPER.  f  T, 

Assistant  Editor  of  the  Century  Dictionary.  \  Hancock,  Winfleld  Scott. 

F.  J.  H.  FRANCIS  JOHN  HAVERFIELD,  M.A.,  LL.D.,  F.S.A.  f 

Camden  Professor  of  Ancient  History  in  the  University  of  Oxford.     Fellow  of  J  Graham's  Dyke 
Brasenose  College.     Fellow  of  the  British  Academy.     Author  of  Monographs  on  ] 
Roman  History,  especially  Roman  Britain;  &c. 

F.  H.  FRIDTJOF  NANSEN.  /  Greenland 

See  the  biographical  article,  NANSEN,  FRIDTJOF.  \  * 

F.  R.  C.  FRANK  R.  CANA.  f 

Author  of  South  Africa  from  the  Great  Trek  to  the  Union.  \  GoW  Coast. 

F.  S.  P.  FRANCIS  SAMUEL  PHILBRICK,  A.M.,  PH.D.  r 

Formerly   Scholar   and    Resident    Fellow   of    Harvard    University.     Member   of  4  nomiitnti     AI™  ,«J.. 
American  Historical  Association.  \  Hamilton»  Alexander. 

F.  W.  R.*          FREDERICK  WILLIAM  RUDLER,  I.S.O.,  F.G.S.  f 

Curator  and  Librarian  of  the  Museum  of  Practical  Geology,  London,  1879-1902.  -s  Gypsum;  Haematite. 
President  of  the  Geologists'  Association,  1887-1889.  (. 

G.  A.  Gr.  GEORGE  ABRAHAM  GRIERSON,  C.I.E.,  PH.D.,  D.LITT.  (Dublin). 

Member  of  the  Indian  Civil  Service,  1873-1903.    In  charge  of  Linguistic  Survey  of 

India,  1898-1902.     Gold  Medallist,  Royal  Asiatic  Society,  1909.     Vice- President  -s  Gujarat!  and  Rajasthani. 

of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society.    Formerly  Fellow  of  Calcutta   University.    Author 

of  The  Languages  of  India ;  &c. 

G.  C.  M.  GEORGE  CAMPBELL  MACAULAY,  M.A.  [" 

Lecturer  in  English  in  the  University  of  Cambridge.    Formerly  Professor  of  English  J  rnwnr    Jnhn 
Language  and  Literature  in  the  University  of  Wales.    Editor  of  the  Works  of  John  ] 
Gower;  &c.  L 

G.  C.  W.     GEORGE  CHARLES  WILLIAMSON,  Lrrr.D.  [" 

Chevalier  of  the  Legion  of  Honour.    Author  of  Portrait  Miniatures ;  Life  of  Richard  J  GreCO,  EL 
Cosway,  R.A.;  George  Engleheart;  Portrait  Drawings;  &c.    Editor  of  new  edition  of  1 
Bryan's  Dictionary  of  Painters  and  Engravers.  L 

G.  F.  Z.  GEORGE  FREDERICK  ZIMMER,  A.M.lNST.C.E.  /_ 

Author  of  Mechanical  Handling  of  Material.  \  Canaries. 

G.  G.  SIR  ALFRED  GEORGE  GREENHILL,  M.A.,  F.R.S. 

Formerly  Professor  of  Mathematics  in  the  Ordnance  College,  Woolwich.     Examiner 

in  the  University  of  Wales.     Member  of  the  Aeronautical  Committee.     Authors  Gyroscope  and  Gyrostat, 
of  Notes  on  Dynamics;  Hydrostatics;  Differential  and  Integral  Calculus,  with  Applica- 
tions; &c. 

G.  Sn.  GRANT  SHOWERMAN,  A.M.,  PH.D.  r 

Professor  of  Latin  in  the  University  of  Wisconsin.     Member  of  the  Archaeological  J  front  Mnthar  nf 
Institute  of  America.     Member  of  American  Philological  Association.     Author  of  1  •»*•«  " 

With  the  Professor;  The  Great  Mother  of  the  Gods;  &c.  I 

G.  S.  C.      SIR  GEORGE  SYDENHAM  CLARKE,  G.C.M.G.,  G.C.I.E.,  F.R.S.  ( 

Governor  of  Bombay.     Author  of  Imperial  Defence;  Russia's  Great  Sea  Power -A  Greco-Turkish  War,  1897. 
The  Last  Great  Naval  War;  &c.  L 

G.  W.  E.  R.       RT.  HON.  GEORGE  WILLIAM  ERSKINE  RUSSELL,  P.C.,  M.A.,  LL.D.  f 

Under-Secretary  of  State  for  the  Home  Department,  1894-1895;  for  India,  1892- J  Gladstone    W    E 
1894.     M.P.  for  Aylesbury,  1880-1885;  for  North  Beds.,  1892-1895.     Author  of] 
Life  of  W.  E.  Gladstone ;  Collections  and  Recollections ;  &c. 

G.  W.  T.  REV.  GRIFFITHS  WHEELER  THATCHER,  M.A.,  B.D.  f  H5H'  Khalifa;  HamadhaHi; 

Warden  of  Camden  College,  Sydney,  N.S.W.    Formerly  Tutor  in  Hebrew  and  Old  ~]  HandanT;  Hammad 
Testament  History  at  Mansfield  College,  Oxford.  [  ar-Rawiya;   Hariri. 

H.  A.  de  C.         HENRY  ANSELM  DE  COLYAR,  K.C.  J  _ 

Author  of  The  Law  of  Guarantees  and  of  Principal  and  Surety;  &c.  \  "Uarantee. 

H.  B.  Wo.          HORACE  BOLINGBROKE  WOODWARD,  F.R.S.,  F.G.S.  f 

Formerly  Assistant  Director  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  England  and  Wales.  Presi-  4  Haidinger,  W.  K. 
dent,  Geologists'  Association,  1893-1894.  Wollaston  Medallist,  1908.  [ 

f  Goschen,  1st  Viscount; 

H.  Ch.  HUGH  CHISHOLM,  M.A.  Granville,  2nd  Earl; 

Formerly  Scholar  of  Corpus  Christ!  College,  Oxford.    Editor  of  the  Ilth  edition  of  J  Hamilton,  Alexander 
the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica;  co-editor  of  the  loth  edition.  /jn  j,arf\. 

(  Harcourt,  Sir  William. 
H.  De.  HIPPOLYTE  DELEHAYE,  S.  J.  r 

Assistant  in  the  compilation  of  the  Bollandist  publications:  Analecta,  Bollandiana  J  Giles    St'  Haeiologv 
and  Acla  sanctorum. 

H.  G.  H.  HORATIO  GORDON  HUTCHINSON. 

Amateur  Golf  Champion,  1886-1887.    Author  of  Hints  on  Golf;  Golf  (Badminton  J  Golf. 
Library) ;  Book  of  Golf  and  Golfers;  &c. 


INITIALS  AND  HEADINGS  OF  ARTICLES 

H.  J.  P.  HARRY  TAMES  POWELL,  F.C.S. 

Of  Messrs  James  Powell  &  Sons,  Whitefriars  Glass  Works,  London.     Member  of  J 
Committee  of  six  appointed  by  Board  of  Education  to  prepare  the  scheme  for  the  re-  "j  Glass. 
arrangement  of  the  Art  Collection  of  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum.    Author 
of  Glass  Making ;  &c.  I 

H.  Lb.  HORACE  LAMB,  M.A.,  LL.D.,  D.Sc.,  F.R.S. 

Professor   of    Mathematics,    University   of   Manchester.      Formerly   Fellow   and 

Assistant  Tutor  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.     Member  of  Council  of  Royal  "j  Harmonic  Analysis. 

Society,  1894-1896.     Royal  Medallist,  1902.     President  ot  London  Mathematical 

Society,  1902-1904.    Author  of  Hydrodynamics;  &c. 

H.  L.  H.  HARRIET  L.  HENNESSV,  L.R.C.S.I.,  L.R.C.P.I.,  M.D.  (Brux.)  Gynaecology. 

H.  M.  C.  HECTOR  MUNRO  CHADWICK,  M.A.  J  _  ,       „  .. .    , 

Librarian  and  Fellow  of  Clare  College,  Cambridge.     Author  of  Studies  on  Anglo- 1  Golns.  Gothic  Language. 
Saxon  Institutions. 

H.  M.  Wo.         HAROLD  MELLOR  WOODCOCK,  D.Sc. 


Assistant    to    the    Professor   of    Proto-Zoology,  London    University.      Fellow  of  J  nrfio.arina<:- 
University  College,  London      Author  of  Haemoflagellates  in  Sir  E.  Ray  Lankes- 1  ureSam 
ter's  Treatise  of  Zoology,  and  of  various  scientific  papers 

H.  R.  HENRY  REEVE,  D.C.L.  f  Guizot  iin  *.,,•, 

See  the  biographical  article,  REEVE,  HENRY.  \  t"ul     '  °"  fart>' 

H.  Sw.  HENRY  SWEET,  M.A.,  PH.D.,  LL.D.  f 

University  Reader  in  Phonetics,  Oxford.     Member  of  the  Academies  of  Munich,  J  Grimm,  J.  L.  C.; 
Berlin,  Copenhagen  and  Helsingfors.    Author  of  A  History  of  English  Sounds  since  1  Grimm,  Wilhelm  Carl. 
the  Earliest  Period ;  A  Handbook  of  Phonetics ;  &c.  I 

H.  S.-K.  SIR  HENRY  SETON-KARR,  C.M.G.,  M.A.  /Gun 

M.P.  for  St.  Helen's,  1885-1906.    Author  of  My  Sporting  Holidays;  &c.  \ 

H.  W.  C.  D.       HENRY  WILLIAM  CARLESS  DAVIS,  M.A.  f  Gilbert,  Foliot; 

Fellow  and  Tutor  of  Balliol  College,  Oxford.    Fellow  of  All  Souls  College,  Oxford,  \  Gloucester,  Robert,  Earl  of; 
1895-1902.    Author  of  England  under  the  Normans  and  Angevins;  Charlemagne.         [  Grosseteste. 

H.  W.  R.*          REV.  HENRY  WHEELER  ROBINSON,  M.A.  f 

Professor  of  Church  History  in  Rawdon  College,  Leeds.  Senior  Kennicott  Scholar,  J 
Oxford  University,  1901.  Author  of  Hebrew  Psychology  in  Relation  to  Pauline  \ 
Anthropology  (in  Mansfield  College  Essays);  &c.  I 

LA.  ISRAEL  ABRAHAMS,  M.A.  fGraetz;  Habdala; 

Reader  in  Talmudic  and  Rabbinic  Literature,  University  of  Cambridge.    President,  J  Halakha'   Halevi' 

Jewish  Historical  Society  of  England.    Author  of  A  Short  History  of  Jewish  Litera-  \ 

lure;  Jewish  Life  in  the  Middle  Ages.  I  Haptara;  Harizi. 

J.  A.  P.  M.         JOHN  ALEXANDER  FULLER  MAITLAND,  M.A.,  F.S.A.  f 

Musical  Critic  of  The  Times.    Author  of  Life  of  Schumann ;  The  Musician's  Pilgrim-  J  -  _. 

age;  Masters  of  German  Music;  English  Music  in  the  Nineteenth  Century;  The  Age]  «rove>  &ir 
of  Bach  and  Handel.    Editor  of  new  edition  of  Grove's  Dictionary  of  Music;  &c.         L 

J.  A.  H.  JOHN  ALLEN  HOWE,  B.Sc.  f  Glacial  Period- 

Curator  and  Librarian  of  the  Museum  of  Practical  Geology,  London.    Author  of  -!  , 
The  Geology  cf  Building  Stones.  [  Greensand. 

J.  A.  S.  JOHN  ADDINGTON  SYMONDS,  LL.D.  f 

See  the  biographical  article,  SYMONDS,  J.  A.  ]_  Guanni. 

J.  Bl.  JAMES  BLYTH,  M.A.,  LL.D.  f 

Formerly  Professor  of  Natural  Philosophy,  Glasgow  and  West  of  Scotland  Technical  1  Graduation. 
College.    Editor  of  Ferguson's  Electricity.  {_ 

J.  Bt.  JAMES  BARTLETT.  f 

Lecturer  on  Construction,  Architecture,  Sanitation,  Quantities,  &c.,  King's  College,  J  Glazing. 
London.    Member  of  Society  of  Architects,  Institute  of  Junior  Engineers,  Quantity  1 
Surveyors'  Association.    Author  of  Quantities.  I 

J.  D.  B.  JAMES  DAVID  BOURCHIER,  M.A.,  F.R.G.S.  f  Greece:  Geography  and 

King's  College,  Cambridge.    Correspondent  of  The  Times  in  South-Eastern  Europe.  J       History:  Modern; 
Commander  of  the  Orders  of  Prince  Danilo  of  Montenegro  and  of  the  Saviour  of  1  Greek  Literature:  HI. 
Greece,  and  Officer  of  the  Order  of  St  Alexander  of  Bulgaria.  [_      Modern 

J.  E.  S.*  JOHN  EDWIN  SANDYS,  M.A.,  Lnr.D.,  LL.D.  r 

Public  Orator  in  the  University  of  Cambridge.    Fellow  of  St  John's  College,  Cam-  J  Greek  Law 
bridge.     Fellow  of  the  British  Academy.     Author  of  History  of  Classical  Scholar-  \ 
ship;  &c.  (_ 

J.  Fi.  JOHN  FISKE.  /  r  c 

See  the  biographical  article,  FISKE,  J.  \  Urant'   UIySS 

J.  G.  C.  A.         JOHN  GEORGE  CLARK  ANDERSON,  M.A.  C 

Censor  and  Tutor  of  Christ  Church,  Oxford.    Formerly  Fellow  of  Lincoln  College.  -|  Gordium, 
Craven  Fellow  (Oxford),  1896.    Conington  Prizeman,  1893. 

J.  G.  R.  JOHN  GEORGE  ROBERTSON,  M.A.,  PH.D.  f 

Professor  of  German  Language  and  Literature,  University  of  London.     Author  of  J  r/w»«fc«.   r-;nno 
History  of  German  Literature;  Schiller  after  a  Century;  &c.     Editor  of  the  Modern  \  '   urmParzer- 

Language  Journal.  [ 

J.  H.  F.  JOHN  HENRY  FREESE,  M.A.  /Gracchus;  Gratian; 


Formerly  Fellow  of  St  John's  College,  Cambridge.  \  Hadrian  (in  part). 


I! 


J.  H.  H. 


Joint  author  of  Stanford's  Europe.     Formerly  Editor  of  the  Scottish  Geographical  -|  Gobi. 
Translator  of  Sven  Hedin's  Through  Asia,  Central  Asia  and  Tibet;  &c.  {. 


INITIALS  AND  HEADINGS  OF  ARTICLES 

JOHN  HENRY  HESSELS,  M.A.  f  _IM  .  -,„«„_..„ 

Author  of  Gutenberg:  an  Historical  Investigation.  \  Gloss'  Gutenberg. 

J.  H.  P.  JOHN  HENRY  POYNTING,  D.Sc.,  F.R.S.  f 

Professor  of  Physics  and  Dean  of  the  Faculty  of  Science  in  the  University  of  Bir- J  Gravitation  (in  part) 
mingham.    Formerly  Fellow  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.    Joint-author  of  Text-  I 
Book  of  Physics. 

J.  HI.  R.  JOHN  HOLLAND  ROSE,  M.A.,  Lrrr.D. 

Lecturer  on  Modern  History  to  the  Cambridge  University  Local  Lectures  Syndicate.  J  pni,rp-ai]H     Ra-nn 
Author  of  Life  of  Napoleon  I. ;  Napoleonic  Studies;  The  Development  of  the  European  } 
Nations;  The  Life  of  Pitt;  &c. 

J.  L.  W.  Miss  JESSIE  LAIDLAY  WESTON.  J  Grail,  The  Holy; 

Author  of  Arthurian  Romances  unrepresented  in  Malory.  \  Guenevere. 

J.  M.  M.  JOHN  MALCOLM  MITCHELL.  f  Grote; 

Sometime  Scholar  of  Queen's  College,  Oxford.    Lecturer  in  Classics,  East  London  •(  Hamilton,  Sir  William, 
College  (University  of  London).    Joint-editor  of  Grote's  History  of  Greece.  [      Bart,  (in  part) ;  Harem. 

J.  S.  F.  JOHN  SMITH  FLETT,  D.Sc.,  F.G.S.  fciauconite;  Gneiss; 

Petrographer  to  the  Geological  Survey.    Formerly  Lecturer  on  Petrology  in  Edin-  J  /;,«,,!*«•   Granulite* 
burgh  University.     Neill  Medallist  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh.     Bigsby  I  "         ,  ' 
Medallist  of  the  Geological  Society  of  London.  L  Gravel;  Greisen;  Greywacke 

J.  T.  Be.  JOHN  T.  BEALBY. 

Joint  author  of 
Magazine.    Translator  of  Sven  Hedin's  Through 

{  Golden  Rose  (in  part) ; 
3.  T.  S.*  JAMES  THOMSON  SHOTWELL,  PH.D.  J  Qoliad; 

Professor  of  History  in  Columbia  University,  New  York  City.  Guizot  (in  part) 

K.  G.  J.  KINGSLEY  GARLAND  JAYNE.  f 

Sometime  Scholar  of  Wadham  College,  Oxford.    Matthew  Arnold  Prizeman,  1903.  -J  Goa. 
Author  of  Vasco  da  Gama  and  his  Successors.  I 

K.  Kr.  KARL  KRUMBACHER.  f  Greek  Literature: 

See  the  biographical  article,  KRUMBACHER,  CARL.  \_          II.  Byzantine. 

f  Glockenspiel;  Gong; 

K.  S.  Miss  KATHLEEN  SCHLESINGER.  Guitar;  Guitar  Fiddle; 

Editor  of  the  Portfolio  of  Musical  Archaeology.    Author  of  The  Instruments  of  the  <  Gusla*  Harmonica* 
Orchestra;  &c.  Harm'onichord; 

I  Harmonium  (in  part). 

L.  D.*  Louis  DUCHESNE.  r 

See  the  biographical  article,  DUCHESNE,  L.  M.  O.  |  Gregory:   Popes,  II.-VI. 

L.  F.  D.  LEWIS  FOREMAN  DAY,  F.S.A.  (1845-1909).  r 

Formerly  Vice-President  of  the  Society  of  Arts.    Past  Master  of  the  Art  Workers'  ->  Glass,  Stained. 
Gild.    Author  of  Windows,  a  book  about  Stained  Glass ;  &c. 

L.  F.  V.-H.        LEVESON  FRANCIS  VERNON-HARCOURT,  M.A.,  M.lNST.C.E.  (1839-1907).  f" 

Formerly  Professor  of  Civil  Engineering  at  University  College,  London.     Author  J  Harbour, 
of  Rivers  and  Canals;  Harbours  and  Docks;  Civil  Engineering  as  applied  in  Con-  | 
struclion;  &c. 

L.  J.  S.  LEONARD  JAMES  SPENCER,  M.A.  f  Goniometer;  Gothite; 

Assistant  in  the  Department  of  Mineralogy,  British  Museum.     Formerly  Scholar  J  Graphite   (in  part)1 
of  Sidney   Sussex   College,   Cambridge,   and   Harkness   Scholar.     Editor  of   the  ]  «„.     „„•,,•*„ 
Mineralogical  Magazine.  L  WeenocKiie. 

L.  R.  P.  LEWIS  RICHARD  FARNELL,  M.A.,  Lnr.D.  [" 

Fellow  and  Senior  Tutor  of  Exeter  College,  Oxford ;    University  Lecturer  in  Classical  j  Greek  Religion. 
Archaeology;  Wilde  Lecturer  in  Comparative  Religion.     Author  of  Cults  of  the\ 
Greek  States ;  Evolution  of  Religion.  I 

M.  LORD  MACAULAY.  /Goldsmith   Oliver 

See  the  biographical  article,  MACAULAY,  T.  B.  M.,  Baron.  \  u 

M.  G.  MOSES  CASTER,  PH.D.  f 

Chief  Rabbi  of  the  Sephardic  Communities  of  England.     Vice-President,  Zionist 
Congress,  1898,  1899,  1900.    Ilchester  Lecturer  at  Oxford  on  Slavonic  and  Byzantines  Gipsies. 
Literature,  l886and  1891.    President,  Folk-lore  Society  of  England.  Vice-President, 
Anglo-Jewish  Association.    Author  of  History  of  Rumanian  Popular  Literature ;  &c.  [ 

M.  H.  S.  MARION  H.  SPIELMANN,  F.S.A. 

Formerly  Editor  of  the  Magazine  of  Art.    Member  of  Fine  Art  Committee  of  Inter- 
national  Exhibitions  of   Brussels,   Paris,   Buenos  Aires,   Rome  and   the  Franco-  J  Gilbert,  Alfred; 
British   Exhibition,   London.     Author  of  History  of  "Punch";    British  Portrait]  Greenaway    Kate 
•  Painting  to  the  opening  of  'the  Nineteenth  Century;   Works  of  G.   F.   Watts,  R.A.; 
British  Sculpture  and  Sculptors  of  To-day ;  Henriette  Ronner ;  &c. 

M.  Ja.  MORRIS  JASTROW,  JUN.,  PH.D.  Cnn..  .<»h   WT>-<.  nf- 

Professor  of  Semitic  Languages,  University  of  Pennsylvania,  U.S.A.     Author  of  J  **"*        sn'  * 
Religion  of  the  Babylonians  and  Assyrians;  &c.  [  Gula. 

M.  H.  MAX  ARTHUR  MACAULIFFE.  r 

Formerly  Divisional  Judge  in  the  Punjab.    Author  of  The  Sikl:  Religion,  its  Gurus,  J  Qrant)j 
Sacred  Writings  and  Authors;  &c.     Editor  of  Life  of  Guru  Nanak,  in  the  Punjabi  1 
language. 


INITIALS  AND  HEADINGS  OF  ARTICLES  xi 

M.  N.  T.  MARCUS  NIEBUHR  TOD,  M.A.  J 

Fellow  and  Tutor  of  Oriel  College,  Oxford.     University  Lecturer  in  Epigraphy.  ~\  Gythium. 

Joint-author  of  Catalogue  of  the  Sparta  Museum. 

rGreece:  History: 
M.  0.  B.  C.         MAXIMILIAN  OTTO  BISMARCK  CASPARI,  M.A.  146  B.C.  1800  AJ>.; 

Reader  in  Ancient  History  at  London  University.    Lecturer  in  Greek  at  Birming-  1  Hamilcar  Barca; 

ham  University,  1905-1908.  [  Hannibal. 

M.  P.  MARK  PATTISON.  _f  Grotius 

See  the  biographical  article,  PATTISON,  MARK.  \ 

M.  P.*  LEON  JACQUES  MAXIME  PRINET.  f  _     _,       _. 

Formerly  Archivist  to  the  French  National  Archives.     Auxiliary  of  the  Institute  -j  GOUmer;  Harcourt. 
of  France  (Academy  of  Moral  and  Political  Sciences). 

0.  Ba.  OSWALD  BARRON,  F.S.A.  f 

Editor  of  The  Ancestor,  1902-1905.       Hon.  Genealogist  to  Standing  Council  of  the  "i  Girdle. 
Honourable  Society  of  the  Baronetage. 

P.  A.  PAUL  DANIEL  ALPHANDERY. 

Professor  of  the  History  of  Dogma,  Ecole  Pratique  des  Hautes  Etudes,  Sorbonne,  -j  GonzalO  00  Bereeo. 
Paris.    Author  of  Les  Idees  morales  chez  les  helerodoxes  latines  au  debut  du  XIHe  siecle.  I 

P.  A.  A.  PHILIP  A.  ASHWORTH,  M.A.,  Doc.  JURIS. 

New  College,  Oxford.    Barrister-at-Law.    Translator  of  H.  R.  von  Gneist's  History  -j  Gneist. 
of  the  English  Constitution.  I 


P.  C.  Y.  PHILIP  CHESNEY  YORKE,  M.A.  J 

Magdalen  College,  Oxford.  Halifax,  1st  Marquess  of; 

I  Hamilton,  1st  Duke  of. 

P.  G.  PERCY  GARDNER,  M.A.  f  (jree]j  Art 

See  the  biographical  article,  GARDNER,  PERCY.  \ 

P.  Gi.  PETER  GILES,  M.A.,  LL.D.,  Lrrr.D.  f 

Fellow  and  Classical  Lecturer  of  Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge,  and  University  J  Greek  Language; 
Reader  in  Comparative  Philology.     Formerly  Secretary  of  the  Cambridge  Philo-  ]  H. 
logical  Society.    Author  of  Manual  of  Comparative  Philology.  I 

P.  G.  K.  PAUL  GEORGE  KONODY.  f 

Art  Critic  of  the  Observer  and  the  Daily  Mail.      Formerly  Editor  of  The  Artist.  •{  Hals,  Frans. 
Author  of  The  Art  of  Walter  Crane;  Velasquez,  Life  and  Work;  &c.  I 

P.  G.T.  PETER  GUTHRIE  TAIT,  LL.D.  f  Hamilton,  Sir  William 

See  the  biographical  article,  TAIT,  PETER  GUTHRIE.  "^     Rowan. 

P.  La.  PHILIP  LAKE,  M.A.,  F.G.S.  r 

Lecturer  on  Physical  and  Regional  Geography  in  Cambridge  University.    Formerly  J 


. 

of  the  Geological  Survey  of  India.  Author  of  Monograph  of  British  Cambrian  1 
Trilobites.  Translator  and  Editor  of  Kayser's  Comparative  Geology.  \_ 

P.  McC.  PRIMROSE  McCoNNELL,  F.G.S.  f  r  .  *,_„!,,_,• 

Member  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society.  Author  of  Diary  of  a  Working  Farmer;  &c.  j  brass  ana  Urassl 

R.  A.  W.  COLONEL  ROBERT  ALEXANDER  WAHAB,  C.B.,  C.M.G.,  C.I.E.  r 

Formerly  H.  M.  Commissioner,  Aden  Boundary  Delimitation.  Served  with  Tirah  J 
Expeditionary  Force,  1897-1898,  and  on  the  Anglo-Russian  Boundary  Commission,  1 
Pamirs,  1895.  L 

R.  A.  S.  M.        ROBERT  ALEXANDER  STEWART  MACALISTER,  M.A.,  F.S.A.  f  f;neaj. 

St  John's  College,  Cambridge.    Director  of  Excavations  for  the  Palestine  Explora-  4  _ 
tion  Fund.  1  Goshen. 

R.  C.  J.  SIR  RICHARD  CLAVERHOUSE  JEBB,  L.L.D.,  D.C.L.  J  Greek  Literature: 

See  the  biographical  article,  JEBB,  SIR  R.  C.  "i       I    Ancient 

Cowrie,  3rd  Earl  of; 
R.  J.  M.  RONALD  JOHN  MCNEILL,  M.A.  Gratton,  Henry; 


Christ  Church,  Oxford.     Barrister-at-Law.     Formerly  Editor  of  the  St  James's . 
Gazette,  London. 


Green  Ribbon  Club; 
Gymnastics; 


Harcourt,  1st  Viscount; 

Hardwicke,  1st  Earl  of. 

R.  L.*  RICHARD  LYDEKKER,  M.A.,  F.R.S.,  F.G.S.,  F.Z.S.  r  Giraffe-  Glutton- 

Member  of  the  Staff  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  India,  1871-1882.     Author  of     «•„' 
Catalogues  of  Fossil  Mammals,  Reptiles  and  Birds  in  British  Museum;  The  Deer  of\  X     • , , 
all  Lands;  The  Game  Animals  of  Africa;  &c.  [Gorilla;  Hamster;  Hare. 

Golitsuin,  Boris,  Dmitry, 

and  Vasily; 
Golovin,  Count; 
Golovkin,  Count; 
Gortz,  Baron  von; 
Griflenfeldt,  Count; 
Gustavus  I.,  and  IV. 
Gyllenstjerna; 
.  Hall,  C.  C. 

R.  S.  T.  RALPH  STOCKMAN  TARR.  f  QJ^^  Canyon. 

Professor  of  Physical  Geography.  Cornell  University.  \ 


R.  N.  B.  ROBERT  NISBET  BAIN  (d.  1909). 


Assistant  Librarian,  British  Museum,  1883-1909.  Author  of  Scandinavia,  the 
Political  History  of  Denmark,  Norway  and  Sweden,  1513-1900;  The  First  Romanovs, 
1613-1725 ;  Slavonic  Europe,  the  Political  History  of  Poland  and  Russia  from  1469 


INITIALS  AND  HEADINGS  OF  ARTICLES 

R.  We.  RICHARD  WEBSTER,  A.M.  (Princeton). 

Formerly  Fellow  in  Classics,   Princeton   University.     Editor  of   The  Elegies  of~\  Great  Awakening. 
Maximianus;  &c. 

S.  A.  C.  STANLEY  ARTHUR  COOK,  M.A. 

Editor  for  Palestine  Exploration  Fund.     Lecturer  in  Hebrew  and  Syriac,  and 
formerly  Fellow,  Gonville  and  Caius  College,  Cambridge.    Examiner  in  Hebrew  and  J  jjjjpon 
Aramaic,  London  University,  1904-1908.    Author  of  Glossary  of  Aramaic  Inscrip-  |  ulaeon< 
lions;  The  Laws  of  Moses  and  the  Code  of  Hammurabi;  Critical  Notes  on  Old  Testament 
History;  Religion  of  Ancient  Palestine;  &c.  I 

S.BI.  SIGFUS .BLONDAL  ( Hallgrimsson. 

Librarian  of  the  University  of  Copenhagen.  [ 

S.  C.  SIDNEY  COLVIN,  LL.D.  -fciorgione;  Giotto. 

See  the  biographical  article,  COLVIN,  SIDNEY. 

St.  C.  VISCOUNT  ST.  CYRES.  f  Guyon,  Madame. 

See  the  biographical  article,  IDDESLEIGH,  IST  EARL  OF.  \ 

S.  N.  SIMON  NEWCOMB,  LL.D.,  D.Sc.  /Gravitation  (in  part). 

See  the  biographical  article,  NEWCOMB,  SIMON.  \ 

T.  As.  THOMAS  ASHBY,  M.A.,  D.LITT.,  F.S.A.  f  Girgenti;  Gnatia; 

Director  of  the  British  School  of  Archaeology  at  Rome.    Corresponding  Member  I  Grottaf errata; 
of  the   Imperial  German  Archaeological   Institute.     Formerly  Scholar  of  Christ  ~\  rr  imontnm- 'rnhhin. 
Church,  Oxford.     Craven  Fellow,  Oxford,  1897.     Author  of  The  Classical  Topo-     „  "   . 
graphy  of  the  Roman  Campagna ;  &c.  [  Hadria;  Halaesa. 

T.  A.  J.  THOMAS  ATHOL  JOYCE,  M.A.  f 

Assistant  in  Department  of  Ethnography,   British  Museum.     Hon.  Sec.,   Royal  -j  Hamitic  Races  (I.). 
Anthropological  Institute.  I 

T.  Ba.  SIR  THOMAS  BARCLAY,  M.P.  f 

Member  of  the  Institute  of  International  Law.     Member  of  the  Supreme  Council, 
of  the  Congo  Free  State.     Officer  of  the.  Legion  of  Honour.     Author  of  Problems 
of  International  Practice  and  Diplomacy;  &c.    M.P.  for  Blackburn,  1910.  I 

T.  E.  H.  THOMAS  ERSKINE  HOLLAND,  K.C.,  D.C.L.,  LL.D. 

Fellow  of  the  British  Academy.     Fellow  of  All  Souls  College,  Oxford.     Professor 

of  International  Law  in  the  University  of  Oxford,  1874-1910.    Bencher  of  Lincoln's  J  gaJJ    William  E. 

Inn.     Author  of  Studies  in  International  Law;   The  Elements  of  Jurisprudence;  1 

Alberici  Gentilis  dejure  belli;  The  Laws  of  War  on  Land;  Neutral  Duties  in  a  Maritime 

War;  &c.  I 

T.  P.  C.  THEODORE  FREYLINGHUYSEN  COLLIER,  PH.D.  /  Gregory:  Popes, 

Assistant  Professor  of  History,  Williams  College,  Williamstown,  Mass.,  U.S.A.          \      XIII. — XV. 

T.  H.  H.*  SIR  THOMAS  HUNGERFORD  HOLDICH,  K.C.M.G.,  K.C.I.E.,  D.Sc.,  F.R.G.S.  f 

Colonel  in  the  Royal  Engineers.     Superintendent  Frontier  Surveys,  India,  1892-]  Gilgit; 
1898.    Gold  Medallist,  R.G.S.  (London),  1887.    H.M.  Commissioner  for  the  Persa-  |  Hari-Rud. 
Beluch  Boundary,  1896.    Author  of  The  Indian  Borderland;  The  Gates  of  India;  &c.  I 

T.  K.  THOMAS  KIRKUP,  M.A.,  LL.D.  Juj-       i-          ,\ 

Author  of  A n  Inquiry  into  Socialism;  Primer  of  Socialism;  &c.  \  Haanan  IM  part). 

T.  Se.  THOMAS  SECCOMBE,  M.A. 

Lecturer  in  History,  East  London  and  Birkbeck  Colleges,  University  of  London. 

Stanhope  Prizeman,  Oxford,   1887.     Formerly  Assistant  Editor  of  Dictionary  of  4  Gilbert,  Sir  W.  S. 

National  Biography,  1891-1901.    Author  of  The  Age  of  Johnson;  &c. ;  Joint-author  | 

of  The  Bookman  History  of  English  Literature.  |_ 

V.  H.  S.  REV.  VINCENT  HENRY  STANTON,  M.A.,  D.D.  (• 

Ely  Professor  of  Divinity  in  the  University  of  Cambridge.  Canon  of  Ely  and  Fellow  J 
of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  Author  of  The  Gospels  as  Historical  Documents ;  1 
The  Jewish  and  the  Christian  Messiahs ;  &c.  \, 

W.  A.  B.  C.  REV.  WILLIAM  AUGUSTUS  BREVOORT  COOLIDGE,  M.A.,  F.R.G.S.,  PH.D.  (Bern). 
Fellow  of  Magdalen  College,  Oxford.  Professor  of  English  History,  St  David's 
College,  Lampeter,  1880-1881.  Author  of  Guide  du  Haul  Dauphine;  The  Range  of 
the  Todi;  Guide  to  Grindelwald;  Guide  to  Switzerland;  The  Alps  in  Nature  and  in 


Glarus;  Goldast  Ab 

Haiminsfeld; 
Grasse;  Grenoble; 
Grindelwald;  Grisons; 


History;  &c.    Editor  of  The  Alpine  Journal,  1880-1889;  &c.  Gruner.  G.  S.;  Gruyere. 

W.  A.  P.  WALTER  ALISON  PHILLIPS,  M.A.  f  Girondists;  Goethe: 

Formerly  TLxhibitioner  of  Merton  College  and  Senior  Scholar  of  St  John's  College,  -!       Descendants  of; 

Oxford.    Author  of  Modern  Europe  ;  &c.  [  Greek  Independence,  War.  ol. 

W.  BO.  WlLHELM   BOUSSET,  D.TH.  f 

Professor  of  New  Testament  Exegesis'  in  the  University  of  Gottingen.    Author  of  -{  Gnosticism. 
Das  Wesen  der  Religion;  The  Antichrist  Legend;  &c. 

W.  Bu.  WILLIAM  BURNSIDE,  M.A.,  D.Sc.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S. 

Professor   of    Mathematics,    Royal    Naval   College,    Greenwich.    Hon.    Fellow   of-j  Groups,  Theory  ol. 
Pembroke  College,  Cambridge.    Author  of  The  Theory  of  Groups  of  Finite  Order. 

W.  F.  C.  WILLIAM  FEILDEN  CRAIES,  M.A. 

Barrister-at-Law,    Inner   Temple.      Lecturer  on   Criminal   Law,    King's   College,  J  Habeas  Corpus; 
London.    Auth  ' 

(23rd  edition). 


London.    Author  of  Craies  on  Statute  Law.    Editor  of  Archbold's  Criminal  Pleading  ] 

[ 


W.  G.  M.  WALTER  GEORGE  MCMILLAN,  F.C.S.,  M.I.M.E.  (d.  1904).  f 

Formerly  Secretary  of  the  Institute  of  Electrical  Engineers  and  Lecturer  on  Metal-  •<  Graphite  (in  part). 
lurgy,  Mason  College,  Birmingham.     Author  of  A  Treatise  on  Electro-  Metallurgy.  [_ 


INITIALS  AND  HEADINGS  OF  ARTICLES 


Xlli 


W.  Hu. 
W.  H.  Be. 

W.  H.  P.* 
W.  J.  F. 
W.  McD. 
W.  M.  M. 

W.  M.  R. 
W.  P.  A 

W.  P.  R. 

W.  R. 
W.  Hi. 

W.  Rn. 
W.  R.  D. 

W.  R.  E.  H. 

W.  R.  S. 
W.  R.  S.  R. 

W.  W.  R.* 


REV.  WILLIAM  HUNT,  M.A.,  Lnr.D. 

President  of  Royal  Historical  Society,  1905-1909.  Author  of  History  of  English  J  rroon  I  R 
Church,  597-1906;  The  Church  of  England  in  the  Middle  Ages;  Political  History  of]  ureen»  J-  *• 
England  1760-1801. 

WILLIAM  HENRY  BENNETT,  M.A.,  D.D.,  D.LITT.  (CANTAB.).  f 

Professor  of  Old  Testament  Exegesis  in   New  and   Hackney  Colleges,   London.  J  Corner;  Ham. 
Formerly  Fellow  of  St  John's  College,  Cambridge.     Lecturer  in  Hebrew  at  Firth  | 
College,  Sheffield.    Author  of  Religion  of  the  Post-Exilic  Prophets;  &c.  I 

WILLIAM  HENRY  FAIRBROTHER,  M.A., 

Formerly  Fellow  and  Lecturer,  Lincoln  College,  Oxford.     Author  of  Philosophy^  Green,  Thomas  Hill. 


of  Thomas  Hitt  Green. 

WILLIAM  JUSTICE  FORD  (d.  1904). 

Formerly  Scholar  of  St  John's  College,  Cambridge. 
College. 

WILLIAM  MCDOUGALL,  M.A. 


I 


Headmaster  of  Leamington  -I  Grace,  W.  G. 


.LI AM   MCDOUGALL,  M.A. 

Reader  in  Mental  Philosophy  in  the  University  of  Oxford.     Author  of  A  Primer  J.  Hallucination. 
of  Physiological  Psychology;  An  Introduction  to  Social  Psychology;  &c. 


Author  of  Asien  und 


Hamitic  Races: 
II.  Languages. 


W.  MAX  MULLER,  PH.D. 

Professor  of  Exegesis  in  the  R.E.  Seminary,  Philadelphia. 
Europa  nach  den  Aegptischen  Denkmdlern;  &c. 

WILLIAM  MICHAEL  ROSSETTI.  /Giulio  Romano;  Gozzoli; 

See  the  biographical  article,  ROSSETTI,  DANTE  G.  \  Guido  Reni. 

LlEUT.-COLONEL  WlLLIAM   PATRICK   ANDERSON,  M.lNST.C.E.,  F.R.G.S.  I" 

Chief  Engineer,  Department  of  Marine  and  Fisheries  of  Canada.     Member  of  the  ^  Great  Lakes. 
Geographic  Board  of  Canada.    Past  President  of  Canadian  Society  of  Civil  Engineers.  I 

HON.  WILLIAM  PEMBER  REEVES. 

Director  of  London  School  of  Economics.    Agent-General  and  High  Commissioner      _          „.     _ 

for  New  Zealand,  1896-1909.     Minister  of  Education,  Labour  and  Justice,  New!  urev>  »"  "Gorge. 

Zealand,  1891-1896.    Author  of  The  Long  White  Cloud:  a  History  of  New  Zealand; 

&c. 


WHITELAW  REID,  LL.D. 

See  the  biographical  article,  REID,  WHITELAW. 


:  Greeley,  Horace. 


WILLIAM  RIDGEWAY,  M.A.,  D.Sc. 

Professor  of  Archaeology,  Cambridge  University,  and  Brereton  Reader  in  Classics. 

Fellow  of  Gonville  and  Caius  College,  Cambridge.    Fellow  of  the  British  Academy.  -|  Hallstatt. 

President  of  Royal  Anthropological  Institute,  1908.     President  of  Anthropological 

Section,  British  Association,  1908.    Author  of  The  Early  Age  of  Greece;  &c. 

W.    ROSENHAIN,  D.SC.  Jria«    ( '     *     /I 

Superintendent  of  the  Metallurgical  Department,  National  Physical  Laboratory.  \  ura        'n  fan>" 

WYNDHAM  ROWLAND  DUNSTAN,  M.A.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  F.C.S.  f 

Director  of  the  Imperial  Institute.    President  of  the  International  Association  of  Tropical  -j  Gutta-Percha. 
Agriculture.    Member  of  the  Advisory  Committee  for  Tropical  Agriculture,  Colonial  Office.    l_ 

WILLIAM  RICHARD  EATON  HODGKINSON,  PH.D.,  F.R.S.  (EDIN.),  F.C.S.  f 

Professor  of  Chemistry  and  Physics,  Ordnance  College,  Woolwich.  Formerly.]  C  un  Cotton» 
Professor  of  Chemistry  and  Physics,  R.M.A.,  Woolwich.  Part-author  of  Valentin-  ]  Gunpowder. 
Hodgkinson's  Practical  Chemistry;  &c.  I 

WILLIAM  ROBERTSON  SMITH,  LL.D.  f  Haggai  (in  part). 

See  the  biographical  article,  SMITH,  WILLIAM  ROBERTSON.  \ 

WILLIAM  RALSTON  SHEDDEN-RALSTON,  M.A.  f 

Assistant  in  the  Department  of  Printed  Books,  British  Museum.    Author  of  Russian  \  Gogol. 
Folk  Tales;  &c.  [ 

WILLIAM  WALKER  ROCKWELL,  LIC.THEOL.  /Gregory  XVI. 

Assistant  Professor  of  Church  History,  Union  Theological  Seminary,  New  York.  \ 


PRINCIPAL  UNSIGNED  ARTICLES 


Gilding. 

Ginger. 

Gironde. 

Gladiators. 

Glasgow. 

Glastonbury. 

Gloucestershire. 

Glove. 

Glucose. 

Glue. 

Glycerin. 


Goat. 

Gold. 

Goldbeating. 

Gotland. 

Gourd. 

Government. 

Grain  Trade, 

Granada. 

Grasses. 

Great  Salt  Lake. 


Griqualand  East  and 

West. 
Guanches. 
Guards. 
Guatemala. 

Guelphs  and  Ghibellines. 
Guiacum. 
Guillotine. 
Guise,  House  of 
Gum. 


Gwalior. 

Haddir.gtonshire. 

Hair. 

Haiti. 

Halo. 

Hamburg. 

Hamlet. 

Hampshire. 

Hampton  Roads. 

Hanover. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA    BRITANNICA 


ELEVENTH    EDITION 


VOLUME  XII 


GICHTEL,  JOHANN  GEORG  (1638-1710),  German  mystic, 
was  born  at  Regensburg,  where  his  father  was  a  member  of 
senate,  on  the  I4th  of  March  1638.  Having  acquired  at  school 
an  acquaintance  with  Greek,  Hebrew,  Syriac  and  even  Arabic, 
he  proceeded  to  Strassburg  to  study  theology;  but  finding 
the  theological  prelections  of  J.  S.  Schmidt  and  P.  J.  Spener 
distasteful,  he  entered  the  faculty  of  law.  He  was  admitted 
an  advocate,  first  at  Spires,  and  then  at  Regensburg;  but 
having  become  acquainted  with  the  baron  Justinianus  von 
Weltz  (1621-1668),  a  Hungarian  nobleman  who  cherished 
schemes  for  the  reunion  of  Christendom  and  the  conversion 
of  the  world,  and  having  himself  become  acquainted  with 
another  world  in  dreams  and  visions,  he  abandoned  all  interest 
in  his  profession,  and  became  an  energetic  promoter  of  the 
"  Christerbauliche  Jesusgesellschaft,"  or  Christian  Edification 
Society  of  Jesus.  The  movement  in  its  beginnings  provoked  at 
least  no  active  hostility;  but  when  Gichtel  began  to  attack  the 
teaching  of  the  Lutheran  clergy  and  church,  especially  upon  the 
fundamental  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith,  he  exposed  him- 
self to  a  prosecution  which  resulted  in  sentence  of  banishment 
and  confiscation  (1665).  After  many  months  of  wandering  and 
occasionally  romantic  adventure,  he  reached  Holland  in  January 
1667,  and  settled  at  Zwolle,  where  he  co-operated  with  Friedrich 
Breckling  (1629-1711),  who  shared  his  views  and  aspirations. 
Having  become  involved  in  the  troubles  of  this  friend,  Gichtel, 
after  a  period  of  imprisonment,  was  banished  for  a  term  of  years 
from  Zwolle,  but  finally  in  1668  found  a  home  in  Amsterdam, 
where  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Antoinette  Bourignon 
(1616-1680),  and  in  a  state  of  poverty  (which,  however,  never 
became  destitution)  lived  out  his  strange  life  of  visions  and 
day-dreams,  of  prophecy  and  prayer.  He  became  an  ardent 
disciple  of  Jakob  Boehme,  whose  works  he  published  in  1682 
(Amsterdam,  2  vols.);  but  before  the  time  of  his  death,  on  the 
2ist  of  January  1710,  he  had  attracted  to  himself  a  small  band 
of  followers  known  as  Gichtelians  or  Brethren  of  the  Angels,  who 
propagated  certain  views  at  which  he  had  arrived  independently 
of  Boehme.  Seeking  ever  to  hear  the  authoritative  voice  of 
God  within  them,  and  endeavouring  to  attain  to  a  life  altogether 
free  from  carnal  desires,  like  that  of  "  the  angels  in  heaven,  who 
neither  marry  nor  are  given  in  marriage,"  they  claimed  to 
exercise  a  priesthood  "  after  the  order  of  Melchizedek,"  appeasing 
the  wrath  of  God,  and  ransoming  the  souls  of  the  lost  by  sufferings 
endured  vicariously  after  the  example  of  Christ.  While,  however, 
Boehme  "  desired  to  remain  a  faithful  son  of  the  Church,"  the 

xn.  r 


Gichtelians  became  Separatists  (cf.  J.  A.  Dorner,  History  of 
Protestant  Theology,  ii.  p.  185). 

Gichtel 's  correspondence  was  published  without  his  knowledge 
by  Gottfried  Arnold,  a  disciple,  in  1701  (2  vols.),  and  again  in  1708 
(3  vols.).  It  has  been  frequently  reprinted  under  the  title  Theosophia 
practica.  The  seventh  volume  of  the  Berlin  edition  (1768)  contains 
a  notice  of  Gichtel's  life.  See  also  G.  C.  A.  von  Harless,  Jakob 
Bohme  und  die  Alchimisten  (1870,  2nd  ed.  1882);  article  in  All- 
gemeine  deutsche  Biographic. 

GIDDINGS,  JOSHUA  REED  (1795-1864),  American  statesman, 
prominent  in  the  anti-slavery  conflict,  was  born  at  Tioga  Point, 
now  Athens,  Bradford  county,  Pennsylvania,  on  the  6th  of 
October  1795.  In  1806  his  parents  removed  to  Ashtabula 
county,  Ohio,  then  sparsely  settled  and  almost  a  wilderness. 
The  son  worked  on  his  father's  farm,  and,  though  he  received 
no  systematic  education,  devoted  much  time  to  study  and 
reading.  For  several  years  after  1814  he  was  a  school  teacher, 
but  in  February  1821  he  was  admitted  to  the  Ohio  bar  and  soon 
obtained  a  large  practice,  particularly  in  criminal  cases.  From 
1831  to  1837  he  was  in  partnership  with  Benjamin  F.  Wade. 
He  served  in  the  lower  house  of  the  state  legislature  in  1826-1828, 
and  from  December  1838  until  March  1859  was  a  member  of 
the  national  House  of  Representatives,  first  as  a  Whig,  then 
as  a  Free-soiler,  and  finally  as  a  Republican.  Recognizing  that 
slavery  was  a  state  institution,  with  which  the  Federal  govern- 
ment had  no  authority  to  interfere,  he  contended  that  slavery 
could  only  exist  by  a  specific  state  enactment,  that  therefore 
slavery  in  the  District  of  Columbia  and  in  the  Territories  was  un- 
lawful and  should  be  abolished,  that  the  coastwise  slave-trade  in 
vessels  flying  the  national  flag,  like  the  international  slave-trade, 
should  be  rigidly  suppressed,  and  that  Congress  had  no  power  to 
pass  any  act  which  in  any  way  could  be  construed  as  a  recognition 
of  slavery  as  a  national  institution.  His  attitude  in  the  so-called 
"  Creole  Case  "  attracted  particular  attention.  In  1841  some 
slaves  who  were  being  carried  in  the  brig  "  Creole  "  from 
Hampton  Roads,  Virginia,  to  New  Orleans,  revolted,  killed  the 
captain,  gained  possession  of  the  vessel,  and  soon  afterwards 
entered  the  British  port  of  Nassau.  Thereupon,  according  to 
British  law,  they  became  free.  The  minority  who  had  taken  an 
active  part  in  the  revolt  were  arrested  on  a  charge  of  murder, 
and  the  others  were  liberated.  Efforts  were  made  by  the  United 
States  government  to  recover  the  slaves,  Daniel  Webster,  then 
secretary  of  state,  asserting  that  on  an  American  ship  they  were 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  United  States  and  that  they  were 
legally  property.  On  the  2ist  of  March  1842,  before  the  case 


GIDEON— GIERS 


was  settled,  Giddings  introduced  in  the  House  of  Representatives 
a  series  of  resolutions,  in  which  he  asserted  that  "  in  resuming 
their  natural  rights  of  personal  liberty  "the  slaves  "  violated  no  law 
of  the  United  States."  For  offering  these  resolutions  Giddings 
was  attacked  with  rancour,  and  was  formally  censured  by  the 
House.  Thereupon  he  resigned,  appealed  to  his  constituents, 
and  was  immediately  re-elected  by  a  large  majority.  In 
1859  he  was  not  renominated,  and  retired  from  Congress  after 
a  continuous  service  of  more  than  twenty  years.  From  1861 
until  his  death,  at  Montreal,  on  the  27th  of  May  1864,  he 
was  U.S.  consul-general  in  Canada.  Giddings  published  a  series 
of  political  essays  signed  "  Pacificus "  (1843);  Speeches  in 
Congress  (1853);  The  Exiles  of  Florida  (1858);  and  a  History 
of  the  Rebellion:  Its  Authors  and  Causes  (1864). 

See  The  Life  of  Joshua  R.  Giddfngs  (Chicago,  1892),  by  his  son-in- 
law,  George  Washington  Julian  (1817-1899),  a  Free-soil  leader  and  a 
representative  in  Congress  in  1 849-1 85 1 ,  a  Republican  representative 
in  Congress  in  1861-1871,  a  Liberal  Republican  in  the  campaign  of 
1872,  and  afterwards  a  Democrat. 

GIDEON  (in  Hebrew,  perhaps  "  hewer "  or  "  warrior  "), 
liberator,  reformer  and  "  judge  "  of  Israel,  was  the  son  of  Joash, 
of  the  Manassite  clan  of  Abiezer,  and  had  his  home  at  Ophrah 
near  Shechem.  His  name  occurs  in  Heb.  xi.  32,  in  a  list  of  those 
who  became  heroes  by  faith;  but,  except  in  Judges  vi.-viii., 
is  not  to  be  met  with  elsewhere  in  the  Old  Testament.  He  lived 
at  a  time  when  the  nomad  tribes  of  the  south  and  east  made 
inroads  upon  Israel,  destroying  all  that  they  could  not  carry 
away.  Two  accounts  of  his  deeds  are  preserved  (see  JUDGES). 
According  to  one  (Judges  vi.  11-24)  Yahweh  appeared  under 
the  holy  tree  which  was  in  the  possession  of  Joash  and  summoned 
Gideon  to  undertake,  in  dependence  on  supernatural  direction 
and  help,  the  work  of  liberating  his  country  from  its  long  oppres- 
sion, and,  in  token  that  he  accepted  the  mission,  he  erected  in 
Ophrah  an  altar  which  he  called  "  Yahweh-Shalom  "  (Yahweh 
is  peace).  According  to  another  account  (vi.  25-32)  Gideon  was 
a  great  reformer  who  was  commanded  by  Yahweh  to  destroy 
the  altar  of  Baal  belonging  to  his  father  and  the  asherah  or 
sacred  post  by  its  side.  The  townsmen  discovered  the  sacrilege 
and  demanded  his  death.  His  father,  who,  as  guardian  of  the 
sacred  place,  was  priest  of  Baal,  enjoined  the  men  not  to  take 
up  Baal's  quarrel,  for  "  if  Baal  be  a  god,  let  him  contend  (rib)  for 
himself."  Hence  Gideon  received  the  name  Jerubbaal.1  From 
this  latter  name  appearing  regularly  in  the  older  narrative 
(cf.  ix.),  and  from  the  varying  usage  in  vi.-viii.,  it  has  been  held 
that  stories  of  two  distinct  heroes  (Gideon  and  Jerubbaal)  have 
been  fused  in  the  complicated  account  which  follows.2 

The  great  gathering  of  the  Midianites  and  their  allies  on  the 
north  side  of  the  plain  of  Jezreel;  the  general  muster  first  of 
Abiezer,  then  of  all  Manasseh,  and  lastly  of  the  neighbouring 
tribes  of  Asher,  Zebulun  and  Naphtali;  the  signs  by  which  the 
wavering  faith  of  Gideon  was  steadied;  the  methods  by  which 
an  unwieldy  mob  was  reduced  to  a  small  but  trusty  band  of 
energetic  and  determined  men;  and  the  stratagem  by  which 
the  vast  army  of  Midian  was  surprised  and  routed  by  the  handful 
of  Israelites  descending  from  "  above  Endor,"  are  indicated 
fully  in  the  narratives,  and  need  not  be  detailed  here.  The 
difficulties  in  the  account  of  the  subsequent  flight  of  the  Midian- 
ites appear  to  have  arisen  from  the  composite  character  of 
the  narratives,  and  there  are  signs  that  in  one  of  them  Gideon 
was  accompanied  only  by  his  own  clansmen  (vi.  34).  So,  when 
the  Midianites  are  put  to  flight,  according  to  one  representation, 
the  Ephraimites  are  called  out  to  intercept  them,  and  the  two 
chiefs,  Oreb  ("  raven  ")  and  Zeeb  ("  wolf  "),  in  making  for  the 
fords  of  the  Jordan,  are  slain  at  "  the  raven's  rock"  and  "  the 
wolf's  press  "  respectively.  As  the  sequel  of  this  we  are  told 
that  the  Ephraimites  quarrelled  with  Gideon  because  their 
assistance  had  not  been  invoked  earlier,  and  their  anger  was 

1  "  Baal  contends  "  (or  Jeru-baal,  "  Baal  founds,"  cf.  Jeru-el), 
but  artificially  explained  in  the  narrative  to  mean  "  let  Baal  contend 
against  him,  '  or  "  let  Baal  contend  for  himself,"  ».  31.     In  2  Sam. 
xi.  21  he  is  called  Jerubbesheth,  in  accordance  with  the  custom 
explained  in  the  article  BAAL. 

2  See,  on  this,  Cheyne,  Ency.  Bib.  col.  1719  seq.;  Ed.  Meyer,  Die 
Israeliten,  pp.  482  seq. 


only  appeased  by  his  tactful  reply  (viii.  1-3;  contrast  xii.  1-6). 
The  other  narrative  speaks  of  the  pursuit  of  the  Midianite  chiefs 
Zebah  and  Zalmunna3  across  the  northern  end  of  Jordan,  past 
Succoth  and  Penuel  to  the  unidentified  place  Karkor.  Having 
taken  relentless  vengeance  on  the  men  of  Penuel  and  Succoth, 
who  had  shown  a  timid  neutrality  when  the  patriotic  struggle 
was  at  its  crisis,  Gideon  puts  the  two  chiefs  to  death  to  avenge 
his  brothers  whom  they  had  killed  at  Tabor.4  The  overthrow 
of  Midian  (cf.  Is.  ix.  4,  x.  26;  Ps.  Ixxxiii.  9-12)  induced  "  Israel" 
to  offer  Gideon  the  kingdom.  It  was  refused — out  of  religious 
scruples  (viii.  22  seq.;  cf.  i  Sam.  viii.  7,  x.  19,  xii.  12,  17,  19),  and 
the  ephod  idol  which  he  set  up  at  Ophrah  in  commemoration 
of  the  victory  was  regarded  by  a  later  editor  (v.  27)  as  a  cause 
of  apostasy  to  the  people  and  a  snare  to  Gideon  and  his  house; 
see,  however,  EPHOD.  Gideon's  achievements  would  naturally 
give  him  a  more  than  merely  local  authority,  and  after  his  death 
the  attempt  was  made  by  one  of  his  sons  to  set  himself  up  as 
chief  (see  ABIMELECH). 

See  further  JEWS,  section  I;  and  the  literature  to  the  book  of 
Judges.  (S.  A.  C.) 

GIEBEL,  CHRISTOPH  GOTTFRIED  ANDREAS  (1820-1881), 
German  zoologist  and  palaeontologist,  was  born  on  the  I3th  of 
September  1820  at  Quedlinburg  in  Saxony,  and  educated  at 
the  university  of  Halle,  where  he  graduated  Ph.  D.  in  1845.  In 
1858  he  became  professor  of  zoology  and  director  of  the  museum 
in  the  university  of  Halle.  He  died  at  Halle  on  the  i4th  of 
November  1881.  His  chief  publications  were  Palaozoologie 
(1846);  Fauna  der  Vonvelt  (1847-1856);  Deutschlands  Petre- 
faclen  (1852);  Odontographie  (1855);  Lehrbuch  der  Zoologie 
(1857);  Thesaurus  ornithologiae  (1872-1877). 

GIEN,  a  town  of  central  France,  capital  of  an  arrondissement 
in  the  department  of  Loiret,  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Loire,  39  m.  E.S.E.  of  Orleans  by  rail.  Pop.  (1906)  6325.  Gien 
is  a  picturesque  and  interesting  town  and  has  many  curious  old 
houses.  The  Loire  is  here  crossed  by  a  stone  bridge  of  twelve 
arches,  built  by  Anne  de  Beaujeu,  daughter  of  Louis  XL,  about 
the  end  of  the  isth  century.  Near  it  stands  a  statue  of  Ver- 
cingetorix.  The  principal  building  is  the  old  castle  used  as  a 
law-court,  constructed  of  brick  and  stone  arranged  in  geometrical 
patterns,  and  built  in  1494  by  Anne  de  Beaujeu.  The  church 
of  St  Pierre  possesses  a  square  tower  dating  from  the  end  of  the 
15th  century.  Porcelain  is  manufactured. 

GIERS,  NICHOLAS  KARLOVICH  DE  (1820-1895),  Russian 
statesman,  was  born  on  the  2ist  of  May  1820.  Like  his  pre- 
decessor, Prince  Gorchakov,  he  was  educated  at  the  lyceum  of 
Tsarskoye  Selo,  near  St  Petersburg,  but  his  career  was  much  less 
rapid,  because  he  had  no  influential  protectors,  and  was  handi- 
capped by  being  a  Protestant  of  Teutonic  origin.  At  the  age 
of  eighteen  he  entered  the  service  of  the  Eastern  department 
of  the  ministry  of  foreign  affairs,  and  spent  more  than  twenty 
years  in  subordinate  posts,  chiefly  in  south-eastern  Europe, 
until  he  was  promoted  in  1863  to  the  post  of  minister  pleni- 
potentiary in  Persia.  Here  he  remained  for  six  years,  and, 
after  serving  as  a  minister  in  Switzerland  and  Sweden,  he  was 
appointed  in  1875  director  of  the  Eastern  department  and 
assistant  minister  for  foreign  affairs  under  Prince  Gorchakov, 
whose  niece  he  had  married.  No  sooner  had  he  entered  on  his 
new  duties  than  .his  great  capacity  for  arduous  work  was  put 
to  a  severe  test.  Besides  events  in  central  Asia,  to  which  he 
had  to  devote  much  attention,  the  Herzegovinian  insurrection 
had  broken  out,  and  he  could  perceive  from  secret  official  papers 
that  the  incident  had  far-reaching  ramifications  unknown  to 
the  general  public.  Soon  this  became  apparent  to  all  the  world. 
While  the  Austrian  officials  in  Dalmatia,  with  hardly  a  pretence 
of  concealment,  were  assisting  the  insurgents,  Russian  volunteers 
were  flocking  to  Servia  with  the  connivance  of  the  Russian  and 
Austrian  governments,  and  General  Ignatiev,  as  ambassador  in 

8  The  names  are  vocalized  to  suggest  the  fanciful  interpretations 
"  victim  "  and  "  protection  withheld." 

4  As  the  account  of  this  has  been  lost  and  the  narrative  is  concerned 
not  with  the  plain  of  Jezreel  but  rather  with  Shechem,  it  has  been 
inferred  that  the  episode  implies  the  existence  of  a  distinct  story 
wherein  Gideon's  pursuit  is  such  an  act  of  vengeance. 


GIESEBRECHT— GIESELER 


Constantinople,  was  urging  his  government  to  take  advantage 
of  the  palpable  weakness  of  Turkey  for  bringing  about  a  radical 
solution  of  the  Eastern  question.  Prince  Gorchakov  did  not  want 
a  radical  solution  involving  a  great  European  war,  but  he  was  too 
fond  of  ephemeral  popularity  to  stem  the  current  of  popular 
excitement.  Alexander  II.,  personally  averse  from  war,  was 
not  insensible  to  the  patriotic  enthusiasm,  and  halted  between 
two  opinions.  M.  de  Giers  was  one  of  the  few  who  gauged  the 
situation  accurately.  As  an  official  and  a  man  of  non-Russian 
extraction  he  had  to  be  extremely  reticent,  but  to  his  intimate 
friends  he  condemned  severely  the  ignorance  and  light-hearted 
recklessness  of  those  around  him.  The  event  justified  his  sombre 
previsions,  but  did  not  cure  the  recklessness  of  the  so-called 
patriots.  They  wished  to  defy  Europe  in  order  to  maintain 
intact  the  treaty  of  San  Stefano,  and  again  M.  de  Giers  found 
himself  in  an  unpopular  minority.  He  had  to  remain  in  the  back- 
ground, but  all  the  influence  he  possessed  was  thrown  into  the 
scale  of  peace.  His  views,  energetically  supported  by  Count 
Shuvalov,  finally  prevailed,  and  the  European  congress  assembled 
at  Berlin.  He  was  not  present  at  the  congress,  and  consequently 
escaped  the  popular  odium  for  the  concessions  which  Russia 
had  to  make  to  Great  Britain  and  Austria.  From  that  time  he 
was  practically  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  for  Prince  Gorchakov 
was  no  longer  capable  of  continued  intellectual  exertion,  and 
lived  mostly  abroad.  On  the  death  of  Alexander  II.  in  1881  it 
was  generally  expected  that  M.  de  Giers  would  be  dismissed 
as  deficient  in  Russian  nationalist  feeling,  for  Alexander  III. 
was  credited  with  strong  anti-German  Slavophil  tendencies. 
In  reality  the  young  tsar  had  no  intention  of  embarking  on  wild 
political  adventures,  and  was  fully  determined  not  to  let  his  hand 
be  forced  by  men  less  cautious  than  himself.  What  he  wanted 
was  a  minister  of  foreign  affairs  who  would  be  at  once  vigilant 
and  prudent,  active  and  obedient,  and  who  would  relieve  him 
from  the  trouble  and  worry  of  routine  work  while  allowing  him 
to  control  the  main  lines,  and  occasionally  the  details,  of  the 
national  policy.  M.  de  Giers  was  exactly  what  he  wanted, 
and  accordingly  the  tsar  not  only  appointed  him  minister  of 
foreign  affairs  on  the  retirement  of  Prince  Gorchakov  in  1882, 
but  retained  him  to  the  end  of  his  reign  in  1894.  In  accordance 
with  the  desire  of  his  august  master,  M.  de  Giers  followed  system- 
atically a  pacific  policy.  Accepting  as  a.  fait  accompli  the  existence 
of  the  triple  alliance,  created  by  Bismarck  for  the  purpose  of 
resisting  any  aggressive  action  on  the  part  of  Russia  and  France, 
he  sought  to  establish  more  friendly  relations  with  the  cabinets 
of  Berlin,  Vienna  and  Rome.  To  the  advances  of  the  French 
government  he  at  first  turned  a  deaf  ear,  but  when  the  rapproche- 
ment between  the  two  countries  was  effected  with  little  or  no 
co-operation  on  his  part,  he  utilized  it  for  restraining  France  and 
promoting  Russian  interests.  He  died  on  the  26th  of  January 
1895,  soon  after  the  accession  of  Nicholas  II.  (D.  M.  W.) 

GIESEBRECHT,  WILHELM  VON  (1814-1889),  German 
historian,  was  a  son  of  Karl  Giesebrecht  (d.  1832),  and  a  nephew 
of  the  poet  Ludwig  Giesebrecht  (1792-1873).  Born  in  Berlin 
on  the  sth  of  March  1814,  he  studied  under  Leopold  von  Ranke, 
and  his  first  important  work,  Geschichte  Ottos  II.,  was  contributed 
to  Ranke's  Jahrbilcher  des  deutschen  Reichs  unter  dem  siichsischen 
Hause  (Berlin,  1837-1840).  In  1841  he  published  his  Jahrbucher 
des  Kloslers  Altaich,  a  reconstruction  of  the  lost  Annales  Alta- 
henses,  a  medieval  source  of  which  fragments  only  were  known 
to  be  extant,  and  these  were  obscured  in  other  chronicles.  The 
brilliance  of  this  performance  was  shown  in  1867,  when  a  copy 
of  the  original  chronicle  was  found,  and  it  was  seen  that  Giese- 
brecht's  text  was  substantially  correct.  In  the  meantime  he  had 
been  appointed  Oberlehrer  in  the  Joachimsthaler  Gymnasium 
in  Berlin;  had  paid  a  visit  to  Italy,  and  as  a  result  of  his  re- 
searches there  had  published  De  litterarum  sludiis  apud  Italos 
primis  medii  aevi  secuUs  (Berlin,  1845),  a  study  upon  the  survival 
of  culture  in  Italian  cities  during  the  middle  ages,  and  also 
several  critical  essays  upon  the  sources  for  the  early  history  of 
the  popes.  In  1851  appeared  his  translation  of  the  Historiae 
of  Gregory  of  Tours,  which  is  the  standard  German  translation. 
Four  years  later  appeared  the  first  volume  of  his  great  work, 


Geschichte  der  deutschen  Kaiseneit,  the  fifth  volume  of  which 
was  published  in  1888.  This  work  was  the  first  in  which  the 
results  of  the  scientific  methods  of  research  were  thrown  open  to 
the  world  at  large.  Largeness  of  style  and  brilliance  of  portrayal 
were  joined  to  an  absolute  mastery  of  the.  sources  in  a  way 
hitherto  unachieved  by  any  German  historian.  Yet  later 
German  historians  have  severely  criticized  his  glorification  of 
the  imperial  era  with  its  Italian  entanglements,  in  which  the 
interests  of  Germany  were  sacrificed  for  idle  glory.  Giesebrech t's 
history,  however,  appeared  when  the  new  German  empire  was 
in  the  making,  and  became  popular  owing  both  to  its  patriotic 
tone  and  its  intrinsic  merits.  In  1857  he  went  to  Kdnigsberg  as 
professor  ordinarius,  and  in  1862  succeeded  H.  von  Sybel  as 
professor  of  history  in  the  university  of  Munich.  The  Bavarian 
government  honoured  him  in  various  ways,  and  he  died  at  Munich 
on  the  1 7th  of  December  1889.  In  addition  to  the  works  already 
mentioned,  Giesebrecht  published  a  good  monograph  on  Arnold 
of  Brescia  (Munich,  1873),  a  collection  of  essays  under  the  title 
Deutsche  Reden  (Munich,  1871),  and  was  an  active  member 
of  the  group  of  scholars  who  took  over  the  direction  of  the 
Monumenta  Germaniae  historica  in  1875.  In  1895  B.  von 
Simson  added  a  sixth  volume  to  the  Geschichte  der  deutschen 
Kaiserzeit,  thus  bringing  the  work  down  to  the  death  of  the 
emperor  Frederick  I.  in  1190. 

See  S.  Riezler,  Geddchtnisrede  auf  Wilhelm  von  Giesebrecht  (Munich, 
1891);  and  Lord  Acton  in  the  English  Historical  Review,  vol.  v. 
(London,  1890). 

GIESELER,  JOHANN  KARL  LUDWIG  (1792-1854),  German 
writer  on  church  history,  was  born  on  the  3rd  of  March  1792  at 
Petershagen,  near  Minden,  where  his  father,  Georg  Christof 
Friedrich,  was  preacher.  In  his  tenth  year  he  entered  the 
orphanage  at  Halle,  whence  he  duly  passed  to  the  university, 
his  studies  being  interrupted,  however,  from  October  1813  till 
the  peace  of  1815  by  a  period  of  military  service,  during  which 
he  was  enrolled  as  a  volunteer  in  a  regiment  of  chasseurs.  On 
the  conclusion  of  peace  (1815)  he  returned  to  Halle,  and,  having 
in  1817  taken  his  degree  in  philosophy,  he  in  the  same  year 
became  assistant  head  master  (Conrector)  in  the  Minden  gym- 
nasium, and  in  1818  was  appointed  director  of  the  gymnasium 
at  Cleves.  Here  he  published  his  earliest  work  (Historisch- 
kritischer  Versuch  iiber  die  Entstehung  u.  die  fruheslen  Schicksale 
der  schriftlichen  Evangelien),  a  treatise  which  had  considerable 
influence  on  subsequent  investigations  as  to  the  origin  of  the 
gospels.  In  1819  Gieseler  was  appointed  a  professor  ordinarius 
in  theology  in  the  newly  founded  university  of  Bonn,  where, 
besides  lecturing  on  church  history,  he  made  important  con- 
tributions to  the  literature  of  that  subject  in  Ernst  Rosenmiiller's 
Repertorium,  K.  F.  Staudlin  and  H.  G.  Tschirner's  Archiv, 
and  in  various  university  "  programs."  The  first  part  of  the 
first  volume  of  his  well-known  Church  History  appeared  in  1824. 
In  1831  he  accepted  a  call  to  Gottingen  as  successor  to  J.  G. 
Planck.  He  lectured  on  church  history,  the  history  of  dogma,  and 
dogmatic  theology.  In  1837  he  was  appointed  a  Consistorial- 
rath,  and  shortly  afterwards  was  created  a  knight  of  the  Guelphic 
order.  He  died  on  the  8th  of  July  1854.  The  fourth  and  fifth 
volumes  of  the  Kirchengeschichte,  embracing  the  period  sub- 
sequent to  1814,  were  published  posthumously  in  1855  by  E.  R. 
Redepenning  (1810-1883);  and  they  were  followed  in  1856  by 
a  Dogmengeschichte,  which  is  sometimes  reckoned  as  the  sixth 
volume  of  the  Church  History.  Among  church  historians 
Gieseler  continues  to  hold  a  high  place.  Less  vivid  and  pictur- 
esque in  style  than  Karl  Hase,  conspicuously  deficient  in 
Neander's  deep  and  sympathetic  insight  into  the  more  spiritual 
forces  by  which  church  life  is  pervaded,  he  excels  these  and  all 
other  contemporaries  in  the  fulness  and  accuracy  of  his  informa- 
tion. His  Lehrbuch  der  Kirchengeschichte,  with  its  copious 
references  to  original  authorities,  is  of  great  value  to  the  student : 
"  Gieseler  wished  that  each  age  should  speak  for  itself,  since 
only  by  this  means  can  the  peculiarity  of  its  ideas  be  fully 
appreciated  "  (Otto  Pfleiderer,  Development  of  Theology,  p.  284). 
The  work,  which  has  passed  through  several  editions  in  Germany, 
has  partially  appeared  also  in  two  English  translations.  That 


GIESSEN— GIFFORD,  R.  S. 


published  in  New  York  (Text  Book  of  Ecclesiastical  History, 
5  vols.)  brings  the  work  down  to  the  peace  of  Westphalia,  while 
that  published  in  "  Clark's  Theological  Library  "  (Compendium 
of  Ecclesiastical  History,  Edinburgh,  5  vols.)  closes  with  the 
beginning  of  the  Reformation.  Gieseler  was  not  only  a  devoted 
student  but  also  an  energetic  man  of  business.  He  frequently 
held  the  office  of  pro-rector  of  the  university,  and  did  much 
useful  work  as  a  member  of  several  of  its  committees. 

GIESSEN,  a  town  of  Germany,  capital  of  the  province,  of 
Upper  Hesse,  in  the  grand-duchy  of  Hesse-Darmstadt,  is  situated 
in  a  beautiful  and  fruitful  valley  at  the  confluence  of  the  Wieseck 
with  the  Lahn,  41  m.  N.N.W.  of  Frankfort-on-Main  on  the 
railway  to  Cassel,  and  at  the  junction  of  important  lines  to 
Cologne  and  Coblenz.  Pop.  (1885)  18,836;  (1905)  29,149.  In 
the  old  part  of  the  town  the  streets  are  narrow  and  irregular. 
Besides  the  university,  the  principal  buildings  are  the  Stadt- 
kirche,  the  provincial  government  offices,  comprising  a  portion 
of  the  old  castle  dating  from  the  1 2th  century,  the  arsenal  (now 
barracks)  and  the  town-hall  (containing  an  historical  collection). 
The  university,  founded  in  1607  by  Louis  V.,  landgrave  of  Hesse, 
has  a  large  and  valuable  library,  a  botanic  garden,  an  observatory, 
medical  schools,  a  museum  of  natural  history,  a  chemical 
laboratory  which  was  directed  by  Justus  von  Liebig,  professor 
here  from  1824  to  1852,  and  an  agricultural  college.  The 
industries  include  the  manufacture  of  woollen  and  cotton  cloth 
of  various  kinds,  machines,  leather,  candles,  tobacco  and  beer. 

Giessen,  the  name  of  which  is  probably  derived  from  the  streams 
which  pour  (giessen)  their  waters  here  into  the  Lahn,  was  formed 
in  the  I2th  century  out  of  the  villages  Sellers,  Aster  and 
Kroppach,  for  whose  protection  Count  William-of  Gleiberg  built 
the  castle  of  Giessen.  Through  marriage  the  town  came,  in  1 203, 
into  the  possession  of  the  count  palatine,  Rudolph  of  Tubingen, 
who  sold  it  in  1265  to  the  landgrave  Henry  of  Hesse.  It  was 
surrounded  with  fortifications  in  1530,  which  were  demolished 
in  1547,  but  rebuilt  in  1560.  In  1805  they  were  finally  pulled 
down,  and  their  site  converted  into  promenades. 

See  O.  Buchner,  Fuhrer  fur  Giessen  und  das  Lahntal  (1891);  and 
A  us  Giessens  Vergangenhcit  (1885). 

GIFFARD,  GODFREY  (c.  1235-1302),  chancellor  of  England 
and  bishop  of  Worcester,  was  a  son  of  Hugh  Giffard  of  Boyton, 
Wiltshire.  Having  entered  the  church  he  speedily  obtained 
valuable  preferments  owing  to  the  influence  of  his  brother 
Walter,  who  became  chancellor  of  England  in  1265.  In  1266 
Godfrey  became  chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  succeeding  Walter 
as  chancellor  of  England  when,  in  the  same  year,  the  latter  was 
made  archbishop  of  York.  In  1268  he  was  chosen  bishop  of 
Worcester,  resigning  the  chancellorship  shortly  afterwards; 
and  both  before  and  after  1279,  when  he  inherited  the  valuable 
property  of  his  brother  the  archbishop,  he  was  employed  on 
public  business  by  Edward  I.  His  main  energies,  however, 
were  devoted  to  the  affairs  of  his  see.  He  had  one  long  dispute 
with  the  monks  of  Worcester,  another  with  the  abbot  of  West- 
minster, and  was  vigilant  in  guarding  his  material  interests. 
The  bishop  died  on  the  26th  of  January  1302,  and  was  buried 
in  his  cathedral.  Giffard,  although  inclined  to  nepotism,  was 
a  benefactor  to  his  cathedral,  and  completed  and  fortified  the 
episcopal  castle  at  Hartlebury. 

See  W.  Thomas,  Survey  of  Worcester  Cathedral;  Episcopal  Registers ; 
Register  of  Bishop  Godfrey  Giffard,  edited  by  J.  W.  Willis-Bund 
(Oxford,  1898-1899);  and  the  Annals  of  Worcester  in  the  Annales 
monastics,  vol.  iv.,  edited  by  H.  R.  Luard  (London,  1869). 

GIFFARD,  WALTER  (d.  1279),  chancellor  of  England  and 
archbishop  of  York,  was  a  son  of  Hugh  Giffard  of  Boyton, 
Wiltshire,  and  after  serving  as  canon  and  archdeacon  of  Wells, 
was  chosen  bishop  of  Bath  and  Wells  in  May  1264.  In  August 
1265  Henry  III.  appointed  him  chancellor  of  England,  and  he 
was  one  of  the  arbitrators  who  drew  up  the  dictum  de  Kenilworth 
in  1 266.  Later  in  this  year  Pope  Clement  IV.  named  him  arch- 
bishop of  York,  and  having  resigned  the  chancellorship  he  was 
an  able  and  diligent  ruler  of  his  see,  although  in  spite  of  his 
great  wealth  he  was  frequently  in  pecuniary  difficulties.  When 


Henry  III.  died  in  November  1272  the  archbishopric  of  Canter- 
bury was  vacant,  and  consequently  the  great  seal  was  delivered 
to  the  archbishop  of  York,  who  was  the  chief  of  the  three  regents 
who  successfully  governed  the  kingdom  until  the  return  of 
Edward  I.  in  August  1274.  Having  again  acted  in  this  capacity 
during  the  king's  absence  in  1275,  Giffard  died  in  April  1279, 
and  was  buried  in  his  cathedral. 

See  Fasti  Eboracenses,  edited  by  J.  Raine  (London,  1863).  Giffard's 
Register  from  1266  to  1279  has  been  edited  for  the  Surtees  Society  by 
W.  Brown. 

GIFFARD,  WILLIAM  (d.  1129),  bishop  of  Winchester,  was 
chancellor  of  William  II.  and  received  his  see,  in  succession  to 
Bishop  Walkelin,  from  Henry  I.  (noo).  He  was  one  of  the  bishops 
elect  whom  Anselm  refused  to  consecrate  (noi)  as  having  been 
nominated  and  invested  by  the  lay  power.  During  the  investi- 
tures dispute  Giffard  was  on  friendly  terms  with  Anselm,  and 
drew  upon  himself  a  sentence  of  banishment  through  declining 
to  accept  consecration  from  the  archbishop  of  York  (1103).  He 
was,  however,  one  of  the  bishops  who  pressed  Anselm,  in  1 106, 
to  give  way  to  the  king.  He  was  consecrated  after  the  settle- 
ment of  1107.  He  became  a  close  friend  of  Anselm,  aided  the 
first  Cistercians  to  settle  in  England,  and  restored  Winchester 
cathedral  with  great  magnificence. 

See  Eadmer,  Historia  novorum,  edited  by  M.  Rule  (London, 
1884);  and  S.  H.  Cass,  Bishops  of  Winchester  (London,  1827). 

GIFFEN,  SIR  ROBERT  (1837-1910),  British  statistician  and 
economist,  was  born  at  Strathaven,  Lanarkshire.  He  entered 
a  solicitor's  office  in  Glasgow,  and  while  in  that  city  attended 
courses  at  the  university.  He  drifted  into  journalism,  and  after 
working  for  the  Stirling  Journal  he  went  to  London  in  1862  and 
joined  the  staff  of  the  Globe.  He  also  assisted  Mr  John  (afterwards 
Lord)  Morley,  when  the  latter  edited  the  Fortnightly  Review. 
In  1868  he  became  Walter  Bagehot's  assistant-editor  on  the 
Economist;,  and  his  services  were  also  secured  in  1873  as  city- 
editor  of  the  Daily  News,  and  later  of  The  Times.  His  high 
reputation  as  a  financial  journalist  and  statistician,  gained  in 
these  years,  led  to  his  appointment  in  1876  as  head  of  the 
statistical  department  in  the  Board  of  Trade,  and  subsequently 
he  became  assistant  secretary  (1882)  and  finally  controller- 
general  (1892),  retiring  in  1897.  In  connexion  with  his  position 
as  chief  statistical  adviser  to  the  government,  he  was  constantly 
employed  in  drawing  up  reports,  giving  evidence  before  commis- 
sions of  inquiry,  and  acting  as  a  government  auditor,  besides 
publishing  a  number  of  important  essays  on  financial  subjects. 
His  principal  publications  were  Essays  on  Finance  (1879  and 
1884),  The  Progress  of  the  Working  Classes  (1884),  The  Growth 
of  Capital  (1890),  The  Case  against  Bimetallism  (1892),  and 
Economic  Inquiries  and  Studies  (1904).  He  was  president  of  the 
Statistical  Society  (1882-1884);  and  after  being  made  a  C.B. 
in  1891  was  created  K.C.B.  in  1895.  In  1892  he  was  elected  a 
Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  Sir  Robert  Giffen  continued  in 
later  years  to  take  a  leading  part  in  all  public  controversies 
connected  with  finance  and  taxation,  and  his  high  authority 
and  practical  experience  were  universally  recognized.  He  died 
somewhat  suddenly  in  Scotland  on  the  I2th  of  April  1910. 

GIFFORD,  ROBERT  SWAIN  (1840-1905),  American  marine 
and  landscape  painter,  was  born  on  Naushon  Island,  Massa- 
chusetts, on  the  23rd  of  December  1840.  He  studied  art  with 
the  Dutch  marine  painter  Albert  van  Beest,  who  had  a  studio 
in  New  Bedford,  and  in  1864  he  opened  a  studio  for  himself  in 
Boston,  subsequently  settling  in  New  York,  where  he  was  elected 
an  associate  of  the  National  Academy  of  Design  in  1867  and  an 
academician  in  1878.  He  was  also  a  charter  member  of  the 
American  Water  Color  Society  and  the  Society  of  American 
Artists.  From  1878  until  1896  he  was  teacher  of  painting 
and  chief  master  of  the  Woman's  Art  School  of  Cooper 
Union,  New  York,  and  from  1896  until  his  death  he  was  director. 
Gifford  painted  longshore  views,  sand  dunes  and  landscapes 
generally,  with  charm  and  poetry.  He  was  an  etcher  of  consider- 
able reputation,  a  member  of  the  Society  of  American  Etchers, 
and  an  honorary  member  of  the  Society  of  Painter-Etchers  of 
London.  He  died  in  New  York  on  the  I3th  of  January  1905. 


GIFFORD,  S.  R.— GIGLIO 


GIFFORD,  SANDFORD  ROBINSON  (1823-1880),  American 
landscape  painter,  was  born  at  Greenfield,  New  York,  on  the  xoth 
of  July  1823.  He  studied  (1842-1845)  at  Brown  University,  then 
went  to  New  York,  and  entered  the  art  schools  of  the  National 
Academy  of  Design,  of  which  organization  he  was  elected  an 
associate  in  1851,  and  an  academician  in  1854.  Subsequently 
he  studied  in  Paris  and  Rome.  He  was  one  of  the  best  known 
of  the  Hudson  River  school  group,  though  it  was  at  Lake  George 
that  he  found  most  of  his  themes.  In  his  day  he  enjoyed  an 
enormous  popularity,  and  his  canvases  are  in  many  well-known 
American  collections.  He  died  in  New  York  City  on  the  29th  of 
August  1880. 

GIFFORD,  WILLIAM  (1756-1826),  English  publicist  and  man 
of  letters,  was  born  at  Ashburton,  Devon,  in  April  1756.  His 
father  was  a  glazier  of  indifferent  character,  and  before  he 
was  thirteen  William  had  lost  both  parents.  The  business  was 
seized  by  his  godfather,  on  whom  William  and  his  brother,  a 
child  of  two,  became  entirely  dependent.  For  about  three 
months  William  was  allowed  to  remain  at  the  free  school  of  the 
town.  He  was  then  put  to  follow  the  plough,  but  after  a  day's 
trial  he  proved  unequal  to  the  task,  and  was  sent  to  sea  with  the 
Brixham  fishermen.  After  a  year  at  sea  his  godfather,  driven 
by  the  opinion  of  the  townsfolk,  put  the  boy  to  school  once  more. 
He  made  rapid  progress,  especially  in  mathematics,  and  began 
to  assist  the  master.  In  1772  he  was  apprenticed  to  a  shoemaker, 
and  when  he  wished  to  pursue  his  mathematical  studies,  he  was 
obliged  to  work  his  problems  with  an  awl  on  beaten  leather. 
By  the  kindness  of  an  Ashburton  surgeon,  William  Cooksley, 
a  subscription  was  raised  to  enable  him  to  return  to  school. 
Ultimately  he  proceeded  in  his  twenty-third  year  to  Oxford, 
where  he  was  appointed  a  Bible  clerk  in  Exeter  College.  Leaving 
the  university  shortly  after  graduation  in  1 782 ,  he  found  a  generous 
patron  in  the  first  Earl  Grosvenor,  who  undertook  to  provide 
for  him,  and  sent  him  on  two  prolonged  continental  tours  in  the 
capacity  of  tutor  to  his  son,  Lord  Belgrave.  Settling  in  London, 
Gifford  published  in  1794  his  first  work,  a  clever  satirical  piece, 
after  Persius,  entitled  the  Baviad,  aimed  at  a  coterie  of  second- 
rate  writers  at  Florence,  then  popularly  known  as  the  Delia 
Cruscans,  of  which  Mrs  Piozzi  was  the  leader.  A  second  satire 
of  a  similar  description,  the  Maeviad,  directed  against  the  corrup- 
tions of  the  drama,  appeared  in  1795.  About  this  time  Gifford 
became  acquainted  with  Canning,  with  whose  help  he  in  August 
1797  originated  a  weekly  newspaper  of  Conservative  politics 
entitled  the  Anti-Jacobin,  which,  however,  in  the  following 
year  ceased  to  be  published.  An  English  version  of  Juvenal, 
on  which  he  had  been  for  many  years  engaged,  appeared  in  1802; 
to  this  an  autobiographical  notice  of  the  translator,  reproduced 
in  Nichol's  Illustrations  of  Literature,  was  prefixed.  Two  years 
afterwards  Gifford  published  an  annotated  edition  of  the  plays 
of  Massinger;  and  in  1809,  when  the  Quarterly  Review  was 
projected,  he  was  made  editor.  The  success  which  attended  the 
Quarterly  from  the  outset  was  due  in  no  small  degree  to  the 
ability  and  tact  with  which  Gifford  discharged  his  editorial 
duties.  He  took,  however,  considerable  liberties  with  the 
articles  he  inserted,  and  Southey,  who  was  one  of  his  regular 
contributors,  said  that  Gifford  looked  on  authors  as  Izaak 
Walton  did  on  worms.  His  bitter  opposition  to  Radicals  and 
his  onslaughts  on  new  writers,  conspicuous  among  which  was 
the  article  on  Keats's  Endymion,  called  forth  Hazlitt's  Letter 
to  W.  Gifford  in  1819.  His  connexion  with  the  Review  continued 
until  within  about  two  years  of  his  death,  which  took  place  in 
London  on  the  3ist  of  December  1826.  Besides  numerous 
contributions  to  the  Quarterly  during  the  last  fifteen  years  of  his 
life,  he  wrote  a  metrical  translation  of  Persius,  which  appeared 
in  1821.  Gifford  also  edited  the  dramas  of  Ben  Jonson  in  1816, 
and  his  edition  of  F8rd  appeared  posthumously  in  1827.  His 
notes  on  Shirley  were  incorporated  in  Dyce's  edition  in  1833. 
His  political  services  were  acknowledged  by  the  appointments 
of  commissioner  of  the  lottery  and  paymaster  of  the  gentle- 
man pensioners.  He  left  a  considerable  fortune,  the  bulk 
of  which  went  to  the  son  of  his  first  benefactor,  William 
Cooksley. 


GIFT  (a  common  Teutonic  word,  cf.  Ger.  die  Gift,  gift,  das 
Gift,  poison,  formed  from  the  Teut.  stem  gab-,  to  give,  cf.  Dutch 
geven,  Ger.  geben',  in  O.  Eng.  the  word  appears  with  initial  y, 
the  guttural  of  later  English  is  due  to  Scandinavian  influence),  a 
general  English  term  for  a  present  or  thing  bestowed,  i.e.  an 
alienation  of  property  otherwise  than  for  a  legal  consideration, 
although  in  law  it  is  often  used  to  signify  alienation  with  or 
without  consideration.  By  analogy  the  terms  "  gift "  and 
"  gifted  "  are  also  used  to  signify  the  natural  endowment  of 
some  special  ability,  or  a  miraculous  power,  in  a  person,  as  being 
not  acquired  in  the  ordinary  way.  The  legal  effect  of  a  gratuit- 
ous gift  only  need  be  considered  here.  Formerly  in  English 
law  property  in  land  could  be  conveyed  by  one  person  to  another 
by  a  verbal  gift  of  the  estate  accompanied  by  delivery  of  posses- 
sion. The  Statute  of  Frauds  required  all  such  conveyances  to 
be  in  writing,  and  a  later  statute  (8  &  9  Viet.  c.  106)  requires 
them  to  be  by  deed.  Personal  property  may  be  effectually 
transferred  from  one  person  to  another  by  a  simple  verbal  gift 
accompanied  by  delivery.  If  A  delivers  a  chattel  to  B,  saying 
or  signifying  that  he  does  so  by  way  of  gift,  the  property  passes, 
and  the  chattel  belongs  to  B.  But  unless  the  actual  thing  is 
bodily  handed  over  to  the  donee,  the  mere  verbal  expression  of 
the  donor's  desire  or  intention  has  no  legal  effect  whatever. 
The  persons  are  in  the  position  of  parties  to  an  agreement  which 
is  void  as  being  without  consideration.  When  the  nature  of 
the  thing  is  such  that  it  cannot  be  bodily  handed  over,  it  will 
be  sufficient  to  put  the  donee  in  such  a  position  as  to  enable  him 
to  deal  with  it  as  the  owner.  For  example,  when  goods  are  in  a 
warehouse,  the  delivery  of  the  key  will  make  a  verbal  gift  of 
them  effectual;  but  it  seems  that  part  delivery  of  goods  which 
are  capable  of  actual  delivery  will  not  validate  a  verbal  gift  of 
the  part  undelivered.  So  when  goods  are  in  the  possession  of  a 
warehouseman,  the  handing  over  of  a  delivery  order  might,  by 
special  custom  (but  not  otherwise,  it  appears),  be  sufficient  to 
pass  the  property  in  the  goods,  although  delivery  of  a  bill  of 
lading  for  goods  at  sea  is  equivalent  to  an  actual  delivery  of  the 
goods  themselves. 

GIFU  (IMAIZUMI),  a  city  of  Japan,  capital  of  the  ken  (govern- 
ment) of  Central  Nippon,  which  comprises  the  two  provinces 
of  Mine  and  Hida.  Pop.  about  41, ooo.  It  lies  E.  by  N.  of  Lake 
Biwa,  on  the  Central  railway,  on  a  tributary  of  the  river  Kiso,' 
which  flows  to  the  Bay  of  Miya  Uro.  Manufactures  of  silk  and 
paper  goods  are  carried  on.  The  ken  has  an  area  of  about 
4000  sq.  m.  and  is  thickly  peopled,  the  population  exceeding 
i  ,000,000.  The  whole  district  is  subject  to  frequent  earthquakes. 

GIG,  apparently  an  onomatopoeic  word  for  any  light  whirling 
object,  and  so  used  of  a  top,  as  in  Shakespeare's  Love's  Labour's 
Lost,  v.  i.  70  ("  Goe  whip  thy  gigge  "),  or  of  a  revolving  lure 
made  of  feathers  for  snaring  birds.  The  word  is  now  chiefly 
used  of  a  light  two-wheeled  cart  or  carriage  for  one  horse,  and 
of  a  narrow,  light,  ship's  boat  for  oars  or  sails,  and  also  of  a 
clinker-built  rowing-boat  used  for  rowing  on  the  Thames. 
"  Gig  "  is  further  applied,  in  mining,  to  a  wooden  chamber  or 
box  divided  in  the  centre  and  used  to  draw  miners  up  and  down 
a  pit  or  shaft,  and  to  a  textile  machine,  the  "  gig-mill  "  or 
"  gigging  machine,"  which  raises  the  nap  on  cloth  by  means 
of  teazels.  A  "  gig  "  or  "  fish-gig  "  (properly  "  fiz-gig,"  possibly 
an  adaptation  of  Span,  fisga,  harpoon)  is  an  instrument 
used  for  spearing  fish. 

GIGLIO  (anc.  Igilium),  an  island  of  Italy,  off  the  S.W.  coast 
of  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Grosseto,  n  m.  to  the  W.  of  Monte 
Argentario,  the  nearest  point  on  the  coast.  It  measures  about 
5  m.  by  3  and  its  highest  point  is  1634  ft.  above  sea-level.  Pop. 
(1901)  2062.  It  is  partly  composed  of  granite,  which  was 
quarried  here  by  the  Romans,  and  is  still  used;  the  island  is 
fertile,  and  produces  wine  and  fruit,  the  cultivation  of  which  has 
taken  the  place  of  the  forests  of  which  Rutilius  spoke  (Itin.  i. 
325,  "  eminus  Igilii  silvosa  cacumina  miror  ").  Julius  Caesar 
mentions  its  sailors  in  the  fleet  of  Domitius  Ahenobarbus.  In 
Rutilius's  time  it  served  as  a  place  of  refuge  from  the  barbarian 
invaders.  Charlemagne  gave  it  to  the  abbey  of  Tre  Fontane  at 
Rome.  In  the  i4th  century  it  belonged  to  Pisa,  then  to  Florence, 


GIJON— GILBART 


then,  after  being  seized  by  the  Spanish  fleet,  it  was  ceded  to 
Antonio  Piccolomini,  nephew  of  Pius  II.  In  1558  it  was 
sold  to  the  wife  of  Cosimo  I.  of  Florence. 

See  Archduke  Ludwig  Salvator,  Die  Insel  Giglio  (Prague,  1900). 

GIJON,  a  seaport  of  northern  Spain,  in  the  province  of  Oviedo; 
on  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  and  at  the  terminus  of  railways  from 
Aviles,  Oviedo  and  Langreo.  Pop.  (1900)  47,544.  The  older 
parts  of  Gijon,  which  are  partly  enclosed  by  ancient  walls, 
occupy  the  upper  slopes  of  a  peninsular  headland,  Santa  Catalina 
Point;  while  its  more  modern  suburbs  extend  along  the  shore 
to  Cape  Torres,  on  the  west,  and  Cape  San  Lorenzo,  on  the  east. 
These  suburbs  contain  the  town-hall,  theatre,  markets,  and  a 
bull-ring  with  seats  for  12,000  spectators.  Few  of  the  buildings 
of  Gijon  are  noteworthy  for  any  architectural  merit,  except 
perhaps  the  15th-century  parish  church  of  San  Pedro,  which 
has  a  triple  row  of  aisles  on  each  side,  the  palace  of  the  mar- 
quesses of  Revillajigedo  (or  Revilla  Gigedo),  and  the  Asturian 
Institute  or  Jovellanos  Institute.  The  last  named  has  a  very 
fine  collection  of  drawings  by  Spanish  and  other  artists,  a  good 
library  and  classes  for  instruction  in  seamanship,  mathematics 
and  languages.  It  was  founded  in  1797  by  the  poet  and  states- 
man Caspar  Melchor  dt  Jovellanos  (1744-1811).  Jovellanos, 
a  native  of  Gijon,  is  buried  in  San  Pedro. 

The  Bay  of  Gijon  is  the  most  important  roadstead  on  the 
Spanish  coast  between  Ferrol  and  Santander.  Its  first  quay 
was  constructed  by  means  of  a  grant  from  Charles  V.  in  1552- 
1554;  and  its  arsenal,  added  in  the  reign  of  Philip  II.  (1556- 
1598),  was  used  in  1588  as  a  repairing  station  for  the  surviving 
ships  of  the  Invincible  Armada.  A  new  quay  was  built  in 
1766-1768,  and  extended  in  1859;  the  harbour  was  further 
improved  in  1864,  and  after  1892,  when  the  Musel  harbour  of 
refuge  was  created  at  the  extremity  of  the  bay.  It  was,  how- 
ever, the  establishment  of  railway  communication  in  1884  which 
brought  the  town  its  modern  prosperity,  by  rendering  it  the  chief 
port  of  shipment  for  the  products  of  Langreo  and  other  mining 
centres  in  Oviedo.  A  rapid  commercial  development  followed. 
Besides  large  tobacco,  glass  and  porcelain  factories,  Gijon 
possesses  iron  foundries  and  petroleum  refineries;  while  its 
minor  industries  include  fisheries,  and  the  manufacture  of  pre- 
served foods,  soap,  chocolate,  candles  and  liqueurs.  In  1903 
•  the  harbour  accommodated  2189  vessels  of  358,375  tons.  In 
the  same  year  the  imports,  consisting  chiefly  of  machinery,  iron, 
wood  and  food-stuffs,  were  valued  at  £660,889;  while  the 
exports,  comprising  zinc,  copper,  iron  and  other  minerals,  with 
fish,  nuts  and  farm  produce,  were  valued  at  £100,941. 

Gijon  is  usually  identified  with  the  Gigia  of  the  Romans,  which, 
however,  occupied  the  site  of  the  adjoining  suburb  of  Cima 
de  Villa.  Early  in  the  8th  century  Gijon  was  captured  and 
strengthened  by  the  Moors,  who  used  the  stones  of  the  Roman 
city  for  their  fortifications,  but  were  expelled  by  King  Pelayo 
(720-737).  In  844  Gijon  successfully  resisted  a  Norman  raid;  in 
1395  it  was  burned  down;  but  thenceforward  it  gradually  rose 
to  commercial  importance. 

GiLAN  (GHILAN,  GUILAN),  one  of  the  three  small  but  important 
Caspian  provinces  of  Persia,  lying  along  the  south-western  shore 
of  the  Caspian  Sea  between  48°  50'  and  50°  30'  E.  with  a  breadth 
varying  from  15  to  50  m.  It  has  an  area  of  about  5000 
sq.  m.  and  a  population  of  about  250,000.  It  is  separated  from 
Russia  by  the  little  river  Astara,  which  flows  into  the  Caspian, 
and  bounded  W.  by  Azerbaijan,  S.  by  Kazvin  and  E.  by  Mazan- 
daran.  The  greater  portion  of  the  province  is  a  lowland  region 
extending  inland  from  the  sea  to  the  base  of  the  mountains  of  the 
Elburz  range  and,  though  the  Sefld  Rud  (White  river),  which  is 
called  Kizil  Uzain  in  its  upper  course  and  has  its  principal 
sources  in  the  hills  of  Persian  Kurdistan,  is  the  only  river  of  any 
size,  the  province  is  abundantly  watered  by  many  streams 
and  an  exceptionally  great  rainfall  (in  some  years  50  in.). 

The  vegetation  is  very  much  like  that  of  southern  Europe, 
but  in  consequence  of  the  great  humidity  and  the  mild  climate 
almost  tropically  luxuriant,  and  the  forests  from  the  shore  of 
the  sea  up  to  an  altitude  of  nearly  5000  ft.  on  the  mountain 
slopes  facing  the  sea  are  as  dense  as  an  Indian  jungle.  The 


prevailing  types  of  trees  are  the  oak,  maple,  hornbeam,  beech, 
ash  and  elm.  The  box  tree  comes  to  rare  perfection,  but  in 
consequence  of  indiscriminate  cutting  for  export  during  many 
years,  is  now  becoming  scarce.  Of  fruit  trees  the  apple,  pear, 
plum,  cherry,  medlar,  pomegranate,  fig,  quince,  as  well  as  two 
kinds  of  vine,  grow  wild;  oranges,  sweet  and  bitter,  and  other 
Aurantiaceae  thrive  well  in  gardens  and  plantations.  The  fauna 
also  is  well  represented,  but  tigers  which  once  were  frequently 
seen  are  now  very  scarce;  panther,  hyena,  jackal,  wild  boar, 
deer  (Genius  moral)  are  common;  pheasant,  woodcock,  ducks, 
teal,  geese  and  various  waterfowl  abound;  the  fisheries  are  very 
productive  and  are  leased  to  a  Russian  firm.  The  ordinary 
cattle  of  the  province  is  the  small  humped  kind,  Bos  indicus, 
and  forms  an  article  of  export  to  Russia,  the  humps,  smoked, 
being  much  in  demand  as  a  delicacy.  Rice  of  a  kind  not  much 
appreciated  in  Persia,  but  much  esteemed  in  Gilan  and  Russia, 
is  largely  cultivated  and  a  quantity  valued  at  about  £120,000 
was  exported  to  Russia  during  1904-1905.  Tea  plantations, 
with  seeds  and  plants  from  Assam,  Ceylon  and  the  Himalayas, 
were  started  in  the  early  part  of  1900  on  the  slopes  of  the  hills 
south  of  Resht  at  an  altitude  of  about  1000  ft.  The  results  were 
excellent  and  very  good  tea  was  produced  in  1904  and  1905, 
but  the  Persian  government  gave  no  support  and  the  enterprise 
was  neglected.  The  olive  thrives  well  at  Rudbar  and  Manjil 
in  the  Sefid  Rfid  valley  and  the  oil  extracted  from  it  by  a  Pro- 
vencal for  some  years  until  1896,  when  he  was  murdered,  was  of 
very  good  quality  and  found  a  ready  market  at  Baku.  Since 
then  the  oil  has  been,  as  before,  only  used  for  the  manufacture  of 
soap.  Tobacco  from  Turkish  seed,  cultivated  since  1875,  grows 
well,  and  a  considerable  quantity  of  it  is  exported.  The  most 
valuable  produce  of  the  province  is  silk.  In  1866  it  was  valued 
at  £743,000  and  about  two-thirds  of  it  was  exported.  The  silk- 
worm disease  appeared  in  1864  and  the  crops  decreased  in  con- 
sequence until  1893  when  the  value  of  the  silk  exported  was  no 
more  than  £6500.  Since  then  there  has  been  a  steady  improve- 
ment, and  in  1905-1906  the  value  of  the  produce  was  estimated 
at  £300,000  and  that  of  the  quantity  exported  at  £200,000. 
The  eggs  of  the  silk-worms,  formerly  obtained  from  Japan,  are 
now  imported  principally  from  Brusa  by  Greeks  under  French 
protection  and  from  France. 

There  is  only  one  good  road  in  the  province,  that  from  Enzeli 
to  Kazvin  by  way  of  Resht;  in  other  parts  communication  is 
by  narrow  and  frequently  impassable  lanes  through  the  thick 
forest,  or  by  intricate  pathways  through  the  dense  undergrowth. 

The  province  is  divided  into  the  following  administrative 
districts:  Resht  (with  the  capital  and  its  immediate  neighbour- 
hood), Fumen  (with  Tulam  and  Mesula,  where  are  iron  mines), 
Gesker,  Talish  (with  Shandarman,  Kerganrud,  Asalim,  Gil- 
Dulab,  Talish-Dulab),  Enzeli  (the  port  of  Resht),  Sheft,  Manjil 
(with  Rahmetabad  and  Amarlu),  Lahijan  (with  Langarud, 
Rudsar  and  Ranehkuh),  Dilman  and  Lashtnisha.  The  revenue 
derived  from  taxes  and  customs  is  about  £80,000.  The  crown 
lands  have  been  much  neglected  and  the  revenue  from  them 
amounts  to  hardly  £3000  per  annum.  The  value  of  the  exports 
and  imports  from  and  into  Gilan,  much  of  them  in  transit,  is 
close  upon  £2,000,000. 

Gilan  was  an  independent  khanate  until  1567  when  Khan 
Ahmed,  the  last  of  the  Kargia  dynasty,  which  had  reigned 
205  years,  was  deposed  by  Tahmasp  I.,  the  second  Safawid  shah 
of  Persia  (1524-1576).  It  was  occupied  by  a  Russian  force  in 
the  early  part  of  1723;  and  Tahmasp  III.,  the  tenth  Safawid  shah 
(1722-1731),  then  without  a  throne  and  his  country  occupied 
by  the  Afghans,  ceded  it,  together  with  Mazandaran  and  Astara- 
bad,  to  Peter  the  Great  by  a  treaty  of  the  1 2th  of  September  of 
the  same  year.  Russian  troops  remained  in  Gilan  until  1734, 
when  they  were  compelled  to  evacuate  it.  « 

The  derivation  of  the  name  Gilan  from  the  modern  Persian 
word  gU  meaning  mud  (hence  "  land  of  mud  ")  is  incorrect. 
It  probably  means  "  land  of  the  Gil,"  an  ancient  tribe  which 
classical  writers  mention  as  the  Gelae.  (A.  H.-S.) 

GILBART,  JAMES  WILLIAM  (1794-1863),  English  writer  on 
banking,  was  born  in  London  on  the  2ist  of  March  1794.  From 


GILBERT,  ALFRED— GILBERT,  SIR  H. 


1813  to  1825  he  was  clerk  in  a  London  bank.  After  a  two  years' 
residence  in  Birmingham,  he  was  appointed  manager  of  the 
Kilkenny  branch  of  the  Provincial  Bank  of  Ireland,  and  in  1829 
he  was  promoted  to  the  Waterford  branch.  In  1834  he  became 
manager  of  the  London  and  Westminster  Bank;  and  he  did  much 
to  develop  the  system  of  joint-stock  banking.  On  more  than 
one  occasion  he  rendered  valuable  services  to  the  joint-stock 
banks  by  his  evidence  before  committees  of  the  House  of 
Commons;  and,  on  the  renewal  of  the  bank  charter  in  1844, 
he  procured  the  insertion  of  a  clause  granting  to  joint-stock 
banks  the  power  of  suing  by  their  public  officer,  and  also  the 
right  of  accepting  bills  at  less  than  six  months'  date.  In  1846  he 
was  elected  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  He  died  in  London  on 
the  8th  of  August  1863.  The  Gilbart  lectures  on  banking  at 
King's  College  are  called  after  him. 

The  following  are  his  principal  works  on  banking,  most  of  which 
have  passed  through  more  than  one  edition:  Practical  Treatise  on 
Banking  (1827);  The  History  and  Principles  of  Banking  (1834); 
The  History  of  Banking  in  America  (1837);  Lectures  on  the  History 
and  Principles  of  Ancient  Commerce  (1847);  Logic  for  the  Million 
(1851);  and  Logic  of  Banking  (1857). 

GILBERT,  ALFRED  (1854-  ),  British  sculptor  and 
goldsmith,  born  in  London,  was  the  son  of  Alfred  Gilbert, 
musician.  He  received  his  education  mainly  in  Paris  (ficole 
des  Beaux- Arts,  under  Cavelier),  and  studied  in  Rome  and 
Florence  where  the  significance  of  the  Renaissance  made  a 
lasting  impression  upon  him  and  his  art.  He  also  worked  in 
the  studio  of  Sir  J.  Edgar  Boehm,  R.A.  His  first  work  of 
importance  was  the  charming  group  of  the  "  Mother  and  Child," 
then  "  The  Kiss  of  Victory,"  followed  by  "  Perseus  Arming  " 
(1883),  produced  directly  under  the  influence  of  the  Florentine 
masterpieces  he  had  studied.  Its  success  was  great,  and  Lord 
Leighton  forthwith  commissioned  "  Icarus,"  which  was  ex- 
hibited at  the  Royal  Academy  in  1884,  along  with  a  remarkable 
"  Study  of  a  Head,"  and  was  received  with  general  applause. 
Then  followed  "  The  Enchanted  Chair,"  which,  along  with  many 
other  works  deemed  by  the  artist  incomplete  or  unworthy  of 
his  powers,  was  ultimately  broken  by  the  sculptor's  own  hand. 
The  next  year  Mr  Gilbert  was  occupied  with  the  Shaftesbury 
Memorial  Fountain,  in  Piccadilly,  London,  a  work  of  great 
originality  and  beauty,  yet  shorn  of  some  of  the  intended  effect 
through  restrictions  put  upon  the  artist.  In  1888  was  produced 
the  statue  of  H.M.  Queen  Victoria,  set  up  at  Winchester,  in  its 
main  design  and  in  the  details  of  its  ornamentation  the  most 
remarkable  work  of  its  kind  produced  in  Great  Britain,  and 
perhaps,  it  may  be  added,  in  any  other  country  in  modern  times. 
Other  statues  of  great  beauty,  at  once  novel  in  treatment  and 
fine  in  design,  are  those  set  up  to  Lord  Reay  in  Bombay,  and 
John  Howard  at  Bedford  (1898),  the  highly  original  pedestal 
of  which  did  much  to  direct  into  a  better  channel  what  are 
apt  to  be  the  eccentricities  of  what  is  called  the  "New  Art" 
School.  The  sculptor  rose  to  the  full  height  of  his  powers  in  his 
"  Memorial  to  the  Duke  of  Clarence,"  and  his  fast  developing 
fancy  and  imagination,  which  are  the  main  characteristics  of  all 
his  work,  are  seen  in  his  "Memorial  Candelabrum  to  Lord  Arthur 
Russell  "  and  "  Memorial  Font  to  the  son  of  the  4th  Marquess  of 
Bath."  Gilbert's  sense  of  decoration  is  paramount  in  all  he  does, 
and  although  in  addition  to  the  work  already  cited  he  pro- 
duced busts  of  extraordinary  excellence  of  Cyril  Flower,  John 
R.  Clayton  (since  broken  up  by  the  artist — the  fate  of  much  of 
his  admirable  work),  G.  F.  Watts,  Sir  Henry  Tate,  Sir  George 
Birdwood,  Sir  Richard  Owen,  Sir  George  Grove  and  various 
others,  it  is  on  his  goldsmithery  that  the  artist  would  rest  his 
reputation;  on  his  mayoral  chain  for  Preston,  the  epergne  for 
Queen  Victoria,  the  figurines  of  "  Victory  "  (a  statuette  designed 
for  the  orb  in  the  hand  of  the  Winchester  statue),  "  St  Michael  " 
and  "St  George,"  as  well  as  smaller  objects  such  as  seals,  keys 
and  the  like.  Mr  Gilbert  was  chosen  associate  of  the  Royal 
.  Academy  in  1887,  full  member  in  1892  (resigned  1909),  and 
professor  of  sculpture  (afterwards  resigned)  in  1900.  In  1889  he 
won  the  Grand  Prix  at  the  Paris  International  Exhibition.  He 
was  created  a  member  of  the  Victorian  Order  in  1897.  (See 
SCULPTURE.) 


See  The  Life  and  Work  of  Alfred  Gilbert,  R.A.,  M.  V.O.,  D.C.L.,  by 
Joseph  Hatton  (Art  Journal  Office,  1903).  (M.  H.  S.) 

GILBERT,  ANN  (1821-1904),  American  actress,  was  born  at 
Rochdale,  Lancashire,  on  the  2ist  of  October  1821,  her  maiden 
name  being  Hartley.  At  fifteen  she  was  a  pupil  at  the 
ballet  school  connected  with  the  Haymarket  theatre,  conducted 
by  Paul  Taglioni,  and  became  a  dancer  on  the  stage.  In  1846 
she  married  George  H.  Gilbert  (d.  1866),  a  performer  in  the 
company  of  which  she  was  a  member.  Together  they  filled 
many  engagements  in  English  theatres,  moving  to  America  in 
1849.  Mrs  Gilbert's  first  success  in  a  speaking  part  was  in  1857 
as  Wichavenda  in  Brougham's  Pocahontas.  In  1869  she  joined 
Daly's  company,  playing  for  many  years  wives  to  James  Lewis's 
husbands,  and  old  women's  parts,  in  which  she  had  no  equal. 
Mrs.  Gilbert  held  a  unique  position  on  the  American  s'tage,  on 
account  of  the  admiration,  esteem  and  affection  which  she 
enjoyed  both  in  front  and  behind  the  footlights.  She  died  at 
Chicago  on  the  2nd  of  December  1904. 

See  Mrs  Gilbert's  Stage  Reminiscences  (1901). 

GILBERT,  GROVE  KARL  (1843-  ),  American  geologist, 
was  born  at  Rochester,  N.Y.,  on  the  6th  of  May  1843.  In  1869 
he  was  attached  to  the  Geological  Survey  of  Ohio  and  in 
1879  he  became  a  member  of  the  United  States  Geological 
Survey,  being  engaged  on  parts  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  in 
Nevada,  Utah,  California  and  Arizona.  He  is  distinguished 
for  his  researches  on  mountain-structure  and  on  the  Great  Lakes, 
as  well  as  on  glacial  phenomena,  recent  earth  movements,  and 
on  topographic  features  generally.  His  report  on  the  Geology 
of  the  Henry  Mountains  (1877),  in  which  the  volcanic  structure 
known  as  a  laccolite  was  first  described;  his  History  of  the 
Niagara  River  (1890)  and  Lake  BonnevUle  (1891 — the  first  of 
the  Monographs  issued  by  the  United  States  Geological  Survey) 
are  specially  important.  He  was  awarded  the  Wollaston  medal 
by  the  Geological  Society  of  London  in  1900. 

GILBERT,  SIR  HUMPHREY  (c.  1539-1583),  English  soldier, 
navigator  and  pioneer  colonist  in  America,  was  the  second  son  of 
Otho  Gilbert,  of  Compton,  near  Dartmouth,  Devon,  and  step- 
brother of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh.  He  was  educated  at  Eton  and 
Oxford;  intended  for  the  law;  introduced  at  court  by  Raleigh's 
aunt,  Catherine  Ashley,  and  appointed  (July  1566)  captain  in 
the  army  of  Ireland  under  Sir  Henry  Sidney.  In  April  1566 
he  had  already  joined  with  Antony  Jenkinson  in  a  petition 
to  Elizabeth  for  the  discovery  of  the  North-East  Passage;  in 
November  following  he  presented  an  independent  petition  for 
the  "  discovering  of  a  passage  by  the  north  to  goto  Cataia."  In 
October  1569  he  became  governor  of  Munster;  on  the  ist  of 
January  1570  he  was  knighted;  in  1571  he  was  returned  M.P. 
for  Plymouth;  in  1572  he  campaigned  in  the  Netherlands 
against  Spain  without  much  success;  from  1573  to  1578  he 
lived  in  retirement  at  Limehouse,  devoting  himself  especially 
to  the  advocacy  of  a  North- West  Passage  (his  famous  Discourse 
on  this  subject  was  published  in  1576).  Gilbert's  arguments, 
widely  circulated  even  before  1575,  were  apparently  of  weight 
in  promoting  the  Frobisher  enterprises  of  1576-1578.  On  the 
nth  of  June  1578,  Sir  Humphrey  obtained  his  long-coveted 
charter  for  North- Western  discovery  and  colonization,  authoriz- 
ing him,  his  heirs  and  assigns,  to  discover,  occupy  and  possess 
such  remote  "  heathen  lands  not  actually  possessed  of  any 
Christian  prince  or  people,  as  should  seem  good  to  him  or  them." 
Disposing  not  only  of  his  patrimony  but  also  of  the  estates  in 
Kent  which  he  had  through  his  wife,  daughter  of  John  Aucher 
of  Ollerden,  he  fitted  out  an  expedition  which  left  Dartmouth 
on  the  23rd  of  September  1578,  and  returned  in  May  1579, 
having  accomplished  nothing.  In  1579  Gilbert  aided  the 
government  in  Ireland;  and  in  1583,  after  many  struggles — 
illustrated  by  his  appeal  to  Walsingham  on  the  nth  of  July 
1582,  for  the  payment  of  moneys  due  to  him  from  government, 
and  by  his  agreement  with  the  Southampton  venturers — he 
succeeded  in  equipping  another  fleet  for  "  Western  Planting." 
On  the  nth  of  June  1583,  he  sailed  from  Plymouth  with  five 
ships  and  the  queen's  blessing;  on  the  I3th  of  July  the  "  Ark 
Raleigh,"  built  and  manned  at  his  brother's  expense,  deserted 


8 


GILBERT,  J.— GILBERT,  MARIE 


the  fleet;  on  the  3oth  of  July  he  was  off  the  north  coast  of 
Newfoundland;  on  the  3rd  of  August  he  arrived  off  the  present 
St  John's,  and  selected  this  site  as  the  centre  of  his  operations; 
on  the  sth  of  August  he  began  the  plantation  of  the  first  English 
colony  in  North  America.  Proceeding  southwards  with  three 
vessels,  exploring  and  prospecting,  he  lost  the  largest  near  Cape 
Breton  (zgth  of  August);  immediately  after  (3151  of  August) 
he  started  to  return  to  England  with  the  "  Golden  Hind  "  and 
the  "  Squirrel,"  of  forty  and  ten  tons  respectively.  Obstinately 
refusing  to  leave  the  "  frigate  "  and  sail  in  his  "  great  ship," 
he  shared  the  former's  fate  in  a  tempest  off  the  Azores.  "  Monday 
the  9th  of  September,"  reports  Hayes,  the  captain  of  the  "  Hind," 
"the  frigate  was  near  cast  away, .  . .  .yet  at  that  time  recovered; 
and,  giving  forth  signs  of  joy,  the  general,  sitting  abaft  with  a 
book  in*his  hand,  cried  out  unto  us  in  the '  Hind,' '  We  are  as  near 
to  heaven  by  sea  as  by  land.'.  .  .  .  The  same  Monday  night,  about 
twelve,  the  frigate  being  ahead  of  us  in  the  '  Golden  Hind,' 
suddenly  her  lights  were  out,  ....  in  that  moment  the  frigate 
was  devoured  and  swallowed  up  of  the  sea." 

See  Hakluyt,  Principal  Navigations  (1599),  vol.  iii.  pp.  135-181; 
Gilbert's  Discourse  of  a  Discovery  for  a  Neiv  Passage  to  Cataia,  pub- 
lished by  George  Gascoigne  in  1576,  with  additions,  probably 
without  Gilbert's  authority;  Hooker's  Supplement  to  Holinshed's 
Irish  Chronicle;  Roger  Williams,  The  Actions  of  the  Low  Countries 
(1618);  State  Papers,  Domestic  (1577-1583);  Wood's  Athenae 
Oxonienses;  North  British  Review,  No.  45;  Fox  Bourne's  English 
Seamen  under  the  Tudor s ;  Carlos  Slafter,  Sir  H.  Gylberte  and  his 
Enterprise  (Boston,  1903),  with  all  important  documents.  Gilbert's 
interesting  writings  on  the  need  of  a  university  for  London,  anticipat- 
ing in  many  ways  not  only  the  modern  London  University  but  also 
the  British  Museum  library  and  its  compulsory  sustenance  through 
the  provisions  of  the  Copyright  Act,  have  been  printed  by  Furniyall 
(Queen  Elizabeth's  Achademy)  in  the  Early  English  Text  Society 
Publications,  extra  series,  No.  viii. 

GILBERT,  JOHN  (1810-1889),  American  actor,  whose  real 
name  was  Gibbs,  was  born  in  Boston,  Massachusetts,  on  the 
27th  of  February  1810,  and  made  his  first  appearance  there 
as  Jaffier  in  Venice  Preserved.  He  soon  found  that  his  true  vein 
was  in  comedy,  particularly  in  old-men  parts.  When  in  London 
in  1847  he  was  well  received  both  by  press  and  public,  and  played 
with  Macready.  He  was  the  leading  actor  at  Wallack's  from 
1861-1888.  He  died  on  the  i7th  of  June  1889. 

See  William  Winter's  Life  of  John  Gilbert  (New  York,  1890). 

GILBERT,  SIR  JOHN  (1817-1897),  English  painter  and 
illustrator,  one  of  the  eight  children  of  George  Felix  Gilbert, 
a  member  of  a  Derbyshire  family,  was  born  at  Blackheath  on 
the  2ist  of  July  1817.  He  went  to  school  there,  and  even  in 
childhood  displayed  an  extraordinary  fondness  for  drawing  and 
painting.  Nevertheless,  his  father's  lack  of  means  compelled 
him  to  accept  employment  for  the  boy  in  the  office  of  Messrs 
Dickson  &  Bell,  estate  agents,  in  Charlotte  Row,  London. 
Yielding,  however,  to  his  natural  bent,  his  parents  agreed  that 
he  should  take  up  art  in  his  own  way,  which  included  but  little 
advice  from  others,  his  only  teacher  being  Haydon's  pupil,  George 
Lance,  the  fruit  painter.  This  artist  gave  him  brief  instructions 
in  the  use  of  colour.  In  1836  Gilbert  appeared  in  public  for 
the  first  time.  This  was  at  the  gallery  of  the  Society  of  British 
Artists,  where  he  sent  drawings,  the  subjects  of  which  were 
characteristic,  being  "  The  Arrest  of  Lord  Hastings,"  from 
Shakespeare,  and  "Abbot  Boniface,"  from  The  Monastery  of 
Scott.  "Inez  de  Castro"  was  in  the  same  gallery  in  the  next 
year;  it  was  the  first  of  a  long  series  of  works  in  the  same 
medium,  representing  similar  themes,  and  was  accompanied, 
from  1837,  by  a  still  greater  number  of  works  in  oil  which  were 
exhibited  at  the  British  Institution.  These  included  "  Don 
Quixote  giving  advice  to  Sancho  Panza,"  1841 ;  "  Brunette 
and  Phillis,"  from  The  Spectator,  1844;  "The  King's  Artillery 
at  Marston  Moor,"  1860;  and  "  Don  Quixote  comes  back  for 
the  last  time  to  his  Home  and  Family,"  1867.  In  that  year  the 
Institution  was  finally  closed.  Gilbert  exhibited  at  the  Royal 
Academy  from  1838,  beginning  with  the  "  Portrait  of  a  Gentle- 
man," and  continuing,  except  between  1851  and  1867,  till  his 
death  to  exhibit  there  many  of  his  best  and  more  ambitious 
works.  These  included  such  capital  instances  as  "  Holbein 


painting  the  Portrait  of  Anne  Boleyn,"  "  Don  Quixote's  first 
Interview  with  the  Duke  and  Duchess,"  1842,  "Charlemagne 
visiting  the  Schools,"  1846.  "Touchstone  and  the  Shepherd," 
and  "  Rembrandt,"  a  very  fine  piece,  were  both  there  in  1867; 
and  in  1873  "  Naseby,"  one  of  his  finest  and  most  picturesque 
designs,  was  also  at  the  Royal  Academy.  Gilbert  was  elected 
A.R.A.  29th  January  1872,  and  R.A.  29th  June  1876.  Besides 
these  mostly  large  and  powerful  works,  the  artist's  true  arena 
of  display  was  undoubtedly  the  gallery  of  the  Old  Water  Colour 
Society,  to  which  from  1852,  when  he  was  elected  an  Associate 
exhibitor,  till  he  died  forty-five  years  later,  he  contributed  not 
fewer  than  270  drawings,  most  of  them  admirable  because  of  the 
largeness  of  their  style,  massive  coloration,  broad  chiaroscuro, 
and  the  surpassing  vigour  of  their  designs.  These  qualities 
induced  the  leading  critics  to  claim  for  him  opportunities  for 
painting  mural  pictures  of  great  historic  themes  as  decorations  of 
national  buildings.  "  The  Trumpeter,"  "  The  Standard-Bearer," 
"  Richard  II.  resigning  his  Crown  "  (now  at  Liverpool),  "  The 
Drug  Bazaar  at  Constantinople,"  "  The  Merchant  of  Venice  " 
and  "  The  Turkish  Water-Carrier  "  are  but  examples  of  that 
wealth  of  art  which  added  to  the  attractions  of  the  gallery  in 
Pall  Mall.  There  Gilbert  was  elected  a  full  Member  in  1855, 
and  president  of  the  Society  in  1871,  shortly  after  which  he  was 
knighted.  As  an  illustrator  of  books,  magazines  and  periodicals 
of  every  kind  he  was  most  prolific.  To  the  success  of  the 
Jllustraled  London  News  his  designs  lent  powerful  aid,  and  he 
was  eminently  serviceable  in  illustrating  the  Shakespeare  of  Mr 
Howard  Staunton.  He  died  on  the  6th  of  October  1897. 

(F.G.S.) 

GILBERT,  SIR  JOSEPH  HENRY  (1817-1001),  English 
chemist,  was  born  at  Hull  on  the  ist  of  August  1817.  He 
studied  chemistry  first  at  Glasgow  under  Thomas  Thomson; 
then  at  University  College,  London,  in  the  laboratory  of  A.  T. 
Thomson  (1778-1849),  the  professor  of  medical  jurisprudence, 
also  attending  Thomas  Graham's  lectures;  and  finally  at  Giessen 
under  Liebig.  On  his  return  to  England  from  Germany  he 
acted  for  a  year  or  so  as  assistant  to  his  old  master  A.  T.  Thomson 
at  University  College,  and  in  1843,  after  spending  a  short  time  in 
the  study  of  calico  dyeing  and  printing  near  Manchester,  accepted 
the  directorship  of  the  chemical  laboratory  at  the  famous 
experimental  station  established  by  Sir  J.  B.  Lawes  at 
Rothamsted,  near  St  Albans,  for  the  systematic  and  scientific 
study  of  agriculture.  This  position  he  held  for  fifty-eight  years, 
until  his  death  on  the  23rd  of  December  1901.  The  work  which 
he  carried  out  during  that  long  period  in  collaboration  with 
Lawes  was  of  a  most  comprehensive  character,  involving  the 
application  of  many  branches  of  science,  such  as  chemistry, 
meteorology,  botany,  animal  and  vegetable  physiology,  and 
geology;  and  its  influence  in  improving  the  methods  of  practical 
agriculture  extended  all  over  the  civilized  world.  Gilbert  was 
chosen  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1860,  and  in  1867  was 
awarded  a  royal  medal  jointly  with  Lawes.  In  1880  he  presided 
over  the  Chemical  Section  of  the  British  Association  at  its 
meeting  at  Swansea,  and  in  i882*he  was  president  of  the  London 
Chemical  Society,  of  which  he  had  been  a  member  almost  from 
its  foundation  in  1841.  For  six  years  from  1884  he  filled  the 
Sibthorpian  chair  of  rural  economy  at  Oxford,  and  he  was  also 
an  honorary  professor  at  the  Royal  Agricultural  College,  Ciren- 
cester.  He  was  knighted  in  1893,  the  year  in  which  the  jubilee 
of  the  Rothamsted  experiments  was  celebrated. 

GILBERT,  MARIE  DOLORES  ELIZA  ROSANNA  ["  LOLA 
MONTEZ  "]  (1818-1861),  dancer  and  adventuress,  the  daughter 
of  a  British  army  officer,  was  born  at  Limerick,  Ireland,  in  1818. 
Her  father  dying  in  India  when  she  was  seven  years  old,  and  her 
mother  marrying  again,  the  child  was  sent  to  Europe  to  be 
educated,  subsequently  joining  her  mother  at  Bath.  In  1837 
she  made  a  runaway  match  with  a  Captain  James  of  the  Indian 
army,  and  accompanied  him  to  India.  In  1842  she  returned 
to  England,  and  shortly  afterwards  her  husband  obtained  a 
decree  nisi  for  divorce.  She  then  studied  dancing,  making  an 
unsuccessful  first  appearance  at  Her  Majesty's  theatre,  London, 
in  1843,  billed  as  "  Lola  Montez,  Spanish  dancer."  Subsequently 


GILBERT,  N.  J.  L.— GILBERT,  SIR  W.  S. 


she  appeared  with  considerable  success  in  Germany,  Poland  and 
Russia.  Thence  she  went* to  Paris,  and  in  1847  appeared  at 
Munich,  where  she  became  the  mistress  of  the  old  king  of  Bavaria, 
Ludwig  I.;  she  was  naturalized,  created  comtesse  de  Landsfeld, 
and  given  an  income  of  £2000  a  year.  She  soon  proved  herself 
the  real  ruler  of  Bavaria,  adopting  a  liberal  and  anti-Jesuit 
policy.  Her  political  opponents  proved,  however,  too  strong 
for  her,  and  in  1848  she  was  banished.  In  1849  she  came  to 
England,  and  in  the  same  year  was  married -to  George  Heald,  a 
young  officer  in  the  Guards.  Her  husband's  guardian  instituted 
a  prosecution  for  bigamy  against  her  on  the  ground  that  her 
divorce  from  Captain  James  had  not  been  made  absolute,  and 
she  fled  with  Heald  to  Spain.  In  1851  she  appeared  at  the 
Broadway  theatre,  New  York,  and  in  the  following  year  at 
the  Walnut  Street  theatre,  Philadelphia.  In  1853  Heald  was 
drowned  at  Lisbon,  and  in  the  same  year  she  married  the 
proprietor  of  a  San  Francisco  newspaper,  but  did  not  live  long 
with  him.  Subsequently  she  appeared  in  Australia,  but  returned, 
in  1857,  to  act  in  America,  and  to  lecture  on  gallantry.  Her 
health  having  broken  down,  she  devoted  the  rest  of  her  life  to 
visiting  the  outcasts  of  her  own  sex  in  New  York,  where, 
stricken  with  paralysis,  she  died  on  the  I7th  of  January  1861. 

See  E.  B.  D'Auvergne,  Lola  Montez  (New  York,  1909). 

GILBERT,  NICOLAS  JOSEPH  LAURENT  (1751-1780),  French 
poet,  was  born  at  Fontenay-le-Chateau  in  Lorraine  in  1751. 
Having  completed  his  education  at  the  college  of  Dole,  he 
devoted  himself  for  a  time  to  a  half-scholastic,  half-literary  life 
at  Nancy,  but  in  1774  he  found  his  way  to  the  capital.  As  an 
opponent  of  the  Encyclopaedists  and  a  panegyrist  of  Louis 
XV.,  he  received  considerable  pensions.  He  died  in  Paris  on 
the  1 2th  of  November  1780  from  the  results  of  a  fall  from  his 
horse.  The  satiric  force  of  one  or  two  of  his  pieces,  as  Man 
Apologie  (1778)  and  Le  Dix-huitieme  Sttcle  (1775),  would  alone 
be  sufficient  to  preserve  his  reputation,  which  has  been  further 
increased  by  modern  writers,  who,  like  Alfred  de  Vigny  in  his 
Stella  (chaps.  7-13),  considered  him  a  victim  to  the  spite  of  his 
philosophic  opponents.  His  best-known  verses  are  the  Ode 
imitie  de  plusieurs  psaumes,  usually  entitled  Adieux  a  la  vie. 

Among  his  other  works  may  be  mentioned  Les  Families  de  Darius 
el  d'£ridame,  histoire  persane  (1770),  Le  Carnaval  des  auteurs 
(!773)>  Odes  nouvelles  et  patriotigues  (1775).  Gilbert's  CEuvres 
completes  were  first  published  in  1788,  and  they  have  since  been 
edited  by  Mastrella  (Paris,  1823),  by  Charles  Nodier  (1817  or  1825), 
and  by  M.  de  Lescure  (1882). 

GILBERT  (or  GYLBERDE),  WILLIAM  (1544-1603),  the  most 
distinguished  man  of  science  in  England  during  the  reign  of 
Queen  Elizabeth,  and  the  father  of  electric  and  magnetic  science, 
was  a  member  of  an  ancient  Suffolk  family,  long  resident  in 
Clare,  and  was  born  on  the  24th  of  May  1544  at  Colchester, 
where  his  father,  Hierome  Gilbert,  became  recorder.  Educated 
at  Colchester  school,  he  entered  St  John's  College,  Cambridge, 
in  1558,  and  after  taking  the  degrees  of  B.A.  and  M.A.  in  due 
course,  graduated  M.D.  in  1569,  in  which  year  he  was  elected 
a  senior  fellow  of  his  college.  Soon  afterwards  he  left  Cambridge, 
and  after  spending  three  years  in  Italy  and  other  parts  of  Europe, 
settled  in  1573  in  London,  where  he  practised  as  a  physician  with 
"  great  success  and  applause."  He  was  admitted  to  the  College 
of  Physicians  probably  about  1576,  and  from  1581  to  1590  was 
one  of  the  censors.  In  1587  he  became  treasurer,  holding  the 
office  till  1 592,  and  in  1 589  he  was  one  of  the  committee  appointed 
to  superintend  the  preparation  of  the  Pharmacopoeia  Londinensis 
which  the  college  in  that  year  decided  to  issue,  but  which  did  not 
actually  appear  till  1618.  In  1597  he  was  again  chosen  treasurer, 
becoming  at  the  same  time  consiliarius,  and  in  1 599  he  succeeded 
to  the  presidency.  Two  years  later  he  was  appointed  physician 
to  Queen  Elizabeth,  with  the  usual  emolument  of  £100  a  year. 
After  this  time  he  seems  to  have  removed  to  the  court,  vacating 
his  residence,  Wingfield  House,  which  was  on  Peter's  Hill, 
between  Upper  Thames  Street  and  Little  Knightrider  Street, 
and  close  to  the  house  of  the  College  of  Physicians.  On  the  death 
of  the  queen  in  1603  he  was  reappointed  by  her  successor;  but 
he  did  not  long  enjoy  the  honour,  for  he  died,  probably  of  the 
plague,  on  the  3oth  of  November  (loth  of  December,  N.S.) 


1603,  either  in  London  or  in  Colchester.  He  was  buried  in  the 
latter  town,  in  the  chancel  of  Holy  Trinity  church,  where  a 
monument  was  erected  to  his  memory.  To  the  College  of 
Physicians  he  left  his  books,  globes,  instruments  and  minerals, 
but  they  were  destroyed  in  the  great  fire  of  London. 

Gilbert's  principal  work  is  his  treatise  on  magnetism,  entitled 
De  magnete,  magneticisque  corporibus,  et  de  magno  magnete 
tellure  (London,  1600;  later  editions — Stettin,  1628,  1633; 
Frankfort,  1629,  1638).  This  work,  which  embodied  the  results 
of  many  years'  research,  was  distinguished  by  its  strict  adherence 
to  the  scientific  method  of  investigation  by  experiment,  and  by 
the  originality  of  its  matter,  containing,  as  it  does,  an  account 
of  the  author's  experiments  on  magnets  and  magnetical  bodies 
and  on  electrical  attractions,  and  also  his  great  conception  that 
the  earth  is  nothing  but  a  large  magnet,  and  that  it  is  this  which 
explains,  not  only  the  direction  of  the  magnetic  needle  north  and 
south,  but  also  the  variation  and  dipping  or  inclination  of  the 
needle.  Gilbert's  is  therefore  not  merely  the  first,  but  the  most 
important,  systematic  contribution  to  the  sciences  of  electricity 
and  magnetism.  A  posthumous  work  of  Gilbert's  was  edited 
by  his  brother,  also  called  William,  from  two  MSS.  in  the  posses- 
sion of  Sir  William  Boswell ;  its  title  is  De  mundo  noslro 
sublunari  philosophia  nova  (Amsterdam,  1651).  He  is  the 
reputed  inventor  besides  of  two  instruments  to  enable  sailors 
"  to  find  out  the  latitude  without  seeing  of  sun,  moon  or  stars," 
an  account  of  which  is  given  in  Thomas  Blondeville's  Theoriques 
of  the  Planets  (London,  1602).  He  was  also  the  first  advocate 
of  Copernican  views  in  England,  and  he  concluded  that  the  fixed 
stars  are  not  all  at  the  same  distance  from  the  earth. 

It  is  a  matter  of  great  regret  for  the  historian  of  chemistry 
that  Gilbert  left  nothing  on  that  branch  of  science,  to  which  he 
was  deeply  devoted,"  attaining  to  great  exactness  therein."  So 
at  least  says  Thomas  Fuller,  who  in  his  Worthies  of  England  pro- 
phesied truly  how  he  would  be  afterwards  known: "  Mahomet's 
tomb  at  Mecca,"  he  says,  "is  said  strangely  to  hang  up, 
attracted  by  some  invisible  loadstone;  but  the  memory  of  this 
doctor  will  never  fall  to  the  ground,  which  his  incomparable 
book  De  magnete  will  support  to  eternity." 

An  English  translation  of  the  De  magnete  was  published  by  P.  F. 
Mottelay  in  1893,  and  another,  with  notes  by  S.  P.  Thompson,  was 
issued  by  the  Gilbert  Club  of  London  in  1900. 

GILBERT,  SIR  WILLIAM  SCHWENK  (1836-  ),  English 
playwright  and  humorist,  son  of  William  Gilbert  (a  descendant 
of  Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert),  was  born  in  London  on  the  i8th  of 
November  1836.  His  father  was  the  author  of  a  number  of  novels, 
the  best-known  of  which  were  Shirley  Hall  Asylum  (1863)  and 
Dr  Austin's  Guests  (1866).  Several  of  these  novels — which  were 
characterized  by  a  singular  acuteness  and  lucidity  of  style,  by 
a  dry,  subacid  humour,  by  a  fund  of  humanitarian  feeling  and  by 
a  considerable  medical  knowledge,  especially  in  regard  to  the 
psychology  of  lunatics  and  monomaniacs — were  illustrated  by 
his  son,  who  developed  a  talent  for  whimsical  draughtsmanship. 
W.  S.  Gilbert  was  educated  at  Boulogne,  at  Baling  and  at  King's 
College,  graduating  B.A.  from  the  university  of  London  in  1856. 
The  termination  of  the  Crimean  War  was  fatal  to  his  project  of 
competing  for  a  commission  in  the  Royal  Artillery,  but  he 
obtained  a  post  in  the  education  department  of  the  privy  council 
office  (1857-1861).  Disliking  the  routine  work,  he  left  the  Civil 
Service,  entered  the  Inner  Temple,  was  called  to  the  bar  in 
November  1864,  and  joined  the  northern  circuit.  His  practice 
was  inconsiderable,  and  his  military  and  legal  ambitions  were 
eventually  satisfied  by  a  captaincy  in  the  volunteers  and  appoint- 
ment as  a  magistrate  for  Middlesex  (June  1891).  In  1861  the 
comic  journal  Fun  was  started  by  H.  J.  Byron,  and  Gilbert 
became  from  the  first  a  valued  contributor.  Failing  to  obtain  an 
entrte  to  Punch,  he  continued  sending  excellent  comic  verse 
to  Fun,  with  humorous  illustrations,  the  work  of  his  own  pen, 
over  the  signature  of  "  Bab."  A  collection  of  these  lyrics,  in 
which  deft  craftsmanship  unites  a  titillating  satire  on  the 
deceptiveness  of  appearances  with  the  irrepressible  nonsense 
of  a  Lewis  Carroll,  was  issued  separately  in  1869  under  the  title 
of  Bab  Ballads,  and  was  followed  by  More  Bab  Ballads.  The 


10 


GILBERT  DE  LA  PORREE 


two  collections  and  Songs  of  a  Savoyard  were  united  in  a  volume 
issued  in  1898,  with  many  new  illustrations.  The  best  of  the 
old  cuts,  such  as  those  depicting  the  "  Bishop  of  Rum-ti-Foo  " 
and  the  "  Discontented  Sugar  Broker,"  were  preserved  intact. 

While  remaining  a  staunch  supporter  of  Fun,  Gilbert  was  soon 
immersed  in  other  journalistic  work,  and  his  position  as  dramatic 
critic  to  the  Illustrated  Times  turned  his  attention  to  the  stage. 
He  had  not  to  wait  long  for  an  opportunity.  Early  in  December 
1866  T.  W.  Robertson  was  asked  by  Miss  Herbert,  lessee  of  the  St 
James's  theatre,  to  find  some  one  who  could  turn  out  a  bright 
Christmas  piece  in  a  fortnight,  and  suggested  Gilbert;  the  latter 
promptly  produced  Dulcamara,  a  burlesque  of  L'Elisire  d'amore, 
written  in  ten  days,  rehearsed  in  a  week,  and  duly  performed  at 
Christmas.  He  sold  the  piece  outright  for  £30,  a  piece  of  rashness 
which  he  had  cause  to  regret,  for  it  turned  out  a  commercial 
success.  In  1870  he  was  commissioned  by  Buckstone  to  write  a 
blank  verse  fairy  comedy,  based  upon  Le  Palais  de  la  verite, 
the  novel  by  Madame  de  Genlis.  The  result  was  The  Palace 
of  Truth,  a  fairy  drama,  poor  in  structure  but  clever  in  workman- 
ship, which  served  the  purpose  of  Mr  and  Mrs  Kendal  in  1870 
at  the  Haymarket.  This  was  followed  in  1871  by  Pygmalion 
and  Galatea,  another  three-act  "mythological  comedy,"  a  clever 
and  effective  but  artificial  piece.  Another  fairy  comedy,  The 
Wicked  World,  written  for  Buckstone  and  the  Kendals,  was 
followed  in  March  1873  by  a  burlesque  version,  in  collaboration 
with  Gilbert  a  Beckett,  entitled  The  Happy  Land.  Gilbert's 
next  dramatic  ventures  inclined  more  to  the  conventional 
pattern,  combining  sentiment  and  a  cynical  humour  in  a  manner 
strongly  reminiscent  of  his  father's  style.  Of  these  pieces, 
Sweethearts  was  given  at  the  Prince  of  Wales's  theatre,  7th 
November  1874;  Tom  Cobb  at  the  St  James's,  24th  April 
1875;  Broken  Hearts  at  the  Court,  gth  December  1875;  Dan'l 
Druce  (a  drama  in  darker  vein,  suggested  to  some  extent  by 
Silas  Marner)  at  the  Haymarket,  nth  September  1876;  and 
Engaged  at  the  Haymarket,  3rd  October  1877.  The  first  and 
last  of  these  proved  decidedly  popular.  Gretchen,  a  verse  drama 
in  four  acts,  appeared  in  1879.  A  one-act  piece,  called  Comedy 
and  Tragedy,  was  produced  at  the  Lyceum,  26th  January,  1884. 
Two  dramatic  trifles  of  later  date  were  Foggerty's  Fairy  and 
Rozenkrantz  and  Guildenstern,  a  travesty  of  Hamlet,  performed 
at  the  Vaudeville  in  June  1891.  Several  of  these  dramas  were 
based  upon  short  stories  by  Gilbert,  a  number  of  which  had 
appeared  from  time  to  time  in  the  Christmas  numbers  of  various 
periodicals.  The  best  of  them  have  been  collected  in  the  volume 
entitled  Foggerty's  Fairy,  and  other  Stories.  In  the  autumn  of 
1871  Gilbert  commenced  his  memorable  collaboration  (which 
lasted  over  twenty  years)  with  Sir  Arthur  Sullivan.  The  first 
two  comic  operas,  Thespis;  or  The  Gods  grown  Old  (26th 
September  1871)  and  Trial  by  Jury  (Royalty,  zsth  March  1875) 
were  merely  essays.  Like  one  or  two  of  their  successors,  they 
were,  as  regards  plot,  little  more  than  extended  "  Bab  Ballads." 
Later  (especially  in  the  Yeomen  of  the  Guard),  much  more  elabora- 
tion was  attempted.  The  next  piece  was  produced  at  the  Opera 
Comique  (i7th  November  1877)  as  The  Sorcerer.  At  the  same 
theatre  were  successfully  given  H.M.S.  Pinafore  (25th  May 
1878),  The  Pirates  of  Penzance;  or  The  Slave.of  Duty  (3rd  April 
1880),  and  Patience;  or  Bunthorne's  Bride  (23rd  April  1881).  In 
October  1881  the  successful  Patience  was  removed  to  a  new 
theatre,  the  Savoy,  specially  built  for  the  Gilbert  and  Sullivan 
operas  by  Richard  D'Oyly  Carte.  Patience  was  followed,  on 
25th  November  1882,  by  lolanthe;  or  The  Peer  and  the  Peri; 
and  then  came,  on  sth  January  1884,  Princess  Ida;  or 
Castle  Adamant,  a  re-cast  of  a  charming  and  witty  fantasia 
which  Gilbert  had  written  some  years  previously,  and  had  then 
described  as  a  "  respectful  perversion  of  Mr.  Tennyson's  exquisite 
poem."  The  impulse  reached  its  fullest  development  in  the 
operas  that  followed  next  in  order — The  Mikado;  or  The  Town 
of  Titipu  (i4th  March  1885);  Ruddigore  (22nd  January  1887); 
The  Yeomen  of  the  Guard  (3rd  October  1888) ;  and  The  Gondoliers 
(7th  December  1889).  After  the  appearance  of  The  Gondoliers 
a  coolness  occurred  between  the  composer  and  librettist,  owing 
to  Gilbert's  considering  that  Sullivan  had  not  supported  him  in 


a  business  disagreement  with  D'Oyly  Carte.  But  the  estrange- 
ment was  only  temporary.  Gilbert  wrote  several  more  librettos, 
and  of  these  Utopia  Limited  (1893)  and  the  exceptionally  witty 
Grand  Duke  (1896)  were  written  in  conjunction  with  Sullivan. 
As  a  master  of  metre  Gilbert  had  shown  himself  consummate, 
as  a  dealer  in  quips  and  paradoxes  and  ludicrous  dilemmas, 
unrivalled.  Even  for  the  music  of  the  operas  he  deserves  some 
credit,  for  the  rhythms  were  frequently  his  own  (as  in  "  I  have  a 
Song  to  Sing,  O  "),.and  the  metres  were  in  many  cases  invented 
by  himself.  One  or  two  of  his  librettos,  such  as  that  of  Patience, 
are  virtually  flawless.  Enthusiasts  are  divided  only  as  to  the 
comparative  merit  of  the  operas.  Printess  Ida  and  Patience 
are  in  some  respects  the  daintiest.  There  is  a  genuine  vein  of 
poetry  in  The  Yeomen  of  the  Guard.  Some  of  the  drollest  songs 
are  in  Pinafore  and  Ruddigore.  The  Gondoliers  shows  the  most 
charming  lightness  of  touch,  while  with  the  general  public  The 
Mikado  proved  the  favourite.  The  enduring  popularity  of  the 
Gilbert  and  Sullivan  operas  was  abundantly  proved  by  later 
revivals.  Among  the  birthday  honours  in  June  1907  Gilbert  was 
given  a  knighthood.  In  1909  his  Fallen  Fairies  (music  by 
Edward  German)  was  produced  at  the  Savoy.  (T.  SE.) 

GILBERT  DE  LA  PORREE,  frequently  known  as  Gilbertus 
Porretanus  or  Pictaviensis  (1070-1154),  scholastic  logician  and 
theologian,  was  born  at  Poitiers.  He  was  educated  under 
Bernard  of  Chartres  and  Anselm  of  Laon.  After  teaching  for 
about  twenty  years  in  Chartres,  he  lectured  on  dialectics  and 
theology  in  Paris  (from  1137),  and  in  1141  returned  to  Poitiers, 
being  elected  bishop  in  the  following  year.  His  heterodox 
opinions  regarding  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  drew  upon  his 
works  the  condemnation  of  the  church.  The  synod  of  Reims 
in  1148  procured  papal  sanction  for  four  propositions  opposed 
to  certain  of  Gilbert's  tenets,  and  his  works  were  condemned 
until  they  should  be  corrected  in  accordance  with  the  principles 
of  the  church.  Gilbert  seems  to  have  submitted  quietly  to  this 
judgment;  he  yielded  assent  to  the  four  propositions,  and 
remained  on  friendly  terms  with  his  antagonists  till  his  death 
on  the  4th  of  September  1154.  Gilbert  is  almost  the  only 
logician  of  the  i2th  century  who  is  quoted  by  the  greater 
scholastics  of  the  succeeding  age.  His  chief  logical  work,  the 
treatise  De  sex  principiis,  was  regarded  with  a  reverence  almost 
equal  to  that  paid  to  Aristotle,  and  furnished  matter  for  numerous 
commentators,  amongst  them  Albertus  Magnus.  Owing  to  the 
fame  of  this  work,  he  is  mentioned  by  Dante  as  the  Magister 
sex  principiorum.  The  treatise  itself  is  a  discussion  of  the 
Aristotelian  categories,  specially  of  the  six  subordinate  modes. 
Gilbert  distinguishes  in  the  ten  categories  two  classes,  one 
essential,  the  other  derivative.  Essential  or  inhering  (Jormae 
inhaerentes)  in  the  objects  themselves  are  only  substance,  quantity, 
quality  and  relation  in  the  stricter  sense  of  that  term.  The 
remaining  six,  when,  where,  action,  passion,  position  and  habit, 
are  relative  and  subordinate  (formae  assistentes) .  This  suggestion 
has  some  interest,  but  is  of  no  great  value,  either  in  logic  or  in 
the  theory  of  knowledge.  More  important  in  the  history  of 
scholasticism  are  the  theological  consequences  to  which  Gilbert's 
realism  led  him.  In  the  commentary  on  the  treatise  De  Trinitate 
(erroneously  attributed  to  Boetius)  he  proceeds  from  the 
metaphysical  notion  that  pure  or  abstract  being  is  prior  in  nature 
to  that  which  is.  This  pure  being  is  God,  and  must  be  distin- 
guished from  the  triune  God  as  known  to  us.  God  is  incompre- 
hensible, and  the  categories  cannot  be  applied  to  determine  his 
existence.  In  God  there  is  no  distinction  or  difference,  whereas 
in  all  substances  or  things  there  is  duality,  arising  from  the 
element  of  matter.  Between  pure  being  and  substances  stand 
the  ideas  or  forms,  which  subsist,  though  they  are  not  substances. 
These  forms,  when  materialized,  are  called  formae  substantiates 
or  formae  nativae;  they  are  the  essences  of  things,  and  in  them- 
selves have  no  relation  to  the  accidents  of  things.  Things  are 
temporal,  the  ideas  perpetual,  God  eternal.  The  pure  form 
of  existence,  that  by  which  God  is  God,  must  be  distin- 
guished from  the  three  persons  who  are  God  by  participation 
in  this  form.  The  form  or  essence  is  one,  the  persons  or 
substances  three.  It  was  this  distinction  between  Deitas  or 


GILBERT  OF  SEMPRINGHAM— GILBEY 


ii 


Divinitas  and  Deus  that  led  to  the  condemnation  of  Gilbert's 
doctrine. 

De  sex  principiis  and  commentary  on  the  De  Trinitate  in  Migne, 
Patrologia  Latino.  Ixiv.  1255  and  clxxxviii.  1257;  see  also  Abbe1 
Berthaud,  Gilbert  de  la  Porrte  (Poitiers,  1892);  B.  Haur6au, 
De  la  philosophie  scolastique,  pp.  204-318;  R.  Schmid's  article 
'"Gilbert  Porretanus"  in  Herzog-Hauck,  Realencyk.  f.  protest. 
Theol.  (vol.  6,  1899);  Prantl,  Geschichte  d.  Logik,  ii.  215;  Bach, 
Dogmengeschichte,  ii.  133 ;  article  SCHOLASTICISM. 

GILBERT  OF  SEMPRINGHAM,  ST,  founder  of  the  Gilbertines, 
the  only  religious  order  of  English  origin,  was  born  at  Sempring- 
ham  in  Lincolnshire,  c.  1083-1089.  He  was  educated  in  France, 
and  ordained  in  1123,  being  presented  by  his  father  to  the  living 
of  Sempringham.  About  1 135  he  established  there  a  convent  for 
nuns;  and  to  perform  the  heavy  work  and  cultivate  the  fields 
he  formed  a  number  of  labourers  into  a  society  of  lay  brothers 
attached  to  the  convent.  Similar  establishments  were  founded 
elsewhere,  and  in  1147  Gilbert  tried  to  get  them  incorporated  in 
the  Cistercian  order.  Failing  in  this,  he  proceeded  to  form 
communities  of  priests  and  clerics  to  perform  the  spiritual 
ministrations  needed  by  the  nuns.  The  women  lived  according 
to  the  Benedictine  rule  as  interpreted  by  the  Cistercians;  the 
men  according  to  the  rule  of  St  Augustine,  and  were  canons 
regular.  The  special  constitutions  of  the  order  were  largely 
taken  from  those  of  the  Premonstratensian  canons  and  of  the 
Cistercians.  Like  Fontevrault  (q.v.)  it  was  a  double  order,  the 
communities  of  men  and  women  living  side  by  side;  but,  though 
the  property  all  belonged  to  the  nuns,  the  superior  of  the  canons 
was  the  head  of  the  whole  establishment,  and  the  general  superior 
was  a  canon,  called  "  Master  of  Sempringham."  The  general 
chapter  was  a  mixed  assembly  composed  of  two  canons  and  two 
nuns  from  each  house;  the  nuns  had  to  travel  to  the  chapter 
in  closed  carts.  The  office  was  celebrated  together  in  the  church, 
a  high  stone  screen  separating  the  two  choirs  of  canons  and  nuns. 
The  order  received  papal  approbation  in  1148.  By  Gilbert's 
death  (1189)  there  were  nine  double  monasteries  and  four  of 
canons  only,  containing  about  700  canons  and  1000  nuns  in  all. 
At  the  dissolution  there  were  some  25  monasteries,  whereof  4 
ranked  among  the  greater  monasteries  (see  list  in  F.  A.  Gasquet's 
English  Monastic  Life) .  The  order  never  spread  beyond  England. 
The  habit  of  the  Gilbertines  was  black,  with  a  white  cloak. 

See  Bollandists'  Acta  Sanctorum  (4th  of  Feb.) ;  William  Dugdale, 
Monasticon  (1846);  Helyot,  Hist,  des  ordres  religieux  (1714), 
ii.  c.  29.  The  best  modern  account  is  St  Gilbert  of  Sempringham, 
and  the  Gilbertines,  by  Rose  Graham  (1901).  The  art.  in  Dictionary 
of  National  Biography  gives  abundant  information  on  St  Gilbert, 
but  is  unsatisfactory  on  the  order,  as  it  might  easily  convey  the 
impression  that  the  canons  and  nuns  lived  together,  whereas  they 
were  most  carefully  separated ;  and  altogether  undue  prominence  is 
given  to  a  single  scandal.  Miss  Graham  declares  that  the  reputation 
of  the  order  was  good  until  the  end.  (E.  C.  B.) 

GILBERT  FOLIOT  (d.  1187),  bishop  of  Hereford,  and  of 
London,  is  first  mentioned  as  a  monk  of  Cluny,  whence  he  was 
called  in  1136  to  plead  the  cause  of  the  empress  Matilda  against 
Stephen  at  the  Roman  court.  Shortly  afterwards  he  became 
prior  of  Cluny;  then  prior  of  Abbeville,  a  house  dependent  upon 
Cluny.  In  1139  he  was  elected  abbot  of  Gloucester.  The 
appointment  was  confirmed  by  Stephen,  and  from  the  ecclesi- 
astical point  of  view  was  unexceptionable.  But  the  new  abbot 
proved  himself  a  valuable  ally  of  the  empress,  and  her  ablest 
controversialist.  Gilbert's  reputation  grew  rapidly.  He  was 
respected  at  Rome;  and  he  acted  as  the  representative  of  the 
primate,  Theobald,  in  the  supervision  of  the  Welsh  church.  In 
1148,  on  being  nominated  by  the  pope  to  the  see  of  Hereford, 
Gilbert  with  characteristic  wariness  sought  confirmation  both 
from  Henry  of  Anjou  and  from  Stephen.  But  he  was  an 
Angevin  at  heart,  and  after  1154  was  treated  by  Henry  II.  with 
every  mark  of  consideration.  He  was  Becket's  rival  for  the 
primacy,  and  the  only  bishop  who  protested  against  the  king's 
choice.  Becket,  with  rare  forbearance,  endeavoured  to  win  his 
friendship  by  procuring  for  him  the  see  of  London  (1163).  But 
Gilbert  evaded  the  customary  profession  of  obedience  to  the 
primate,  and  apparently  aspired  to  make  his  see  independent 
of  Canterbury.  On  the  questions  raised  by  the  Constitutions 
of  Clarendon  he  sided  with  the  king,  whose  confessor  he  had  now 


become.  He  urged  Becket  to  yield,  and,  when  this  advice  was 
rejected,  encouraged  his  fellow-bishops  to  repudiate  the  authority 
of  the  archbishop.  In  the  years  of  controversy  which  followed 
Becket's  flight  the  king  depended  much  upon  the  bishop's 
skill  as  a  disputant  and  diplomatist.  Gilbert  was  twice  ex- 
communicated by  Becket,  but  both  on  these  and  on  other  occasions 
he  showed  great  dexterity  in  detaching  the  pope  from  the  cause 
of  the  exile.  To  him  it  was  chiefly  due  that  Henry  avoided  an 
open  conflict  with  Rome  of  the  kind  which  John  afterwards 
provoked.  Gilbert  was  one  of  the  bishops  whose  excommunica- 
tion in  1170  provoked  the  king's  knights  to  murder  Becket; 
but  he  cannot  be  reproached  with  any  share  in  the  crime.  His 
later  years  were  uneventful,  though  he  enjoyed  great  influence 
with  the  king  and  among  his  fellow-bishops.  Scholarly,  dignified, 
ascetic  in  his  private  life,  devoted  to  the  service  of  the  Church, 
he  was  nevertheless  more  respected  than  loved.  His  nature  was 
cold;  he  made  few  friends;  and  the  taint  of  a  calculating 
ambition  runs  through  his  whole  career.  He  died  in  the  spring 
of  1187. 

See  Gilbert's  Letters,  ed.  J.  A.  Giles  (Oxford,  1845);  Materials 
for  the  History  of  Thomas  Becket,  ed.  J.  C.  Robertson  (Rolls  series. 
1875-1885);  and  Miss  K.  Norgate's  England  under  the  Angevin 
Kings  (1887).  .  (H.W.C.D.). 

GILBERT  (KINGSMILL)  ISLANDS,  an  extensive  archipelago 
belonging  to  Great  Britain  in  the  mid-western  Pacific  Ocean, 
lying  N.  and  S.  of  the  equator,  and  between  170°  and  180°  E. 
There  are  sixteen  islands,  all  coral  reefs  or  atolls,  extending  in 
crescent  form  over  about  five  degrees  of  latitude.  The  principal 
is  Taputenea  or  Drummond  Island.  The  soil,  mostly  of  coral 
sand,  is  productive  of  little  else  than  the  coco-nut  palm,  and  the 
chief  source  of  food  supply  is  the  sea.  The  population  of  these 
islands  presents  a  remarkable  phenomenon;  in  spite  of  adverse 
conditions  of  environment  and  complete  barbarism  it  is  exceed- 
ingly dense,  in  strong  contradistinction  to  that  of  many  other 
more  favoured  islands.  The  land  area  of  the  group  is  only  166  m., 
yet  the  population  is  about  30,000.  The  Gilbert  islanders  are 
a  dark  and  coarse  type  of  the  Polynesian  race,  and, show  signs 
of  much  crossing.  They  are  tall  and  stout,  with  an  average  height 
of  5  ft.  8  in.,  and  are  of  a  vigorous,  energetic  temperament. 
They  are  nearly  always  naked,  but  wear  a  conical  hat  of  pandanus 
leaf.  In  war  they  have  an  armour  of  plaited  coco-nut  fibres. 
They  are  fierce  fighters,  their  chief  weapon  being  a  sword  armed 
with  sharks'  teeth.  Their  canoes  are  well  made  of  coco-nut  wood 
boards  sewn  neatly  together  and  fastened  on  frames.  British 
and  American  missionary  work  has  been  prosecuted  with  some 
success.  The  large  population  led  to  the  introduction  of  natives 
from  these  islands  into  Hawaii  as  labourers  in  1878-1884,  but 
they  were  not  found  satisfactory.  The  islands  were  discovered 
by  John  Byron  in  1765  (one  of  them  bearing  his  name);  Captains 
Gilbert  and  Marshall  visited  them  in  1788;  and  they  were 
annexed  by  Great  Britain  in  1892. 

GILBEY,  SIR  WALTER,  IST  BART.  (1831-  ),  English 
wine-merchant,  was  born  at  Bishop  Stortford,  Hertfordshire, 
in  1831.  His  father,  the  owner  and  frequently  the  driver  of  the 
daily  coach  between  Bishop  Stortford  and  London,  died  when 
he  was  eleven  years  old,  and  young  Gilbey  was  shortly  afterwards 
placed  in  the  office  of  an  estate  agent  at  Tring,  subsequently 
obtaining  a  clerkship  in  a  firm  of  parliamentary  agents  in  London. 
On  the  outbreak  of  the  Crimean  War,  Walter  Gilbey  and  his 
younger  brother,  Alfred,  volunteered  for  civilian  service  at  the 
front,  and  were  employed  at  a  convalescent  hospital  on  the 
Dardanelles.  Returning  to  London  on  the  declaration  of  peace, 
Walter  and  Alfred  Gilbey,  on  the  advice  of  their  eldesjt  brother, 
Henry  Gilbey,  a  wholesale  wine-merchant,  started  in  the  retail 
wine  and  spirit  trade.  The  heavy  duty  then  levied  by  the 
British  government  on  French,  Portuguese  and  Spanish  wines 
was  prohibitive  of  a  sale  among  the  English  middle  classes,  and 
especially  lower  middle  classes,  whose  usual  alcoholic  beverage 
was  accordingly  beer.  Henry  Gilbey  was  of  opinion  that  these 
classes  would  gladly  drink  wine  if  they  could  get  it  at  a  moderate 
price,  and  by  his  advice  Walter  and  Alfred  determined  to  push 
the  sales  of  colonial,  and  particularly  of  Cape,  wines,  on  which 


12 


GILDAS— GILDERSLEEVE 


the  duty  was  comparatively  light.  Backed  by  capital  obtained 
through  Henry  Gilbey,  they  accordingly  opened  in  1857  a  small 
retail  business  in  a  basement  in  Oxford  Street,  London.  The 
Cape  wines  proved  popular,  and  within  three  years  the  brothers 
had  20,000  customers  on  their  books.  The  creation  of  the 
off-licence  system  by  Mr  Gladstone,  then  chancellor  of  the 
exchequer,  in  1860,  followed  by  the  large  reduction  in  the  duty 
on  French  wines  effected  by  the  commercial  treaty  between 
England  and  France  in  1861,  revolutionized  their  trade  and 
laid  the  foundation  of  their  fortunes.  Three  provincial  grocers, 
who  had  been  granted  the  new  off-licence,  applied  to  be  appointed 
the  Gilbeys'  agents  in  their  respective  districts,  and  many 
similar  applications  followed.  These  were  granted,  and  before 
very  long  a  leading  local  grocer  was  acting  as  the  firm's  agents 
in  every  district  in  England.  The  grocer  who  dealt  in  the 
Gilbeys'  wines  and  spirits  was  not  allowed  to  sell  those  of  any 
other  firm,  and  the  Gilbeys  in  return  handed  over  to  him  all 
their  existing  customers  in  his  district.  This  arrangement  was 
of  mutual  advantage,  and  the  Gilbeys'  business  increased  so 
rapidly  that  in  1864  Henry  Gilbey  abandoned  his  own  under- 
taking to  join  his  brothers.  In  1867  the  three  brothers  secured 
the  old  Pantheon  theatre  and  concert  hall  in  Oxford  Street  for 
their  headquarters.  In  1875  the  firm  purchased  a  large  claret- 
producing  estate  in  Medoc,  on  the  banks  of  the  Gironde,  and 
became  also  the  proprietors  of  two  large  whisky-distilleries  in 
Scotland.  In  1893  the  business  was  converted,  for  family 
reasons,  into  a  private  limited  liability  company,  of  which  Walter 
Gilbey,  who  in  the  same  year  was  created  a  baronet,  was  chair- 
man. Sir  Walter  Gilbey  also  became  well  known  as  a  breeder 
of  shire  horses,  and  he  did  much  to  improve  the  breed  of  English 
horses  (other  than  race-horses)  generally,  and  wrote  extensively 
on  the  subject.  He  became  president  of  the  Shire  Horse  Society, 
of  the  Hackney  Horse  Society,  and  of  the  Hunters'  Improve- 
ment Society,  and  he  was  the  founder  and  chairman  of  the 
London  Cart  Horse  Parade  Society.  He  was  also  a  practical 
agriculturist,  and  president  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society. 

GILDAS,  or  GILDUS  (c.  516-570),  the  earliest  of  British 
historians  (see  CELT:  Literature,  "  Welsh"),  surnamed  by  some 
Sapiens,  and  by  others  Badonicus,  seems  to  have  been  born  in 
the  year  516.  Regarding  him  little  certain  is  known,  beyond 
some  isolated  particulars  that  may  be  gathered  from  hints 
dropped  in  the  course  of  his  work.  Two  short  treatises  exist, 
purporting  to  be  lives  of  Gildas,  and  ascribed  respectively  to  the 
nth  and  i2th  centuries;  but  the  writers  of  both  are  believed  to 
have  confounded  two,  if  not  more,  persons  that  had  borne  the 
name.  It  is  from  an  incidental  remark  of  his  own,  namely,  that 
the  year  of  the  siege  of  Mount  Badon — one  of  the  battles  fought 
between  the  Saxons  and  the  Britons — was  also  the  year  of  his 
own  nativity,  that  the  date  of  his  birth  has  been  derived;  the 
place,  however,  is  not  mentioned.  His  assertion  that  he  was 
moved  to  undertake  his  task  mainly  by  "zeal  for  God's  house  and 
for  His  holy  law,"  and  the  very  free  use  he  has  made  of  quotations 
from  the  Bible,  leave  scarcely  a  doubt  that  he  was  an  ecclesiastic 
of  some  order  or  other.  In  addition,  we  learn  that  he  went 
abroad,  probably  to  France,  in  his  thirty-fourth  year,  where, 
after  10  years  of  hesitation  and  preparation,  he  composed,  about 
560,  the  work  bearing  his  name.  His  materials,  he  tells  us, 
were  collected  from  foreign  rather  than  native  sources,  the 
latter  of  which  had  been  put  beyond  his  reach  by  circumstances. 
The  Cambrian  Annals  give  570  as  the  year  of  his  death. 

The  writings  of  Gildas  have  come  down  to  us  under  the  title 
of  Gildae  Sapienlis  de  excidio  Britanniae  liber  querulus.  Though 
at  first  written  consecutively,  the  work  is  now  usually  divided 
into  three  portions, — a  preface,  the  history  proper,  and  an 
epistle, — the  last,  which  is  largely  made  up  of  passages  and 
texts  of  Scripture  brought  together  for  the  purpose  of  condemning 
the  vices  of  his  countrymen  and  their  rulers,  being  the  least 
important,  though  by  far  the  longest  of  the  three.  In  the  second 
he  passes  in  brief  review  the  history  of  Britain  from  its  invasion 
by  the  Romans  till  his  own  times.  Among  other  matters  refer- 
ence is  made  to  the  introduction  of  Christianity  in  the  reign  of 
Tiberius;  the  persecution  under  Diocletian;  the  spread  of  the 


Arian  heresy;  the  election  of  Maximus  as  emperor  by  the  legions 
in  Britain,  and  his  subsequent  death  at  Aquileia;  the  incursions 
of  the  Picts  and  Scots  into  the  southern  part  of  the  island;  the 
temporary  assistance  rendered  to  the  harassed  Britons  by  the 
Romans;  the  final  abandonment  of  the  island  by  the  latter; 
the  coming  of  the  Saxons  and  their  reception  by  Guortigern' 
(Vortigern) ;  and,  finally,  the  conflicts  between  the  Britons,  led 
by  a  noble  Roman,  Ambrosius  Aurelianus,  and  the  new  invaders. 
Unfortunately,  on  almost  every  point  on  which  he  touches,  the 
statements  of  Gildas  are  vague  and  obscure.  With  one  excep- 
tion already  alluded  to,  no  dates  are  given,  and  events  are  not 
always  taken  up  in  the  order  of  their  occurrence.  These  faults 
are  of  less  importance  during  the  period  when  Greek  and  Roman 
writers  notice  the  affairs  of  Britain;  but  they  become  more 
serious  when,  as  is  the  case  from  nearly  the  beginning  of  the  sth 
century  to  the  date  of  his  death,  Gildas's  brief  narrative  is  our 
only  authority  for  most  of  what  passes  current  as  the  history  of 
our  island  during  those  years.  Thus  it  is  on  his  sole,  though  in 
this  instance  perhaps  trustworthy,  testimony  that  the  famous 
letter  rests,  said  to  have  been  sent  to  Rome  in  446  by  the  despair- 
ing Britons,  commencing: — "  To  Agitius  (Aetius),  consul  for 
the  third  time,  the  groans  of  the  Britons." 

Gildas's  treatise  was  first  published  in  1525  by  Polydore  Vergil, 
but  with  many  avowed  alterations  and  omissions.  In  1568  John 
Josseline,  secretary  to  Archbishop  Parker,  issued  a  new  edition  of  it 
more  in  conformity  with  manuscript  authority;  and  in  1691  a 
still  more  carefully  revised  edition  appeared  at  Oxford  by  Thomas 
Gale.  It  was  frequently  reprinted  on  the  Continent  during  the 
1 6th  century,  and  once  or  twice  since.  The  next  English  edition, 
described  by  Potthast  as  editio  pessima,  was  that  published  by  the 
English  Historical  Society  in  1838,  and  edited  by  the  Rev.  J.  Steven- 
son. The  text  of  Gildas  founded  on  Gale's  edition  collated  with 
two  other  MSS.,  with  elaborate  introductions,  is  included  in  the 
Monumenta  historica  Britannica,  edited  by  Petrie  and  Sharpe 
(London,  1848).  Another  edition  is  in  A.  W.  Haddan  and  W. 
Stubbs,  Councils  and  Eccles.  Documents  relating  to  Great  Britain 
(Oxford,  1869);  the  latest  edition  is  that  by  Theodor  Mommsen  in 
Monum.  Germ.  hist.  auct.  antiq.  xiii.  (Chronica  min.  iii.),  1894. 

GILDER,  RICHARD  WATSON  (1844-1909),  American  editor 
and  poet,  was  born  in  Bordentown,  New  Jersey,  on  the  Sth  of 
February  1844,  a  brother  of  William  Henry  Gilder  (1838-1900), 
the  Arctic  explorer.  He  was  educated  at  Bellevue  Seminary, 
an  institution  conducted  by  his  father,  the  Rev.  William  Henry 
Gilder  (1812-1864),  in  Flushing,  Long  Island.  After  three  years 
(1865-1868)  on  the  Newark,  New  Jersey,  Daily  Advertiser,  he 
founded,  with  Newton  Crane,  the  Newark  Morning  Register.  In 
1869  he  became  editor  of  Hours  at  Home,  and  in  1870  assistant 
editor  of  Scribner's  Monthly  (eleven  years  later  re-named  The 
Century  Magazine),  of  which  he  became  editor  in  1881.  He  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  Free  Art  League,  of  the  International 
Copyright  League,  and  of  the  Authors'  Club;  was  chairman  of 
the  New  York  Tenement  House  Commission  in  1894;  and  was  a 
prominent  member  of  the  National  Institute  of  Arts  and  Letters, 
of  the  Council  of  the  National  Civil  Service  Reform  League,  and 
of  the  executive  committee  of  the  Citizens'  Union  of  New  York 
City.  His  poems,  which  are  essentially  lyrical,  have  been  collected 
in  various  volumes,  including  Fivf  Books  of  Song  (1894),  In 
Palestine  and  other  Poems  (1898),  Poems  and  Inscriptions(ic)oi), 
and  In  the  Heights  (1905).  A  complete  edition  of  his  poems  was 
published  in  1908.  He  also  edited  "  Sonnets  from  the  Portuguese  " 
and  other  Poems  by  Elizabeth  Barrett  Browning;  "One  Word 
More" and  other  Poems  by  Robert  Browning  (1905).  He  died  in 
New  York  on  the  i8th  of  November  1909.  His  wife,  Helena 
de  Kay,  a  grand-daughter  of  Joseph  Rodman  Drake,  assisted, 
with  Saint  Gaudens  and  others,  in  founding  the  Society  of 
American  Artists,  now  merged  in  the  National  Academy, 
and  the  Art  Students'  League  of  New  York.  She  translated 
Sensier's  biography  of  Millet,  and  painted,  before  her  marriage 
in  1874,  studies  in  flowers  and  ideal  heads,  much  admired  for 
their  feeling  and  delicate  colouring. 

GILDERSLEEVE,  BASIL  LANNEAU  (1831-  ),  American 
classical  scholar,  was  born  in  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  on  the 
23rd  of  October  1831,  son  of  Benjamin  Gildersleeve  (1791-1875,) 
a  Presbyterian  evangelist,  and  editor  of  the  Charleston  Christian 
Observer  in  1826-1845,  of  the  Richmond  (Va.)  Watchman  and 


GILDING 


Observer  in  1845-1856,  and  of  The  Central  Presbyterian  in  1856- 
1860.  The  son  graduated  at  Princeton  in  1849,  studied  under 
Franz  in  Berlin,  under  Friedrich  Ritschl  at  Bonn  and  under 
Schneidewin  at  Gottingen,  where  he  received  his  doctor's  degree 
in  1853.  From  1856  to  1876  he  was  professor  of  Greek  in  the 
University  of  Virginia,  holding  the  chair  of  Latin  also  in  1861- 
1866;  and  in  1876  he  became  professor  of  Greek  in  the  newly 
founded  Johns  Hopkins  University.  In  1880  The  American 
Journal  of  Philology,  a  quarterly  published  by  the  Johns  Hopkins 
University,  was  established  under  his  editorial  charge,  and  his 
strong  personality  was  expressed  in  the  department  of  the  Journal 
headed  "  Brief  Report  "  or  "  Lanx  Satura,"  and  in  the  earliest 
years  of  its  publication  every  petty  detail  was  in  his  hands. 
His  style  in  it,  as  elsewhere,  is  in  striking  contrast  to  that  of  the 
typical  classical  scholar,  and  accords  with  his  conviction  that  the 
true  aim  of  scholarship  is  "  that  which  is."  He  published  a 
Latin  Grammar  (1867;  revised  with  the  co-operation  of  Gonzalez 
B.  Lodge,  1894  and  1899)  and  a  Latin  Series  for  use  in  secondary 
schools  (1875),  both  marked  by  lucidity  of  order  and  mastery  of 
grammatical  theory  and  methods.  His  edition  of  Persius  (1875) 
is  of  great  value.  But  his  bent  was  rather  toward  Greek  than 
Latin.  His  special  interest  in  Christian  Greek  was  partly  the 
cause  of  his  editing  in  1877  The  Apologies  of  Justin  Martyr, 
"  which  "  (to  use  his  own  words)  "  I  used  unblushingly  as  a 
repository  for  my  syntactical  formulae."  Gildersleeve's  studies 
under  Franz  had  no  doubt  quickened  his  interest  in  Greek 
syntax,  and  his  logic,  untrammelled  by  previous  categories,  and 
his  marvellous  sympathy  with  the  language  were  displayed  in 
this  most  unlikely  of  places.  His  Syntax  of  Classic  Greek  (Part  I., 
1900,  with  C.  W.  E.  Miller)collects  these  formulae.  Gildersleeve 
edited  in  1885  The  Olympian  and  Pythian  Odes  of  Pindar,  with 
a  brilliant  and  valuable  introduction.  His  views  on  the  function 
of  grammar  were  summarized  in  a  paper  on  The  Spiritual  Rights 
of  Minute  Research  delivered  at  Bryn  Mawr  on  the  i6th  of  June 
1895.  His  collected  contributions  to  literary  periodicals  appeared 
in  1890  under  the  title  Essays  and  Studies  Educational  and 
Literary. 

GILDING,  the  art  of  spreading  gold,  either  by  mechanical 
or  by  chemical  means,  over  the  surface  of  a  body  for  the  purpose 
of  ornament.  The  art  of  gilding  was  known  to  the  ancients. 
According  to  Herodotus,  the  Egyptians  were  accustomed  to  gild 
wood  and  metals ;  and  gilding  by  means  of  gold  plates  is  frequently 
mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament.  Pliny  informs  us  that  the  first 
gilding  seen  at  Rome  was  after  the  destruction  of  Carthage,  under 
the  censorship  of  Lucius  Mummius,  when  the  Romans  began  to 
gild  the  ceilings  of  their  temples  and  palaces,  the  Capitol  being  the 
first  place  on  which  this  enrichment  was  bestowed.  But  he  adds 
that  luxury  advanced  on  them  so  rapidly  that  in  a  little  time  you 
might  see  all,  even  private  and  poor  persons,  gild  the  walls,  vaults, 
and  other  parts  of  their  dwellings.  Owing  to  the  comparative 
thickness  of  the  gold-leaf  used  in  ancient  gilding,  the  traces  of  it 
which  yet  remain  are  remarkably  brilliant  and  solid.  Gilding 
•has  in  all  times  occupied  an  important  place  in  the  ornamental 
arts  of  Oriental  countries;  and  the  native  processes  pursued  in 
India  at  the  present  day  may  be  taken  as  typical  of  the  arts  as 
practised  from  the  earliest  periods.  For  the  gilding  of  copper, 
employed  in  the  decoration  of  temple  domes  and  other  large 
works,  the  following  is  an  outline  of  the  processes  employed. 
The  metal  surface  is  thoroughly  scraped,  cleaned  and  polished,  and 
next  heated  in  a  fire  sufficiently  to  remove  any  traces  of  grease  or 
other  impurity  which  may  remain  from  the  operation  of  polishing. 
It  is  then  dipped  in  an  acid  solution  prepared  from  dried  unripe 
apricots,  and  rubbed  with  pumice  or  brick  powder.  Next,  the 
surface  is  rubbed  over  with  mercury  which  forms  a  superficial 
amalgam  with  the  copper,  after  which  it  is  left  some  hours  in  clean 
water,  again  washed  with  the  acid  solution,  and  dried.  It  is 
now  ready  for  receiving  the  gold,  which  is  laid  on  in  leaf,  and,  on 
adhering,  assumes  a  grey  appearance  from  combining  with  the 
mercury,  but  on  the  application  of  heat  the  latter  metal  volatilizes, 
leaving  the  gold  a  dull  greyish  hue.  The  colour  is  brought  up 
by  means  of  rubbing  with  agate  burnishers.  The  weight  of 
mercury  used  in  this  process  is  double  that  of  the  gold  laid  on, 


and  the  thickness  of  the  gilding  is  regulated  by  the  circumstances 
or  necessities  of  the  case.  For  the  gilding  of  iron  or  steel,  the 
surface  is  first  scratched  over  with  chequered  lines,  then  washed 
in  a  hot  solution  of  green  apricots,  dried  and  heated  just  short 
of  red-heat.  The  gold-leaf  is  then  laid  on,  and  rubbed  in  with 
agate  burnishers,  when  it  adheres  by  catching  into  the  prepared 
scratched  surface. 

Modern  gilding  is  applied  to  numerous  and  diverse  surfaces 
and  by  various  distinct  processes,  so  that  the  art  is  prosecuted 
in  many  ways,  and  is  part  of  widely  different  ornamental  and 
useful  arts.  It  forms  an  important  and  essential  part  of  frame- 
making  (see  CARVING  AND  GILDING);  it  is  largely  employed 
in  connexion  with  cabinet-work,  decorative  painting  and  house 
ornamentation;  and  it  also  bulks  largely  in  bookbinding  and 
ornamental  leather  work.  Further,  gilding  is  much  employed 
for  coating  baser  metals,  as  in  button-making,  in  the  gilt  toy  trade, 
in  electro-gilt  reproductions  and  in  electro-plating;  and  it  is 
also  a  characteristic  feature  in  the  decoration  of  pottery,  porcelain 
and  glass.  The  various  processes  fall  under  one  or  other  of  two 
heads — mechanical  gilding  and  gilding  by  chemical  agency. 

Mechanical  Gilding  embraces  all  the  operations  by  which  gold- 
leaf  is  prepared  (see  GOLDBEATING),  and  the  severaj  processes 
by  which  it  is  mechanically  attached  to  the  surfaces  it_  is  intended 
to  cover.  It  thus  embraces  the  burnish  or  water-gilding  and  the 
oil-gilding  of  the  carver  and  gilder,  and  the  gilding  operations  of 
the  house  decorator,  the  sign-painter,  the  bookbinder,  the  paper- 
stainer  and  several  others.  Polished  iron,  steel  and  other  metals 
are  gilt  mechanically  by  applying  gold-leaf  to  the  metallic  surface 
at  a  temperature  just  under  red-heat,  pressing  the  leaf  on  with  a 
burnisher  and  reheating,  when  additional  leaf  may  be  laid  on. 
The  process  is  completed  by  cold  burnishing. 

Chemical  Gilding  embraces  those  processes  in  which  the  gold 
used  is  at  some  stage  in  a  state  of  chemical  combination.  Of  these 
the  following  are  the  principal : — 

Cold  Gilding. — In  this  process  the  gold  is  obtained  in  a  state  of 
extremely  fine  division,  and  applied  by  mechanical  means.  Cold 
gilding  on  silver  is  performed  by  a  solution  of  gold  in  aqua-regia, 
applied  by  dipping  a  linen  rag  into  the  solution,  burning  it,  and 
rubbing  the  black  and  heavy  ashes  on  the  silver  with  the  finger 
or  a  piece  of  leather  or  cork.  Wet  gilding  is  effected  by  means  of 
a  dilute  solution  of  chloride  of  gold  with  twice  its  quantity  of  ether. 
The  liquids  are  agitated  and  allowed  to  rest,  when  the  ether  separates 
and  floats  on  the  surface  of  the  acid.  The  whole  mixture  is  then 
poured  into  a  funnel  with  a  small  aperture,  and  allowed  to  rest 
for  some  time,  when  the  acid  is  run  off  and  the  ether  separated. 
The  ether  will  be  found  to  have  taken  up  all  the  gold  from  the  acid, 
and  may  be  used  for  gilding  iron  or  steel,  for  which  purpose  the 
metal  is  polished  with  the  finest  emery  and  spirits  of  wine.  The 
ether  is  then  applied  with  a  small  brush,  and  as  it  evaporates  it 
deposits  the  gold,  which  can  now  be  heated  and  polished.  For 
small  delicate  figures  a  pen  or  a  fine  brush  may  be  used  for  laying 
on  the  ether  solution.  Fire-gilding  or  Wash-gilding  is  a  process  by 
which  an  amalgam  of  gold  is  applied  to  metallic  surfaces,  the  mercury 
being  subsequently  volatilized,  leaving  a  film  of  gold  or  an  amalgam 
containing  from  13  to  16%  of  mercury.  In  the  preparation  of  the 
amalgam  the  gold  must  first  be  reduced  to  thin  plates  or  grains, 
which  are  heated  red  hot,  and  thrown  into  mercury  previously  heated, 
till  it  begins  to  smoke,  Upon  stirring  the  mercury  with  an  iron 
rod,  the  gold  totally  disappears.  The  proportion  of  mercury  to 
gold  is  generally  as  six  or  eight  to  one.  When  the  amalgam  is 
cold  it  is  squeezed  through  chamois  leather  for  the  purpose  of 
separating  the  superfluous  mercury;  the  gold,  with  about  _twice 
its  weight  of  mercury,  remains  behind,  forming  a  yellowish  silvery 
mass  of  the  consistence  of  butter.  When  the  metal  to  be  gilt  is 
wrought  or  chased,  it  ought  to  be  covered  with  mercury  before 
the  amalgam  is  applied,  that  this  may  be  more  easily  spread;  but 
when  the  surface  of  the  metal  is  plain,  the  amalgam  may  be  applied 
to  it  direct.  When  no  such  preparation  is  applied,  the  surface  to  be 
gilded  is  simply  bitten  and  cleaned  with  nitric  acid.  A  deposit  of 
mercury  is  obtained  on  a  metallic  surface  by  means  of  "  quicksilver 
water,  a  solution  of  nitrate  of  mercury, — the  nitric  acid  attacking 
the  metal  to  which  it  is  applied,  and  thus  leaving  a  film  of  free 
metallic  mercury.  The  amalgam  being  equally  spread  over  the 
prepared  surface  of  the  metal,  the  mercury  is  then  sublimed  by  a 
heat  just  sufficient  for  that  purpose;  for,  if  it  is  too  great,  part  of 
the  gold  may  be  driven  off,  or  it  may  run  together  and  leave  some 
of  the  surface  of  the  metal  bare.  When  the  mercury  has  evaporated, 
which  is  known  by  the  surface  having  entirely  become  of  a  dull 
yellow  colour,  the  metal  must  undergo  other  operations,  by  which  the 
fine  gold  colour  is  given  to  it.  First,  the  gilded  surface  is  rubbed 
with  a  scratch  brush  of  brass  wire,  until  its  surface  be  smooth ;  then 
it  is  covered  over  with  a  composition  called  "  gilding  wax,"  and 
again  exposed  to  the  fire  until  the  wax  is  burnt  off.  This  wax  is 
composed  of  beeswax  mixed  with  some  of  the  following  substances, 


GILDS 


viz.  red  ochre,  verdigris,  copper  scales,  alum,  vitriol,  borax.  By 
this  operation  the  colour  of  the  gilding  is  heightened;  and  the 
effect  seems  to  be  produced  by  a  perfect  dissipation  of  some  mercury 
remaining  after  the  former  operation.  The  dissipation  is  well 
effected  by  this  equable  application  of  heat.  The  gilt  surface  is  then 
covered  over  with  nitre,  alum  or  other  salts,  ground  together,  and 
mixed  up  into  a  paste  with  water  or  weak  ammonia.  The  piece  of 
metal  thus  covered  is  exposed  to  a  certain  degree  of  heat,  and  then 
quenched  in  water.  By  this  method  its  colour  is  further  improved 
and  brought  nearer  to  that  of  gold,  probably  by  removing  any 
particles  of  copper  that  may  have  been  on  the  gilt  surface.  This 
process,  when  skilfully  carried  out,  produces  gilding  of  great  solidity 
and  beauty ;  but  owing  to  the  exposure  of  the  workmen  to  mercurial 
fumes,  it  is  very  unhealthy,  and  further  there  is  milch  loss  of  mercury. 
Numerous  contrivances  have  been  introduced  to  obviate  these  serious 
evils.  Gilt  brass  buttons  used  for  uniforms  are  gilt  by  this  process, 
and  there  is  an  act  of  parliament  (1796)  yet  unrepealed  which  pre- 
scribes 5  grains  of  gold  as  the  smallest  quantity  that  may  be  used 
for  the  gilding  of  12  dozen  of  buttons  I  in.  in  diameter. 

Gilding  of  Pottery  and  Porcelain. — The  quantity  of  gold  consumed 
for  these  purposes  is  very  large.  The  gold  used  is  dissolved  in  aqua- 
regia,  and  the  acid  is  driven  off  by  heat,  or  the  gold  may  be  precipi- 
tated by  means  of  sulphate  of  iron.  In  this  pulverulent  state  the 
gold  is  mixed  with  ^th  of  its  weight  of  oxide  of  bismuth,  together 
with  a  small  quantity  of  borax  and  gum  water.  The  mixture  is 
applied  to  the  articles  with  a  camel's  hair  pencil,  and  after  passing 
through  the  fire  the  gold  is  of  a  dingy  colour,  but  the  lustre  is  brought 
out  by  burnishing  with  agate  and  bloodstone,  and  afterwards 
cleaning  with  vinegar  or  white-lead. 

GILDS,  or  GUILDS.  Medieval  gilds  were  voluntary  associations 
formed  for  the  mutual  aid  and  protection  of  their  members. 
Among  the  gildsmen  there  was  a  strong  spirit  of  fraternal  co- 
operation or  Christian  brotherhood,  with  a  mixture  of  worldly 
and  religious  ideals — the  support  of  the  body  and  the  salvation  of 
the  soul.  Early  meanings  of  the  root  gild  or  geld  were  expiation, 
penalty,  sacrifice  or  worship,  feast  or  banquet,  and  contribution 
or  payment;  it  is  difficult  to  determine  which  is  the  earliest 
meaning,  and  we  are  not  certain  whether  the  gildsmen  were 
originally  those  who  contributed  to  a  common  fund  or  those  who 
worshipped  or  feasted  together.  Their  fraternities  or  societies 
may  be  divided  into  three  classes:  religious  or  benevolent, 
merchant  and  craft  gilds.  The  last  two  categories,  which  do  not 
become  prominent  anywhere  in  Europe  until  the  izth  century, 
had,  like  all  gilds,  a  religious  tinge,  but  their  aims  were  primarily 
worldly,  and  their  functions  were  mainly  of  an  economic  character. 

i.  Origin. — Various  theories  have  been  advanced  concerning 
the  origin  of  gilds.  Some  writers  regard  them  as  a  continuation  of 
the  Roman  collegia  and  sodalitates,  but  there  is  little  evidence  to 
prove  the  unbroken  continuity  of  existence  of  the  Roman  and 
Germanic  fraternities.  A  more  widely  accepted  theory  derives 
gilds  wholly  or  in  part  from  the  early  Germanic  or  Scandinavian 
sacrificial  banquets.  Much  influence  is  ascribed  to  this  heathen 
element  by  Lujo  Brentano,  Karl  Hegel,  W.  E.  Wilda  and  other 
writers.  This  view  does  not  seem  to  be  tenable,  for  the  old 
sacrificial  carousals  lack  two  of  the  essential  elements  of  the  gilds, 
namely  corporative  solidarity  or  permanent  association  and  the 
spirit  of  Christian  brotherhood.  Dr  Max  Pappenheim  has 
ascribed  the  origin  of  Germanic  gilds  to  the  northern  "  foster- 
brotherhood  "  or  "  sworn-brotherhood,"  which  was  an  artificial 
bond  of  union  between  two  or  more  persons.  After  intermingling 
their  blood  in  the  earth  and  performing  other  peculiar  ceremonies, 
the  two  contracting  parties  with  grasped  hands  swore  to  avenge 
any  injury  done  to  either  of  them.  The  objections  to  this 
theory  are  fully  stated  by  Hegel  (Stadte  und  Cilden,  i.  250-253). 
The  foster-brotherhood  seems  to  have  been  unknown  to  the 
Franks  and  the  Anglo-Saxons,  the  nations  in  which  medieval 
gilds  first  appear;  and  hence  Dr  Pappenheim's  conclusions, 
if  tenable  at  all,  apply  only  to  Denmark  or  Scandinavia. 

No  theory  on  this  subject  can  be  satisfactory  which  wholly 
ignores  the  influence  of  the  Christian  church.  Imbued  with  the 
idea  of  the  brotherhood  of  man,  the  church  naturally  fostered 
the  early  growth  of  gilds  and  tried  to  make  them  displace  the 
old  heathen  banquets.  The  work  of  the  church  was,  however, 
directive  rather  than  creative.  Gilds  were  a  natural  manifesta- 
tion of  the  associative  spirit  which  is  inherent  in  mankind.  The 
same  needs  produce  in  different  ages  associations  which  have 
striking  resemblances,  but  those  of  each  age  have  peculiarities 


which  indicate  a  spontaneous  growth.  It  is  not  necessary  to 
seek  the  germ  of  gilds  in  any  antecedent  age  or  institution. 
When  the  old  kin-bond  or  maegth  was  beginning  to  weaken  or 
dissolve,  and  the  state  did  not  yet  afford  adequate  protection  to 
its  citizens,  individuals  naturally  united  for  mutual  help. 

Gilds  are  first  mentioned  in  the  Carolingian  capitularies  of 
779  and  789,  and  in  the  enactments  made  by  the  synod  of  Nantes 
early  in  the  gth  century,  the  text  of  which  has  been  preserved 
in  the  ecclesiastical  ordinances  of  Hincmar  of  Rheims  (A. 0.852). 
The  capitularies  of  805  and  821  also  contain  vague  references 
to  sworn  unions  of  some  sort,  and  a  capitulary  of  884  prohibits 
villeins  from  forming  associations  "  vulgarly  called  gilds " 
against  those  who  have  despoiled  them.  The  Carolingians 
evidently  regarded  such  "  conjurations "  as  "  conspirations  " 
dangerous  to  the  state.  The  gilds  of  Norway,  Denmark  and 
Sweden  are  first  mentioned  in  the  nth,  I2th  and  i4th  centuries 
respectively;  those  of  France  and  the  Netherlands  in  the 
nth. 

Many  writers  believe  that  the  earliest  references  to  gilds  come 
from  England.  The  laws  of  Ine  speak  of  gegildan  who  help  each 
other  pay  the  wergeld,  but  it  is  not  entirely  certain  that  they 
were  members  of  gild  fraternities  in  the  later  sense.  These  are 
more  clearly  referred  to  in  England  in  the  second  half  of  the 
9th  century,  though  we  have  little  information  concerning 
them  before  the  nth  century.  To  the  first  half  of  that  century 
belong  the  statutes  of  the  fraternities  of  Cambridge,  Abbotsbury 
and  Exeter.  They  are  important  because  they  form  the  oldest 
body  of  gild  ordinances  extant  in  Europe.  The  thanes'  gild  at 
Cambridge  afforded  help  in  blood-feuds,  and  provided  for  the 
payment  of  the  wergeld  in  case  a  member  killed  any  one.  The 
religious  element  was  more  prominent  in  Orcy's  gild  at  Abbots- 
bury  and  in  the  fraternity  at  Exeter;  their  ordinances  exhibit 
much  solicitude  for  the  salvation  of  the  brethren's  souls.  The 
Exeter  gild  also  gave  assistance  when  property  was  destroyed 
by  fire.  Prayers  for  the  dead,  attendance  at  funerals  of  gildsmen, 
periodical  banquets,  the  solemn  entrance  oath,  fines  for  neglect 
of  duty  and  for  improper  conduct,  contributions  to  a  common 
purse,  mutual  assistance  in  distress,  periodical  meetings  in  the 
gildhall, — in  short,  all  the  characteristic  features  of  the  later 
gilds  already  appear  in  the  statutes  of  these  Anglo-Saxon 
fraternities.  Some  continental  writers,  in  dealing  with  the 
origin  of  municipal  government  throughout  western  Europe, 
have,  however,  ascribed  too  much  importance  to  the  Anglo-Saxon 
gilds,  exaggerating  their  prevalence  and  contending  that  they 
form  the  germ  of  medieval  municipal  government.  This  view 
rests  almost  entirely  on  conjecture;  there  is  no  good  evidence 
to  show  that  there  was  any  organic  connexion  between  gilds 
and  municipal  government  in  England  before  the  coming  of  the 
Normans.  It  should  also  be  noted  that  there  is  no  trace  of  the 
existence  of  either  craft  or  merchant  gilds  in  England  before 
the  Norman  Conquest.  Commerce  and  industry  were  not  yet 
sufficiently  developed  to  call  for  the  creation  of  such  associations. 

2.  Religious  Gilds  after  the  Norman  Conquest.— Though  we  - 
have  not  much  information  concerning  the  religious  gilds  in 
the  1 2th  century,  they  doubtless  flourished  under  the  Anglo- 
Norman  kings,  and  we  know  that  they  were  numerous,  especially 
in  the  boroughs,  from,  the  I3th  century  onward.  In  1388 
parliament  ordered  that  every  sheriff  in  England  should  call 
upon  the  masters  and  wardens  of  all  gilds  and  brotherhoods 
to  send  to  the  king's  council  in  Chancery,  before  the  2nd  of 
February  1389,  full  returns  regarding  their  foundation,  ordin- 
ances and  property.  Many  of  these  returns  were  edited  by 
J.  Toulmin  Smith  (1816-1869),  and  they  throw  much  light  on  the 
functions  of  the  gilds.  Their  ordinances  are  similar  to  those  of 
the  above-mentioned  Anglo-Saxon  fraternities.  Each  member 
took  an  oath  of  admission,  paid  an  entrance-fee,  and  made  a 
small  annual  contribution  to  the  common  fund.  The  brethren 
were  aided  in  old  age,  sickness  and  poverty,  often  also  in  cases 
of  loss  by  robbery,  shipwreck  and  conflagration;  for  example, 
any  member  of  the  gild  of  St  Catherine,  Aldersgate,  was  to  be 
assisted  if  he  "  fall  into  poverty  or  be  injured  through  age,  or 
through  fire  or  water,  thieves  or  sickness."  Alms  were  often 


GILDS 


given  even  to  non-gildsmen;  lights  were  supported  at  certain 
altars;  feasts  and  processions  were  held  periodically;  the 
funerals  of  brethren  were  attended;  and  masses  for  the  dead 
were  provided  from  the  common  purse  or  from  special  contribu- 
tions made  by  the  gildsmen.  Some  of  the  religious  gilds 
supported  schools,  or  helped  to  maintain  roads,  bridges  and 
town-walls,  or  even  came,  in  course  of  time,  to  be  closely  con- 
nected with  the  government  of  the  borough;  but,  as  a  rule, 
they  were  simply  private  societies  with  a  limited  sphere  of 
activity.  They  are  important  because  they  played  a  prominent 
role  in  the  social  life  of  England,  especially  as  eleemosynary 
institutions,  down  to  the  time  of  their  suppression  in  1547. 
Religious  gilds,  closely  resembling  those  of  England,  also 
flourished  on  the  continent  during  the  middle  ages. 

3.  The  Gild  Merchant. — The  merchant  and  craft  fraternities 
are  particularly  interesting  to  students  of  economic  and  municipal 
history.  The  gild  merchant  came  into  existence  in  England 
soon  after  the  Norman  Conquest,  as  a  result  of  the  increasing 
importance  of  trade,  and  it  may  have  been  transplanted  from 
Normandy.  Until  clearer  evidence  of  foreign  influence  is  found, 
it  may,  however,  be  safer  to  regard  it  simply  as  a  new  application 
of  the  old  gild  principle,  though  this  new  application  may  have 
been  stimulated  by  continental  example.  The  evidence  seems 
to  indicate  the  pre-existence  of  the  gild  merchant  in  Normandy, 
but  it  is  not  mentioned  anywhere  on  the  continent  before  the 
nth  century.  It  spread  rapidly  in  England,  and  from  the 
reign  of  John  onward  we  have  evidence  of  its  existence  in  many 
English  boroughs.  But  in  some  prominent  towns,  notably 
London,  Colchester,  Norwich  and  the  Cinque  Ports,  it  seems 
never  to  have  been  adopted.  In  fact  it  played  a  more  conspicuous 
role  in  the  small  boroughs  than  in  the  large  ones.  It  was  regarded 
by  the  townsmen  as  one  of  their  most  important  privileges. 
Its  chief  function  was  to  regulate  the  trade  monopoly  conveyed 
to  the  borough  by  the  royal  grant  of  gilda  mercatoria.  A  grant 
of  this  sort  implied  that  the  gildsmen  had  the  right  to  trade 
freely  in  the  town,  and  to  impose  payments  and  restrictions 
upon  others  who  desired  to  exercise  that  privilege.  The  ordin- 
ances of  a  gild  merchant  thus  aim  to  protect  the  brethren  from 
the  commercial  competition  of  strangers  or  non-gildsmen. 
More  freedom  of  trade  was  allowed  at  all  times  in  the  selling  of 
wares  by  wholesale,  and  also  in  retail  dealings  during  the  time 
of  markets  and  fairs.  The  ordinances  were  enforced  by  an 
alderman  with  the  assistance  of  two  or  more  deputies,  or  by  one 
or  two  masters,  wardens  or  keepers.  The  Morwenspeches  were 
periodical  meetings  at  which  the  brethren  feasted,  revised  their 
ordinances,  admitted  new  members,  elected  officers  and  trans- 
acted other  business. 

It  has  often  been  asserted  that  the  gild  merchant  and  the 
borough  were  identical,  and  that  the  former  was  the  basis  of  the 
whole  municipal  constitution.  But  recent  research  has  dis- 
credited this  theory  both  in  England  and  on  the  continent. 
Much  evidence  has  been  produced  to  show  that  gild  and  borough, 
gildsmen  and  burgesses,  were  originally  distinct  conceptions, 
and  that  they  continued  to  be  discriminated  in  most  towns 
throughout  the  middle  ages.  Admission  to  the  gild  was  not 
restricted  to  burgesses;  nor  did  the  brethren  form  an  aristocratic 
body  having  control  over  the  whole  municipal  polity.  No  good 
evidence  has,  moreover,  been  advanced  to  prove  that  this  or 
any  other  kind  of  gild  was  the  germ  of  the  municipal  constitution. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  gild  merchant  was  certainly  an  official 
organ  or  department  of  the  borough  administration,  and  it 
exerted  considerable  influence  upon  the  economic  and  corporative 
growth  of  the  English  municipalities. 

Historians  have  expressed  divergent  views  regarding  the 
early  relations  of  the  craftsmen  and  their  fraternities  to  the  gild 
merchant.  One  of  the  main  questions  in  dispute  is  whether 
artisans  were  excluded  from  the  gild  merchant.  Many  of  them 
seem  to  have  been  admitted  to  membership.  They  were  regarded 
as  merchants,  for  they  bought  raw  material  and  sold  the  manu- 
factured commodity;  no  sharp  line  of_demarcation  was  drawn 
between  the  two  classes  in  the  1 2th  and  ijth  centuries.  Separate 
societies  of  craftsmen  were  formed  in  England  soon  after  the 


gild  merchant  came  into  existence;  but  at  first  they  were  few 
in  number.  The  gild  merchant  did  not  give  birth  to  craft 
fraternities  or  have  anything  to  do  with  their  origin;  nor  did 
it  delegate  its  authority  to  them.  In  fact,  there  seems  to  have 
been  little  or  no  organic  connexion  between  the  two  classes  of 
gilds.  As  has  already  been  intimated,  however,  many  artisans 
probably  belonged  both  to  their  own  craft  fraternity  and  to  the  gild 
merchant,  and  the  latter,  owing  to  its  great  power  in  the  town, 
may  have  exercised  some  sort  of  supervision  over  the  craftsmen 
and  their  societies.  When  the  king  bestowed  upon  the  tanners 
or  weavers  or  any  other  body  of  artisans  the  right  to  have  a 
gild,  they  secured  the  monopoly  of  working  and  trading  in  their 
branch  of  industry.  Thus  with  every  creation  of  a  craft  fraternity 
the  gild  merchant  was  weakened  and  its  sphere  of  activity  was 
diminished,  though  the  new  bodies  were  subsidiary  to  the  older 
and  larger  fraternity.  The  greater  the  commercial  and  industrial 
prosperity  of  a  town,  the  more  rapid  was  the  multiplication  of 
craft  gilds,  which  was  a  natural  result  of  the  ever-increasing 
division  of  labour.  The  old  gild  merchant  remained  longest 
intact  and  powerful  in  the  smaller  boroughs,  in  which,  owing 
to  the  predominance  of  agriculture,  few  or  no  craft  gilds  were 
formed.  In  some  of  the  larger  towns  the  crafts  were  prominent 
already  in  the  I3th  century,  but  they  became  much  more  pro- 
minent in  the  first  half  of  the  I4th  century.  Their  increase  in 
number  and  power  was  particularly  rapid  in  the  time  of  Edward 
III.,  whose  reign  marks  an  era  of  industrial  progress.  Many 
master  craftsmen  now  became  wealthy  employers  of  labour, 
dealing  extensively  in  the  wares  which  they  produced.  The  class 
of  dealers  or  merchants,  as  distinguished  from  trading  artisans, 
also  greatly  increased  and  established  separate  fraternities. 
When  these  various  unions  of  dealers  and  of  craftsmen  embraced 
all  the  trades  and  branches  of  production  in  the  town,  little  or 
no  vitality  remained  in  the  old  gild  merchant;  it  ceased  to  have 
an  independent  sphere  of  activity.  The  tendency  was  for  the 
single  organization,  with  a  general  monopoly  of  trade,  to  be 
replaced  by  a  number  of  separate  organizations  representing 
the  various  trades  and  handicrafts.  In  short,  the  function  of 
guarding  and  supervising  the  trade  monopoly  split  up  into 
various  fragments,  the  aggregate  of  the  crafts  superseding  the 
old  general  gild  merchant.  This  transference  of  the  authority 
of  the  latter  to  a  number  of  distinct  bodies  and  the  consequent 
disintegration  of  the  old  organization  was  a  gradual  spontaneous 
movement, — a  process  of  slow  displacement,  or  natural  growth 
and  decay,  due  to  the  play,  of  economic  forces, — which,  generally 
speaking,  may  be  assigned  to  the  i4th  and  isth  centuries,  the 
very  period  in  which  the  craft  gilds  attained  the  zenith  of  their 
power.  While  in  most  towns  the  name  and  the  old  organization 
of  the  gild  merchant  thus  disappeared  and  the  institution  was 
displaced  by  the  aggregate  of  the  crafts  towards  the  close  of  the 
middle  ages,  in  some  places  it  survived  long  after  the  isth 
century  either  as  a  religious  fraternity,  shorn  of  its  old  functions, 
or  as  a  periodical  feast,  or  as  a  vague  term  applied  to  the  whole 
municipal  corporation. 

On  the  continent  of  Europe  the  medieval  gild  merchant  played 
a  less  important  r61e  than  in  England.  In  Germany,  France 
and  the  Netherlands  it  occupies  a  less  prominent  place  in  the 
town  charters  and  in  the  municipal  polity,  and  often  corresponds 
to  the  later  fraternities  of  English  dealers  established  either  to 
carry  on  foreign  commerce  or  to  regulate  a  particular  part  of  the 
local  trade  monopoly. 

4.  Craft  Gilds. — A  craft  gild  usually  comprised  all  the  artisans 
in  a  single  branch  of  industry  in  a  particular  town.  Such  a 
fraternity  was  commonly  called  a  "  mistery  "  or  "  company  " 
in  the  isth  and  i6th  centuries,  though  the  old  term  "gild" 
was  not  yet  obsolete.  "  Gild  "  was  also  a  common  designation 
in  north  Germany,  while  the  corresponding  term  in  south 
Germany  was  Zunft,  and  in  France  metier.  These  societies  are 
not  clearly  visible  in  England  or  on  the  continent  before  the  early 
part  of  the  iath  century.  With  the  expansion  of  trade  and 
industry  the  number  of  artisans  increased,  and  they  banded 
together  for  mutual  protection.  Some  German  writers  have 
maintained  that  these  craft  organizations  emanated  from 


i6 


GILDS 


manorial  groups  of  workmen,  but  strong  arguments  have  been 
advanced  against  the  validity  of  this  theory  (notably  by  F. 
Keutgen).  It  is  unnecessary  to  elaborate  any  profound  theory 
regarding  the  origin  of  the  craft  gilds.  The  union  of  men  of  the 
same  occupation  was  a  natural  tendency  of  the  age.  In  the 
I3th  century  the  trade  of  England  continued  to  expand  and 
the  number  of  craft  gilds  increased.  In  the  I4th  century  they 
were  fully  developed  and  in  a  flourishing  condition;  by  that  time 
each  branch  of  industry  in  every  large  town  had  its  gild.  The 
development  of  these  societies  was  even  more  rapid  on  the  con- 
tinent than  in  England. 

Their  organization  and  aims  were  in  general  the  same  through- 
out western  Europe.  Officers,  commonly  called  wardens  in 
England,  were  elected  by  the  members,  and  their  chief  function 
was  to  supervise  the  quality  of  the  wares  produced,  so  as  to 
secure  good  and  honest  workmanship.  Therefore,  ordinances 
were  made  regulating  the  hours  of  ^labour  and  the  terms  of 
admission  to  the  gild,  including  apprenticeship.  Other  ordin- 
ances required  members  to  make  periodical  payments  to  a 
common  fund,  and  to  participate  in  certain  common  religious 
observances,  festivities  and  pageants.  But  the  regulation  of 
industry  was  always  paramount  to  social  and  religious  aims; 
the  chief  object  of  the  craft  gild  was  to  supervise  the  processes 
of  manufacture  and  to  control  the  monopoly  of  working  and 
dealing  in  a  particular  branch  of  industry. 

We  have  already  called  attention  to  the  gradual  displacement 
of  the  gild  merchant  by  the  craft  organizations.  The  relations 
of  the  former  to  the  latter  must  now  be  considered  more  in 
detail.  There  was  at  no  time  a  general  struggle  in  England 
between  the  gild  merchant  and  the  craft  gilds,  though  in  a  few 
towns  there  seems  to  have  been  some  friction  between  merchants 
and  artisans.  There  is  no  exact  parallel  in  England  to  the  conflict 
between  these  two  classes  in  Scotland  in  the  i6th  century,  or  to 
the  great  continental  revolution  of  the  I3th  and  I4th  centuries, 
by  which  the  crafts  threw  off  the  yoke  of  patrician  government 
and  secured  more  independence  in  the  management  of  their  own 
affairs  and  more  participation  in  the  civic  administration.  The 
main  causes  of  these  conflicts  on  the  continent  were  the  monopoly 
of  power  by  the  patricians,  acts  of  violence  committed  by  them, 
their  bad  management  of  .the  finances  and  their  partisan  admini- 
stration of  justice.  In  some  towns  the  victory  of  the  artisans 
in  the  I4th  century  was  so  complete  that  the  whole  civic  con- 
stitution was  remodelled  with  the  craft  fraternities  as  a  basis. 
A  widespread  movement  of  this  sort  would  scarcely  be  found  in 
England,  where  trade  and  industry  were  less  developed  than  on 
the  continent,  and  where  the  motives  of  a  class  conflict  between 
merchants  and  craftsmen  were  less  potent.  Moreover,  borough 
government  in  England  seems  to  have  been  mainly  democratic 
until  the  I4th  or  isth  century;  there  was  no  oligarchy  to  be 
depressed  or  suppressed.  Even  if  there  had  been  motives  for 
uprisings  of  artisans  such  as  took  place  in  Germany  and  the 
Netherlands,  the  English  kings  would  probably  have  intervened. 
True,  there  were  popular  uprisings  in  England,  but  they  were 
usually  conflicts  between  the  poor  and  the  rich;  the  crafts  as 
such  seldom  took  part  in  these  tumults.  While  many  continental 
municipalities  were  becoming  more  democratic  in  the  i4th 
century,  those  of  England  were  drifting  towards  oligarchy, 
towards  government  by  a  close  "  select  body."  As  a  rule  the 
craft  gilds  secured  no  dominant  influence  in  the  boroughs  of 
England,  but  remained  subordinate  to  the  town  government. 
Whatever  power  they  did  secure,  whether  as  potent  subsidiary 
organs  of  the  municipal  polity  for  the  regulation  of  trade,  or  as 
the  chief  or  sole  medium  for  the  acquisition  of  citizenship,  or  as 
integral  parts  of  the  common  council,  was,  generally  speaking, 
the  logical  sequence  of  a  gradual  economic  development,  and 
not  the  outgrowth  of  a  revolutionary  movement  by  which 
oppressed  craftsmen  endeavoured  to  throw  off  the  yoke  of  an 
arrogant  patrician  gild  merchant. 

Two  new  kinds  of  craft  fraternities  appear  in  the  I4th  century 
and  become  more  prominent  in  the  isth,  namely,  the  merchants' 
and  the  journeymen's  companies.  The  misteries  or  companies 
of  merchants  traded  in  one  or  more  kinds  of  wares.  They  were 


pre-eminently  dealers,  who  sold  what  others  produced.  Hence 
they  should  not  be  confused  with  the  old  gild  merchant,  which 
originally  comprised  both  merchants  and  artisans,  and  had  the 
whole  monopoly  of  the  trade  of  the  town.  In  most  cases,  the 
company  of  merchants  was  merely  one  of  the  craft  organizations 
which  superseded  the  gild  merchant. 

In  the  1 4th  century  the  journeymen  or  yeomen  began  to  set 
up  fraternities  in  defence  of  their  rights.  The  formation  of  these 
societies  marks  a  cleft  within  the  ranks  of  some  particular  class 
of  artisans — a  conflict  between  employers,  or  master  artisans, 
and  workmen.  The  journeymen  combined  to  protect  their 
special  interests,  notably  as  regards  hours  of  work  and  rates  of 
wages,  and  they  fought  with  the  masters  over  the  labour  question 
in  all  its  aspects.  The  resulting  struggle  of  organized  bodies 
of  masters  and  journeymen  was  widespread  throughout  western 
Europe,  but  it  was  more  prominent  in  Germany  than  in  France  or 
England.  This  conflict  was  indeed  one  of  the  main  features  of 
German  industrial  life  in  the  isth  century.  In  England  the 
fraternities  of  journeymen,  after  struggling  a  while  for  complete 
independence,  seem  to  have  fallen  under  the  supervision  and 
control  of  the  masters'  gilds;  in  other  words,  they  became 
subsidiary  or  affiliated  organs  of  the  older  craft  fraternities. 

An  interesting  phenomenon  in  connexion  with  the  organiza- 
tion of  crafts  is  their  tendency  to  amalgamate,  which  is  occasion- 
ally visible  in  England  in  the  15th  century,  and  more  frequently 
in  ,the  i6th  and  I7th.  A  similar  tendency  is  visible  in  the 
Netherlands  and  in  some  other  parts  of  the  continent  already 
in  the  I4th  century.  Several  fraternities — old  gilds  or  new 
companies,  with  their  respective  cognate  or  heterogeneous 
branches  of  industry  and  trade — were  fused  into  one  body.  In 
some  towns  all  the  crafts  were  thus  consolidated  into  a  single 
fraternity;  in  this  case  a  body  was  reproduced  which  regulated 
the  whole  trade  monopoly  of  the  borough,  and  hence  bore  some 
resemblance  to  the  old  gild  merchant. 

In  dealing  briefly  with  the  modern  history  of  craft  gilds,  we  may 
confine  our  attention  to  England.  In  the  Tudor  period  the 
policy  of  the  crown  was  to  bring  them  under  public  or  national 
control.  Laws  were  passed,  for  example  in  1503,  requiring  that 
new  ordinances  of  "  fellowships  of  crafts  or  misteries  "  should  be 
approved  by  the  royal  justices  or  by  other  crown  officers;  and 
the  authority  of  the  companies  to  fix  the  price  of  wares  was  thus 
restricted.  The  statute  of  5  Elizabeth,  c.  4,  also  curtailed  their 
jurisdiction  over  journeymen  and  apprentices  (see  APPRENTICE- 
SHIP). 

The  craft  fraternities  were  not  suppressed  by  the  statute  of 
1547  (i  Edward  VI.).  They  were  indeed  expressly  exempted 
from  its  general  operation.  Such  portions  of  their  revenues  as 
were  devoted  to  definite  religious  observances  were,  however, 
appropriated  by  the  crown.  The  revenues  confiscated  were  those 
used  for  "  the  finding,  maintaining  or  sustentation  of  any  priest 
or  of  any  anniversary,  or  obit,  lamp,  light  or  other  such  things." 
This  has  been  aptly  called  "  the  disendowment  of  the  religion 
of  the  misteries."  Edward  VI. 's  statute  marks  no  break  of 
continuity  in  the  life  of  the  craft  organizations.  Even  before  the 
Reformation,  however,  signs  of  decay  had  already  begun  to 
appear,  and  these  multiplied  in  the  i6th  and  I7th  centuries.  The 
old  gild  system  was  breaking  down  under  the  action  of  new 
economic  forces.  Its  dissolution  was  due  especially  to  the 
introduction  of  new  industries,  organized  on  a  more  modern 
basis,  and  to  the  extension  of  the  domestic  system  of  manufacture. 
Thus  the  companies  gradually  lost  control  over  the  regulation  of 
industry,  though  they  still  retained  their  old  monopoly  in  the 
1 7th  century,  and  in  many  cases  even  in  the  i8th.  In  fact,  many 
craft  fraternities  still  survived  in  the  second  half  of  the  i8th 
century,  but  their  usefulness  had  disappeared.  The  medieval 
form  of  association  was  incompatible  with  the  new  ideas  of  in- 
dividual liberty  and  free  competition,  with  the  greater  separation 
of  capital  and  industry,  employers  and  workmen,  and  with  the 
introduction  of  the  factory  system.  Intent  only  on  promoting 
their  own  interests  and  disregarding  the  welfare  of  the  community, 
the  old  companies  had  become  an  unmitigated  evil.  Attempts 
have  been  made  to  find  in  them  the  progenitors  of  the  trades 


GILEAD— GILES,  ST 


I7 


unions,  but  there  seems  to  be  no  immediate  connexion  between 
the  latter  and  the  craft  gilds.  The  privileges  of  the  old  frater- 
nities were  not  formally  abolished  until  1835;  and  the  sub- 
stantial remains  or  spectral  forms  of  some  are  still  visible  in  other 
towns  besides  London. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — W.  E.  Wilda,  Das  Gildenwesen  im  MUtelaller 
(Halle,  1831);  E.  Levasseur,  Histoire  des  classes  ouvrieres  en  France 
(2  vols.,  Paris,  1859,  new  ed.  1900);  Gustav  von  Schonberg,  "  Zur 
wirthschaftlichen  Bedeutung  des  deutschen  Zunftwesens  im  Mittel- 
alter,"  in  Jahrbilcher  fur  Nationalokonomie  und  Statistik,  ed.  B. 
Hildebrand,  vol.  ix.  pp.  1-72,  97-169  (Jena,  1867);  Joshua  Toulmin 
Smith,  English  Gilds,  with  Lujo  Brentano's  introductory  essay  on 
the  History  and  Development  of  Gilds  (London,  1870);  Max  Pappen- 
heim,  Die  altddnischen  Schutzgilden  (Breslau,  1885);  W.  J.  Ashley, 
Introduction  to  English  Economic  History  (2  vols.,  London,  1888- 
1893;  3rd  ed.  of  vol.  i.,  1894) ;  C.  Gross,  The  Gild  Merchant  (2  vols., 
Oxford,  1890);  Karl  Hegel,  Stadte  und  Gilden  der  germanischen 
Volker  (2  vols.,  Leipzig,  1891);  J.  Malet  Lambert,  Two  Thousand 
Years  of  Gild  Life  (Hull,  1891);  Alfred  Doren,  Untersuchungen  zur 
Geschichte  der  Kaufmarinsgilden  (Leipzig,  1893);  H.  Vander  Linden, 
Les  Gildes  marchandes  dani",i'f^t  ^ays-Bas  au  moyen  age  (Ghent, 
1896);  E.  Martin  Saint-Lfoa,  Histoire  des  corporations  de  metiers 
(Paris,  1897);  C.  Nyrop,  Danmarks  Gilde-  og  Lavsskraaer  fra  middel- 
alderen  (2  vols.,  Copenhagen,  1899-1904) ;  F.  Keutgen,  Amter  und 
Zunfte  (Jena,  1903) ;  George  Unwin,  Industrial  Organization  in  the 
Sixteenth  and  Seventeenth  Centuries  (Oxford,  1904).  For  biblio- 
graphies of  gilds,  see  H.  Blanc,  Bibliographie  des  corporations 
ouvrieres  (Paris,  1885);  G.  Gonetta,  Bibliografia  delle  corporazioni 
d'  arti  e  mestieri  (Rome,  1891);  C.  Gross.  Bibliography  of  British 
Municipal  History,  including  Gilds  (New  York,  1897);  W.  Stieda, 
in  Handworterbuch  der  Staatswissenschaften,  ed.  J.  Conrad  (2nd  ed., 
Jena,  1901,  under  "  Zunftwesen  ").  (C.  GR.) 

GILEAD  (i.e.  "  hard  "  or  "  rugged,"  a  name  sometimes  used, 
both  in  earlier  and  in  later  writers,  to  denote  the  whole  of  the 
territory  occupied  by  the  Israelites  eastward  of  Jordan,  extending 
from  the  Arnon  to  the  southern  base  of  Hermon  (Deut.  xxxiv.  i ; 
Judg.  xx.  i;  Jos.  Ant.  xii.  8.  3,  4).  More  precisely,  however, 
it  was  the  usual  name  of  that  picturesque  hill  country  which  is 
bounded  on  the  N  by  the  Hieromax  (Yarmuk),  on  the  W.  by 
the  Jordan,  on  the  S.  by  the  Arnon,  and  on  the  E.  by  a  line  which 
may  be  said  to  follow  the  meridian  of  Amman  (Philadelphia  or 
Rabbath-Ammon).  It  thus  lies  wholly  within  31°  25'  and  32° 
42'  N.  lat.  and  35°  34'  and  36°  E.  long.,  and  is  cut  in  two  by  the 
Jabbok.  Excluding  the  narrow  strip  of  low-lying  plain  along 
the  Jordan,  it  has  an  average  elevation  of  2500  ft.  above  the 
Mediterranean;  but,  as  seen  from  the  west,  the  relative  height 
is  very  much  increased  by  the  depression  of  the  Jordan  valley. 
The  range  from  the  same  point  of  view  presents  a  singularly  uni- 
form outline,  having  the  appearance  of  an  unbroken  wall;  in 
reality,  however,  it  is  traversed  by  a  number  of  deep  ravines 
(wadis),  of  which  the  most  important  are  the  Yabis,  the  Ajlun, 
the  Rajib,  the  Zerka  (Jabbok),  the  Hesban,  and  the  Zerka  Ma'In. 
The  great  mass  of  the  Gilead  range  is  formed  of  Jura  limestone, 
the  base  slopes  being  sandstone  partly  covered  by  white  marls. 
The  eastern  slopes  are  comparatively  bare  of  trees;  but  the 
western  are  well  supplied  with  oak,  terebinth  and  pine.  The 
pastures  are  everywhere  luxuriant,  and  the  wooded  heights  and 
winding  glens,  in  which  the  tangled  shrubbery  is  here  and  there 
broken  up  by  open  glades  and  flat  meadows  of  green  turf,  exhibit 
a  beauty  of  vegetation  such  as  is  hardly  to  be  seen  in  any  other 
district  of  Palestine. 

The  first  biblical  mention  of  "  Mount  Gilead  "  occurs  in 
connexion  with  the  reconcilement  of  Jacob  and  Laban  (Genesis 
xxxi.).  The  composite  nature  of  the  story  makes  an  identifica- 
tion of  the  exact  site  difficult,  but  one  of  the  narrators  (E)  seems 
to  have  in  mind  the  ridge  of  what  is  now  known  as  Jebel  Ajlun, 
probably  not  far  from  Mahneh  (Mahanaim),  near  the  head  of  the 
wadi  Yabis.  Some  investigators  incline  to  Suf,  or  to  the  Jebel 
Kafkafa.  At  the  period  of  the  Israelite  conquest  the  portion  of 
Gilead  northward  of  the  Jabbok  (Zerka)  belonged  to  the  dominions 
of  Og,  king  of  Bashan,  while  the  southern  half  was  ruled  by  Sihon, 
king  of  the  Amorites,  having  been  at  an  earlier  date  wrested  from 
Moab  (Numb.  xxi.  24;  Deut.  iii.  12-16).  These  two  sections 
were  allotted  respectively  to  Manasseh  and  to  Reuben  and  Gad, 
both  districts  being  peculiarly  suited  to  the  pastoral  and  nomadic 
character  of  these  tribes.  A  somewhat  wild  Bedouin  disposition, 
fostered  by  their  surroundings,  was  retained  by  the  Israelite  in- 


habitants of  Gilead  to  a  late  period  of  their  history,  and  seems 
to  be  to  some  extent  discernible  in  what  we  read  alike  of  Jephthah, 
of  David's  Gadites,  and  of  the  prophet  Elijah.  As  the  eastern 
frontier  of  Palestine,  Gilead  bore  the  first  brunt  of  Syrian  and 
Assyrian  attacks. 

After  the  close  of  the  Old  Testament  history  the  word  Gilead 
seldom  occurs.  It  seems  to  have  soon  passed  out  of  use  as  a 
precise  geographical  designation;  for  though  occasionally 
mentioned  by  Apocryphal  writers,  by  Josephus,  and  by  Eusebius, 
the  allusions  are  all  vague,  and  show  that  those  who  made  them 
had  no  definite  knowledge  of  Gilead  proper.  In  Josephus  and 
the  New  Testament  the  name  Peraea  or  irtpav  TOV  'lopdavov  is 
most  frequently  used;  and  the  country  is  sometimes  spoken 
of  by  Josephus  as  divided  into  small  provinces  called  after  the 
capitals  in  which  Greek  colonists  had  established  themselves 
during  the  reign  of  the  Seleucidae.  At  present  Gilead  south  of 
the  Jabbok  alone  is  known  by  the  name  of  Jebel  Jilad  (Mount 
Gilead),  the  northern  portion  between  the  Jabbok  and  the 
Yarmuk  being  called  Jebel  Ajlun.  Jebel  Jilad  includes  Jebel 
Osha,  and  has  for  its  capital  the  town  of  Es-Salt.  The 
cities  of  Gilead  expressly  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament  are 
Ramoth,  Jabesh  and  Jazer.  The  first  of  these  has  been  variously 
identified  with  Es-Salt,  with  Reimun,  with  Jerash  or  Gerasa, 
with  er-Remtha,  and  with  Salhad.  Opinions  are  also  divided 
on  the  question  of  its  identity  with  Mizpeh-Gilead  (see  Encyc. 
Biblica,  art.  "  Ramoth-Gilead  ").  Jabesh  is  perhaps  to  be 
found  at  Meriamin,  less  probably  at  ed-Deir;  Jazer,  at  Yajuz 
near  Jogbehah,  rather  than  at  Sar.  The  city  named  Gilead  (Judg. 
x.  17,  xii.  7;  Hos.  vi.  8,  xii.  n)  has  hardly  been  satisfactorily 
explained;  perhaps  the  text  has  suffered. 

The  "  balm  "  (Heb.  fori)  for  which  Gilead  was  so  noted 
(Gen.  xlvii.  n;  Jer.  viii.  22,  xlvi.  n;  Ezek.  xxvii.  17),  is  probably 
to  be  identified  with  mastic  (Gen.  xxxvii.  25,  R.V.  marg.)  i.e. 
the  resin  yielded  by  the  Pistachio  Lentiscus.  The  modern 
"  balm  of  Gilead "  or  "  Mecca  balsam,"  an  aromatic  gum 
produced  by  the  Balsamodendron  opobalsamum,  is  more  likely 
the  Hebrew  mor,  which  the  English  Bible  wrongly  renders 
"  myrrh." 

See  G.  A.  Smith,  Hist.  Geog.  xxiv.  foil.  (R.  A.  S.  M.) 

GILES  (GiL,  GILLES),  ST,  the  name  given  to  an  abbot  whose 
festival  is  celebrated  on  the  ist  of  September.  According  to 
the  legend,  he  was  an  Athenian  (Aiyi&ios,  Aegidius)  of  royal 
descent.  After  the  death  of  his  parents  he  distributed  his 
possessions  among  the  poor,  took  ship,  and  landed  at  Marseilles. 
Thence  he  went  to  Aries,  where  he  remained  for  two  years  with 
St  Caesarius.  He  then  retired  into  a  neighbouring  desert, 
where  he  lived  upon  herbs  and  upon  the  milk  of  a  hind  which 
came  to  him  at  stated  hours.  He  was  discovered  there  one  day 
by  Flavius,  the  king  of  the  Goths,  who  built  a  monastery  on  the 
place,  of  which  he  was  the  first  abbot.  Scholars  are  very  much 
divided  as  to  the  date  of  his  life,  some  holding  that  he  lived  in 
the  6th  century,  others  in  the  7th  or  8th.  It  may  be  regarded 
as  certain  that  St  Giles  was  buried  in  the  hermitage  which  he 
had  founded  in  a  spot  which  was  afterwards  the  town  of  St- 
Gilles  (diocese  of  Nimes,  department  of  Gard).  His  reputation 
for  sanctity  attracted  many  pilgrims.  Important  gifts  were 
made  to  the  church  which  contained  his  body,  and  a  monastery 
grew  up  hard  by.  It  is  probable  that  the  Visigothic  princes  who 
were  in  possession  of  the  country  protected  and  enriched  this 
monastery,  and  that  it  was  destroyed  by  the  Saracens  at  the 
time  of  their  invasion  in  721.  But  there  are  no  authentic  data 
before  the  pth  century  concerning  his  history.  In  808  Charle- 
magne took  the  abbey  of  St-Gilles  under  his  protection,  and 
it  is  mentioned  among  the  monasteries  from  which  only  prayers 
for  the  prince  and  the  state  were  due.  In  the  i2th  century  the 
pilgrimages  to  St-Gilles  are  cited  as  among  the  most  celebrated 
of  the  time.  The  cult  of  the  saint,  who  came  to  be  regarded  as 
the  special  patron  of  lepers,  beggars  and  cripples,  spread  very 
extensively  over  Europe,  especially  in  England,  Scotland, 
France,  Belgium  and  Germany.  The  church  of  St  Giles, 
Cripplegate,  London,  was  built  about  1090,  while  the  hospital  for 
lepers  at  St  Giles-in-the-Fields  (near  New  Oxford  Street)  was 


i8 


GILFILLAN— GILGAMESH 


founded  by  Queen  Matilda  in  1117.  In  England  alone  there 
are  about  150  churches  dedicated  to  this  saint.  In  Edinburgh 
the  church  of  St  Giles  could  boast  the  possession  of  an  arm-bone 
of  its  patron.  Representations  of  St  Giles  are  very  frequently 
met  with  in  early  French  and  German  art,  but  are  much  less 
common  in  Italy  and  Spain. 

See  Ada  Sanctorum  (September),  i.  284-299;  Devic  and  Vaissete, 
Histoire  generale  de  Languedoc,  pp.  514-522  (Toulouse,  1876); 
E.  Rembry,  Saint  Gtiles,  so,  vie,  ses  reliques,  son  culte  en  Belgique  et 
dans  le  nord  de  la  France  (Bruges,  1881) ;  F.  Arnold-Forster,  Studies 
in  Church  Dedications,  or  England's  Patron  Saints,  ii.  46-51,  iii.  15, 
363-365  (1899);  A.  Jameson,  Sacred  and  Legendary  Art,  768-770 
(1896) ;  A.  Bell,  Lives  and  Legends  of  the  English  Bishops  and  Kings, 
Medieval  Monks,  and  other  later  Saints,  pp.  61,  70,  74-78,  84,  197 
(1904).  (H.  DE.) 

GILFILLAN,  GEORGE  (1813-1878),  Scottish  author,  was 
born  on  the  3Oth  of  January  1813,  at  Comrie,  Perthshire,  where 
his  father,  the  Rev.  Samuel  Gilfillan,  the  author  of  some  theo- 
logical works,  was  for  many  years  minister  of  a  Secession  con- 
gregation. After  an  education  at  Glasgow  University,  in  March 
1836  he  was  ordained  pastor  of  a  Secession  congregation  in 
Dundee.  He  published  a  volume  of  his  discourses  in  1839, 
and  shortly  afterwards  another  sermon  on  "  Hades,"  which 
brought  him  under  the  scrutiny  of  his  co-presbyters,  and  was 
ultimately  withdrawn  from  circulation.  Gilfillan  next  contri- 
buted a  series  of  sketches  of  celebrated  contemporary  authors 
to  the  Dumfries  Herald,  then  edited  by  Thomas  Aird;  and  these, 
withseveral  new  ones,  formed  his  first  Gallery  of  Literary  Portraits, 
which  appeared  in  1846,  and  had  a  wide  circulation.  It  was 
quickly  followed  by  a  Second  and  a  Third  Gallery.  In  1851  his 
most  successful  work,  the  Bards  of  the  Bible,  appeared.  His 
aim  was  that  it  should  be  "  a  poem  on  the  Bible  ";  and  it  was 
far  more  rhapsodical  than  critical.  His  Martyrs  and  Heroes  of 
the  Scottish  Covenant  appeared  in  1832,  and  in  1856  he  produced 
a  partly  autobiographical,  partly  fabulous,  History  of  a  Man. 
For  thirty  years  he  was  engaged  upon  a  long  poem,  on  Night, 
which  was  published  in  1867,  but  its  theme  was  too  vast,  vague 
and  unmanageable,  and  the  result  was  a  failure.  He  also 
edited  an  edition  of  the  British  Poets.  As  a  lecturer  and  as  a 
preacher  he  drew  large  crowds,  but  his  literary  reputation  has 
not  proved  permanent.  He  died  on  the  I3th  of  August  1878. 
He  had  just  finished  a  new  life  of  Burns  designed  to  accompany 
a  new  edition  of  the  works  of  that  poet. 

GILGAL  (Heb.  for  "  circle"  of  sacred  stones),  the  name  of 
several  places  in  Palestine,  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament. 
The  name  is  not  found  east  of  the  Jordan. 

1.  The  first  and  most  important  was  situated  "  in  the  east 
border   of   Jericho "  (Josh.  iv.   19),  on    the    border   between 
Judah  and  Benjamin  (Josh.  xv.  7).     Josephus  (Ant.  v.  i.  4) 
places  it   50  stadia  from  Jordan  and   10  from  Jericho   (the 
New  Testament  site).    Jerome  (Onomaslicon,  s.v.  "  Galgal  ") 
places  Gilgal  2  Roman  miles  from  Jericho,  and  speaks  of  it 
as  a  deserted  place  held  in  wonderful  veneration  ("  miro  cultu  " ) 
by  the  natives.     This  site,  which  in  the  middle  ages  appears  to 
have   been   lost — Gilgal   being   shown   farther   north — was   in 
1865  recovered  by  a  German  traveller  (Hermann  Zschokke), 
and  fixed  by  the  English  survey  party,  though  not  beyond 
dispute.       It   is  about   2   m.   east  of   the  site  of  Byzantine 
Jericho,   and   i   m.   from  modern  er-Riha.     A  fine  tamarisk 
traces  of  a  church  (which  is  mentioned  in  the  8th  century),  and 
a  large  reservoir,  now  filled  up  with  mud,  remain.     The  place  is 
called  Jiljulieh,  and  its  position  north  of  the  valley  of  Achor 
(Wadi  Kelt)  and  east  of  Jericho  agrees  well  with  the  biblical 
indications  above  mentioned.     A  tradition  connected  with  the 
fall  of  Jericho  is  attached  to  the  site  (see  C.  R.  Conder,  Tent 
Work,  203  ff.).     This  sanctuary  and  camp  of  Israel  held  a  high 
place  in  the  national  regard,  and  is  often  mentioned  in  Judges 
and  Samuel.     But  whether  this  is  the  Gilgal  spoken  of  by  Amos 
and  Hosea  ia  connexion  with  Bethel  is  by  no  means  certain 
[see  (3)  below]. 

2.  Gilgal,  mentioned  in  Josh.  xii.  23  in  connexion  with  Dor, 
appears  to  have  been  situated  in  the  maritime  plain.     Jerome 
(Onomasticon,  s.v.  "  Gelgel  ")  speaks  of  a  town  of  the  name 


6  Roman  miles  north  of  Antipatris  (Ras  el  'Ain).  This  is 
apparently  the  modern  Kalkilia,  but  about  4  m.  north  of  Anti- 
patris is  a  large  village  called  Jiljulieh,  which  is  more  probably 
the  biblical  town. 

3.  The  third  Gilgal  (2  Kings  iv.  38)  was  in  the  mountains 
(compare  i  Sam.  vii.  16,  2  Kings  ii.  1-3)  near  Bethel.    Jerome 
mentions  this  place  also  (Onomaslicon,  s.v.  "  Galgala  ").     It 
appears  to  be  the  present  village  of  Jiljilia,  about  7  English 
miles  north  of  Beitin  (Bethel).     It  may  have  absorbed  the  old 
shrine  of  Shiloh  and  been  the  sanctuary  famous  in  the  days  of 
Amos  and  Hosea. 

4.  Deut.  xi.  30  seems  to  imply  a  Gilgal  near  Gerizim,  and  there 
is  still  a  place  called  Juleijil  on  the  plain  of  Makhna,  24  m.  S.  E. 
of  Shechem.     This  may  have  been   Amos's   Gilgal  and  was 
almost  certainly  that  of  i  Mace.  ix.  2. 

5.  The  Gilgal  described  in  Josh.  xv.  7  is  the  same  as  the 
Bcth-Gilgal  of  Neh.  xii.  29;  its  site  is  not  known.  (R.  A.  S.  M.) 

GILGAMESH,  EPIC  OF,  the.Hf\e_  given  to  one  of  the  most 
important  literary  products  of  Bab^ionia,  from  the  name  of  the 
chief  personage  in  the  series  of  tales  of  which  it  is  composed. 

Though  the  Gilgamesh  Epic  is  known  to  us  chiefly  from  the 
fragments  found  in  the  royal  collection  of  tablets  made  by 
Assur-bani-pal,  the  king  of  Assyria  (668-626  B.C.)  for  his  palace 
at  Nineveh,  internal  evidence  points  to  the  high  antiquity  of  at 
least  some  portions  of  it,  and  the  discovery  of  a  fragment  of  the 
epic  in  the  older  form  of  the  Babylonian  script,  which  can  be 
dated  as  2000  B.C.,  confirms  this  view.  Equally  certain  is  a 
second  observation  of  a  general  character  that  the  epic  originating 
as  the  greater  portion  of  the  literature  in  Assur-bani-pal's  collec- 
tion in  Babylonia  is  a  composite  product,  that  is  to  say,  it  consists 
of  a  number  of  independent  stories  or  myths  originating  at 
different  times,  and  united  to  form  a  continuous  narrative  with 
Gilgamesh  as  the  central  figure.  This  view  naturally  raises  the 
question  whether  the  independent  stories  were  all  told  of 
Gilgamesh  or,  as  almost  always  happens  in  the  case  of  ancient 
tales,  were  transferred  to  Gilgamesh  as  a  favourite  popular 
hero.  Internal  evidence  again  comes  to  our  aid  to  lend  its 
weight  to  the  latter  theory. 

While  the  existence  of  such  a  personage  as  Gilgamesh  may 
be  admitted,  he  belongs  to  an  age  that  could  only  have  preserved 
a  dim  recollection  of  his  achievements  and  adventures  through 
oral  traditions.  The  name1  is  not  Babylonian,  and  what 
evidence  as  to  his  origin  there  is  points  to  his  having  corne  from 
Elam,  to  the  east  of  Babylonia.  He  may  have  belonged  to  the 
people  known  as  the  Kassites  who  at  the  beginning  of  the  i8th 
century  B.C.  entered  Babylonia  from  Elam,  and  obtained  control 
of  the  Euphrates  valley.  Why  and  how  he  came  to  be  a  popular 
hero  in  Babylonia  cannot  with  our  present  material  be  deter- 
mined, but  the  epic  indicates  that  he  came  as  a  conqueror  and 
established  himself  at  'Erech.  In  so  far  we  have  embodied  in 
the  first  part  of  the  epic  dim  recollections  of  actual  events,  but 
we  soon  leave  the  solid  ground  of  fact  and  find  ourselves  soaring 
to  the  heights  of  genuine  myth.  Gilgamesh  becomes  a  god,  and 
in  certain  portions  of  the  epic  clearly  plays  the  part  of  the  sun- 
god  of  the  spring-time,  taking  the  place  apparently  of  Tammuz 
or  Adonis,  the  youthful  sun-god,  though  the  story  shows  traits 
that  differentiate  it  from  the  ordinary  Tammuz  myths.  A 
separate  stratum  in  the  Gilgamesh  epic  is  formed  by  the  story  of 
Eabani — introduced  as  the  friend  of  Gilgamesh,  who  joins  him 
in  his  adventures.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  Eabani,  who 
symbolizes  primeval  man,  was  a  figure  originally  entirely  inde- 
pendent of  Gilgamesh,  but  his  story  was  incorporated  into  the 
epic  by  that  natural  process  to  be  observed  in  the  national  epics 
of  other  peoples,  which  tends  to  connect  the  favourite  hero  with 
all  kinds  of  tales  that  for  one  reason  or  the  other  become  em- 
bedded in  the  popular  mind.  Another  stratum  is  represented 
by  the  story  of  a  favourite  of  the  gods  known  as  Ut-Napishtim, 
who  is  saved  from  a  destructive  storm  and  flood  that  destroys 

1  The  name  of  the  hero,  written  always  ideographically,  was  for  a 
long  time  provisionally  read  Izdubar;  but  a  tablet  discovered  by 
T.  G.  Pinches  gave  the  equivalent  Gilgamesh  (see  Jastrow,  Religion  of 
Babylonia  and  Assyria,  p.  468). 


GILGIT 


his  fellow-citizens  of  Shurippak.  Gilgamesh  is  artificially 
brought  into  contact  with  Ut-Napishtim,  to  whom  he  pays  a 
visit  for  the  purpose  of  learning  the  secret  of  immortal  life  and 
perpetual  youth  which  he  enjoys.  During  the  visit  Ut-Napishtim 
tells  Gilgamesh  the  story  of  the  flood  and  of  his  miraculous 
escape.  Nature  myths  have  been  entwined  with  other  episodes 
in  the  epic  and  finally  the  theologians  took  up  the  combined 
stories  and  made  them  the  medium  for  illustrating  the  truth 
and  force  of  certain  doctrines  of  the  Babylonian  religion.  In 
its  final  form,  the  outcome  of  an  extended  and  complicated 
literary  process,  the  Gilgamesh  Epic  covered  twelve  tablets, 
each  tablet  devoted  to  one  adventure  in  which  the  hero  plays 
a  direct  or  indirect  part,  and  the  whole  covering  according  to  the 
most  plausible  estimate  about  3000  lines.  Of  all  twelve  tablets 
portions  have  been  found  among  the  remains  of  Assur-bani-pal's 
library,  but  some  of  the  tablets  are  so  incomplete  as  to  leave 
even  their  general  contents  in  some  doubt.  The  fragments  do 
not  all  belong  to  one  copy.  Of  some  tablets  portions  of  two, 
and  of  some  tablets  portions  of  as  many  as  four,  copies  have 
turned  up,  pointing  therefore  to  the  great  popularity  of  the 
production.  The  best  preserved  are  Tablets  VI.  and  XI.,  and 
of  the  total  about  1500  lines  are  now  known,  wholly  or  in  part, 
while  of  those  partially  preserved  quite  a  number  can  be  restored. 
A  brief  summary  of  the  contents  of  the  twelve  may  be  indicated 
as  follows: 

In  the  ist  tablet,  after  a  general  survey  of  the  adventures  of 
Gilgamesh,  his  rule  at  Erech  is  described,  where  he  enlists  the 
services  of  all  the  young  able-bodied  men  in  the  building  of  the 
great  wall  of  the  city.  The  people  sigh  under  the  burden  im- 
posed, and  call  upon  the  goddess  Aruru  to  create  a  being  who 
might  act  as  a  rival  to  Gilgamesh,  curb  his  strength,  and  dispute 
his  tyrannous  control.  The  goddess  consents,  and  creates 
Eabani,  who  is  described  as  a  wild  man,  living  with  the  gazelles 
and  the  beasts  of  the  field.  Eabani,  whose  name,  signifying 
"  Ea  creates,"  points  to  the  tradition  which  made  Ea  (q.v.)  the 
creator  of  humanity,  symbolizes  primeval  man.  Through  a 
hunter,  Eabani  and  Gilgamesh  are  brought  together,  but 
instead  of  becoming  rivals,  they  are  joined  in  friendship.  Eabani 
is  induced  by  the  snares  of  a  maiden  to  abandon  his  life  with  the 
animals  and  to  proceed  to  Erech,  where  Gilgamesh,  who  has 
been  told  in  several  dreams  of  the  coming  of  Eabani,  awaits  him. 
Together  they  proceed  upon  several  adventures,  which  are 
related  in  the  following  four  tablets.  At  first,  indeed,  Eabani 
curses  the  fate  which  led  him  away  from  his  former  life,  and 
Gilgamesh  is  represented  as  bewailing  Eabani's  dissatisfaction. 
The  sun-god  Shamash  calls  upon  Eabani  to  remain  with  Gilga- 
mesh, who  pays  him  all  honours  in  his  palace  at  Erech.  With 
the  decision  of  the  two  friends  to  proceed  to  the  forest  of  cedars 
in  which  the  goddess  Irnina — a  form  of  Ishtar — dwells,  and 
which  is  guarded  by  Khumbaba,  the  2nd  tablet  ends.  In  the 
3rd  tablet,  very  imperfectly  preserved,  Gilgamesh  appeals 
through  a  Shamash  priestess  Rimat-Belit  to  the  sun-god  Shamash 
for  his  aid  in  the  proposed  undertaking.  The  4th  tablet  contains 
a  description  of  the  formidable  Khumbaba,  the  guardian  of 
the  cedar  forest.  In  the  5th  tablet  Gilgamesh  and  Eabani  reach 
the  forest.  Encouraged  by  dreams,  they  proceed  against 
Khumbaba,  and  despatch  him  near  a  specially  high  cedar  over 
which  he  held  guard.  This  adventure  against  Khumbaba  belongs 
to  the  Eabani  stratum  of  the  epic,  into  which  Gilgamesh  is 
artificially  introduced.  The  basis  of  the  6th  tablet  is  the  familiar 
nature-myth  of  the  change  of  seasons,  in  which  Gilgamesh 
plays  the  part  of  the  youthful  solar  god  of  the  springtime,  who 
is  wooed  by  the  goddess  of  fertility,  Ishtar.  Gilgamesh,  recalling 
to  the  goddess  the  sad  fate  of  those  who  fall  a  victim  to  her 
charms,  rejects  the  offer.  In  the  course  of  his  recital  snatches 
of  other  myths  are  referred  to,  including  the  famous  Tammuz- 
Adonis  tale,  in  which  Tammuz,  the  youthful  bridegroom,  is 
slain  by  his  consort  Ishtar.  The  goddess,  enraged  at  the  insult, 
asks  her  father  Anu  to  avenge  her.  A  divine  bull  is  sent  to  wage 
a  contest  against  Gilgamesh,  who  is  assisted  by  his  friend  Eabani. 
This  scene  of  the  fight  with  the  bull  is  often  depicted  on  seal 
cylinders.  The  two  friends  by  their  united  force  succeed  in 


killing  the  bull,  and  then  after  performing  certain  votive  and 
purification  rites  return  to  Erech,  where  they  are  hailed  with  joy 
In  this  adventure  it  is  clearly  Eabani  who  is  artificially  intro- 
duced in  order  to  maintain  the  association  with  Gilgamesh. 
The  7th  tablet  continues  the  Eabani  stratum.  The  hero  is 
smitten  with  sore  disease,  but  the  fragmentary  condition  of 
this  and  the  succeeding  tablet  is  such  as  to  envelop  in  doubt  the 
accompanying  circumstances,  including  the  cause  and  nature 
of  his  disease.  The  8th  tablet  records  the  death  of  Eabani. 
The  gth  and  zoth  tablets,  exclusively  devoted  to  Gilgamesh, 
describe  his  wanderings  in  quest  of  Ut-Napishtim,  from  whom  * 
he  hopes  to  learn  how  he  may  escape  the  fate  that  has  overtaken 
his  friend  Eabani.  He  goes  through  mountain  passes  and 
encounters  lions.  At  the  entrance  to  the  mountain  Mashu, 
scorpion-men  stand  guard,  from  one  of  whom  he  receives  advice 
as  to  how  to  pass  through  the  Mashu  district.  He  succeeds  in 
doing  so,  and  finds  himself  in  a  wonderful  park,  which  lies  along 
the  sea  coast.  In  the  loth  tablet  the  goddess  Sabitu,  who,  as 
guardian  of  the  sea,  first  bolts  her  gate  against  Gilgamesh,  after 
learning  of  his  quest,  helps  him  to  pass  in  a  ship  across  the  sea 
to  the  "  waters  of  death."  The  ferry-man  of  Ut-Napishtim 
brings  him  safely  through  these  waters,  despite  the  difficulties 
and  dangers  of  the  voyage,  and  at  last  the  hero  finds  himself 
face  to  face  with  Ut-Napishtim.  In  the  nth  tablet,  Ut-Napish- 
tim tells  the  famous  story  of  the  Babylonian  flood,  which  is 
so  patently  attached  to  Gilgamesh  in  a  most  artificial  manner. 
Ut-Napishtim  and  his  wife  are  anxious  to  help  Gilgamesh  to  new 
life.  He  is  sent  to  a  place  where  he  washes  himself  clean  from 
impurity.  He  is  told  of  a  weed  which  restores  youth  to  the  one 
grown  old.  Scarcely  has  he  obtained  the  weed  when  it  is  snatched 
away  from  him,  and  the  tablet  closes  somewhat  obscurely  with 
the  prediction  of  the  destruction  of  Erech.  In  the  I2th  tablet 
Gilgamesh  succeeds  in  obtaining  a  view  of  Eabani's  shade,  and 
learns  through  him  of  the  sad  fate  endured  by  the  dead.  With 
this  description,  in  which  care  of  the  dead  is  inculcated  as  the 
only  means  of  making  their  existence  in  Aralu,  where  the  dead 
are  gathered,  bearable,  the  epic,  so  far  as  we  have  it,  closes. 

The  reason  why  the  flood  episode  and  the  interview  with  the 
dead  Eabani  are  introduced  is  quite  clear.  Both  are  intended 
as  illustrations  of  doctrines  taught  in  the  schools  of  Babylonia; 
the  former  to  explain  that  only  the  favourites  of  the  gods  can  j 
hope  under  exceptional  circumstances  to  enjoy  life  everlasting; 
the  latter  to  emphasize  the  impossibility  for  ordinary  mortalsN. 
to  escape  from  the  inactive  shadowy  existence  led  by  the  dead,  \ 
and  to  inculcate  the  duty  of  proper  care  for  the  dead.  That  the  y' 
astro-theological  system  is  also  introduced  into  the  epic  is  cleaf 
from  the  division  into  twelve  tablets,  which  correspond  to  the 
yearly  course  of  the  sun,  while  throughout  there  are  indications 
that  all  the  adventures  of  Gilgamesh  and  Eabani,  including 
those  which  have  an  historical  background,  have  been  submitted 
to  the  influence  of  this  system  and  projected  on  to  the  heavens. 
This  interpretation  of  the  popular  tales,  according  to  which  the 
career  of  the  hero  can  be  followed  in  its  entirety  and  in  detail 
in  the  movements  in  the  heavens,  in  time,  with  the  growing 
predominance  of  the  astral-mythological  system,  overshadowed 
the  other  factors  involved,  and  it  is  in  this  form,  as  an  astral 
myth,  that  it  passes  through  the  ancient  world  and  leaves  its 
traces  in  the  folk-tales  and  myths  of  Hebrews,  Phoenicians, 
Syrians,  Greeks  and  Romans  throughout  Asia  Minor  and  even 
in  India. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The  complete  edition  of  the  Gilgamesh  Epic  by 
Paul  Haupt  under  the  title  Das  babylonische  Nimrodepos  (Leipzig, 
1884-1891),  with  the  I2th  tablet  in  the  Beitrage  zur  Assyriologie, 
i.  48-79;  German  translation  by  Peter  Jensen  in  vol.  vi.  of 
Schrader's  Keilinschriftliche  Bibliothek  (Berlin,  1900),  pp.  116-273. 
See  also  the  same  author's  comprehensive  work,  Das  Gtigamescn- 
Epos  in  der  Weltliteratur  (vol.  i.  1906,  vol.  ii.  to  follow).  An 
English  translation  of  the  chief  portions  in  Jastrow,  Religion  of 
Babylonia  and  Assyria  (Boston,  1898),  ch.  xxiii.  (M.  JA.) 

GILGIT,  an  outlying  province  in  the  extreme  north-west  of 
India,  over  which  Kashmir  has  reasserted  her  sovereignty. 
Only  a  part  of  the  basin  of  the  river  Gilgit  is  included  within 
its  political  boundaries.  There  is  an  intervening  width  of 


20 


GILGIT 


mountainous  country,  represented  chiefly  by  glaciers  and  ice-fields, 
and  intersected  by  narrow  sterile  valleys,  measuring  some  too  to 
150  m.  in  width,  to  the  north  and  north-east,  which  separates 
the  province  of  Gilgit  from  the  Chinese  frontier  beyond  the 
Muztagh  and  Karakoram.  This  part  of  the  Kashmir  borderland 
includes  Kanjut  (or  Hunza)  and  Ladakh.  To  the  north-west, 
beyond  the  sources  of  the  Yasin  and  Ghazar  in  the  Shandur 
range  (the  two  most  westerly  tributaries  of  the  Gilgit  river) 
is  the  deep  valley  of  the  Yarkhun  or  Chitral.  Since  the  formation 
.  of  the  North- West  Frontier  Province  in  1901,  the  political  charge 
*  of  Chitral,  Dir  and  Swat,  which  was  formerly  included  within 
the  Gilgit  agency,  has  been  transferred  to  the  chief  commissioner 
of  the  new  province,  with  his  capital  at  Peshawar.  Gilgit  proper 
now  forms  a  wazarat  of  the  Kashmir  state,  administered  by  a 
wazir.  Gilgit  is  also  the  headquarters  of  a  British  political 
agent,  who  exercises  some  supervision  over  the  wazir,  and  is 
directly  responsible  to  the  government  of  India  for  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  outlying  districts  or  petty  states  of  Hunza,  Nagar, 
Ashkuman,  Yasin  and  Ghizar,  the  little  republic  of  Chilas,  &c. 
These  states  acknowledge  the  suzerainty  of  Kashmir,  paying  an 
annual  tribute  in  gold  or  grain,  but  they  form  no  part  of  its 
territory. 

Within  the  wider  limits  of  the  former  Gilgit  agency  are  many 
mixed  races,  speaking  different  languages,  which  have  all  been 
usually  classed  together  under  the  name  Dard.  The  Dard, 
however,  is  unknown  beyond  the  limits  of  the  Kohistan  district 
of  the  Indus  valley  to  the  south  of  the  Hindu  Koh,  the  rest  of 
the  inhabitants  of  the  Indus  valley  belonging  to  Shin  republics, 
or  Chilas.  The  great  mass  of  the  Chitral  population  are  Kho 
(speaking  Khowar),  and  they  may  be  accepted  as  representing 
the  aboriginal  population  of  the  Chitral  valley.  (See  HINDU 
KUSH.)  Between  Chitral  and  the  Indus  the  "  Dards "  of 
Dardistan  are  chiefly  Yeshkuns  and  Shins,  and  it  would  appear 
from  the  proportions  in  which  these  people  occupy  the  country 
that  they  must  have  primarily  moved  up  from  the  valley  of  the 
Indus  in  successive  waves  of  conquest,  first  the  Yeshkuns,  and 
then  the  Shins.  No  one  can  put  a  date  to  these  invasions,  but 
Biddulph  is  inclined  to  class  the  Yeshkuns  with  the  Yuechi 
who  conquered  the  Bactrian  kingdom  about  120  B.C.  The 
Shins  are  obviously  a  Hindu  race  (as  is  testified  by  their 
veneration  for  the  cow),  who  spread  themselves  northwards 
and  eastwards  as  far  as  Baltistan,  where  they  collided  with  the 
aboriginal  Tatar  of  the  Asiatic  highlands.  But  the  ethnography 
of  "  Dardistan,"  or  the  Gilgit  agency  (for  the  two  are,  roughly 
speaking,  synonymous),  requires  further  investigation,  and  it 
would  be  premature  to  attempt  to  frame  anything  like  an  ethno- 
graphical history  of  these  regions  until  the  neighbouring  pro- 
vinces of  Tangir  and  Darel  have  been  more  fully  examined.  The 
wazarat  of  Gilgit  contains  a  population  (1901)  of  60,885,  all 
Mahommedans,  mostly  of  the  Shiah  sect,  but  not  fanatical. 
The  dominant  race  is  that  of  the  Shins,  whose  language  is  uni- 
versally spoken.  This  is  one  of  the  so-called  Pisacha  languages, 
an  archaic  Aryan  group  intermediate  between  the  Iranian  and 
the  Sanskritic. 

In  general  appearance  and  dress  all  the  mountain-bred  peoples 
extending  through  these  northern  districts  are  very  similar. 
Thick  felt  coats  reaching  below  the  knee,  loose  "  pyjamas  " 
with  cloth  "  putties  "  and  boots  (often  of  English  make)  are 
almost  universal,  the  distinguishing  feature  in  their  costume 
being  the  felt  cap  worn  close  to  the  head  and  rolled  up  round  the 
edges.  They  are  on  the  whole  a  light-hearted,  cheerful  race  of 
people,  but  it  has  been  observed  that  their  temperament  varies 
much  with  their  habitat — those  who  live  on  the  shadowed  sides 
of  mountains  being  distinctly  more  morose  and  more  serious  in 
disposition  than  the  dwellers  in  valleys  which  catch  the  winter 
sunlight.  They  are,  at  the  same  time,  bloodthirsty  and  treacher- 
ous to  a  degree  which  would  appear  incredible  to  a  casual 
observer  of  ^heir  happy  and  genial  manners,  exhibiting  a  strange 
combination  (as  has  been  observed  by  a  careful  student  of  their 
ways)  of  "  the  monkey  and  the  tiger."  Addicted  to  sport  of 
every  kind,  they  pursue  no  manufacturing  industries  whatsoever, 
but  they  are  excellent  agriculturists,  and  show  great  ingenuity 


in  their  local  irrigation  works  and  in  their  efforts  to  bring  every 
available  acre  of  cultivable  soil  within  the  irrigated  area.  Gold 
washing  is  more  or  less  carried  on  in  most  of  the  valleys  north  of 
the  river  Gilgit,  and  gold  dust  (contained  in  small  packets 
formed  with  the  petals  of  a  cup-shaped  flower)  is  an  invariable 
item  in  their  official  presents  and  offerings.  Gold  dust  still 
constitutes  part  of  the  annual  tribute  which,  strangely  enough, 
is  paid  by  Hunza  to  China,  as  well  as  to  Kashmir. 

Routes  in  the  Gilgit  Agency. — pne  of  the  oldest  recorded  routes 
through  this  country  is  that  which  connects  Mastuj  in  the  Chitral 
valley  with  Gilgit,  passing  across  the  Shandur  range  (12,250).  It  now 
forms  the  high-road  between  Gilgit  and  Chitral,  and  has  been 
engineered  into  a  passable  route.  From  the  north  three  great  glacier- 
bred  affluents  make  their  way  to  the  river  of  Gilgit,  joining  it  at 
almost  equal  intervals,  and  each  of  them  affords  opportunity  for  a 
rough  passage  northwards,  (i)  The  Yasin  river,  which  follows  a 
fairly  straight  course  from  north  to  south  for  about  40  m.  from  the 
foot  of  the  Dark6t  pass  across  the  Shandur  range  (15,000)  to  its 
junction  with  the  river  Gilgit,  close  to  the  little  fort  of  Gupis,  on  the 
Gilgit-Mastuj  road.  Much  of  this  valley  is  cultivated  and  extremely 
picturesque.  At  the  head  of  it  is  a  grand  group  of  glaciers,  one 
of  which  leads  up  to  the  well-known  pass  of  Dark6t.  (2)  25 
m.  (by  map  measurement)  below  Gupis  the  Gilgit  receives  the 
Ashkuman  affluent  from  the  north.  The  little  Lake  of  Karumbar 
is  held  to  be  its  source,  as  it  lies  at  the  head  of  the  river.  The  same 
lake  is  sometimes  called  the  source  of  the  river  Yarkhun  or  Chitral; 
and  it  seems  possible  that  a  part  of  its  waters  may  be  deflected  in 
each  direction.  The  Karumbar,  or  Ashkuman,  is  nearly  twice  the 
length  of  the  Yasin,  and  the  upper  half  of  the  valley  is  encompassed 
by  glaciers,  rendering  the  route  along  it  uncertain  and  difficult. 
(3)  40  m.  or  so  below  the  Ashkuman  junction,  and  nearly 
opposite  the  little  station  of  Gilgit,  the  river  receives  certain  further 
contributions  from  the  north  which  are  collected  in  the  Hunza  and 
Nagar  basins.  These  basins  include  a  system  of  glaciers  of  such 
gigantic  proportions  that  they  are  probably  unrivalled  in  any  pact 
of  the  world.  The  glacial  head  of  the  Hunza  is  not  far  from  that  of 
the  Karumbar,  and,  like  the  Karumbar,  the  river  commences  with  a 
wide  sweep  eastwards,  following  a  course  roughly  parallel  to  the  crest 
of  the  Hindu  Kush  (under  whose  southern  slopes  it  lies  close)  for 
about  40  m.  Then  striking  south  for  another  40  m.,  it  twists 
amidst  the  barren  feet  of  gigantic  rock-bound  spurs  which  reach  up- 
wards to  the  Muztagh  peaks  on  the  east  and  to  a  mass  of  glaciers 
and  snow-fields  on  the  west,  hidden  amidst  the  upper  folds  of  moun- 
tains towering  to  an  average  of  25,000  ft.  The  next  great  bend  is 
again  to  the  west  for  30  m.,  before  a  final  change  of  direction  to  the 
south  at  the  historical  position  of  Chalt  and  a  comparatively  straight 
run  of  25  m.  to  a  junction  with  the  Gilgit.  The  valley  of  Hunza  lies 
some  10  m.  from  the  point  of  this  westerly  bend,  and  20  (as  the  crow 
flies)  from  Chalt.  Much  has  been  written  of  the  magnificence  of 
Hunza  valley  scenery,  surrounded  as  it  is  by  a  stupendous  ring  of 
snow-capped  peaks  and  brightened  with  all  the  radiant  beauty  that 
cultivation  adds  to  these  mountain  valleys;  but  such  scenery  must 
be  regarded  as  exceptional  in  these  northern  regions. 

Glaciers  and  Mountains. — Conway  and  Godwin  Austen  have 
described  the  glaciers  of  Nagar  which,  enclosed  between  the  Muztagh 
spurs  on  the  north-east  and  the  frontier  peaks  of  Kashmir  (terminat- 
ing with  Rakapushi)  on  the  south-west,  and  massing  themselves  in 
an  almost  uninterrupted  series  from  the  Hunza  valley  to  the  base  of 
those  gigantic  peaks  which  stand  about  Mount  Godwin  Austen, 
seem  to  be  set  like  an  ice-sea  to  define  the  farthest  bounds  of  the 
Himalaya.  From  its  uttermost  head  to  the  foot  of  the  Hispar, 
overhanging  the  valley  above  Nagar,  the  length  of  the  glacial  ice- 
bed  known  under  the  name  of  Biafo  is  said  to  measure  about  90  m. 
Throughout  the  mountain  region  of  Kanjut  (or  Hunza)  and  Nagar 
the  valleys  are  deeply  sunk  between  mountain  ranges,  which  are 
nowhere  less  than  15,000  ft.  in  altitude,  and  which  must  average 
above  20,000  ft.  As  a  rule,  these  valleys  are  bare  of  vegetation. 
Where  the  summits  of  the  loftier  ranges  are  not  buried  beneath  snow 
and  ice  they  are  bare,  bleak  and  splintered,  and  the  nakedness  of  the 
rock  scenery  extends  down  their  rugged  spurs  to  the  very  base  of 
them.  On  the  Blower  slopes  of  tumbled  debris  the  sun  in  summer 
beats  with  an  intensity  which  is  unmitigated  by  the  cloud  drifts 
which  form  in  the  moister  atmosphere  of  the  monsoon-swept  sum- 
mits of  the  Himalaya.  Sun-baked  in  summer  and  frost-riven  in 
winter,  the  mountain  sides  are  but  immense  ramps  of  loose  rock 
de'bris,  only  awaiting  the  yearly  melting  of  the  upper  snow-fields,  or 
the  advent  of  a  casual  rainstorm,  to  be  swept  downwards  in  an 
avalanche  of  mud  and  stones  into  the  gorges  below.  Here  it  becomes 
piled  and  massed  together,  till  the  pressure  of  accumulation  forces 
it  out  into  the  main  valleys,  where  it  spreads  in  alluvial  fans  and 
silts  up  the  plains.  This  formation  is  especially  marked  throughout 
the  high  level  valleys  of  the  Gilgit  basin. 

Passes. — Each  of  these  northern  affluents  of  the  main  stream  is 
headed  by  a  pass,  or  a  group  of  passes,  leading  either  to  the  Pamir 
region  direct,  or  into  the  upper  Yarkhun  valley  from  which  a  Pamir 
route  diverges.  The  Yasin  valley  is  headed  by  the  Dark6t  pass 
(15,000  ft.),  which  drops  into  the  Yarkhun  not  far  from  the  foot  of 


GILL,  J.— GILL 


21 


the  Baroghil  group  over  the  main  Hindu  Kush  watershed.  The 
Ashkuman  is  headed  by  the  Gazar  and  Kora  Bohrt  passes,  leading 
to  the  valley  of  the  Ab-i-Punja;  and  the  Hunza  by  the  Kilik  and 
Mintaka,  the  connecting  links  between  the  Taghdumbash  Pamir 
and  the  Gilgit  basin.  They  are  all  about  the  same  height — 15,000  ft. 
All  are  passable  at  certain  times  of  the  year  to  small  parties,  and  all 
are  uncertain.  In  no  case  do  they  present  insuperable  difficulties 
in  themselves,  glaciers  and  snow-fields  and  mountain  staircases 
being  common  to  all;  but  the  gorges  and  precipices  which  distin- 
guish the  approaches  to  them  from  the  south,  the  slippery  sides  of 
shelving  spurs  whose  feet  are  washed  by  raging  torrents,  the  perpetual 
weary  monotony  of  ascent  and  descent  over  successive  ridges 
multiplying  the  gradient  indefinitely — these  form  the  real  obstacles 
blocking  the  way  to  these  northern  passes. 

Gilgit  Station. — The  pretty  little  station  of  Gilgit  (4890  ft.  above  sea) 
spreads  itself  in  terraces  above  the  right  bank  of  the  river  nearly 
opposite  the  opening  leading  to  Hunza,  almost  nestling  under  the 
cliffs  of  the  Hindu  Koh,  which  separates  it  on  the  south  from  the 
savage  mountain  wilderness  of  Darel  and  Kohistan.  It  includes 
a  residency  for  the  British  political  officer,  with  about  half  a  dozen 
homes  for  the  accommodation  of  officials,  barracks  suitable  for  a 
battalion  of  Kashmir  troops,  and  a  hospital.  Evidences  of  Buddhist 
occupation  are  not  wanting  in  Gilgit,  though  they  are  few  and  un- 
important. Such  as  they  are,  they  appear  to  prove  that  Gilgit 
was  once  a  Buddhist  centre,  and  that  the  old  Buddhist  route  between 
Gilgit  and  the  Peshawar  plain  passed  through  the  gorges  and  clefts 
of  the  unexplored  Darel  Valley  to  Thakot  under  the  northern  spurs 
of  the  Black  Mountain. 

Connexion  with  India. — The  Gilgit  river  joins  the  Indus  a  few 
miles  above  the  little  post  of  Bunji,  where  an  excellent  suspension 
bridge  spans  the  river.  The  valley  is  low  and  hot,  and  the  scenery 
between  Gilgit  and  Bunji  is  monotonous;  but  the  road  is  now 
maintained  in  excellent  condition.  A  little  below  Bunji  the  Astor 
river  joins  the  Indus  from  the  south-east,  and  this  deep  pine-clad 
valley  indicates  the  continuation  of  the  highroad  from  Gilgit  to 
Kashmir  via  the  Tragbal  and  Burzil  passes.  Another  well-known 
route  connecting  Gilgit  with  the  Abbottabad  frontier  of  the  Punjab 
lies  across  the  Babusar  pass  (13,000  ft.),  linking  the  lovely  Hazara 
valley  of  Kaghan  to  Chilas;  Chilas  (4150  ft.)  being  on  the  Indus, 
some  50  m.  below  Bunji.  This  is  a  more  direct  connexion  between 
Gilgit  and  the  plains  of  the  Punjab  than  that  afforded  by  the  Kashmir 
route  via  Gurais  and  Astor,  which  latter  route  involves  two  con- 
siderable passes — the  Tragbal  (11,400)  and  the  Burzil  (13,500); 
but  the  intervening  strip  of  absolutely  independent  territory  (in- 
dependent alike  of  Kashmir  and  the  Punjab),  which  includes  the 
hills  bordering  the  road  from  the  Babusar  pass  to  Chilas,  renders 
it  a  risky  route  for  travellers  unprotected  by  a  military  escort. 
Like  the  Kashmir  route,  it  is  now  defined  by  a  good  military  road. 

History. — The  Dards  are  located  by  Ptolemy  with  surprising 
accuracy  (Daradae)  on  the  west  of  the  Upper  Indus,  beyond  the 
head- waters  of  the  Swat  river  (Soastus) ,  and  north  of  the  Gandarae, 
i.e.  the  Gandharis,  who  occupied  Peshawar  and  the  country  north 
of  it.  The  Dardas  and  Chinas  also  appear  in  many  of  the  old 
Pauranic  lists  of  peoples,  the  latter  probably  representing  the 
Shin  branch  of  the  Dards.  This  region  was  traversed  by  two 
of  the  Chinese  pilgrims  of  the  early  centuries  of  our  era,  who  have 
left  records  of  their  journeys,  viz.  Fahien,  coming  from  the  north, 
c.  400,  and  Hsuan  Tsang,  ascending  from  Swat,  c.  631.  The 
latter  says:  "  Perilous  were  the  roads,  and  dark  the  gorges. 
Sometimes  the  pilgrim  had  to  pass  by  loose  cords,  sometimes  by 
light  stretched  iron  chains.  Here  there  were  ledges  hanging  in 
mid-air;  there  flying  bridges  across  abysses;  elsewhere  paths 
cut  with  the  chisel,  or  footings  to  climb  by."  Yet  even  in 
these  inaccessible  regions  were  found  great  convents,  and 
miraculous  images  of  Buddha.  How  old  the  name  of  Gilgit 
is  we  do  not  know,  but  it  occurs  in  the  writings  of  the  great 
Mahommedan  savant  al-Biruni,  in  his  notices  of  Indian 
geography.  Speaking  of  Kashmir,  he  says:  "  Leaving  the 
ravine  by  which  you  enter  Kashmir  and  entering  the  plateau, 
then  you  have  for  a  march  of  two  more  days  on  your  left  the 
mountains  of  Bolor  and  Shamilan,  Turkish  tribes  who  are 
called  Bhattavaryan.  Their  king  has  the  title  Bhatta-Shah. 
Their  towns  are  Gilgit,  Aswira  and  Shiltash,  and  their  language 
is  the  Turkish.  Kashmir  suffers  much  from  their  inroads  " 
(Trs.  Sachau,  i.  207).  There  are  difficult  matters  for  discussion 
here.  It  is  impossible  to  say  what  ground  the  writer  had  for 
calling  the  people  Turks.  But  it  is  curious  that  the  Shins  say 
they  are  all  of  the  same  race  as  the  Moguls  of  India,  whatever 
they  may  mean  by  that.  Gilgit,  as  far  back  as  tradition  goes, 
was  ruled  by  rajas  of  a  family  called  Trakane.  When  this  family 
became  extinct  the  valley  was  desolated  by  successive  invasions 


of  neighbouring  rajas,  and  in  the  20  or  30  years  ending  with  1842 
there  had  been  five  dynastic  revolutions.  The  most  prominent 
character  in  the  history  was  a  certain  Gaur  Rahman  or  Gauhar 
Aman,  chief  of  Yasin,  a  cruel  savage  and  man-seller,  of  whom 
many  evil  deeds  are  told.  Being  remonstrated  with  for  selling 
a  mullah,  he  said,  "  Why  not  ?  The  Koran,  the  word  of  God,  is 
sold;  why  not  sell  the  expounder  thereof  ?"  The  Sikhs  entered 
Gilgit  about  1842,  and  kept  a  garrison  there.  When  Kashmir 
was  made  over  to  Maharaja  Gulab  Singh  of  Jammu  in  1846, 
by  Lord  Hardinge,  the  Gilgit  claims  were  transferred  with  it. 
And  when  a  commission  was  sent  to  lay  down  boundaries  of  the 
tracts  made  over,  Mr  Vans  Agnew  (afterwards  murdered  at 
Multan)  and  Lieut.  Ralph  Young  of  the  Engineers  visited  Gilgit, 
the  first  Englishmen  who  did  so.  The  Dogras  (Gulab  Singh's 
race)  had  much  ado  to  hold  their  ground,  and  in  1852  a  cata- 
strophe occurred,  parallel  on  a  smaller  scale  to  that  of  the  English 
troops  at  Kabul.  Nearly  2000  men  of  theirs  were  exterminated 
by  Gaur  Rahman  and  a  combination  of  the  Dards;  only  one 
person,  a  soldier's  wife,  escaped,  and  the  Dogras  were  driven 
away  for  eight  years.  Gulab  Singh  would  not  again  crosB  the 
Indus,  but  after  his  death  (in  1857)  Maharaja  Ranbir  Singh 
longed  to  recover  lost  prestige.  In  1860  he  sent  a  force  into 
Gilgit.  Gaur  Rahman  just  then  died,  and  there  was  little  re- 
sistance. The  Dogras  after  that  took  Yasin  twice,  but  did  not 
hold  it.  They  also,  in  1866,  invaded  Darel,  one  of  the  most 
secluded  Dard  states,  to  the  south  of  the  Gilgit  basin,  but  with- 
drew again.  In  1889,  in  order  to  guard  against  the  advance  of 
Russia,  the  British  government,  acting  as  the  suzerain  power  of 
Kashmir,  established  the  Gilgit  agency;  in  1901,  on  the  forma- 
tion of  the  North-West  Frontier  province,  the  rearrangement 
was  made  as  stated  above. 

AUTHORITIES. — Biddulph,  The  Tribes  of  the  Hindu  Rush,  (Calcutta, 
1880);  W.  Lawrence,  The  Kashmir  Valley  (London,  I8<J5);  Tanner, 
"  Our  Present  Knowledge  of  the  Himalaya,"  Proc.  R.G.S.  vol.  xiii., 


Pamirs  and  Adjacent  Countries,"  Proc.  R.G.S.  vol.  xiv.,  1892; 
Curzon,  "  Pamirs,"  Jour.  R.G.S.  vol.  viii.,  1896;  LeitneV,  Dardistan 
(1877)-  (T.  H.  H.*J 

GILL,  JOHN  (1697-1771),  English  Nonconformist  divine, 
was  born  at  Kettering,  Northamptonshire.  His  parents  were 
poor  and  he  owed  his  education  chiefly  to  his  own  perseverance. 
In  November  1716  he  was  baptized  and  began  to  preach  at 
Higham  Ferrers  and  Kettering,  until  the  beginning  of  1719, 
when  he  became  pastor  of  the  Baptist  congregation  at  Horsley- 
down  in  South wark.  There  he  continued  till  1757,  when  he 
removed  to  a  chapel  near  London  Bridge.  From  1729  to  1756 
he  was  Wednesday  evening  lecturer  in  Great  Eastcheap.  In  1 748 
he  received  the  degree  of  D.D.  from  the  university  of  Aberdeen. 
He  died  at  Camberwell  on  the  I4th  of  October  1771.  Gill  was 
a  great  Hebrew  scholar,  and  in  his  theology  a  sturdy  Calvinist. 

His  principal  works  are  Exposition  of  the  Song  of  Solomon  (1728) ; 
The  Prophecies  of  the  Old  Testament  respecting  the  Messiah  (1728); 
The  Doctrine  of  the  Trinity  (1731);  The  Cause  of  God  and  Truth 
(4  vols.,  1731);  Exposition  of  the  Bible,  in  10  vols.  (1746-1766),  in 
preparing  which  he  formed  a  large  collection  of  Hebrew  and  Rab- 
binical books  and  MSS. ;  The  Antiquity  of  the  Hebrew  Language — 
Letters,  Vowel  Points,  and  Accents  (1767);  A  Body  of  Doctrinal 
Divinity  (1767);  A  Body  of  Practical  Divinity  (1770);  and  Sermons 
and  Tracts,  with  a  memoir  of  his  life  (1773).  An  edition  of  his 
Exposition  of  the  Bible  appeared  in  1816  with  a  memoir  by  John 
Rippon,  which  has  also  appeared  separately. 

GILL,  (i)  One  of  the  branchiae  which  form  the  breathing 
apparatus  of  fishes  and  other  animals  that  live  in  the  water. 
The  word  is  also  applied  to  the  branchiae  of  some  kinds  of  worm 
and  arachnids,  and  by  transference  to  objects  resembling  the 
branchiae  of  fishes,  such  as  the  wattles  of  a  fowl,  or  the  radiating 
films  on  the  under  side  of  fungi.  The  word  is  of  obscure  origin. 
Danish  has  giaette,  and  Swedish  gal  with  the  same  meaning. 
The  root  which  appears  in  "  yawn,"  "  chasm,"  has,  been  suggested. 
If  this  be  correct,  the  word  will  be  in  origin  the  same  as  "  gill," 
often  spelled  "  ghyll,"  meaning  a  glen  or  ravine,  common  in 
northern  English  dialects  and  also  in  Kent  and  Surrey.  The  g 
in  both  these  words  is  hard.  (2)  A  liquid  measure  usually  holding 


22 


GILLES  DE  ROYE— GILLIE 


one-fourth  of  a  pint.  The  word  comes  through  the  O.  Fr.  gette, 
from  Low  Lat.  gello  or  gillo,  a  measure  for  wine.  It  is  thus  con- 
nected with  "  gallon."  The  g  is  soft.  (3)  An  abbreviation  of  the 
feminine  name  Gillian,  also  often  spelled  Jill,  as  it  is  pronounced. 
Like  Jack  for  a  boy,  with  which  it  is  often  coupled,  as  in  the 
nursery  rhyme,  it  is  used  as  a  homely  generic  name  for  a  girl. 

GILLES  DE  ROYE,  or  EGIDIUS  DE  ROYA  (d.  1478),  Flemish 
chronicler,  was  born  probably  at  Montdidier,  and  became  a 
Cistercian  monk.  He  was  afterwards  professor  of  theology  in 
Paris  and  abbot  of  the  monastery  of  Royaumont  at  Asnieres- 
sur-Oise,  retiring  about  1458  to  the  convent  of  Notre  Dame  des 
Dunes,  near  Fumes,  and  devoting  his  time  to  study.  Gilles 
wrote  the  Chronicon  Dunense  or  Annales  Belgici,  a  resume  and 
continuation  of  the  work  of  another  monk,  Jean  Brandon  (d. 
1428),  which  deals  with  the  history  of  Flanders,  and  also  with 
events  in  Germany,  Italy  and  England  from  792  to  1478. 

The  Chronicle  was  published  by  F.  R.  Sweert  in  the  Rerum  Belgi- 
carum  annales  (Frankfort,  1620) ;  and  the  earlier  part  of  it  by  C.  B. 
Kervyn  de  Lettenhove  in  the  Chroniques  relatives  &  I'histoire  de  la 
Belgique  (Brussels,  1870). 

GILLES  LI  MUISIS,  or  LE  MUISET  (c.  1272-1352),  French 
chronicler,  was  born  probably  at  Tournai,  and  in  1289  entered 
the  Benedictine  abbey  of  St  Martin  in  his  native  city,  becoming 
prior  of  this  house  in  1327,  and  abbot  four  years  later.  He  only 
secured  the  latter  position  after  a  contest  with  a  competitor, 
but  he  appears  to  have  been  a  wise  ruler  of  the  abbey.  Gilles 
wrote  two  Latin  chronicles,  Chronicon  majus  and  Chronicon 
minus,  dealing  with  the  history  of  the  world  from  the  creation 
until  1349.  This  work,  which  was  continued  by  another  writer 
to  1352,  is  valuable  for  the  history  of  northern  France,  and 
Flanders  during  the  first  half  of  the  i4th  century.  It  is  published 
by  J.  J.  de  Senet  in  the  Corpus  chronicorum  Flandriae,  tome  ii. 
(Brussels,  1841).  Gilles  also  wrote  some  French  poems,  and 
these  Poesies  de  Gilles  li  Muisis  have  been  published  by  Baron 
Kervyn  de  Lettenhove  (Louvain,  1882). 

See  A.  Molinier,  Les  Sources  de  I'histoire  de  France,  tomeiii.  (Paris, 
1903)- 

G1LLESPIE,  GEORGE  (1613-1648),  Scottish  divine,  was  bom 
at  Kirkcaldy,  where  his  father,  John  Gillespie,  was  parish 
minister,  on  the  2ist  of  January  1613,  and  entered  the  university 
of  St  Andrews  as  a  "  presbytery  bursar "  in  1629.  On  the 
completion  of  a  brilliant  student  career,  he  became  domestic 
chaplain  to  John  Gordon,  ist  Viscount  Kenmure  (d.  1634), 
and  afterwards  to  John  Kennedy,  earl  of  Cassillis,  his  conscience 
not  permitting  him  to  accept  the  episcopal  ordination  which 
was  at  that  time  in  Scotland  an  indispensable  condition  of 
induction  to  a  parish.  While  with  the  earl  of  Cassillis  he  wrote 
his  first  work,  A  Dispute  against  the  English  Popish  Ceremonies 
obtruded  upon  the  Church  of  Scotland,  which,  opportunely  pub- 
lished shortly  after  the  "  Jenny  Geddes  "  incident  (but  without 
the  author's  name)  in  the  summer  of  1637,  attracted  considerable 
attention,  and  within  a  few  months  had  been  found  by  the 
privy  council  to  be  so  damaging  that  by  their  orders  all  available 
copies  were  called  in  and  burnt.  In  April  1638,  soon  after  the 
authority  of  the  bishops  had  been  set  aside  by  the  nation, 
Gillespie  was  ordained  minister  of  Wemyss  (Fife)  by  the 
presbytery  of  Kirkcaldy,  and  in  the  same  year  was  a  member 
of  the  famous  Glasgow  Assembly,  before  which  he  preached 
(November  2ist)  a  sermon  against  royal  interference  in  matters 
ecclesiastical  so  pronounced,  as  to  call  for  some  remonstrance 
on  the  part  of  Argyll,  the  lord  high  commissioner.  In  1642 
Gillespie  was  translated  to  Edinburgh;  but  the  brief  remainder 
of  his  life  was  chiefly  spent  in  the  conduct  of  public  business 
in  London.  Already,  in  1640,  he  had  accompanied  the  commis- 
sioners of  the  peace  to  England  as  one  of  their  chaplains;  and 
in  1643  he  was  appointed  by  the  Scottish  Church  one  of  the  four 
commissioners  to  the  Westmins  er  Assembly.  Here,  though 
the  youngest  member  of  the  Assembly,  he  took  a  prominent 
part  in  almost  all  the  protracted  discussions  on  church  govern- 
ment, discipline  and  worship,  supporting  Presbyterianism  by 
numerous  controversial  writings,  as  well  as  by  an  unusual 
fluency  and  readiness  in  debate.  Tradition  long  preserved  and 
probably  enhanced  the  record  of  his  victories  in  debate,  and 


especially  of  his  encounter,  with  John  Selden  on  Matt,  xviii. 
15-17.  In  1645  he  returned  to  Scotland,  and  is  said  to  have 
drawn  the  act  of  assembly  sanctioning  the  directory  of  public 
worship.  On  his  return  to  London  he  had  a  hand  in  drafting 
the  Westminster  confession  of  faith,  especially  chap.  i.  Gillespie 
was  elected  moderator  of  the  Assembly  in  1648,  but  the  laborious 
duties  of  that  office  (the  court  continued  to  sit  from  the  i2th 
of  July  to  the  I2th  of  August)  told  fatally  on  an  overtaxed 
constitution;  he  fell  into  consumption,  and,  after  many  weeks 
of  great  weakness,  he  died  at  Kirkcaldy  on  the  I7th  of  December 
1648.  In  acknowledgment  of  his  great  public  services,  a  sum 
of  £1000  Scots  was  voted,  though  destined  never  to  be  paid,  to 
his  widow  and  children  by  the  committee  of  estates.  A  simple 
tombstone,  which  had  been  erected  to  his  memory  in  Kirkcaldy 
parish  church,  was  in  1661  publicly  broken  at  the  cross  by  the 
hand  of  the  common  hangman,  but  was  restored  in  1 746. 

His  principal  publications  were  controversial  and  chiefly  against 
Erastianism :  Three  sermons  against  Thomas  Coleman ;  A  Sermon 
before  the  House  of  Lords  (August  27th),  on  Matt.  iii.  2,  Nihil  Re- 
spondent and  Male  Audis;  Aaron's  Rod  Blossoming,  or  the  Divine 
Ordinance  of  Church-government  vindicated  (1646),  which  is  de- 
servedly regarded  as  a  really  able  statement  of  the  case  for  an 
exclusive  spiritual  jurisdiction  in  the  church;  One  Hundred  and 
Eleven  Propositions  concerning  the  Ministry  and  Government  of  the 
Church  (Edinburgh,  1647).  The  following  were  posthumously 
published  by  his  brother:  A  Treatise  of  Miscellany  Questions  (1649) ; 
The  Ark  of  the  New  Testament  (2  vols.,  1661-1667);  Notes  of  Debates 
and  Proceedings  of  the  Assembly  of  Divines  at  Westminster,  from 
February  1644  to  January  1645.  See  Works,  with  memoir,  published 
by  Hetherington  (Edinburgh,  1843-1846). 

GILLESPIE,  THOMAS  (1708-1774),  Scottish  divine,  was  born 
at  Clearburn,  in  the  parish  of  Duddingston,  Midlothian,  in 
1708.  He  was  educated  at  the  university  of  Edinburgh,  and 
studied  divinity  first  at  a  small  theological  seminary  at  Perth, 
and  afterwards  for  a  brief  period  under  Philip  Doddridge  at 
Northampton,  where  he  received  ordination  in  January  1741. 
In  September  of  the  same  year  he  was  admitted  minister  of  the 
parish  of  Carnock,  Fife,  the  presbytery  of  Dunfermline  agreeing 
not  only  to  sustain  as  valid  the  ordination  he  had  received  in 
England,  but  also  to  allow  a  qualification  of  his  subscription 
to  the  church's  doctrinal  symbol,  so  far  as  it  had  reference  to  the 
sphere  of  the  civil  magistrate  in  matters  of  religion.  Having 
on  conscientious  grounds  persistently  absented  himself  from  the 
meetings  of  presbytery  held  for  the  purpose  of  ordaining  one 
Andrew  Richardson,  an  unacceptable  presentee,  as  minister  of 
Inverkeithing,  he  was,  after  an  unobtrusive  but  useful  ministry 
of  ten  years,  deposed  by  the  Assembly  of  1752  for  maintaining 
that  the  refusal  of  the  local  presbytery  to  act  in  this  case  was 
justified.  He  continued,  however,  to  preach,  first  at  Carnock, 
and  afterwards  in  Dunfermline,  where  a  large  congregation 
gathered  round  him.  His  conduct  under  the  sentence  of  deposi- 
tion produced  a  reaction  in  his  favour,  and  an  effort  was  made 
to  have  him  reinstated;  this  he  declined  unless  the  policy  of  the 
church  were  reversed.  In  1761,  in  conjunction  with  Thomas 
Boston  of  Jedburgh  and  Collier  of  Colinsburgh,  he  formed  a  dis- 
tinct communion  under  the  name  of  "  The  Presbytery  of  Relief," 
— relief,  that  is  to  say,  "  from  the  yoke  of  patronage  and  the 
tyranny  of  the  church  courts."  The  Relief  Church  eventually 
became  one  of  the  communions  combining  to  form  the  United 
Presbyterian  Church.  He  died  on  the  igth  of  January -1774, 
His  only  literary  efforts  were  an  Essay  on  the  Continuation  of 
Immediate  Revelations  in  the  Church,  and  a  Practical  Treatise  on 
Temptation.  Both  works  appeared  posthumously  (1774).  In 
the  former  he  argues  that  immediate  revelations  are  no  longer 
vouchsafed  to  the  church,  in  the  latter  he  traces  temptation  to 
the  work  of  a  personal  devil. 

See  Lindsay's  Life  and  Times  of  the  Rev.  Thomas  Gillespie; 
Smithers's  History  of  the  Relief  Church ;  for  the  Relief  Church  see 
UNITED  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH. 

GILLIE  (from  the  Gael,  gitte,  Irish  gille  or  giolla,  a  servant 
or  boy),  an  attendant  on  a  Gaelic  chieftain;  in  this  sense  its  use, 
save  historically,  is  rare.  The  name  is  now  applied  in  the 
Highlands  of  Scotland  to  the  man-servant  who  attends  a  sports- 
man in  shooting  or  fishing.  A  gittie-wetfoot,  a  term  now  obsolete 
(a  translation  of  gillie-casfliuch,  from  the  Gaelic  cas,  foot,  and 


GILLIES— GILLRAY 


fliuch,  wet),  was  the  gillie  whose  duty  it  was  to  carry  his  master 
over  streams.  It  became  a  term  of  contempt  among  the  Low- 
landers  for  the  "  tail  "  (as  his  attendants  were  called)  of  a 
Highland  chief. 

GILLIES,  JOHN  (1747-1836),  Scottish  historian  and  classical 
scholar,  was  born  at  Brechin,  in  Forfarshire,  on  the  i8th  of 
January  1747.  He  was  educated  at  Glasgow  University,  where, 
at  the  age  of  twenty,  he  acted  for  a  short  time  as  substitute  for 
the  professor  of  Greek.  In  1784  he  completed  his  History  of 
Ancient  Greece,  its  Colonies  and  Conquests  (published  1786). 
This  work,  valuable  at  a  time  when  the  study  of  Greek  history 
was  in  its  infancy,  and  translated  into  French  and  German, 
was  written  from  a  strong  Whig  bias,  and  is  now  entirely  super- 
seded (see  GREECE:  Ancient  History,  "  Authorities  ")•  On  the 
death  of  William  Robertson  (1721-1793),  Gillies  was  appointed 
historiographer-royal  for  Scotland.  In  his  old  age  he  retired  to 
Clapham,  where  he  died  on  the  isth  of  February  1836. 

Of  his  other  works,  none  of  which  are  much  read,  the  principal 
are :  View  of  the  Reign  of  Frederic  II.  of  Prussia,  with  a  Parallel 
between  that  Prince  and  Philip  II.  of  Macedon  (1789),  rather  a  pane- 
gyric than  a  critical  history;  translations  of  Aristotle's  Rhetoric 
(1823)  and  Ethics  and  Politics  (1786-1797);  of  the  Orations  of 
Lysias  and  Isocrates  (1778) ;  and  History  of  the  World  from  Alexander 
to  Augustus  (1807),  which,  although  deficient  in  style,  was  com- 
mended for  its  learning  and  research. 

GILLINGHAM,  a  market  town  in  the  northern  parliamentary 
division  of  Dorsetshire,  England,  105  m.  W.S.W.  from  London 
by  the  London  &  South- Western  railway.  Pop.  (1901)  3380. 
The  church  of  St  Mary  the  Virgin  has  a  Decorated  chancel. 
There  is  a  large  agricultural  trade,  and  manufactures  of  bricks 
and  tiles,  cord,  sacking  and  silk,  brewing  and  bacon-curing  are 
carried  on.  The  rich  undulating  district  in  which  Gillingham 
is  situated  was  a  forest  preserved  by  King  John  and  his  successors, 
and  the  site  of  their  lodge  is  traceable  near  the  town 

GILLINGHAM,  a  municipal  borough  of  Kent,  England,  in 
the  parliamentary  borough  of  Chatham  and  the  mid-division 
of  the  county,  on  the  Medway  immediately  east  of  Chatham, 
on  the  South-Eastern  &  Chatham  railway.  Pop.  (1891)  27,809; 
(1901)  42,530.  Its  population  is  largely  industrial,  employed 
in  the  Chatham  dockyards,  and  in  cement  and  brick  works  in  the 
neighbourhood.  The  church  of  St  Mary  Magdalene  ranges  in  date 
from  Early  English  to  Perpendicular,  retaining  also  traces  of 
Norman  work  and  some  early  brasses.  A  great  battle  between 
Edmund  Ironside  and  Canute,  c.  1016,  is  placed  here;  and  there 
was  formerly  a  palace  of  the  archbishops  of  Canterbury.  Gilling- 
ham was  incorporated  in  1903,  and  is  governed  by  a  mayor,  6 
aldermen  and  18  councillors.  The  borough  includes  the  populous 
districts  of  Brompton  and  New  Brompton.  Area,  4355  acres. 

GILLOT,  CLAUDE  (1673-1722),  French  painter,  best  known 
as  the  master  of  Watteau  and  Lancret,  was  born  at  Langres. 
His  sportive  mythological  landscape  pieces,  with  such  titles 
as  "  Feast  of  Pan  "  and  "Feast  of  Bacchus,"  opened  the  Academy 
of  Painting  at  Paris  to  him  in  1715;  and  he  then  adapted  his 
art  to  the  fashionable  tastes  of  the  day,  and  introduced  the 
decorative  fetes  champelres,  in  which  he  was  afterwards  surpassed 
by  his  pupils.  He  was  also  closely  connected  with  the  opera 
and  theatre  as  a  designer  of  scenery  and  costumes. 

GILLOTT,  JOSEPH  (1799-1873),  English  pen-maker,  was  born 
at  Sheffield  on  the  nth  of  October  1799.  For  some  time  he  was 
a  working  cutler  there,  but  in  1821  removed  to  Birmingham, 
where  he  found  employment  in  the  "  steel  toy  "  trade,  the 
technical  name  for  the  manufacture  of  steel  buckles,  chains  and 
light  ornamental  steel-work  generally.  About  1830  he  turned 
his  attention  to  the  manufacture  of  steel  pens  by  machinery, 
and  in  1831  patented  a  process  for  placing  elongated  points  on 
the  nibs  of  pens.  Subsequently  he  invented  other  improvements, 
getting  rid  of  the  hardness  and  lack  of  flexibility,  which  had  been 
a  serious  defect  in  nibs,  by  cutting,  in  addition  to  the  centre  slit, 
side  slits,  and  cross  grinding  the  points.  By  1859  he  had  built  up 
a  very  large  business.  Gillott  was  a  liberal  art-patron,  and 
one  of  the  first  to  recognize  the  merits  of  J.  M.  W.  Turner.  He 
died  at  Birmingham  on  the  sth  of  January  1873.  His  collection 
of  pictures,  sold  after  his  death,  realized  £1 70,000. 


GILLOW,  ROBERT  (d.  1773),  the  founder  at  Lancaster 
of  a  distinguished  firm  of  English  cabinet-makers  and  furniture 
designers  whose  books  begin  in  1731.  He  was  succeeded  by  his 
eldest  son  Richard  (1734-1811),  who  after  being  educated  at  the 
Roman  Catholic  seminary  at  Douai  was  taken  into  partnership 
about  1757,  when  the  firm  became  Gillow  &  Barton,  and  his 
younger  sons  Robert  and  Thomas,  and  the  business  was  continued 
by  his  grandson  Richard  (1778-1866).  In  its  early  days  the  firm 
of  Gillow  were  architects  as  well  as  cabinet-makers,  and  the  first 
Richard  Gillow  designed  the  classical  Custom  House  at  Lancaster. 
In  the  middle  of  the  i8th  century  the  business  was  extended  to 
London,  and  about  1761  premises  were  opened  in  Oxford  Street 
on  a  site  which  was  continuously  occupied  until  1906.  For  a 
long  period  the  Gillows  were  the  best-known  makers  of  English 
furniture — Sheraton  and  Heppelwhite  both  designed  for  them, 
and  replicas  are  still  made  of  pieces  from  the  drawings  of  Robert 
Adam.  Between  1760  and  1770  they  invented  the  original 
form  of  the  billiard-table;  they  were  the  patentees  (about 
1800)  of  the  telescopic  dining-table  which  has  long  been  universal 
in  English  houses;  for  a  Captain  Davenport  they  made,  if  they 
did  not  invent,  the  first  writing-table  of  that  name.  Their  vogue 
is  indicated  by  references  to  them  in  the  works  of  Jane  Austen, 
Thackeray  and  the  first  Lord  Lytton,  and  more  recently  in  one 
of  Gilbert  and  Sullivan's  comic  operas. 

GILLRAY,  JAMES  (1757-1815),  English  caricaturist,  was  born 
at  Chelsea  in  1757.  His  father,  a  native  of  Lanark,  had  served 
as  a  soldier,  losing  an  arm  at  Fontenoy,  and  was  admitted  first 
as  an  inmate,  and  afterwards  as  an  outdoor  pensioner,  at  Chelsea 
hospital.  Gillray  commenced  life  by  learning  letter-engraving, 
in  which  he  soon  became  an  adept.  This  employment,  however, 
proving  irksome,  he  wandered  about  for  a  time  with  a  company 
of  strolling  players.  After  a  very  checkered  experience  he 
returned  to  London,  and  was  admitted  a  student  in  the  Royal 
Academy,  supporting  himself  by  engraving,  and  probably  issuing 
a  considerable  number  of  caricatures  under  fictitious  names. 
Hogarth's  works  were  the  delight  and  study  of  his  early  years. 
"  Paddy  on  Horseback,"  which  appeared  in  1779,  is  the  first 
caricature  which  is  certainly  his.  Two  caricatures  on  Rodney's 
naval  victory,  issued  in  1782,  were  among  the  first  of  the  memor- 
able series  of  his  political  sketches.  The  name  of  Gillray's 
publisher  and  printseller,  Miss  Humphrey — whose  shop  was  first 
at  227  Strand,  then  in  New  Bond  Street,  then  in  Old  Bond  Street, 
and  finally  in  St  James's  Street — is  inextricably  associated  with 
that  of  the  caricaturist.  Ciliary  lived  with  Miss  (often  called 
Mrs)  Humphrey  during  all  the  period  of  his  fame.  It  is  believed 
that  he  several  times  thought  of  marrying  her,  and  that  on  one 
occasion  the  pair  were  on  their  way  to  the  church,  when  Gillray 
said:  "This  is  a  foolish  affair,  methinks,  Miss  Humphrey. 
We  live  very  comfortably  together;  we  had  better  let  well 
alone."  There  is  no  evidence,  however,  to  support  the  stories 
which  scandalmongers  invented  about  their  relations.  Gillray's 
plates  were  exposed  in  Humphrey's  shop  window,  where  eager 
crowds  examined  them.  A  number  of  his  most  trenchant  satires 
are  directed  against  George  III.,  who,  after  examining  some  of 
Gillray's  sketches,  said,  with  characteristic  ignorance  and  blind- 
ness to  merit,  "  I  don't  understand  these  caricatures."  Gillray 
revenged  himself  for  this  utterance  by  his  splendid  caricature 
entitled,  "  A  Connoisseur  Examining  a  Cooper,"  which  he  is 
doing  by  means  of  a  candle  on  a  "  save-all  ";  so  that  the  sketch 
satirizes  at  once  the  king's  pretensions  to  knowledge  of  art  and 
his  miserly  habits. 

The  excesses  of  the  French  Revolution  made  Gillray  conserva- 
tive; and  he  issued  caricature  after  caricature,  ridiculing  the 
French  and  Napoleon,  and  glorifying  John  Bull.  He  is  not, 
however,  to  be  thought  of  as  a  keen  political  adherent  of  either 
the  Whig  or  the  Tory  party;  he  dealt  his  blows  pretty  freely 
all  round.  His  last  work,  from  a  design  by  Bunbury,  is 
entitled  "  Interior  of  a  Barber's  Shop  in  Assize  Time,"  and 
is  dated  1811.  While  he  was  engaged  on  it  he  became 
mad,  although  he  had  occasional  intervals  of  sanity,  which  he 
employed  on  his  last  work.  The  approach  of  madness  must 
have  been  hastened  by  his  intemperate  habits.  Gillray  died  on 


GILLYFLOWER— OILMAN 


the  ist  of  June  1815,  and  was  buried  in  St  James's  churchyard, 
Piccadilly. 

The  times  in  which  Gillray  lived  were  peculiarly  favourable 
to  the  growth  of  a  great  school  of  caricature.  Party  warfare  was 
carried  on  with  great  vigour  and  not  a  little  bitterness;  and 
personalities  were  freely  indulged  in  on  both  sides.  Gillray's 
incomparable  wit  and  humour,  knowledge  of  life,  fertility  of 
resource,  keen  sense  of  the  ludicrous,  and  beauty  of  execution, 
at  once  gave  him  the  first  place  among  caricaturists.  He  is 
honourably  distinguished  in  the  history  of  caricature  by  the  fact 
that  his  sketches  are  real  works  of  art.  The  ideas  embodied  in 
some  of  them  are  sublime  and  poetically  magnificent  in  their 
intensity  of  meaning;  while  the  coarseness  by  which  others  are 
disfigured  is  to  be  explained  by  the  general  freedom  of  treatment 
common  in  all  intellectual  departments  in  the  i8th  century. 
The  historical  value  of  Gillray's  work  has  been  recognized  by 
accurate  students  of  history.  As  has  been  well  remarked: 
"  Lord  Stanhope  has  turned  Gillray  to  account  as  a  veracious 
reporter  of  speeches,  as  well  as  a  suggestive  illustrator  of  events." 
His  contemporary  political  influence  is  borne  witness  to  in  a  letter 
from  Lord  Bateman,  dated  November  3,  1798.  "  The  Opposi- 
tion," he  writes  to  Gillray,  "  are  as  low  as  we  can  wish  them. 
You  have  been  of  infinite  service  in  lowering  them,  and  making 
them  ridiculous."  Gillray's  extraordinary  industry  may  be 
inferred  from  the  fact  that  nearly  1000  caricatures  have  been 
attributed  to  him;  while  some  consider  him  the  author  of  1600 
or  1700.  He  is  invaluable  to  the  student  of  English  manners 
as  well  as  to  the  political  student.  He  attacks  the  social  follies 
of  the  tSme  with  scathing  satire;  and  nothing  escapes  his  notice, 
not  even  a  trifling  change  of  fashion  in  dress.  The  great  tact 
Gillray  displays  in  hitting  on  the  ludicrous  side  of  any  subject 
is  only  equalled  by  the  exquisite  finish  of  his  sketches — the  finest 
of  which  reach  an  epic  grandeur  and  Miltonic  sublimity  of  con- 
ception. 

Gillray's  caricatures  are  divided  into  two  classes,  the  political 
series  and  the  social.  The  political  caricatures  form  really  the  best 
history  extant  of  the  latter  part  of  the  reign  of  George  III.  They 
were  circulated  not  only  over  Britain  but  throughout  Europe, 
and  exerted  a  powerful  influence.  In  this  series,  George  III.,  the 
queen,  the  prince  of  Wales,  Fox,  Pitt,  Burke  and  Napoleon  are  the 
most  prominent  figures.  In  1788  appeared  two  fine  caricatures  by 
Gillray.  "  Blood  on  Thunder  fording  the  Red  Sea  "  represents 
Lord  Thurlow  carrying  Warren  Hastings  through  a  sea  of  gore: 
Hastings  looks  very  comfortable,  and  is  carrying  two  large  bags  of 
money.  "  Market-Day  "  pictures  the  ministerialists  of  the  time  as 
horned  cattle  for  sale.  Among  Gillray's  best  satires  on  the  king 
are:  "  Farmer  George  and  his  Wife,"  two  companion  plates,  in  one  of 
which  the  king  is  toasting  muffins  for  breakfast,  and  in  the  other 
the  queen  is  frying  sprats;  "  The  Anti-Saccharites,"  where  the  royal 
pair  propose  to  dispense  with  sugar,  to  the  great  horror  of  the 
family;  "A  Connoisseur  Examining  a  Cooper";  "Temperance 
enjoying  a  Frugal  Meal";  "Royal  Affability";  "A  Lesson  in 
Apple  Dumplings  ";  and  "  The  Pigs  Possessed."  Among  his  other 
political  caricatures  may  be  mentioned:  "  Britannia  between  Scylla 
and  Charybdis,"  a  picture  in  which  Pitt,  so  often  Gillray's  butt, 
figures  in  a  favourable  light;  "  The  Bridal  Night";  "  The  Apothe- 
osis of  Hoche,"  which  concentrates  the  excesses  of  the  French 
Revolution  in  one  view;  "  The  Nursery  with  Britannia  reposing  in 
Peace  ";  "  The  First  Kiss  these  Ten  Years  "  (1803),  another  satire 
on  the  peace,  which  is  said  to  have  greatly  amused  Napoleon;  "  The 
Handwriting  upon  the  Wall";  "The  Confederated  Coalition,"  a 
fling  at  the  coalition  which  superseded  the  Addington  ministry; 
"  Uncorking  Old  Sherry";  "The  Plum-Pudding  in  Danger  ; 
"  Making  Decent,"  i.e.  Broad-bottomites  getting  into  the  Grand 
Costume  " ;  "  Comforts  of  a  Bed  of  Roses  " ;  View  of  the  Hustings 
in  Covent  Garden";  "  Phaethon  Alarmed";  and  "Pandora 
opening  her  Box."  The  miscellaneous  series  of  caricatures,  although 
they  have  scarcely  the  historical  importance  of  the  political  series, 
are  more  readily  intelligible,  and  are  even  more  amusing.  Amone 
the  finest  are:  "  Shakespeare  Sacrificed  ";  "  Flemish  Characters 
(two  plates);  "Twopenny  Whist";  "Oh!  that  this  too  solid 
flesh  would  melt  " ;  "  Sandwich  Carrots  " ;  "  The  Gout  " ;  "  Comfort 
to  the  Corns  ";  "  Begone  Dull  Care  ";  "  The  Cow-Pock,"  which 
gives  humorous  expression  to  the  popular  dread  of  vaccination; 
"  Dilletanti  Theatricals";  and  "Harmony  before  Matrimony" 
and  "  Matrimonial  Harmonics  " — two  exceedingly  good  sketches  in 
violent  contrast  to  each  other. 

A  selection  of  Gillray's  works  appeared  in  parts  in  1818;  but 
the  first  good  edition  was  Thomas  M'Lean's,  which  was  published, 
with  a  key,  in  1830.  A  somewhat  bitter  attack,  not  only  on  Gillray's 
character,  but  even  on  his  genius,  appeared  in  the  Athenaeum  for 


October  I,  1831,  which  was  successfully  refuted  by  J.  Landseer 
in  the  Athenaeum  a  fortnight  later.  In  1851  Henry  G.  Bohn  put 
out  an  edition,  from  the  original  plates,  in  a  handsome  folio,  the 
coarser  sketches  being  published  in  a  separate  volume.  For  this 
edition  Thomas  Wright  and  R.  H.  Evans  wrote  a  valuable  com- 
mentary, which  is  a  good  history  of  the  times  embraced  by  the 
caricatures.  The  next  edition,  entitled  The  Works  of  James  Gillray, 
the  Caricaturist:  with  the  Story  of  his  Life  and  Times  (Chatto  & 
Windus,  1874),  was  the  work  of  Thomas  Wright,  and,  by  its  popular 
exposition  and  narrative,  introduced  Gillray  to  a  very  large  circle 
formerly  ignorant  of  him.  This  edition,  which  is  complete  in  one 
yolume,_  contains  two  portraits  of  Gillray,  and  upwards  of  400 
illustrations.  Mr  J.  J.  Cartwright,  in  a  letter  to  the  Academy  (Feb. 
28,  1874),  drew  attention  to  the  existence  of  a  MS.  volume,  in  the 
British  Museum,  containing  letters  to  and  from  Gillray,  and  other 
illustrative  documents.  The  extracts  he  gave  were  used  in  a  valuable 
article  in  the  Quarterly  Review  for  April  1874.  See  also  the  Academy 
for  Feb.  21  and  May  16,  1874. 

There  is  a  good  account  of  Gillray  in  Wright's  History  of  Cari- 
cature and  Grotesque  in  Literature  and  Art  (1865).  See  also  the 
article  CARICATURE. 

GILLYFLOWER,  a  popular  name  applied  to  various  flowers, 
but  principally  to  the  clove,  Dianthus  Caryophyllus,  of  which 
the  carnation  is  a  cultivated  variety,  and  to  the  stock,  Matthiola 
incana,  a  well-known  garden  favourite.  The  word  is  sometimes 
written  gilliflower  or  gilloflower,  and  is  reputedly  a  corruption 
of  July-flower,  "  so  called  from  the  month  they  blow  in."  Henry 
Phillips  (1775-1838),  in  his  Flora  historica,  remarks  that  Turner 
(1568)  "  calls  it  gelouer,  to  which  he  adds  the  word  stock,  as 
we  would  say  gelouers  that  grow  on  a  stem  or  stock,  to  distin- 
guish them  from  the  clove-gelouers  and  the  wall-gelouers.  Gerard, 
who  succeeded  Turner,  and  after  him  Parkinson,  calls  it  gillo- 
flower, and  thus  it  travelled  from  its  original  orthography  until 
it  was  called  July-flower  by  those  who  knew  not  whence  it  was 
derived."  Dr  Prior,  in  his  useful  volume  on  the  Popular  Names 
of  British  Plants,  very  distinctly  shows  the  origin  of  the  name. 
He  remarks  that  it  was  "  formerly  spelt  gyllofer  and  gilofre 
with  the  o  long,  from  the  French  giroflee,  Italian  garofalo  (M.  Lat. 
gar iofilum),  corrupted  from  the  Latin  Caryophyllum,  and  referring 
to  the  spicy  odour  of  the  flower,  which  seems  to  have  been  used 
in  flavouring  wine  and  other  liquors  to  replace  the  more  costly 
clove  of  India.  The  name  was  originally  given  in  Italy  to  plants 
of  the  pink  tribe,  especially  the  carnation,  but  has  in  England 
been  transferred  of  late  years  to  several  cruciferous  plants." 
The  gillyflower  of  Chaucer  and  Spenser  and  Shakespeare  was, 
as  in  Italy,  Dianthus  Caryophyllus;  that  of  later  writers  and  of 
gardeners,  Matthiola.  Much  of  the  confusion  in  the  names  of 
plants  has  doubtless  arisen  from  the  vague  use  of  the  French 
terms  giroflee,  (Billet  and  violetle,  which  were  all  applied  to 
flowers  of  the  pink  tribe,  but  in  England  were  subsequently 
extended  and  finally  restricted  to  very  different  plants.  The 
use  made  of  the  flowers  to  impart  a  spicy  flavour  to  ale  and  wine 
is  alluded  to  by  Chaucer,  who  writes: 

"  And  many  a  clove  gilofre 
To  put  in  ale  "; 

also  by  Spenser,  who  refers  to  them  by  the  name  of  sops  in  wine, 
which  was  applied  in  consequence  of  their  being  steeped  in  the 
liquor.  In  both  these  cases,  however,  it  is  the  clove-gillyflower 
which  is  intended,  as  it  is  also  in  the  passage  from  Gerard,  in 
which  he  states  that  the  conserve  made  of  the  flowers  with  sugar 
"  is  exceeding  cordiall,  and  wonderfully  above  measure  doth 
comfort  the  heart,  being  eaten  now  and  then."  The  principal 
other  plants  which  bear  the  name  are  the  wallflower,  Cheiranthus 
Cheiri,  called  wall-gillyflower  in  old  books;  the  dame's  violet, 
Hesperis  matronalis,  called  variously  the  queen's,  the  rogue's 
and  the  winter  gillyflower;  the  ragged-robin,  Lychnis  Flos-cuculi, 
called  marsh-gillyflower  and  cuckoo-gillyflower;  the  water- 
violet,  Hottonia  palustris,  called  water-gillyflower;  and  the 
thrift,  Armeria  vulgaris,  called  sea-gillyflower.  As  a  separate 
designation  it  is  nowadays  usually  applied  to  the  wallflower. 

OILMAN,  DANIEL  COIT  (1831-1908),  American  education- 
ist, was  born  in  Norwich,  Connecticut,  on  the  6th  of  July  1831. 
He  graduated  at  Yale  in  1852,  studied  in  Berlin,  was  assistant 
librarian  of  Yale  in  1856-1858  and  librarian  in  1858-1865,  and 
was  professor  of  physical  and  political  geography  in  the  Sheffield 
Scientific  School  of  Yale  University  and  a  member  of  the 


GILMORE— GILPIN 


Governing  Board  of  this  School  in  1863-1872.  From  1856  to 
1860  he  was  a  member  of  the  school  board  of  New  Haven,  and 
from  August  1865  to  January  1867  secretary  of  the  Connecticut 
Board  of  Education.  In  1872  he  became  president  of  the 
University  of  California  at  Berkeley.  On  the  soth  of  December 
1874  he  was  elected  first  president  of  Johns  Hopkins  University 
(q.v.)  at  Baltimore.  He  entered  upon  his  duties  on  the  ist  of 
May  1875,  and  was  formally  inaugurated  on  the  2 2nd  of  February 
1876.  This  post  he  filled  until  1901.  From  1901  to  1904  he 
was  the  first  president  of  the  Carnegie  Institution  at  Washington, 
D.C.  He  died  at  Norwich,  Conn.,  on  the  I3th  of  October  1908. 
He  received  the  honorary  degree  of  LL.D.  from  Harvard,  St 
John's,  Columbia,  Yale,  North  Carolina,  Princeton,  Toronto, 
Wisconsin  and  Clark  Universities,  and  William  and  Mary  College. 
His  influence  upon  higher  education  in  America  was  great, 
especially  at  Johns  Hopkins,  where  many  wise  details  of  ad- 
ministration, the  plan  of  bringing  to  the  university  as  lecturers 
for  a  part  of  the  year  scholars  from  other  colleges,  the  choice  of 
a  singularly  brilliant  and  able  faculty,  and  the  marked  willing- 
ness to  recognize  workers  in  new  branches  of  science  were  all 
largely  due  to  him.  To  the  organization  of  the  Johns  Hopkins 
hospital,  of  which  he  was  made  director  in  1889,  he  contributed 
greatly.  He  was  a  singularly  good  judge  of  men  and  an  able 
administrator,  and  under  him  Johns  Hopkins  had  an  immense 
influence,  especially  in  the  promotion  of  original  and  productive 
research.  He  was  always  deeply  interested  in  the  researches 
of  the  professors  at  Johns  Hopkins,  and  it  has  been  said  of  him 
that  his  attention  as  president  was  turned  inside  and  not  outside 
the  university.  He  was  instrumental  in  determining  the  policy 
of  the  Sheffield  Scientific  School  of  Yale  University  while  he 
was  a  member  of  its  governing  board;  on  the  28th  of  October 
1897  he  delivered  at  New  Haven  a  semi-centennial  discourse 
on  the  school,  which  appears  in  his  University  Problems.  He  was 
a  prominent  member  of  the  American  Archaeological  Society 
and  of  the  American  Oriental  Society;  was  one  of  the  original 
trustees  of  the  John  F.  Slater  Fund  (for  a  time  he  was  secretary, 
and  from  1893  until  his  death  was  president  of  the  board); 
from  1891  until  his  death  was  a  trustee  of  the  Peabody  Educa- 
tional Fund  (being  the  vice-president  of  the  board);  and  was 
an  original  member  of  the  General  Education  Board  (1902) 
and  a  trustee  of  the  Russell  Sage  Foundation  for  Social  Better- 
ment (1907).  In  1896-1897  he  served  on  the  Venezuela  Boundary 
Commission  appointed  by  President  Cleveland.  In  1901  he 
succeeded  Carl  Schurz  as  president  of  the  National  Civil  Service 
Reform  League  and  served  until  1907.  Some  of  his  papers 
and  addresses  are  collected  in  a  volume  entitled  University 
Problems  in  the  United  States  (1888).  He  wrote,  besides,  James 
Monroe  (1883),  in  the  American  Statesmen  Series;  a  Life  of 
James  D.  Dana,  the  geologist  (1899);  Science  and  Letters  at 
Yale  (1901),  and  The  Launching  of  a  University  (1906),  an 
account  of  the  early  years  of  Johns  Hopkins. 

GILMORE,  PATRICK  SARSFIELD  (1829-1892),  American 
bandmaster,  was  born  in  Ireland,  and  settled  in  America  about 
1850.  He  had  been  in  the  band  of  an  Irish  regiment,  and  he  had 
great  success  as  leader  of  a  military  band  at  Salem,  Massachu- 
setts, and  subsequently  (1859)  in  Boston.  He  increased  his 
reputation  during  the  Civil  War,  particularly  by  organizing  a 
monster  orchestra  of  massed  bands  for  a  festival  at  New  Orleans 
in  1864;  and  at  Boston  in  1869  and  1872  he  gave  similar  per- 
formances. He  was  enormously  popular  as  a  bandmaster,  and 
composed  or  arranged  a  large  variety  of  pieces  for  orchestra. 
He  died  at  St  Louis  on  the  24th  of  September  1892 

GILPIN,  BERNARD  (1517-1583),  the  "  Apostle  of  the  North," 
was  descended  from  a  Westmorland  family,  and  was  born  at 
Kentmere  in  1517.  He  was  educated  at  Queen's  College, 
Oxford,  graduating  B.A.  in  1540,  M.A.  in  1542  and  B.D.  in  1549. 
He  was  elected  fellow  of  Queen's  and  ordained  in  1542;  subse- 
quently he  was  elected  student  of  Christ  Church.  At  Oxford  he 
first  adhered  to  the  conservative  side,  and  defended  the  doctrines 
of  the  church  against  Hooper;  but  his  confidence  was  somewhat 
shaken  by  another  public  disputation  which  he  had  with  Peter 
Martyr.  In  1552  he  preached  before  King  Edward  VI.  a  sermon 


on  sacrilege,  which  was  duly  published,  and  displays  the  high 
ideal  which  even  then  he  had  formed  of  the  clerical  office;  and 
about  the  same  time  he  was  presented  to  the  vicarage  of  Norton, 
in  the  diocese  of  Durham,  and  obtained  a  licence,  through 
William  Cecil,  as  a  general  preacher  throughout  the  kingdom 
as  long  as  the  king  lived.  On  Mary's  accession  he  went  abroad 
to  pursue  his  theological  investigations  at  Louvain,  Antwerp 
and  Paris;  and  from  a  letter  of  his  own,  dated  Louvain,  1554, 
we  get  a  glimpse  of  the  quiet  student  rejoicing  in  an  "  excellent 
library  belonging  to  a  monastery  of  Minorites."  Returning  to 
England  towards  the  close  of  Queen  Mary's  reign,  he  was  invested 
by  his  mother's  uncle,  Tunstall,  bishop  of  Durham,  with  the 
archdeaconry  of  Durham,  to  which  the  rectory  of  Easington 
was  annexed.  The  freedom  of  his  attacks  on  the  vices,  and 
especially  the  clerical  vices,  of  his  times  excited  hostility  against 
him,  and  he  was  formally  brought  before  the  bishop  on  a  charge 
consisting  of  thirteen  articles.  Tunstall,  however,  not  only 
dismissed  the  case,  but  presented  the  offender  with  the  rich 
living  of  Hough ton-le-Spring;  and  when  the  accusation  was 
again  brought  forward,  he  again  protected  him.  Enraged  at 
this  defeat,  Gilpin's  enemies  laid  their  complaint  before  Bonner, 
bishop  of  London,  who  secured  a  royal  warrant  for  his  apprehen- 
sion. Upon  this  Gilpin  prepared  for  martyrdom;  and,  having 
ordered  his  house-steward  to  provide  him  with  a  long  garment, 
that  he  might  "  goe  the  more  comely  to  the  stake,"  he  set  out 
for  London.  Fortunately,  however,  for  him,  he  broke  his  leg 
on  the  journey,  and  his  arrival  was  thus  delayed  till  the  news 
of  Queen  Mary's  death  freed  him  from  further  danger.  He  at 
once  returned  to  Houghton,  and  there  he  continued  to  labour 
till  his  'death  on  the  4th  of  March  1583.  When  the  Roman 
Catholic  bishops  were  deprived  he  was  offered  the  see  of  Carlisle; 
but  he  declined  this  honour  and  also  the  provostship  of  Queen's, 
which  was  offered  him  in  1560.  At  Houghton  his  course  of  life 
was  a  ceaseless  round  of  benevolent  activity.  In  June  1560  he 
entertained  Cecil  and  Dr  Nicholas  Wotton  on  their  way  to 
Edinburgh.  His  hospitable  manner  of  living  was  the  admiration 
of  all.  His  living  was  a  comparatively  rich  one,  his  house  was 
better  than  many  bishops'  palaces,  and  his  position  was  that 
of  a  clerical  magnate.  In  his  household  he  spent  "  every 
fortnight  40  bushels  of  corn,  20  bushels  of  malt  and  an  ox, 
besides  a  proportional  quantity  of  other  kinds  of  provisions." 
Strangers  and  travellers  found  a  ready  reception;  and  even 
their  horses  were  treated  with  so  much  care  that  it  was  humor- 
ously said  that,  if  one  were  turned  loose  in  any  part  of  the  country, 
it  would  immediately  make  its  way  to  the  rector  of  Houghton. 
Every  Sunday  from  Michaelmas  till  Easter  was  a  public  day 
with  Gilpin.  For  the  reception  of  his  parishioners  he  had  three 
tables  well  covered — one  for  gentlemen,  the  second  for  husband- 
men, the  third  for  day-labourers;  and  this  piece  of  hospitality 
he  never  omitted,  even  when  losses  or  scarcity  made  its  continu- 
ance difficult.  He  built  and  endowed  a  grammar-school  at  a 
cost  of  upwards  of  £500,  educated  and  maintained  a  large  number 
of  poor  children  at  his  own  charge,  and  provided  the  more 
promising  pupils  with  means  of  studying  at  the  universities. 
So  many  young  people,  indeed,  flocked  to  his  school  that  there 
was  not  accommodation  for  them  in  Houghton,  and  he  had  to  fit 
up  part  of  his  house  as  a  boarding  establishment.  Grieved  at 
the  ignorance  and  superstition  which  the  remissness  of  the  clergy 
permitted  to  flourish  in  the  neighbouring  parishes,  he  used 
every  year  to  visit  the  most  neglected  parts  of  Northumberland, 
Yorkshire,  Cheshire,  Westmorland  and  Cumberland;  and  that 
his  own  flock  might  not  suffer,  he  was  at  the  expense  of  a  constant 
assistant.  Among  his  parishioners  he  was  looked  up  to  as  a 
judge,  and  did  great  service  in  preventing  law-suits  amongst 
them.  If  an  industrious  man  suffered  a  loss,  he  delighted  to 
make  it  good;  if  the  harvest  was  bad,  he  was  liberal  in  the 
remission  of  tithes.  The  boldness  which  he  could  display  at 
need  is  well  illustrated  by  his  action  in  regard  to  duelling.  Find- 
ing one  day  a  challenge-glove  stuck  up  on  the  door  of  a  church 
where  he  was  to  preach,  he  took  it  down  with  his  own  hand,  and 
proceeded  to  the  pulpit  to  inveigh  against  the  unchristian 
custom.  His  theological  position  was  not  in  accord  with  any  of 


26 


GILSONITE— GIN 


the  religious  parties  of  his  age,  and  Gladstone  thought  that 
the  catholicity  of  the  Anglican  Church  was  better  exemplified 
in  his  career  than  in  those  of  more  prominent  ecclesiastics 
(pref.  to  A.  W.  Hutton's  edition  of  S.  R.  Maitland's  Essays 
on  the  Reformation).  He  was  not  satisfied  with  the  Elizabethan 
settlement,  had  great  respect  for  the  Fathers,  and  was  with 
difficulty  induced  to  subscribe.  Archbishop  Sandys'  views  on 
the  Eucharist  horrified  him;  but  on  the  other  hand  he  main- 
tained friendly  relations  with  Bishop  Pilkington  and  Thomas 
Lever,  and  the  Puritans  had  some  hope  of  his  support. 

A  life  of  Bernard  Gilpin,  written  by  George  Carleton,  bishop  of 
Chichester,  who  had  been  a  pupil  of  Gilpin's  at  Houghton,  will  be 
found  in  Bates's  Viiae  selectorum  aliquot  virorum,  &c.  (London, 
1681).  A  translation  of  this  sketch  by  William  Freake,  minister, 
was  published  at  London,  1629;  and  in  1852  it  was  reprinted  in 
Glasgow,  with  an  introductory  essay  by  Edward  Irving.  It  forms 
one  of  the  lives  in  Christopher  Wordsworth's  Ecclesiastical  Biography 
(vol.  iii.,  4th  ed.),  having  been  compared  with  Carleton's  Latin 
text.  Another  biography  of  Gilpin,  which,  however,  adds  little  to 
Bishop  Carleton's,  was  written  by  William  Gilpin,  M.A.,  prebendary 
of  Ailsbury  (London,  1753  and  1854).  See  also  Diet.  Nat.  Biog. 

GILSONITE  (so  named  after  S.  H.  Gilson  of  Salt  Lake  City), 
or  UINTAHITE,  or  UINTAITE,  a  description  of  asphalt  occurring  in 
masses  several  inches  in  diameter  in  the  Uinta  (or  Uintah) 
valley,  near  Fort  Duchesne,  Utah.  It  is  of  black  colour;  its 
fracture  is  conchoidal,  and  it  has  a  lustrous  surface.  When 
warmed  it  becomes  plastic,  and  on  further  beating  fuses  perfectly. 
It  has  a  specific  gravity  of  1-065  to  1-070.  It  dissolves  freely 
in  hot  oil  of  turpentine.  The  output  amounted  to  10,916  short 
tons  for  the  year  1905,  and  the  value  was  $4-31  per  ton. 

GILYAKS,  a  hybrid  people,  originally  widespread  throughout 
the  Lower  Amur  district,  but  now  confined  to  the  Amur  delta 
and  the  north  of  Sakhalin.  They  have  been  affiliated  by  some 
authorities  to  the  Ainu  of  Sakhalin  and  Yezo;  but  they  are  more 
probably  a  mongrel  people,  and  Dr  A.  Anuchin  states  that 
there  are  two  types,  a  Mongoloid  with  sparse  beard,  high  cheek- 
bones and  flat  face,  and  a  Caucasic  with  bushy  beard  and  more 
regular  features.  The  Chinese  call  them  Yupitatse,  "  Fish-skin- 
clad  people,"  from  their  wearing  a  peculiar  dress  made  from 

salmon  skin. 

See  E.  G.  Ravenstein,  The  Russians  on  the  Amur  (1861);  Dr  A. 
Anuchin,  Mem.  Imp.  Soc.  Nat.  Sc.  xx.,  Supplement  (Moscow,  1877) ; 
H.  von  Siebold,  Ober  die  Aino  (Berlin,  1881);  J.  Deniker  in  Revue 
d' ethnographic  (Paris,  1884);  L.  Schrenck,  Dte  Volker  des  Amur- 
landes  (St  Petersburg,  1891). 

GIMBAL,  a  mechanical  device  for  hanging  some  object  so 
that  it  should  keep  a  horizontal  and  constant  position,  while 
the  body  from  which  it  is  suspended  is  in  free  motion,  so  that 
the  motion  of  the  supporting  body  is  not  communicated  to  it. 
It  is  thus  used  particularly  for  the  suspension  of  compasses  or 
chronometers  and  lamps  at  sea,  and  usually  consists  of  a  ring 
freely  moving  on  an  axis,  within  which  the  object  swings  on  an 
axis  at  right  angles  to  the  ring. 

The  word  is  derived  from  the  0.  Fr.  gemel,  from  Lat.  gemellus, 
diminutive  of  geminus,  a  twin,  and  appears  also  in  gimmel  or 
jimbel  and  as  gemel,  especially  as  a  term  for  a  ring  formed  of  two 
hoops  linked  together  and  capable  of  separation,  used  in  the 
1 6th  and  tyth  centuries  as  betrothal  and  keepsake  rings.  They 
sometimes  were  made  of  three  or  more  hoops  linked  together. 

GIMLET  (from  the  O.  Fr.  guimbelet,  probably  a  diminutive 
of  the  O.E.  wimble,  and  the  Scandinavian  wammle,  to  bore  or 
twist;  the  modern  French  is  gibelet),  a  tool  used  for  boring  small 
holes.  It  is  made  of  steel,  with  a  shaft  having  a  hollow  side, 
and  a  screw  at  the  end  for  boring  the  wood;  the  handle  of  wood 
is  fixed  transversely  to  the  shaft.  A  gimlet  is  always  a  small 
tool.  A  similar  tool  of  large  size  is  called  an  "  auger  "  (see 
TOOL). 

GIMLI,  in  Scandinavian  mythology,  the  great  hall  of  heaven 
whither  the  righteous  will  go  to  spend  eternity. 

GIMP,  or  GYMP.  (i)  (Of  somewhat  doubtful  origin,  but  prob- 
ably a  nasal  form  of  the  Fr.  guipure,  from  guiper,  to  cover  or 
"  whip  "  a  cord  over  with  silk),  a  stiff  trimming  made  of  silk 
or  cotton  woven  around  a  firm  cord,  often  further  ornamented 
by  a  metal  cord  running  through  it.  It  is  also  sometimes 
covered  with  bugles,  beads  or  other  glistening  ornaments.  The 


trimming  employed  by  upholsterers  to  edge  curtains,  draperies, 
the  seats  of  chairs,  &c.,  is  also  called  gimp;  and  in  lace  work 
it  is  the  firmer  or  coarser  thread  which  outlines  the  pattern  and 
strengthens  the  material.  (2)  A  shortened  form  of  gimple  (the 
O.E.  wimple),  the  kerchief  worn  by  a  nun  around  her  throat, 
sometimes  also  applied  to  a  nun's  stomacher. 

GIN,  an  aromatized  or  compounded  potable  spirit,  the  char- 
acteristic flavour  of  which  is  derived  from  the  juniper  berry. 
The  word  "  gin  "  is  an  abbreviation  of  Geneva,  both  being 
primarily  derived  from  the  Fr.  geniewe  (juniper).  The  use  of 
the  juniper  for  flavouring  alcoholic  beverages  may  be  traced  to 
the  invention,  or  perfecting,  by  Count  de  Morret,  son  of  Henry 
IV.  of  France,  of  juniper  wine.  It  was  the  custom  in  the  early 
days  of  the  spirit  industry,  in  distilling  spirit  from  fermented 
liquors,  to  add  in  the  working  some  aromatic  ingredients,  such 
as  ginger,  grains  of  paradise,  &c.,  to  take  off  the  nauseous 
flavour  of  the  crude  spirits  then  made.  The  invention  of  juniper 
wine,  no  doubt,  led  some  one  to  try  the  juniper  berry  for  this 
purpose,  and  as  this  flavouring  agent  was  found  not  only  to 
yield  an  agreeable  beverage,  but  also  to  impart  a  valuable 
medicinal  quality  to  the  spirit,  it  was  generally  made  use  of  by 
makers  of  aromatized  spirits  thereafter.  It  is  probable  that  the 
use  of  grains  of  paradise,  pepper  and  so  on,  in  the  early  days  of 
spirit  manufacture,  for  the  object  mentioned  above,  indirectly 
gave  rise  to  the  statements  which  are  still  found  in  current  text- 
bocks  and  works  of  reference  as"  to  the  use  of  Cayenne  pepper, 
cocculus  indicus,  sulphuric  acid  and  so  on,  for  the  purpose  of 
adulterating  spirits.  It  is  quite  certain  that  such  materials  are 
not  used  nowadays,  and  it  would  indeed,  in  view  of  modern 
conditions  of  manufacture  and  of  public  taste,  be  hard  to  find  a 
reason  for  their  use.  The  same  applies  to  the  suggestions  that 
such  substances  as  acetate  of  lead,  alum  or  sulphate  of  zinc  are 
employed  for  the  fining  of  gin. 

There  are  two  distinct  types  of  gin,  namely,  the  Dutch  geneva 
or  hollands  and  the  British  gin.  Each  of  these  types  exists  in 
the  shape  of  numerous  sub-varieties.  Broadly  speaking,  British 
gin  is  prepared  with  a  highly  rectified  spirit,  whereas  in  the 
manufacture  of  Dutch  gin  a  preliminary  rectification  is  not  an 
integral  part  of  the  process.  The  old-fashioned  Hollands  is 
prepared  much  after  the  following  fashion.  A  mash  consisting 
of  about  one-third  of  malted  barley  or  bere  and  two-thirds  rye- 
meal  is  prepared,  and  infused  at  a  somewhat  high  temperature. 
After  cooling,  the  whole  is  set  to  ferment  with  a  small  quantity 
of  yeast.  After  two  to  three  days  the  attenuation  is  complete, 
and  the  wash  so  obtained  is  distilled,  and  the  resulting  distillate 
(the  low  wines)  is  redistilled,  with  the  addition  of  the  flavouring 
matter  (juniper  berries,  &c.)  and  a  little  salt.  Originally  the 
juniper  berries  were  ground  with  the  malt,  but  this  practice  no 
longer  obtains,  but  some  distillers,  it  is  believed,  still  mix  the 
juniper  berries  with  the  wort  and  subject  the  whole  to  fermenta- 
tion. When  the  redistillation  over  juniper  is  repeated,  the 
product  is  termed  double  (geneva,  &c.).  There  are  numerous 
variations  in  the  process  described,  wheat  being  frequently 
employed  in  lieu  of  rye.  In  the  manufacture  of  British  gin,1 
a  highly  rectified  spirit  (see  SPIRITS)  is  redistilled  in  the  presence 
of  the  flavouring  matter  (principally  juniper  and  coriander), 
and  frequently  this  operation  is  repeated  several  times.  The 
product  so  obtained  constitutes  the  "  dry  "  gin  of  commerce. 
Sweetened  or  cordialized  gin  is  obtained  by  adding  sugar  and 

1  The  precise  origin  of  the  term  "  Old  Tom,"  as  applied  to  un- 
sweetened gin,  appears  to  be  somewhat  obscure.  In  the  English 
case  of  Board  &  Son  v.  Huddart  (1903),  in  which  the  plaintiffs  estab- 
lished their  right  to  the  "  Cat  Brand  "  trade-mark,  it  was  proved 
before  Mr  Justice  Swinfen  Eady  that  this  firm  had  first  adopted 
about  1849  the  punning  association  of  the  picture  of  a  Tom  cat 
on  a  barrel  with  the  name  of  "  Old  Tom  ";  and  it  was  at  one  time 
supposed  that  this  was  due  to  a  tradition  that  a  cat  had  fallen  into 
one  of  the  vVits,  the  gin  from  which  was  highly  esteemed.  But  the 
term  "  Old  Tom  "  had  been  known  before  that, and  Messrs  Boord  & 
Son  inform  us  that  previously  "  Old  Tom  "  had  been  a  man,  namely 
"  old  Thomas  Chamberlain  of  Hodge's  distillery  " ;  an  old  label 
book  in  their  possession  (1909)  shows  a  label  and  bill-head  with  a 
picture  of  "  Old  Tom  "  the  man  on  it,  and  another  label  shows  a 
picture  of  a  sailor  lad  on  shipboard  described  as  "  Young  Tom." 


GINDELY— GINGER 


27 


flavouring  matter  (juniper,  coriander,  angelica,  &c.)  to  the  dry 
variety.  Inferior  qualities  of  gin  are  made  by  simply  adding 
essential  oils  to  plain  spirit,  the  distillation  process  being  omitted. 
The  essential  oil  of  juniper  is  a  powerful  diuretic,  and  gin  is 
frequently  prescribed  in  affections  of  the  urinary  organs. 

GINDELY,  ANTON  (1829-1892),  German  historian,  was  the 
son  of  a  German  father  and  a  Slavonic  mother,  and  was  born  at 
Prague  on  the  3rd  of  September  1829.  He  studied  at  Prague 
and  at  Olmiitz,  and,  after  travelling  extensively  in  search  of 
historical  material,  became  professor  of  history  at  the  university 
of  Prague  and  archivist  for  Bohemia  in  1862.  He  died  at 
Prague  on  the  24th  of  October  1892.  Gindely's  chief  work  is 
his  Geschichle  des  dreissigjdhrigen  Kriegis  (Prague,  1869-1880), 
which  has  been  translated  into  English  (New  York,  1884); 
and  his  historical  work  is  mainly  concerned  with  the  period  of  the 
Thirty  Years'  War.  Perhaps  the  most  important  of  his  numerous 
other  works  are:  Geschichte  der  bohmischen  Briider  (Prague, 
1857-1858);  Rudolf  II.  und  seine  Zeit  (1862-1868),  and  a  criti- 
cism of  Wallenstein,  Waldstein  wahrend  seines  ersten  Generalats 
(1886).  He  wrote  a  history  of  Bethlen  Gabor  in  Hungarian, 
and  edited  the  Monumenta  historiae  Bohemica.  Gindely's 
posthumous  work,  Geschichle  der  Gegenreformation  in  Bdhmen, 
was  edited  by  T.  Tupetz  (1894). 

See  the  Allgemeine  deutsche  Biographic,  Band  49  (Leipzig,  1904). 

GINGALL,  or  JINGAL  (Hindostani  janjal) ,  a  gun  used  by  the 
natives  throughout  the  East,  usually  a  light  piece  mounted  on 
a  swivel;  it  sometimes  takes  the  form  of  a  heavy  musket  fired 
from  a  rest.  . 

GINGER  (Fr.  gingembre,  Ger.  Ingwer),  the  rhizome  or  under- 
ground stem  of  Zingiber  officinale  (nat.  ord.  Zingiberaceae) ,  a 
perennial  reed-like  plant  growing  from  3  to  4  ft.  high.  The 
flowers  and  leaves  are  borne  on  separate  stems,  those  of  the 
former  being  shorter  than  those  of  the  latter,  and  averaging  from 
6  to  1 2  in.  The  flowers  themselves  are  borne  at  the  apex  of  the 
stems  in  dense  ovate-oblong  cone-like  spikes  from  2  to  3  in.  long, 
composed  of  obtuse  strongly-imbricated  bracts  with  membranous 
margins,  each  bract  enclosing  a  single  small  sessile  flower.  The 
leaves  are  alternate  and  arranged  in  two  rows,  bright  green, 
smooth,  tapering  at  both  ends,  with  very  short  stalks  and  long 
sheaths  which  stand  away  from  the  stem  and  end  in  two  small 
rounded  auricles.  The  plant  rarely  flowers  and  the  fruit  is 
unknown.  Though  not  found  in  a  wild  state,  it  is  considered 
with  very  good  reason  to  be  a  native  of  the  warmer  parts  of  Asia, 
over  which  it  has  been  cultivated  from  an  early  period  and  the 
rhizome  imported  into  England.  From  Asia  the  plant  has  spread 
into  the  West  Indies,  South  America,  western  tropical  Airica, 
and  Australia.  It  is  commonly  grown  in  botanic  gardens  in 
Britain. 

The  use  of  ginger  as  a  spice  has  been  known  from  very  early 
times;  it  was  supposed  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans  to  be  a 
product  of  southern  Arabia,  and  was  received  by  them  by  way 
of  the  Red  Sea;  in  India  it  has  also  been  known  from  a  very 
remote  period,  the  Greek  and  Latin  names  being  derived  from 
the  Sanskrit.  Fliickiger  and  Hanbury,  in  their  Pharmacographia, 
give  the  following  notes  on  the  history  of  ginger.  On  the 
authority  of  Vincent's  Commerce  and  Navigation  of  the  Ancients, 
it  is  stated  that  in  the  list  of  imports  from  the  Red  Sea  into 
Alexandria,  which  in  the  second  century  of  our  era  were  there 
liable  to  the  Roman  fiscal  duty,  ginger  occurs  among  other 
Indian  spices.  So  frequent  is  the  mention  of  ginger  in  similar 
lists  during  the  middle  ages,  that  it  evidently  constituted  an 
important  item  in  the  commerce  between  Europe  and  the  East. 
It  thus  appears  in  the  tariff  of  duties  levied  at  Acre  in  Palestine 
about  1173,  in  that  of  Barcelona  in  1221,  Marseilles  in  1228 
and  Paris  in  1296.  Ginger  seems  to  have  been  well  known  in 
England  even  before  the  Norman  Conquest,  being  often  referred 
to  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  leech-books  of  the  nth  century.  It  was 
very  common  in  the  I3th  and  I4th  centuries,  ranking  next  in 
value  to  pepper,  which  was  then  the  commonest  of  all  spices, 
and  costing  on  an  average  about  is.  yd.  per  Ib.  Three  kinds  of 
ginger  were  known  among  the  merchants  of  Italy  about  the 
middle  of  the  I4th  century:  (i)  Belledi  or  Baladi,  an  Arabic 


name,  which,  as  applied  to  ginger,  would  signify  country  or 
wild,  and  denotes  common  ginger;  (2)  Colombino,  which  refers 
to  Columbum,  Kolam  or  Quilon,  a  port  in  Travancore,  fre- 
quently mentioned  in  the  middle  ages;  and  (3)  Micchino,  a 
name  which  denoted  that  the  spice  had  been  brought  from  or 
by  way  of  Mecca.  Marco  Polo  seems  to  have  seen  the  ginger 
plant  both  in  India  and  China  between  1280  and  1290.  John  of 
Montecorvino,  a  missionary  friar  who  visited  India  about  1292, 
gives  a  description  of  the  plant,  and  refers  to  the  fact  of  the  root 
being  dug  up  and  transported.  Nicolo  di  Conto,  a  Venetian 
merchant  in  the  early  part  of  the  isth  century,  also  describes 
the  plant  and  the  collection  of  the  root,  as  seen  by  him  in  India. 
Though  the  Venetians  received  ginger  by  way  of  Egypt,  some  of 
the  superior  kinds  were  taken  from  India  overland  by  the  Black 
Sea.  The  spice  is  said  to  have  been  introduced  into  America 


From  Bentley  &  Trimen's  Medicinal  Plants,  by  permission  of  J  &  A.  Churchill. 

Ginger  (Zingiber  officinale),  half  nat.  size,  with  leafy  and  flowering 

stem ;   the  former  cut  off  short. 

1.  Flower.  /,      Labellum,  representing  two 

2.  Flower  in  vertical  section.  barren  stamens. 

3.  Fertile  stamen.enveloping  the     st,    Fertile  stamen, 
style  which  projects  above  it.     y,     Staminode. 

4.  Piece    of    leafy    stem.     1-3     x,     Tip    of    style    bearing    the 

enlarged.  stigma. 

s,     Sepals.  2,     Style. 

p,     Petals.  gl,    Honey-secreting  glands. 

by  Francisco  de  Mendofa,  who  took  it  from  the  East  Indies  to 
New  Spain.  It  seems  to  have  been  shipped  for  commercial  pur- 
poses from  San  Domingo  as  early  as  1585,  and  from  Barbados 
in  1654;  so  early  as  1547  considerable  quantities  were  sent  from 
the  West  Indies  to  Spain. 

Ginger  is  known  in  commerce  in  two  distinct  forms,  termed 
respectively  coated  and  uncoated  ginger,  as  having  or  wanting 
the  epidermis.  For  the  first,  the  pieces,  which  are  called  "  races  " 
or  "  hands,"  from  their  irregular  palmate  form,  are  washed  and 
simply  dried  in  the  sun.  In  this  form  ginger  presents  a  brown, 
more  or  less  irregularly  wrinkled  or  striated  surface,  and  when 
broken  shows  a  dark  brownish  fracture,  hard,  and  sometimes 
horny  and  resinous.  To  produce  uncoated  ginger  the  rhizomes 
are  washed,  scraped  and  sun-dried,  and  are  often  subjected 
to  a  system  of  bleaching,  either  from  the  fumes  of  burning 
sulphur  or  by  immersion  for  a  short  time  in  a  solution  of  chlorin- 
ated lime.  The  whitewashed  appearance  that  much  of  the 
ginger  has,  as  seen  in  the  shops,  is  due  to  the  fact  of  its  being 
washed  in  whiting  and  water,  or  even  coated  with  sulphate  of 


28 


GINGHAM— GINKEL 


lime.  This  artificial  coating  is  supposed  by  some  to  give  the 
ginger  a  better  appearance;  it  often,  however,  covers  an  inferior 
quality,  and  can  readily  be  detected  by  the  ease  with  which  it 
rubs  off,  or  by  its  leaving  a  white  powdery  substance  at  the  bottom 
of  the  jar  in  which  it  is  contained.  Uncoated  ginger,  as  seen 
in  trade,  varies  from  single  joints  an  inch  or  less  in  length  to 
flattish  irregularly  branched  pieces  of  several  joints,  the  ''  races  " 
or  "  hands,"  and  from  3  to  4  in.  long;  each  branch  has  a  depres- 
sion at  its  summit  showing  the  former  attachment  of  a  leafy 
stem.  The  colour,  when  not  whitewashed,  is  a  pale  buff;  it  is 
somewhat  rough  or  fibrous,  breaking  with  a  short  mealy  fracture, 
and  presenting  on  the  surfaces  of  the  broken  parts  numerous  short 
bristly  fibres. 

The  principal  constituents  of  ginger  are  starch,  volatile  oil  (to 
which  the  characteristic  odour  of  the  spice  is  due)  and  resin  (to 
which  is  attributed  its  pungency).  Its  chief  use  is  as  a  condiment 
or  spice,  but  as  an  aromatic  and  stomachic  medicine  it  is  also  used 
internally.  "  The  stimulant,  aromatic  and  carminative  properties 
render  it  of  much  value  in  atonic  dyspepsia,  especially  if  accom- 
panied with  much  flatulence,  and  as  an  adjunct  to  purgative  medi- 
cines to  correct  griping."  Externally  applied  as  a  rubefacient,  it 
has  been  found  to  relieve  headache  and  toothache.  The  rhizomes, 
collected  in  a  young  green  state,  washed,  scraped  and  preserved  in 
syrup,  form  a  delicious  preserve,  which  is  largely  exported  both 
from  the  West  Indies  and  from  China.  Cut  up  into  pieces  like 
lozenges  and  preserved  in  sugar,  ginger  also  forms  a  very  agreeable 
sweetmeat. 

GINGHAM,  a  cotton  or  linen  cloth,  for  the  name  of  which 
several  origins  are  suggested.  It  is  said  to  have  been  made  at 
Guingamp,  a  town  in  Brittany;  the  New  English  Dictionary 
derives  the  word  from  Malay  ging-gang,  meaning  "  striped." 
The  cloth  is  now  of  a  light  or  medium  weight,  and  woven  of  dyed 
or  white  yarns  either  in  a  single  colour  or  different  colours,  and 
in  stripes,  checks  or  plaids.  It  is  made  in  Lancashire  and 
in  Glasgow,  and  also  to  a  large  extent  in  the  United  States. 
Imitations  of  it  are  obtained  by  calico-printing.  It  is  used  for 
dresses,  &c. 

GINGI,  or  GINGEE,  a  rock  fortress  of  southern  India,  in  the 
South  Arcot  district  of  Madras.  It  consists  of  three  hills,  con- 
nected by  walls  enclosing  an  area  of  7  sq.  m.,  and  practically 
impregnable  to  assault.  The  origin  of  the  fortress  is  shrouded 
in  legend.  When  occupied  by  the  Mahrattas  at  the  end  of  the 
17th  century,  it  withstood  a  siege  of  eight  years  against  the  armies 
of  Aurangzeb.  In  1750  it  was  captured  by  the  French,  who  held 
it  with  a  strong  force  for  eleven  years.  It  surrendered  to  the 
English  in  1761,  in  the  words  of  Orme,  "  terminated  the  long 
hostilities  between  the  two  rival  European  powers  in  Coromandel, 
and  left  not  a  single  ensign  of  the  French  nation  avowed  by  the 
authority  of  its  government  in  any  part  of  India." 

GINGUENfi,  PIERRE  LOUIS  (1748-1815),  French  author, 
was  born  on  the  27th  of  April  1748  at  Rennes,  in  Brittany.  He 
was  educated  at  a  Jesuit  college  in  his  native  town,  and  came 
to  Paris  in  1772.  He  wrote  criticisms  for  the  Mercure  de  France, 
and  composed  a  comic  opera,  Pomponin  (1777).  The  Satire  des 
satires  (1778)  and  the  Confession  de  Zidme  (1779)  followed. 
The  Confession  was  claimed  by  six  or  seven  different  authors,  and 
though  the  value  of  the  piece  is  not  very  great,  it  obtained  great 
success.  His  defence  of  Piccini  against  the  partisans  of  Gluck 
made  him  still  more  widely  known.  He  hailed  the  first  symptoms 
of  the  Revolution,  joined  Giuseppe  Cerutti,  the  author  of  the 
Memoire  pour  le  peuple  franc,  a  is  (1788),  and  others  in  producing 
the  Feuille  villageoise,  a  weekly  paper  addressed  to  the  villages 
of  France.  He  also  celebrated  in  an  indifferent  ode  the  opening 
of  the  states-general.  In  his  Lettres  sur  les  confessions  de  J.-J. 
Rousseau  (1791)  he  defended  the  life  and  principles  of  his  author. 
He  was  imprisoned  during  the  Terror,  and  only  escaped  with 
life  by  the  downfall  of  Robespierre.  Some  time  after  his  release 
he  assisted,  as  director-general  of  the  "  commission  executive 
de  1'instruction  publique,"  in  reorganizing  the  system  of  public 
instruction,  and  he  was  an  original  member  of  the  Institute  of 
France.  In  1797  the  directory  appointed  him  minister  pleni- 
potentiary to  the  king  of  Sardinia.  After  fulfilling  his  duties 
for  seven  months,  very  little  to  the  satisfaction  of  his  employers, 
Ginguen6  retired  for  a  time  to  his  country  house  of  St  Prix,  in 


the  valley  of  Montmorency.  He  was  appointed  a  member  of 
the  tribunate,  but  Napoleon,  finding  that  he  was  not  sufficiently 
tractable,  had  him  expelled  at  the  first  "  purge,"  and  Ginguene 
returned  to  his  literary  pursuits.  He  was  one  of  the  commission 
charged  to  continue  the  Histoire  litteraire  de  la  France,  and  he 
contributed  to  the  volumes  of  this  series  which  appeared  in  1814, 
1817  and  1820.  Ginguene's  most  important  work  is  the  Histoire 
litteraire  d'ltalie  (14  vols.,  1811-1835).  He  was  putting  the 
finishing  touches  to  the  eighth  and  ninth  volumes  when  he  died 
on  the  nth  of  November  1815.  The  last  five  volumes  were 
written  by  Francesco  Salfi  and  revised  by  Pierre  Daunou. 

In  the  composition  of  his  history  of  Italian  literature  he  was 
guided  for  the  most  part  by  the  great  work  of  Girolamo  Tiraboschi, 
but  he  avoids  the  prejudices  and  party  views  of  his  model. 

Ginguene'  edited  the  Decade  philosophique,  politique  et  litteraire 
till  it  was  suppressed  by  Napoleon  in  1807.  fie  contributed  largely 
to  the  Biographie  universelle,  the  Mercure  de  France  and  the,  En- 
cyclopedie  methodique;  and  he  edited  the  works  of  Chamfort  and  of 
Lebrun.  Among  his  minor  productions  are  an  opera,  Pomponin 
ou  le  tuteur  mystifie  (1777) ;  La  Satire  des  satires  (1778);  De 
I'autorite  de  Rabelais  dans  la  revolution  presente  (1791);  De  M. 
Neckar  (1795);  Fables  nouvelles  (1810);  Fables  inedites  (1814).  See 
"  Eloge  de  Ginguen6  "  by  Dacier,  in  the  Memoires  de  I'institut,  torn, 
vii. ;  "  Discours  "  by  M.  Daunou,  prefixed  to  the  2nd  ed.  of  the 
Hist.  lilt,  d'ltalie;  |D.  J.  Garat,  Notice  sur  la  vie  et  les  ouvrages  de 
P.  L.  Guingene,  prefixed  to  a  catalogue  of  his  library  (Paris,  1817). 

GINKEL,  GODART  VAN  (1630-1703),  ist  earl  of  Athlone, 
Dutch  general  in  the  service  of  England,  was  born  at  Utrecht 
in  1630.  He  came  of  a  noble  family,  and  bore  the  title  of  Baron 
van  Reede,  being  the  eldest  son  of  Godart  Adrian  van  Reede, 
Baron  Ginkel.  In  his  youth  he  entered  the  Dutch  army,  and  in 
1688  he  followed  William,  prince  of  Orange,  in  his  expedition  to 
England.  In  the  following  year  he  distinguished  himself  by 
a  memorable  exploit — the  pursuit,  defeat  and  capture  of  a  Scottish 
regiment  which  had  mutinied  at  Ipswich,  and  was  marching 
northward  across  the  fens.  It  was  the  alarm  excited  by  this 
mutiny  that  facilitated  the  passing  of  the  first  Mutiny  Act.  In 
1690  Ginkel  accompanied  William  III.  to  Ireland,  and  com- 
manded a  body  of  Dutch  cavalry  at  the  battle  of  the  Boyne. 
On  the  king's  return  to  England  General  Ginkel  was  entrusted 
with  the  conduct  of  the  war.  He  took  the  field  in  the  spring  of 
1691,  and  established  his  headquarters  at  Mullingar.  Among 
those  who  held  a  command  under  him  was  the  marquis  of 
Ruvigny,  the  recognized  chief  of  the  Huguenot  refugees.  Early  in 
June  Ginkel  took  the  fortress  of  Ballymore,  capturing  the  whole 
garrison  of  1000  men.  The  English  lost  only  8  men.  After 
reconstructing  the  fortifications  of  Ballymore  the  army  marched 
to  Athlone,  then  one  of  the  most  important  of  the  fortified  towns 
of  Ireland.  The  Irish  defenders  of  the  place  were  commanded 
by  a  distinguished  French  general,  Saint-Ruth.  The  firing 
began  on  June  igth,  and  on  the  3oth  the  town  was  stormed, 
the  Irish  army  retreating  towards  Galway,  and  taking  up  their 
position  at  Aughrim.  Having  strengthened  the  fortifications 
of  Athlone  and  left  a  garrison  there,  Ginkel  led  the  English, 
on  July  1 2th,  to  Aughrim.  An  immediate  attack  was  resolved 
on,  and,  after  a  severe  and  at  one  time  doubtful  contest,  the 
crisis  was  precipitated  by  the  fall  of  Saint-Ruth,  and  the 
disorganized  Irish  were  defeated  and  fled.  A  horrible  slaughter 
of  the  Irish  followed  the  struggle,  and  4000  corpses  were  left 
unburied  on  the  field,  besides  a  multitude  of  others  that  lay 
along  the  line  of  the  retreat.  Galway  next  capitulated,  its 
garrison  being  permitted  to  retire  to  Limerick.  There  the  viceroy 
Tyrconnel  was  in  command  of  a  large  force,  but  his  sudden  death 
early  in  August  left  the  command  in  the  hands  of  General  Sars- 
field  and  the  Frenchman  D'Usson.  The  English  came  in  sight  of 
the  town  on  the  day  of  Tyrconnel's  death,  and  the  bombardment 
was  immediately  begun.  Ginkel,  by  a  bold  device,  crossed  the 
Shannon  and  captured  the  camp  of  the  Irish  cavalry.  A  few  days 
later  he  stormed  the  fort  on  Thomond  Bridge,  and  after  difficult 
negotiations  a  capitulation  was  signed,  the  terms  of  which  were 
divided  into  a  civil  and  a  military  treaty.  Thus  was  completed 
the  conquest  or  pacification  of  Ireland,  and  the  services  of  the 
Dutch  general  were  amply  recognized  and  rewarded.  He  re- 
ceived the  formal  thanks  of  the  House  of  Commons,  and  was. 


GINSBURG— GIOBERTI 


29 


created  by  the  king  ist  earl  of  Athlone  and  baron  of  Aughrim. 
The  immense  forfeited  estates  of  the  earl  of  Limerick  were  given 
to  him,  but  the  grant  was  a  few  years  later  revoked  by  the  English 
parliament.  The  earl  continued  to  serve  in  the  English  army, 
and  accompanied  the  king  to  the  continent  in  1693.  He  fought 
at  the  sieges  of  Namur  and  the  battle  of  Neerwinden,  and 
assisted  in  destroying  the  French  magazine  at  Givet.  In  1702, 
waiving  his  own  claims  to  the  position  of  commander-in-chief, 
he  commanded  the  Dutch  serving  under  the  duke  of  Marlborough. 
He  died  at  Utrecht  on  the  nth  of  February  1703,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  the  2nd  earl  (1668-1719),  a  distinguished 
soldier  in  the  reigns  of  William  III.  and  Anne.  On  the  death 
of  the  gth  earl  without  issue  in  1844,  the  title  became  extinct. 

GINSBURG,  CHRISTIAN  DAVID  (1831-  ),  Hebrew  scholar, 
was  born  at  Warsaw  on  the  25th  of  December  1831.  Coming  to 
England  shortly  after  the  completion  of  his  education  in  the 
Rabbinic  College  at  Warsaw,  Dr  Ginsburg  continued  his  study 
of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  with  special  attention  to  the  Megilloth. 
The  first  result  of  these  studies  was  a  translation  of  the  Song 
of  Songs,  with  a  commentary  historical  and  critical,  published 
in  1857.  A  similar  translation  of  Ecclesiastes,  followed  by 
treatises  on  the  Karaites,  on  the  Essenes  and  on  the  Kabbala, 
kept  the  author  prominently  before  biblical  students  while  he 
was  preparing  the  first  sections  of  his  magnum  opus,  the  critical 
study  of  the  Massorah.  Beginning  in  1867  with  the  publication 
of  Jacob  ben  Chajim's  Introduction  to  the  Rabbinic  Bible, 
Hebrew  and  English,  with  notices,  and  the  Massoreth  Ha- 
Massoreth  of  Elias  Levita,  in  Hebrew,  with  translation  and 
commentary,  Dr  Ginsburg  took  rank  as  an  eminent  Hebrew 
scholar.  In  1870  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  first  members 
of  the  committee  for  the  revision  of  the  English  version  of  the 
Old  Testament.  His  life-work  culminated  in  the  publication 
of  the  Massorah,  in  three  volumes  folio  (1880-1886),  followed 
by  the  Masoretico-critical  edition  of  the  Hebrew  Bible  (1894), 
and  the  elaborate  introduction  to  it  (1897).  Dr  Ginsburg  had 
one  predecessor  in  the  field,  the  learned  Jacob  ben  Chajim,  who 
in  1524-1525  published  the  second  Rabbinic  Bible,  containing 
what  has -ever  since  been  known  as  the  Massorah;  but  neither 
were  the  materials  available  nor  was  criticism  sufficiently 
advanced  for  a  complete  edition.  Dr  Ginsburg  took  up  the 
subject  almost  where  it  was  left  by  those  early  pioneers,  and 
collected  portions  of  the  Massorah  from  the  countless  MSS. 
scattered  throughout  Europe  and  the  East.  More  recently 
Dr  Ginsburg  has  published  Facsimiles  of  Manuscripts  of  the 
Hebrew  Bible  (1897  and  1898),  and  The  Text  of  the  Hebrew  Bible 
in  Abbreviations  (1903),  in  addition  to  a  critical  treatise  "  on  the 
relationship  of  the  so-called  Codex  Babylonicus  of  A.D.  916  to 
the  Eastern  Recension  of  the  Hebrew  Text  "  (1899,  for  private 
circulation).  In  the  last-mentioned  work  he  seeks  to  prove  that 
the  St  Petersburg  Codex,  for  so  many  years  accepted  as  the 
genuine  text  of  the  Babylonian  school,  is  in  reality  a  Palestinian 
text  carefully  altered  so  as  to  render  it  conformable  to  the 
Babylonian  recension.  He  subsequently  undertook  the  prepara- 
tion of  a  new  edition  of  the  Hebrew  Bible  for  the  British  and 
Foreign  Bible  Society.  He  also  contributed  many  articles  to 
J.  Kitto's  Encyclopaedia,  W.  Smith's  Dictionary  of  Christian 
Biography  and  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica. 

GINSENG,  the  root  of  a  species  of  Panax  (P.  Ginseng) ,  native  of 
Manchuria  and  Korea,  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Araliaceae, 
used  in  China  as  a  medicine.  Other  roots  are  substituted  for  it, 
notably  that  of  Panax  quinquefolium,  distinguished  as  American 
ginseng,  and  imported  from  the  United  States.  At  one  time 
the  ginseng  obtained  from  Manchuria  was  considered  to  be  the 
finest  quality,  and  in  consequence  became  so  scarce  that  an 
imperial  edict  was  issued  prohibiting  its  collection.  That 
prepared  in  Korea  is  now  the  most  esteemed  variety.  The  root  of 
the  wild  plant  is  preferred  to  that  of  cultivated  ginseng,  and  the 
older  the  plant  the  better  is  the  quality  of  the  root  considered  to 
be.  Great  care  is  taken  in  the  preparation  of  the  drug.  The 
account  given  by  Koempfer  of  the  preparation  of  nindsin,  the 
root  of  Sium  ninsi,  in  Korea,  will  give  a  good  idea  of  the  prepara- 
tion of  ginseng,  ninsi  being  a  similar  drug  of  supposed  weaker 


virtue,  obtained  from  a  different  plant,  and  often  confounded 
with  ginseng.  "  In  the  beginning  of  winter  nearly  all  the 
population  of  Sjansai  turn  out  to  collect  the  root,  and  make 
preparations  for  sleeping  in  the  fields.  The  root,  when  collected, 
is  macerated  for  three  days  in  fresh  water,  or  water  in  which 
rice  has  been  boiled  twice;  it  is  then  suspended  in  a  closed 
vessel  over  the  fire,  and  afterwards  dried,  until  from  the  base  to 
the  middle  it  assumes  a  hard,  resinous  and  translucent  appear- 
ance, which  is  considered  a  proof  of  its  good  quality." 

Ginseng  of  good  quality  generally  occurs  in  hard,  rather 
brittle,  translucent  pieces,  about  the  size  of  the  little  finger, 
and  varying  in  length  from  2  to  4  in.  The  taste  is  mucilaginous, 
sweetish  and  slightly  bitter  and  aromatic.  The  root  is  frequently 
forked,  and  it  is  probably  owing  to  this  circumstance  that 
medicinal  properties  were  in  the  first  place  attributed  to  it, 
its  resemblance  to  the  body  of  a  man  being  supposed  to  indicate 
that  it  could  restore  virile  power  to  the  aged  and  impotent. 
In  price  it  varies  from  6  or  12  dollars  to  the  enormous  sum  of 
300  or  400  dollars  an  ounce. 

Lockhart  gives  a  graphic  description  of  a  visit  to  a  ginseng  mer- 
chant. Opening  the  outer  box,  the  merchant  removed  several  paper 
parcels  which  appeared  to  fill  the  box,  but  under  them  was  a  second 
box,  or  perhaps  two  small  boxes,  which,  when  taken  out,  showed 
the  bottom  of  the  large  box  and  all  the  intervening  space  filled  with 
more  paper  parcels.  These  parcels,  he  said,  "  contained  quicklime, 
for  the  purpose  of  absorbing  any  moisture  and  keeping  the  boxes 
quite  dry,  the  lime  being  packed  in  paper  for  the  sake  of  cleanliness. 
The  smaller  box,  which  held  the  ginseng,  was  lined  with  sheet-lead ; 
the  ginseng  further  enclosed  in  silk  wrappers  was  kept  in  little  silken- 
covered  boxes.  Taking  up  a  piece,  he  would  request  his  visitor  not 
to  breathe  upon  it,  nor  handle  it;  he  would  dilate  upon  the  many 
merits  of  the  drug  and  the  cures  it  had  effected.  The  cover  of  the 
root,  according  to  its  quality,  was  silk,  either  embroidered  or  plain, 
cotton  cloth  or  paper."  In  China  the  ginseng  is  often  sent  to 
friends  as  a  valuable  present;  in  such  cases,  "accompanying  the 
medicine  is  usually  given  a  small,  beautifully-finished  double  kettle, 
in  which  the  ginseng  is  prepared  as  follows.  The  inner  kettle  is 
made  of  silver,  and  between  this  and  the  outside  vessel,  which  is  a 
copper  jacket,  is  a  small  space  for  holding  water.  The  silver  kettle, 
which  fits  on  a  ring  near  the  top  of  the  outer  covering,  has  a  cup-like 
cover  in  which  rice  is  placed  with  a  little  water;  the  ginseng  is  put 
in  the  inner  vessel  with  water,  a  cover  is  placed  over  the  whole,  and 
the  apparatus  is  put  on  the  fire.  When  the  rice  in  the  cover  is  suffi- 
ciently cooked,  the  medicine  is  ready,  and  is  then  eaten  by  the 
patient,  who  drinks  the  ginseng  tea  at  the  same  time."  The  dose 
of  _the  root  is  from  60  to  90  grains.  During  the  use  of  the  drug  tea- 
drinking  is  forbidden  for  at  least  a  month,  but  no  other  change  is 
made  in  the  diet.  It  is  taken  in  the  morning  before  breakfast,  From 
three  to  eight  days  together,  and  sometimes  it  is  taken  in  the  evening 
before  going  to  bed. 

The  action  of  the  drug  appears  to  be  entirely  psychic,  and  com- 
parable to  that  of  the  mandrake  of  the  Hebrews.  There  is  no 
evidence  that  it  possesses  any  pharmacological  or  therapeutic 
properties. 

See  Porter  Smith,  Chinese  Materia  Medica,  p.  103;  Reports  on 
Trade  at  the  Treaty  Ports  of  China  (1868),  p.  63;  Lockhart,  Med. 
Missionary  in  China  (2nd  ed.),  p.  107;  Bull,  de  la  Societe  Imperiale 
de  Nat.  de  Moscou  (1865),  No.  i,  pp.  70-76;  Pharmaceutical  Journal 
(2),  vol.  iii.  pp.  197,  333,  (2),  vol.  ix.  p.  77;  Lewis,  Materia  Medica, 
p.  324;  Geoffroy,  Tract,  de  matiere  medicate,  t.  ii.  p.  112;  Kaempfer, 
Amoenitates  exoticae,  p.  824., 

GIOBERTI,  VINCENZO  (1801-1852),  Italian  philosopher, 
publicist  and  politician,  was  born  in  Turin  on  the  sth  of  April 
1801.  He  was  educated  by  the  fathers  of  the  Oratory  with  a 
view  to  the  priesthood  and  ordained  in  1825.  At  first  he  led  a 
very  retired  life;  but  gradually  took  more  and  more  interest 
in  the  affairs  of  his  country  and  the  new  political  ideas  as  well 
as  in  the  literature  of  the  day.  Partly  under  the  influence  of 
Mazzini,  the  freedom  of  Italy  became  his  ruling  motive  in  life, — 
its  emancipation,  not  only  from  foreign  masters,  but  from  modes 
of  thought  alien  to  its  genius,  and  detrimental  to  its  European 
authority.  This  authority  was  in  his  mind  connected  with 
papal  supremacy,  though  in  a  way  quite  novel — intellectual 
rather  than  political.  This  must  be  remembered  in  considering 
nearly  all  his  writings,  and  also  in  estimating  his  position,  both 
in  relation  to  the  ruling  clerical  party — the  Jesuits — and  also 
to  the  politics  of  the  court  of  Piedmont  after  the  accession  of 
Charles  Albert  in  1831.  He  was  now  noticed  by  the  king  and 
made  one  of  his  chaplains.  His  popularity  and  private  influence, 
however,  were  reasons  enough  for  the  court  party  to  mark  him 


GIOIOSA-IONICA— GIOJA 


for  exile;  he  was  not  one  of  them,  and  could  not  be  depended  on. 
Knowing  this,  he  resigned  his  office  in  1833,  but  was  suddenly 
arrested  on  a  charge  of  conspiracy,  and,  after  an  imprisonment  of 
four  months,  was  banished  without  a  trial.  Gioberti  first  went 
to  Paris,  and,  a  year  later,  to  Brussels,  where  he  remained  till 
1845,  teaching  philosophy,  and  assisting  a  friend  in  the  work 
of  a  private  school.  He  nevertheless  found  time  to  write  many 
works  of  philosophical  importance,  with  special  reference  to  his 
country  and  its  position.  An  amnesty  having  been  declared 
by  Charles  Albert  in  1846,  Gioberti  (who  was  again  in  Paris) 
was  at  liberty  to  return  to  Italy,  but  refused  to  do  so  till  the  end 
of  1847.  On  his  entrance  into  Turin  on  the  2gth  of  April  1848 
he  was  received  with  the  greatest  enthusiasm.  He  refused  the 
dignity  of  senator  offered  him  by  Charles  Albert,  preferring  to 
represent  his  native  town  in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  of  which 
he  was  soon  elected  president.  At  the  close  of  the  same  year, 
a  new  ministry  was  formed,  headed  by  Gioberti;  but  with  the 
accession  of  Victor  Emmanuel  in  March  1849,  his  active  life 
came  to  an  end.  For  a  short  time  indeed  he  held  a  seat  in  the 
cabinet,  though  without  a  portfolio;  but  an  irreconcilable 
disagreement  soon  followed,  and  his  removal  from  Turin  was 
accomplished  by  his  appointment  on  a  mission  to  Paris,  whence 
he  never  returned.  There,  refusing  the  pension  which  had  been 
offered  him  and  all  ecclesiastical  preferment,  he  lived  frugally, 
and  spent  his  days  and  nights  as  at  Brussels  in  literary  labour. 
He  died  suddenly,  of  apoplexy,  on  the  26th  of  October  1852. 

Gioberti's  writings  are  more  important  than  his  political  career. 
In  the  general  history  of  European  philosophy  they  stand  apart.  As 
the  speculations  of  Rosmini-Serbati,  against  which  he  wrote,  have 
been  called  the  last  link  added  to  medieval  thought,  so  the  system  of 
Gioberti,  known  as  "  Ontologism,"  more  especially  in  his  greater 
and  earlier  works,  is  unrelated  to  other  modern  schools  of  thought. 
It  shows  a  harmony  with  the  Roman  Catholic  faith  which  caused 
Cousin  to  declare  that  "Italian  philosophy  was  still  in  the  bonds  of 
theology,"  and  that  Gioberti  was  no  philosopher.  Method  is  with 
him  a  synthetic,  subjective  and  psychological  instrument.  He  re- 
constructs, as  he  declares,  ontology,  and  begins  with  the  "  ideal 
formula,"  "  the  Ens  creates  ex  nihilo  the  existent."  God  is  the  only 
being  (Ens) ;  all  other  things  are  merely  existences.  God  is  the 
origin  of  all  human  knowledge  (called  I' idea,  thought),  which  is  one 
and  so  to  say  identical  with  God  himself.  It  is  directly  beheld 
(intuited)  by  reason,  but  in  order  to  be  of  use  it  has  to  be  reflected 
on,  and  this  by  means  of  language.  A  knowledge  of  being  and 
existences  (concrete,  not  abstract)  and  their  mutual  relations,  is 
necessary  as  the  beginning  of  philosophy.  Gioberti  is  in  some 
respects  a  Platonist.  He  identifies  religion  with  civilization,  and  in 
his  treatise  Del  primato  morale  e  civile  degli  Italiani  arrives  at  the 
conclusion  that  the  church  is  the  axis  on  which  the  well-being  of 
human  life  revolves.  In  it  he  affirms  the  idea  of  the  supremacy  of 
Italy,  brought  about  by  the  restoration  of  the  papacy  as  a  moral 
dominion,  founded  on  religion  and  public  opinion.  In  his  later  works, 
the  Rinnovamento  and  the  Protoloeia,  he  is  thought  by  some  to  have 
shifted  his  ground  under  the  influence  of  events.  His  first  work, 
written  when  he  was  thirty-seven,  had  a  personal  reason  for  its 
existence.  A  young  fellow-exile  and  friend,  Paolo  Pallia,  having 
many  doubts  and  misgivings  as  to  the  reality  of  revelation  and  a 
future  life,  Gioberti  at  once  set  to  work  with  La  Teorica  del  sovran- 
naturale,  which  was  his  first  publication  (1838).  After  this,  philo- 
sophical treatises  followed  in  rapid  succession.  The  Teorica  was 
followed  by  Introduzione  allo  studio  della  filosofia  in  three  volumes 
(1839-1840).  In  this  work  he  states  his  reasons  for  requiring  a  new 
method  and  new  terminology.  Here  he  brings  out  the  doctrine 
that  religion  is  the  direct  expression  of  the  idea  in  this  life,  and  is 
one  with  true  civilization  in  history.  Civilization  is  a  conditioned 
mediate  tendency  to  perfection,  to  which  religion  is  the  final  com- 
pletion if  carried  out ;  it  is  the  end  of  the  second  cycle  expressed  by 
the  second  formula,  the  Ens  redeems  existences.  Essays  (not  pub- 
lished till  1846)  on  the  lighter  and  more  popular  subjects,  Del  hello 
and  Del  buono,  followed  the  Introduzione.  Del  primato  morale  e 
civile  degli  Italiani  and  the  Prolegomeni  to  the  same,  and  soon  after- 
wards his  triumphant  exposure  of  the  Jesuits,  //  Gesuita  moderno, 
no  doubt  hastened  the  transfer  of  rule  from  clerical  to  civil  hands. 
It  was  the  popularity  of  these  semi-political  works,  increased  by 
other  occasional  political  articles,  and  his  Rinnovamento  civile  d' Italia, 
that  caused  Gioberti  to  be  welcomed  with  such  enthusiasm  on  his 
return  to  his  native  country.  All  these  works  were  perfectly  or- 
thodox, and  aided  in  drawing  the  liberal  clergy  into  the  movement 
which  has  resulted  since  his  time  in  the  unification  of  Italy.  The 
Jesuits,  however,  closed  round  the  pope  more  firmly  after  his  return 
to  Rome,  and  in  the  end  Gioberti's  writings  were  placed  on  the 
Index  (see  J.  Kleutgen,  Uber  die  Verurtheilung  des  Ontologismus 
durch  den  heiligen  Stuhl,  1867).  The  remainder  of  his  works,  especi- 
ally La  Filosofia  della  Rivelazione  and  the  Protologia,  give  his  mature 


views  on  many  points.  The  entire  writings  of  Gioberti,  including 
those  left  in  manuscript,  have  been  edited  by  Giuseppe  Massari 
(Turin,  1856-1861). 

See  Massari,  Vita  de  V.  Gioberti  (Florence,  1848);  A.  Rosmini- 
Serbati,  V.  Gioberti  e  il  panteismo  (Milan,  1848);  C.  B.  Smyth, 
Christian  Metaphysics  (1851);  B.  Spaventa,  La  Filosofia  di  Gioberti 
(Naples,  1854);  A.  Maun,  Delia  vita  e  delle  opere  di  V.  Gioberti 
(Genoa,  1853);  G.  Frisco,  Gioberti  e  I'  ontologismo  (Naples,  1867)  ; 
P.  Luciani,  Gioberti  e  la  filosofia  nuova  italiana  (Naples,  1866-1872); 
D.  Berti,  Di  V.  Gioberti  (Florence,  1881) ;  see  also  L.  Ferri,  L'Histoire 
de  la  philosophie  en  Italie  au  XIX'  siecle  (Paris,  1869);  C.  Werner, 
Die  italienische  Philosophie  des  19.  Jahrhunderts,  ij.  (1885) ;  appendix 
to  Ueberweg's  Hist,  of  Philosophy  (Eng.  tr.) ;  art.  in  Brownson's 
Quarterly  Review  (Boston,  Mass.),  xxi.;  R.  Mariano,  La  Philosophie  • 
contemporaine  en  Italie  (1866);  R.  Seydel's  exhaustive  article  in 
Ersch  and  Gruber's  Allgemeine  Encyclopadie.  The  centenary  of 
Gioberti  called  forth  several  monographs  in  Italy. 

GIOIOSA-IONICA,  a  town  of  Calabria,  Italy,  in  the  province 
of  Reggio  Calabria,  from  which  it  is  65  m.  N.E.  by  rail,  and  38  m. 
direct,  492  ft.  above  sea-level.  Pop.  (1901)  town,  9072;  commune, 
11,200.  Near  the  station,  which  is  on  the  E.  coast  of  Calabria 
3  m.  below  the  town  to  the  S.E.,  the  remains  of  a  theatre 
belonging  to  the  Roman  period  were  discovered  in  1883;  the 
orchestra  was  46  ft.  in  diameter  (Notizie  degli  scavi,  1883,  p.  423). 
The  ruins  of  an  ancient  building  called  the  Naviglio,  the  nature 
of  which  does  not  seem  clear,  are  described  (ib.  1884,  p.  252). 

GIOJA,  MELCHIORRE  (1767-1829),  Italian  writer  on  philo- 
sophy and  political  economy,  was  born  at  Piacenza,  on  the  2oth 
of  September  1767.  Originally  intended  for  the  church,  he  took 
orders,  but  renounced  them  in  1796  and  went  to  Milan,  where  he 
devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  political  economy.  Having 
obtained  the  prize  for  an  essay  on  "  the  kind  of  free  government 
best  adapted  to  Italy  "  he  decided  upon  the  career  of  a  publicist. 
The  arrival  of  Napoleon  in  Italy  drew  him  into  public  life. 
He  advocated  a  republic  under  the  dominion  of  the  French  in 
a  pamphlet  I  Tedeschi,  i  Francesi,  ed  i  Russi  in  Lombardia,  and 
under  the  Cisalpine  Republic  he  was  named  historiographer 
and  director  of  statistics.  He  was  several  times  imprisoned, 
once  for  eight  months  in  1820  on  a  charge  of  being  implicated 
in  a  conspiracy  with  the  Carbonari.  After  the  fall  of  Napoleon 
he  retired  into  private  life,  and  does  not  appear  to  .have  held 
office  again.  He  died  on  the  2nd  of  January  1829.  Gioja's 
fundamental  idea  is  the  value  of  statistics  or  the  collection  of 
facts.  Philosophy  itself  is  with  him  classification  and  consideration 
of  ideas.  Logic  he  regarded  as  a  practical  art,  and  his  Esercizioni 
logici  has  the  further  title,  Art  of  deriving  benefit  from  ill-con- 
structed books.  In  ethics  Gioja  follows  Bentham  generally,  and 
his  large  treatise  Del  merilo  e  delle  recompense  (1818)  is  a  clear 
and  systematic  view  of  social  ethics  from  the  utilitarian  principle. 
In  political  economy  this  avidity  for  facts  produced  better  fruits. 
The  Nuovo  Prospetto  delle  scienze  economiche  (1815-1817), 
although  long  to  excess,  and  overburdened  with  classifications 
and  tables,  contains  much  valuable  material.  The  author 
prefers  large  properties  and  large  commercial  undertakings  to 
small  ones,  and  strongly  favours  association  as  a  means  of  pro- 
duction. He  defends  a  restrictive  policy  and  insists  on  the 
necessity  of  the  action  of  the  state  as  a  regulating  power  in  the 
industrial  world.  He  was  an  opponent  of  ecclesiastical  domina- 
tion. He  must  be  credited  with  the  finest  and  most  original 
treatment  of  division  of  labour  since  the  Wealth  of  Nations. 
Much  of  what  Babbage  taught  later  on  the  subject  of  combined 
work  is  anticipated  by  Gioja.  His  theory  of  production  is  also 
deserving  of  attention  from  the  fact  that  it  takes  into  account 
and  gives  due  prominence  to  immaterial  goods.  Throughout 
the  work  there  is  continuous  opposition  to  Adam  Smith.  Gioja's 
latest  work  Filosofia  della  statistica  (2  vols.,  1826;  4  vols.,  1829- 
1830)  contains  in  brief  compass  the  essence  of  his  ideas  on  human 
life,  and  affords  the  clearest  insight  into  his  aim  and  method  in 
philosophy  both  theoretical  and  practical. 

See  monographs  by  G.  D.  Romagnosi  (1829),  F.  Falco  (1866); 
G.  Pecchio,  Storia  dell'  economia  pubblica  in  Italia  (1829),  and  article 
in  Ersch  and  Gruber's  Allgemeine  Encyclopadie;  for  Gioja's  philo- 
sophy, L.  Ferri,  Essai  sur  I'histoire  de  la  philosophie  en  Italie  au 
XIX'  siecle  (1869);  Ueberweg's  Hist,  of  Philosophy  (Eng.  tr., 
appendix  ii.);  A.  Rosmini-Serbati,  Opuscoli  filosofici,  iii.  (1844) 
(containing  an  attack  on  Gioja's  "sensualism");  for  his  political 


GIOLITTI— GIORGIONE 


economy,  list  of  works  in  J.  Conrad's  Handworterbuch  der  Staa'.s- 
wissenschaflen  (1892);  L.  Cossa,  Introd.  to  Pol.  Econ.  (Eng.  trans., 
p.  488).  Gioja's  complete  works  were  published  at  Lugano  (1832- 
1849).  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Annali  universali  di 
statistica. 

GIOLITTI,  GIOVANNI  (1842-  ),  Italian  statesman,  was 
born  at  Mondovi  on  the  27th  of  October  1842.  After  a  rapid 
career  in  the  financial  administration  he  was,  in  1882,  appointed 
councillor  of  state  and  elected  to  parliament.  As  deputy  he 
chiefly  acquired  prominence  by  attacks  on  Magliani,  treasury 
minister  in  the  Depretis  cabinet,  and  on  the  Qth  of  March  1889 
was  himself  selected  as  treasury  minister  by  Crispi.  On  the  fall 
of  the  Rudini  cabinet  in  May  1892,  Giolitti,  with  the  help  of  a 
court  clique,  succeeded  to  the  premiership.  His  term  of  office 
was  marked  by  misfortune  and  misgovernment.  The  building 
crisis  and  the  commercial  rupture  with  France  had  impaired  the 
situation  of  the  state  banks,  of  which  one,  the  Banca  Romana, 
had  been  further  undermined  by  maladministration.  A  bank 
law,  passed  by  Giolitti  failed  to  effect  an  improvement.  More- 
over, he  irritated  public  opinion  by  raising  to  senatorial  rank  the 
director-general  of  the  Banca  Romana,  Signer  Tanlongo,  whose 
irregular  practices  had  become  a  byword.  The  senate  declined 
to  admit  Tanlongo,  whom  Giolitti,  in  consequence  of  an  inter- 
pellation in  parliament  upon  the  condition  of  the  Banca  Romana, 
was  obliged  to  arrest  and  prosecute.  During  the  prosecution 
Giolitti  abused  his  position  as  premier  to  abstract  documents 
bearing  on  the  case.  Simultaneously  a  parliamentary  commission 
of  inquiry  investigated  the  condition  of  the  state  banks.  Its 
report,  though  acquitting  Giolitti  of  personal  dishonesty,  proved 
disastrous  to  his  political  position,  and  obliged  him  to  resign. 
His  fall  left  the  finances  of  the  state  disorganized,  the  pensions 
fund  depleted,  diplomatic  relations  with  France  strained  in 
consequence  of  the  massacre  of  Italian  workmen  at  Aigues- 
Mortes,  and  Sicily  and  the  Lunigiana  in  a  state  of  revolt,  which 
he  had  proved  impotent  to  suppress.  After  his  resignation  he 
was  impeached  for  abuse  of  power  as  minister,  but  the  supreme 
court  quashed  the  impeachment  by  denying  the  competence  of 
the  ordinary  tribunals  to  judge  ministerial  acts.  For  several 
years  he  was  compelled  to  play  a  passive  part,  having  lost  all 
credit.  But  by  keeping  in  the  background  and  giving  public 
opinion  time  to  forget  his  past,  as  well  as  by  parliamentary 
intrigue,  he  gradually  regained  much  of  his  former  influence. 
He  made  capital  of  the  Socialist  agitation  and  of  the  repression 
to  which  other  statesmen  resorted,  and  gave  the  agitators  to 
understand  that  were  he  premier  they  would  be  allowed  a  free 
hand.  Thus  he  gained  their  favour,  and  on  the  fall  of  the 
Pelloux  cabinet  he  became  minister  of  the  Interior  in  Zanardelli's 
administration,  of  which  he  was  the  real  head.  His  policy  of 
never  interfering  in  strikes  and  leaving  even  violent  demonstra- 
tions undisturbed  at  first  proved  successful,  but  indiscipline 
and  disorder  grew  to  such  a  pitch  that  Zanardelli,  already  in 
bad  health,  resigned,  and  Giolitti  succeeded  him  as  prime  minister 
(November  1903).  But  during  his  tenure  of  office  he,  too,  had  to 
resort  to  strong  measures  in  repressing  some  serious  disorders  in 
various  parts  of  Italy,  and  thus  he  lost  the  favour  of  the  Socialists. 
In  March  1905,  feeling  himself  no  longer  secure,  he  resigned, 
indicating  Fortis  as  his  successor.  When  Sonnino  became 
premier  in  February  1906,  Giolitti  did  not  openly  oppose  him, 
but  his  followers  did,  and  Sonnino  was  defeated  in  May,  Giolitti 
becoming  prime  minister  once  more. 

GIORDANO,  LUCA  (1632-1705),  Italian  painter,  was  born  in 
Naples,  son  of  a  very  indifferent  painter,  Antonio,  who  imparted 
to  him  the  first  rudiments  of  drawing.  Nature  predestined  him 
for  the  art,  and  at  the  age  of  eight  he  painted  a  cherub  into  one 
of  his  father's  pictures,  a  feat  which  was  at  once  noised  abroad, 
and  induced  the  viceroy  of  Naples  to  recommend  the  child  to 
Ribera.  His  father  afterwards  took  him  to  Rome,  to  study  under 
Pietro  da  Cortona.  He  acquired  the  nickname  of  Luca  Fa-presto 
(Luke  Work-fast).  One  might  suppose  this  nickname  to  be 
derived  merely  from  the  almost  miraculous  celerity  with  which 
from  an  early  age  and  throughout  his  life  he  handled  the  brush; 
but  it  is  said  to  have  had  a  more  express  origin.  The  father, 
we  are  told,  poverty-stricken  and  greedy  of  gain,  was  perpetually 


urging  his  boy  to  exertion  with  the  phrase,  "  Luca,  fa  presto." 
The  youth  obeyed  his  parent  to  the  letter,  and  would  actually 
not  so  much  as  pause  to  snatch  a  hasty  meal,  but  received  into 
his  mouth,  while  he  still  worked  on,  the  food  which  his  father's 
hand  supplied.  He  copied  nearly  twenty  times  the  "  Battle  of 
Constantine"  by  Julio  Romano,  and  with  proportionate  frequency 
several  of  the  great  works  of  Raphael  and  Michelangelo.  His 
rapidity,  which  belonged  as  much  to  invention  as  to  mere  handi- 
work, and  his  versatility,  which  enabled  him  to  imitate  other 
painters  deceptively,  earned  for  him  two  other  epithets,  "  The 
Thunderbolt  "  (Fulmine),  and  "  The  Proteus,"  of  Painting.  He 
shortly  visited  all  the  main  seats  of  the  Italian  school  of  art, 
and  formed  for  himself  a  style  combining  in  a  certain  measure 
the  ornamental  pomp  of  Paul  Veronese  and  the  contrasting  com- 
positions and  large  schemes  of  chiaroscuro  of  Pietro  da  Cortona. 
He  was  noted  also  for  lively  and  showy  colour.  Returning  to 
Naples,  and  accepting  every  sort  of  commission  by  which  money 
was  to  be  made,  he  practised  his  art  with  so  much  applause  that 
Charles  II.  of  Spain  towards  1687  invited  him  over  to  Madrid, 
where  he  remained  thirteen  years.  Giordano  was  very  popular 
at  the  Spanish  court,  being  a  sprightly  talker  along  with  his  other 
marvellously  facile  gifts,  and  the  king  created  him  a  cavaliere. 
One  anecdote  of  his  rapidity  of  work  is  that  the  queen  of  Spain 
having  one  day  made  some  inquiry  about  his  wife,  he  at  once 
showed  Her  Majesty  what  the  lady  was  like  by  painting  her 
portrait  into  the  picture  on  which  he  was  engaged.  Soon  after 
the  death  of  Charles  in  1700  Giordano,  gorged  with  wealth, 
returned  to  Naples.  He  spent  large  sums  in  acts  of  munificence, 
and  was  particularly  liberal  to  his  poorer  brethren  of  the  art.  He 
again  visited  various  parts  of  Italy,  and  died  in  Naples  on  the 
1 2th  of  January  1705,  his  last  words  being  "  O  Napoli,  sospiro 
mio  "  (O  Naples,  my  heart's  love!).  One  of  his  maxims  was  that 
the  good  painter  is  the  one  whom  the  public  like,  and  that  the 
public  are  attracted  more  by  colour  than  by  design. 

Giordano  had  an  astonishing  readiness  and  facility,  in  spite 
of  the  general  commonness  and  superficiality  of  his  performances. 
He  left  many  works  in  Rome,  and  far  more  in  Naples.  Of  the 
latter  one  of  the  most  renowned  is  "  Christ  expelling  the  Traders 
from  the  Temple,"  in  the  church  of  the  Padri  Girolamini,  a 
colossal  work,  full  of  expressive  lazzaroni;  also  the  frescoes 
of  S.  Martino,  and  those  in  the  Tesoro  della  Certosa,  including 
the  subject  of  "  Moses  and  the  Brazen  Serpent  ";  and  the  cupola- 
paintings  in  the  Church  of  S.  Brigida,  which  contains  the  artist's 
own  tomb.  In  Spain  he  executed  a  surprising  number  of  works, 
— continuing  in  the  Escorial  the  series  commenced  by  Cambiasi, 
and  painting  frescoes  of  the  "  Triumphs  of  the  Church,"  the 
"  Genealogy  and  Life  of  the  Madonna,"  the  stories  of  Moses, 
Gideon,  David  and  Solomon,  and  the  "  Celebrated  Women  of 
Scripture,"  all  works  of  large  dimensions.  His  pupils,  Aniello 
Rossi  and  Matteo  Pacelli,  assisted  him  in  Spain.  In  Madrid  he 
worked  more  in  oil-colour,  a  Nativity  there  being  one  of  his  best 
productions.  Other  superior  examples  are  the  "  Judgment  of 
Paris  "  in  the  Berlin  Museum,  and  "  Christ  with  the  Doctors  in 
the  Temple,"  in  the  Corsini  Gallery  of  Rome.  In  Florence,  in 
his  closing  days,  he  painted  the  Cappella  Corsini,  the  Galleria 
Riccardi  and  other  works.  In  youth  he  etched  with  considerable 
skill  some  of  his  own  paintings,  such  as  the  "  Slaughter  of  the 
Priests  of  Baal."  He  also  painted  much  on  the  crystal  borderings 
of  looking-glasses,  cabinets,  &c.,  seen  in  many  Italian  palaces,  and 
was,  in  this  form  of  art,  the  master  of  Pietro  Garofolo.  His  best 
pupil,  in  painting  of  the  ordinary  kind,  was  Paolo  de  Matteis. 

Bellori,  in  his  Vile  de'  pittori  moderni,  is  a  leading  authority 
regarding  Luca  Giordano.  P.  Benvenuto  (1882)  has  written  a  work 
on  the  Riccardi  paintings. 

GIORGIONE  (1477-1510),  Italian  painter,  was  born  at  Castel- 
franco  in  1477.  In  contemporary  documents  he  is  always  called 
(according  to  the  Venetian  manner  of  pronunciation  and  spelling) 
Zorzi,  Zorzo  or  Zorzon  of  Castelfranco.  A  tradition,  having 
its  origin  in  the  I7th  century,  represented  him  as  the  natural 
son  of  some  member  of  the  great  local  family  of  the  Barbarelli, 
by  a  peasant  girl  of  the  neighbouring  village  of  Vedelago; 
consequently  he  is  commonly  referred  to  in  histories  and 


GIORGIONE 


catalogues  under  the  name  of  Giorgio  Barbarelli  or  Barbarella. 
This  tradition  has,  however,  on  close  examination  been  proved 
baseless.  On  the  other  hand  mention  has  been  found  in  a 
contemporary  document  of  an  earlier  Zorzon,  a  native  of 
Vedelago,  living  in  Castelfranco  in  1460.  Vasari,  who  wrote 
before  the  Barbarella  legend  had  sprung  up,  says  that  Giorgione 
was  of  very  humble  origin.  It  seems  probable  that  he  was 
simply  the  son  or  grandson  of  the  afore-mentioned  Zorzon  the 
elder;  that  the  after-claim  of  the  Barbarelli  to  kindred  with  him 
was  a  mere  piece  of  family  vanity,  very  likely  suggested  by  the 
analogous  case  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci;  and  that,  this  claim  once 
put  abroad,  the  peasant-mother  of  Vedelago  was  invented  on 
the  ground  of  some  dim  knowledge  that  his  real  progenitors 
came  from  that  village. 

Of  the  facts  of  his  life  we  are  almost  as  meagrely  informed  as 
of  the  circumstances  of  his  birth.  The  little  city,  or  large 
fortified  village,  for  it  is  scarcely  more,  of  Castelfranco  in  the 
Trevisan  stands  in  the  midst  of  a  rich  and  broken  plain  at  some 
distance  from  the  last  spurs  of  the  Venetian  Alps.  From  the 
natural  surroundings  of  Giorgione's  childhood  was  no  doubt 
derived  his  ideal  of  pastoral  scenery,  the  country  of  pleasant 
copses,  glades,  brooks  and  hills  amid  which  his  personages  love 
to  wander  or  recline  with  lute  and  pipe.  How  early  in  boyhood 
he  went  to  Venice  we  do  not  know,  but  internal  evidence 
supports  the  statement  of  Ridolfi  that  he  served  his  apprentice- 
ship there  under  Giovanni  Bellini;  and  there  he  made  his  fame 
and  had  his  home.  That  his  gifts  were  early  recognized  we 
know  from  the  facts,  recorded  in  contemporary  documents, 
that  in  1500,  when  he  was  only  twenty-three  (that  is  if  Vasari 
gives  rightly  the  age  at  which  he  died),  he  was  chosen  to  paint 
portraits  of  the  Doge  Agostino  Barberigo  and  the  condottiere 
Consalvo  Ferrante;  that  in  1504  he  was  commissioned  to  paint 
an  altarpiece  in  memory  of  Matteo  Costanzo  in  the  cathedral 
of  his  native  town,  Castelfranco;  that  in  1507  he  received  at  the 
order  of  the  Council  of  Ten  part  payment  for  a  picture  (subject 
not  mentioned)  on  which  he  was  engaged  for  the  Hall  of  the 
Audience  in  the  ducal  palace;  and  that  in  1507-1508  he  was 
employed,  with  other  artists  of  his  own  generation,  to  decorate 
with  frescoes  the  exterior  of  the  newly  rebuilt  Fondaco  dei 
Tedeschi  or  German  merchants'  hall  at  Venice,  having  already 
done  similar  work  on  the  exterior  of  the  Casa  Soranzo,  the  Casa 
Grimani  alii  Servi  and  other  Venetian  palaces.  Vasari  gives 
also  as  an  important  event  in  Giorgione's  life,  and  one  which  had 
influence  on  his  work,  his  meeting  with  Leonardo  da  Vinci  on 
the  occasion  of  the  Tuscan  master's  visit  to  Venice  in  1 500.  In 
September  or  October  1510  he  died  of  the  plague  then  raging 
in  the  city,  and  within  a  few  days  of  his  death  we  find  the  great 
art-patroness  and  amateur,  Isabella  d'Este,  writing  from  Mantua 
and  trying  in  vain  to  secure  for  her  collection  a  night-piece  by 
his  hand  of  which  the  fame  had  reached  her. 

All  accounts  agree  in  representing  Giorgione  as  a  personage 
of  distinguished  and  romantic  charm,  a  great  lover,  a  great 
musician,  made  to  enjoy  in  life'  and  to  express  in  art  to  the 
uttermost  the  delight,  the  splendour,  the  sensuous  and  imaginative 
grace  and  fulness,  not  untinged  with  poetic  melancholy,  of  the 
Venetian  existence  of  his  time.  They  represent  him  further  as 
having  made  in  Venetian  painting  an  advance  analogous  to  that 
made  in  Tuscan  painting  by  Leonardo  more  than  twenty  years 
before;  that  is  as  having  released  the  art  from  the  last  shackles 
of  archaic  rigidity  and  placed  it  in  possession  of  full  freedom 
and  the  full  mastery  of  its  means.  He  also  introduced  a  new 
range  of  subjects.  Besides  altarpieces  and  portraits  he  painted 
pictures  that  told  no  story,  whether  biblical  or  classical,  or  if 
they  professed  to  tell  such,  neglected  the  action  and  simply 
embodied  in  form  and  colour  moods  of  lyrical  or  romantic 
feeling,  much  as  a  musician  might  embody  them  in  sounds. 
Innovating  with  the  courage  and  felicity  of  genius,  he  had  for 
a  time  an  overwhelming  influence  on  his  contemporaries  and 
immediate  successors  in  the  Venetian  school,  including  Titian, 
Sebastian  del  Piombo,  the  elder  Palma,  Cariani  and  the  two 
Campagnolas,  and  not  a  little  even  on  seniors  of  long-standing 
fame  such  as  Giovanni  Bellini.  His  name  and  work  have 


exercised,  and  continue  to  exercise,  no  less  a  spell  on  posterity. 
But  to  identify  and  define,  among  the  relics  of  his  age  and  school, 
precisely  what  that  work  is,  and  to  distinguish  it  from  the 
kindred  work  of  other  men  whom  his  influence  inspired,  is  a 
very  difficult  matter.  There  are  inclusive  critics  who  still 
claim  for  Giorgione  nearly  every  painting  of  the  time  that  at 
all  resembles  his  manner,  and  there  are  exclusive  critics  who  pare 
down  to  some  ten  or  a  dozen  the  list  of  extant  pictures  which 
they  will  admit  to  be  actually  his. 

To  name  first  those  which  are  either  certain  or  command 
the  most  general  acceptance,  placing  them  in  something  like 
an  approximate  and  probable  order  of  date.  In  the  Uffizi  at 
Florence  are  two  companion  pieces  of  the  "  Trial  of  Moses  " 
and  the  "  Judgment  of  Solomon,"  the  latter  the  finer  and 
better  preserved  of  the  two,  which  pass,  no  doubt  justly,  as 
typical  works  of  Giorgione's  youth,  and  exhibit,  though  not  yet 
ripely,  his  special  qualities  of  colour-richness  and  landscape 
romance,  the  peculiar  facial  types  of  his  predilection,  with  the 
pure  form  of  forehead,  fine  oval  of  cheek,  and  somewhat  close-set 
eyes  and  eyebrows,  and  the  intensity  of  that  still  and  brooding 
sentiment  with  which,  rather  than  with  dramatic  life  and 
movement,  he  instinctively  invests  his  figures.  Probably  the 
earliest  of  the  portraits  by  common  consent  called  his  is  the 
beautiful  one  of  a  young  man  at  Berlin.  His  earliest  devotional 
picture  would  seem  to  be  the  highly  finished  "  Christ  bearing 
his  Cross  "  (the  head  and  shoulders  only,  with  a  peculiarly 
serene  and  high-bred  cast  of  features)  formerly  at  Vicenza  and 
now  in  the  collection  of  Mrs  Gardner  at  Boston.  Other  versions 
of  this  picture  exist,  and  it  has  been  claimed  that  one  in  private 
possession  at  Vienna  is  the  true  original:  erroneously  in  the 
judgment  of  the  present  writer.  Another  "  Christ  bearing  the 
Cross,"  with  a  Jew  dragging  at  the  rope  round  his  neck,  in  the 
church  of  San  Rocco  at  Venice,  is  a  ruined  but  genuine  work, 
quoted  by  Vasari  and  Ridolfi,  and  copied  with  the  name  of 
Giorgione  appended,  by  Van  Dyck  in  that  master's  Chatsworth 
sketch-book.  (Vasari  gives  it  to  Giorgione  in  his  first  and  to 
Titian  in  his  second  edition.)  The  composition  of  a  lost  early 
picture  of  the  birth  of  Paris  is  preserved  in  an  engraving  of  the 
"  Teniers  Gallery  "  series,  and  an  old  copy  of  part  of  the  same 
picture  is  at  Budapest.  In  the  Giovanelli  Palace  at  Venice 
is.  that  fascinating  and  enigmatical  mythology  or  allegory, 
known  to  the  Anonimo  Morelliano,  who  saw  it  in  1 530  in  the  house 
of  Gabriel  Vendramin,  simply  as  "  the  small  landscape  with 
the  storm,  the  gipsy  woman  and  the  soldier";  the  picture  is 
conjecturally  interpreted  by  modern  authorities  as  illustrating 
a  passage  in  Statius  which  describes  the  meeting  of  Adrastus 
with  Hypsipyle  when  she  was  serving  as  nurse  with  the  king  of 
Nemea.  Still  belonging  to  the  earlier  part  of  the  painter's 
brief  career  is  a  beautiful,  virginally  pensive  Judith  at  St  Peters- 
burg, which  passed  under  various  alien  names,  as  Raphael, 
Moretto,  &c.,  until  its  kindred  with  the  unquestioned  work  of 
Giorgione  was  in  late  years  firmly  established.  The  great 
Castelfranco  altarpiece,  still,  in  spite  of  many  restorations, 
one  of  the  most  classically  pure  and  radiantly  impressive  works 
of  Renaissance  painting,  may  be  taken  as  closing  the  earlier 
phase  of  the  young  master's  work  (1504).  It  shows  the  Virgin 
loftily  enthroned  on  a  plain,  sparely  draped  stone  structure  with 
St  Francis  and  a  warrior  saint  (St  Liberale)  standing  in  attitudes 
of  great  simplicity  on  either  side  of  the  foot  of  the  throne,  a 
high  parapet  behind  them,  and  a  beautiful  landscape  of  the 
master's  usual  type  seen  above  it.  Nearly  akin  to  this  master- 
piece, not  in  shape  or  composition  but  by  the  type  of  the  Virgin 
and  the  very  Bellinesque  St  Francis,  is  the  altarpiece  of  the 
Madonna  with  St  Francis  and  St  Roch  at  Madrid.  Of  the 
master's  fully  ripened  time  is  the  fine  and  again  enigmatical 
picture  formerly  in  the  house  of  Taddeo  Contarini  at  Venice, 
described  by  contemporary  witnesses  as  the  "Three  Philosophers," 
and  now,  on  slender  enough  grounds,  supposed  to  represent 
Evander  showing  Aeneas  the  site  of  Troy  as  narrated  in  the 
eighth  Aeneid.  The  portrait  of  a  knight  of  Malta  in  the  Uffizi  at 
Florence  has  more  power  and  authority,  if  less  sentiment,  than 
the  earlier  example  at  Berlin,  and  may  be  taken  to  be  of  the 


GIOTTINO 


33 


master's  middle  time.  Most  entirely  central  and  typical  of  all 
Giorgione's  extant  works  is  the  Sleeping  Venus  at  Dresden, 
first  recognized  by  Morelli,  and  now  universally  accepted,  as 
being  the  same  as  the  picture  seen  by  the  Anonimo  and  later 
by  Ridolfi  in  the  Casa  Marcello  at  Venice.  An  exquisitely  pure 
and  severe  rhythm  of  line  and  contour  chastens  the  sensuous 
richness  of  the  presentment:  the  sweep  of  white  drapery  on 
which  the  goddess  lies,  and  of  glowing  landscape  that  fills  the 
space  behind  her,  most  harmoniously  frame  her  divinity.  It  is 
recorded  that  the  master  left  this  piece  unfinished  and  that 
the  landscape,  with  a  Cupid  which  subsequent  restoration  has 
removed,  were  completed  after  his  death  by  Titian.  The  picture 
is  the  prototype  of  Titian's  own  Venus  at  the  Uffizi  and  of  many 
more  by  other  painters  of  the  school;  but  none  of  them  attained 
the  quality  of  the  first  exemplar.  Of  such  small  scenes  of  mixed 
classical  mythology  and  landscape  as  early  writers  attribute  in 
considerable  number  to  Giorgione,  there  have  survived  at  least 
two  which  bear  strong  evidences  of  his  handiwork,  though  the 
action  is  in  both  of  unwonted  liveliness,  namely  the  Apollo  and 
Daphne  of  the  Seminario  at  Venice  and  the  Orpheus  and  Eurydice 
of  Bergamo.  The  portrait  of  Antonio  Grocardo  at  Budapest 
represents  his  fullest  and  most  penetrating  power  in  that  branch 
of  art.  In  his  last  years  the  purity  and  relative  slenderness  of 
form  which  mark  his  earlier  female  nudes,  including  the  Dresden 
Venus,  gave  way  to  ideals  of  ampler  mould,  more  nearly  approach- 
ing those  of  Titian  and  his  successors  in  Venetian  art;  as  is 
proved  by  those  last  remaining  fragments  of  the  frescoes  on  the 
Grand  Canal  front  of  the  Fondaco  dei  Tedeschi  which  were  seen 
and  engraved  by  Zanetti  in  1760,  but  have  now  totally  dis- 
appeared. Such  change  of  ideal  is  apparent  enough  in  the 
famous  "  Concert  "  or  "  Pastoral  Symphony  "  of  the  Louvre, 
probably  the  latest,  and  certainly  one  of  the  most  characteristic 
and  harmoniously  splendid,  of  Giorgione's  creations  that  has 
come  down  to  us,  and  has  caused  some  critics  too  hastily  to 
doubt  its  authenticity. 

We  pass  now  to  pictures  for  which  some  affirm  and  others 
deny  the  right  to  bear  Giorgione's  name.  As  youthful  in  style 
as  the  two  early  pictures  in  the  Uffizi,  and  closely  allied  to  them 
in  feeling,  though  less  so  in  colour,  is  an  unexplained  subject 
in  the  National  Gallery,  sometimes  called  for  want  of  a  better 
title  the  "  Golden  Age  ";  this  is  officially  and  by  many  critics 
given  only  to  the  "  school  of  "  Giorgione,  but  may  not  unreasonably 
be  claimed  for  hisown  work  (No. 1173).  There  isalsoin  England 
a  group  of  three  paintings  which  are  certainly  by  one  hand, 
and  that  a  hand  very  closely  related  to  Giorgione  if  not  actually 
his  own,  namely  the  small  oblong  "  Adoration  of  the  Magi  " 
in  the  National  Gallery  (No.  1160),  the  "Adoration  of  the 
Shepherds  "  belonging  to  Lord  Allendale  (with  its  somewhat 
inferior  but  still  attractive  replica  at  Vienna),  and  the  small 
"  Holy  Family  "  in  the  collection  of  Mr  R.  H.  Benson.  The 
type  of  the  Madonna  in  all  these  three  pieces  is  different  from 
that  customary  with  the  master,  but  there  seems  no  reason  why 
he  should  not  at  some  particular  moment  have  changed  his 
model.  The  sentiment  and  gestures  of  the  figures,  the  cast  of 
draperies,  the  technical  handling,  and  especially,  in  Lord  Allen- 
dale's  picture,  the  romantic  richness  of  the  landscape,  all  incline 
us  to  accept  the  group  as  original,  notwithstanding  the  deviation 
of  type  already  mentioned  and  certain  weaknesses  of  drawing 
and  proportion  which  we  should  have  hardly  looked  for.  Better 
known  to  European  students  in  general  are  the  two  fine  pictures 
commonly  given  to  the  master  at  the  Pitti  gallery  in  Florence, 
namely  the  "  Three  Ages  "  and  the  "  Concert."  Both  are  very 
Giorgionesque,  the  "  Three  Ages  "  leaning  rather  towards  the 
early  manner  of  Lorenzo  Lotto,  to  whom  by  some  critics  it  is 
actually  given.  The  "  Concert  "  is  held  on  technical  grounds 
by  some  of  the  best  judges  rather  to  bear  the  character  of  Titian 
at  the  moment  when  the  inspiration  of  Giorgione  was  strongest 
on  him,  at  least  so  far  as  concerns  the  extremely  beautiful  and 
expressive  central  figure  of  the  monk  playing  on  the  clavichord 
with  reverted  head,  a  very  incarnation  of  musical  rapture  and 
yearning — the  other  figures  are  too  much  injured  to  judge. 

There  are  at  least  two  famous  single  portraits  as  to  which 

XII.     2 


critics  will  probably  never  agree  whether  they  are  among  the 
later  works  of  Giorgione  or  among  the  earliest  of  Titian  under 
his  influence:  these  are  the  jovial  and  splendid  half-length  of 
Catherine  Cornaro  (or  a  stout  lady  much  resembling  her)  with 
a  bas-relief,  in  the  collection  of  Signer  Crespi  at  Milan,  and  the 
so-called  "  Ariosto  "  from  Lord  Darnley's  collection  acquired 
for  the  National  Gallery  in  1904.  Ancient  and  half-effaced 
inscriptions,  of  which  there  is  no  cause  to  doubt  the  genuineness, 
ascribe  them  both  to  Titian;  both,  to  the  mind  of  the  present 
writer  at  least,  are  more  nearly  akin  to  such  undoubted  early 
Titians  as  the  "  Man  with  the  Book  "  at  Hampton  Court  and 
the  "  Man  with  the  Glove  "  at  the  Louvre  than  to  any  authen- 
ticated work  of  Giorgione.  At  the  same  time  it  should  be 
remembered  that  Giorgione  is  known  to  have  actually  enjoyed 
the  patronage  of  Catherine  Cornaro  and  to  have  painted  her 
portrait.  The  Giorgionesque  influence  and  feeling,  to  a  degree 
almost  of  sentimental  exaggeration,  encounter  us  again  in  another 
beautiful  Venetian  portrait  at  the  National  Gallery  which  has 
sometimes  been  claimed  for  him,  that  of  a  man  in  crimson  velvet 
with  white  pleated  shirt  and  a  background  of  bays,  long  attributed 
to  the  elder  Palma  (No.  636).  The  same  qualities  are  present 
with  more  virility  in  a  very  striking  portrait  of  a  young  man 
at  Temple  Newsam,  which  stands  indeed  nearer  than  any  other 
extant  example  to  the  Brocardo  portrait  at  Budapest.  The 
full-face  portrait  of  a  woman  in  the  Borghese  gallery  at  Rome 
has  the  marks  of  the  master's  design  and  inspiration,  but  in  its 
present  sadly  damaged  condition  can  hardly  be  claimed  for  his 
handiwork.  The  head  of  a  boy  with  a  pipe  at  Hampton  Court, 
a  little  over  life  size,  has  been  enthusiastically  claimed  as  Gior- 
gione's workmanship,  but  is  surely  too  slack  and  soft  in  handling 
to  be  anything  more  than  an  early  copy  of  a  lost  work,  analogous 
to,  though  better  than,  the  similar  copy  at  Vienna  of  a  young 
man  with  an  arrow,  a  subject  he  is  known  to  have  painted. 
The  early  records  prove  indeed  that  not  a  few  such  copies  of 
Giorgione's  more  admired  works  were  produced  in  his  own  time 
or  shortly  afterwards.  One  of  the  most  interesting  and  un- 
mistakable such  copies  still  extant  is  the  picture  formerly  in  the 
Manfrin  collection  at  Venice,  afterwards  in  that  of  Mr  Barker  in 
London,  and  now  at  Dresden,  which  is  commonly  called  "  The 
Horoscope,"  and  represents  a  woman  seated  near  a  classic  ruin 
with  a  young  child  at  her  feet,  an  armed  youth  standing  looking 
down  at  them,  and  a  turbaned  sage  seated  near  with  compasses, 
disk  and  book.  Of  important  subject  pictures  belonging  to  the 
debatable  borderland  between  Giorgione  and  his  imitators  are  the 
large  and  interesting  unfinished  "  Judgment  of  Solomon  "  at 
Kingston  Lacy,  which  must  certainly  be  the  same  that  Ridolfi 
saw  and  attributed  to  him  in  the  Casa  Grimani  at  Venice,  but 
has  weaknesses  of  design  and  drawing  sufficiently  baffling  to 
criticism;  and  the  "  Woman  taken  in  Adultery  "  in  the  public 
gallery  at  Glasgow,  a  picture  truly  Giorgionesque  in  richness  of 
colour,  but  betraying  in  its  awkward  composition,  the  relative 
coarseness  of  its  types  and  the  insincere,  mechanical  animation 
of  its  movements,  the  hand  of  some  lesser  master  of  the  school, 
almost  certainly  (by  comparison  with  his  existing  engravings 
and  woodcuts)  that  of  Domenico  Campagnola.  It  seems  un- 
necessary to  refer,  in  the  present  notice,  to  any  of  the  numerous 
other  and  inferior  works  which  have  been  claimed  for  Giorgione 
by  a  criticism  unable  to  distinguish  between  a  living  voice  and  its 
echoes. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Morelli,  Notizie,&c.  (ed.  Frizzoni,  1884):  Vasari 
(ed.  Milanesi),  vol.  iv. ;  Ridolfi,  Le  Maraviglie  dell'  arte,  vol.  i. ; 
Zanetti,  Varie  Pitture  (1760) ;  Crowe-Cavalcaselle,  History  of  Painting 
in  North  Italy;  Morelli,  Kunstkritische  Studien;  Gronau,  Zorzon  da 
Castelfranco,  la  sua  origine,  &c.  (1894);  Herbert  Cook,  Giorgione  (in 
"  Great  Masters  "  series,  1900) ;  Ugo  Monneret  de  Villard,  Giorgione 
da  Castelfranco  (1905).  The  two  last-named  works  are  critically 
far  too  inclusive,  but  useful  as  going  over  the  whole  ground  of 
discussion,  with  full  references  to  earlier  authorities,  &c.  (S.  C.) 

GIOTTINO  (1324-1357),  an  early  Florentine  painter.  Vasari 
is  the  principal  authority  in  regard  to  this  artist;  but  it  is  not  by 
any  means  easy  to  bring  the  details  of  his  narrative  into  harmony 
with  such  facts  as  can  now  be  verified.  It  would  appear  that  there 
was  a  painter  of  the  name  of  Tommaso  (or  Maso)  di  Stefano, 


34 


GIOTTO 


termed  Giottino;  and  the  Giottino  of  Vasari  is  said  to  have  been 
born  in  1324,  and  to  have  died  early,  of  consumption,  in  1357, — 
dates  which  must  be  regarded  as  open  to  considerable  doubt. 
Stefano,  the  father  of  Tommaso,  was  himself  a  celebrated  painter 
in  the  early  revival  of  art;  his  naturalism  was  indeed  so  highly 
appreciated  by  contemporaries  as  to  earn  him  the  appellation  of 
"  Scimia  della  Natura  "  (ape  of  nature) .  He,  it  seems,  instructed 
his  son,  who,  however,  applied  himself  with  greater  predilection 
to  studying  the  works  of  the  great  Giotto,  formed  his  style  on 
these,  and  hence  was  called  Giottino.  It  is  even  said  that 
Giottino  was  really  the  son  (others  say  the  great-grandson)  of 
Giotto.  To  this  statement  little  or  no  importance  can  be  attached. 
To  Maso  di  Stefano,  or  Giottino,  Vasari  and  Ghiberti  attribute 
the  frescoes  in  the  chapel  of  S.  Silvestro  (or  of  the  Bardi  family) 
in  the  Florentine  church  of  S.  Croce;  these  represent  the  miracles 
of  Pope  S.  Silvestro  as  narrated  in  the  "  Golden  Legend,"  one 
conspicuous  subject  being  the  sealing  of  the  lips  of  a  malignant 
dragon.  These  works  are  animated  and  firm  in  drawing,  with 
naturalism  carried  further  than  by  Giotto.  From  the  evidence 
of  style,  some  modern  connoisseurs  assign  to  the  same  hand  the 
paintings  in  the  funeral  vault  of  the  Strozzi  family,  below  the 
Cappella  degli  Spagnuoli  in  the  church  of  S.  Maria  Novella, 
representing  the  crucifixion  and  other  subjects.  Vasari  ascribes 
also  to  his  Giottino  the  frescoes  of  the  life  of  St  Nicholas  in  the 
lower  church  of  Assisi.  This  series,  however,  is  not  really  in  that 
part  of  the  church  which  Vasari  designates,  but  is  in  the  chapel  of 
the  Sacrament;  and  the  works  in  that  chapel  are  understood 
to  be  by  Giotto  di  Stefano,  who  worked  in  the  second  half  of 
the  1 4th  century — very  excellent  productions  of  their  period. 
They  are  much  damaged,  and  the  style  is  hardly  similar  to  that  of 
the  Sylvester  frescoes.  It  might  hence  be  inferred  that  two 
different  men  produced  the  works  which  are  unitedly  fathered 
upon  the  half-legendary  "  Giottino,"  the  consumptive  youth, 
solitary  and  melancholic,  but  passionately  devoted  to  his  art. 
A  large  number  of  other  works  have  been  attributed  to  the  same 
hand;  we  need  only  mention  an  "  Apparition  of  the  Virgin  to 
St  Bernard,"  in  the  Florentine  Academy;  a  lost  painting,  very 
popular  in  its  day,  commemorating  the  expulsion,  which  took 
place  in  1343,  of  the  duke  of  Athens  from  Florence;  and  a 
marble  statue  erected  on  the  Florentine  campanile.  Vasari 
particularly  praises  Giottino  for  well-blended  chiaroscuro.' 

GIOTTO  [GIOTTO  DI  BONDONE']  (1267  P-I337),  Italian  painter, 
was  born  at  Vespignano  in  the  Mugello,  a  few  miles  north  of 
Florence,  according  to  one  account  in  1276,  and  according  to 
another,  which  from  the  few  known  circumstances  of  his  life  seems 
more  likely  to  be  correct,  in  1 266  or  1 267.  His  father  was  a  land- 
owner at  Colle  in  the  commune  of  Vespignano,  described  in  a 
contemporary  document  as  vir  praedarus,  but  by  biographers 
both  early  and  late  as  a  poor  peasant;  probably  therefore  a 
peasant  proprietor  of  no  large  possessions  but  of  reputable  stock 
and  descent.  It  is  impossible  to  tell  whether  there  is  any  truth 
in  the  legend  of  Giotto's  boyhood  which  relates  how  he  first 
showed  his  disposition  for  art,  and  attracted  the  attention  of 
Cimabue,  by  being  found  drawing  one  of  his  father's  sheep  with 
a  sharp  stone  on  the  face  of  a  smooth  stone  or  slate.  With  his 
father's  consent,  the  story  goes  on,  Cimabue  carried  off  the  boy 
to  be  his  apprentice,  and  it  was  under  Cimabue's  tuition  that 
Giotto  took  his  first  steps  in  the  art  of  which  he  was  afterwards 
to  be  the  great  emancipator  and  renovator.  The  place  where 
these  early  steps  can  still,  according  to  tradition,  be  traced,  is 
in  the  first  and  second,  reckoning  downwards,  of  the  three 
courses  of  frescoes  which  adorn  the  walls  of  the  nave  in  the  Upper 
Church  of  St  Francis  at  Assisi.  These  frescoes  represent  subjects 
of  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  and  great  labour,  too  probably 
futile,  has  been  spent  in  trying  to  pick  out  those  in  which  the 
youthful  handiwork  of  Giotto  can  be  discerned,  as  it  is  imagined, 
among  that  of  Cimabue  and  his  other  pupils.  But  the  truth 
is  that  the  figure  of  Cimabue  himself,  in  spite  of  Dante's  testimony 
to  his  having  been  the  foremost  painter  of  Italy  until  Giotto 
arose,  has  under  the  search-light  of  modern  criticism  melted  into 

1  Not  to  be  confused  with  Giotto  di  Buondone,  a  contemporary 
citizen  and  politician  of  Siena. 


almost  mythical  vagueness.  His  accepted  position  as  Giotto's 
instructor  and  the  pioneer  of  reform  in  his  art  has  been  attacked 
from  several  sides  as  a  mere  invention  of  Florentine  writers  for 
the  glorification  of  their  own  city.  One  group  of  critics  maintain 
that  the  real  advance  in  Tuscan  painting  before  Giotto  was  the 
work  of  the  Sienese  school  and  not  of  the  Florentine.  Another 
group  contend  that  the  best  painting  done  in  Italy  down  to  the 
last  decade  of  the  i3th  century  was  not  done  by  Tuscan  hands  at 
all,  but  by  Roman  craftsmen  trained  in  the  inherited  principles 
of  Italo-Byzantine  decoration  in  mosaic  and  fresco,  and  that 
from  such  Roman  craftsmen  alone  could  Giotto  have  learnt 
anything  worth  his  learning.  The  debate  thus  opened  is  far 
from  closed,  and  considering  how  scanty,  ambiguous  and  often 
defaced  are  the  materials  existing  for  discussion,  it  is  perhaps 
never  likely  to  be  closed.  But  there  is  no  debate  as  to  the  general 
nature  of  the  reform  effected  by  the  genius  of  Giotto  himself. 
He  was  the  great  humanizer  of  painting;  it  is  his  glory  to  have 
been  the  first  among  his  countrymen  to  breathe  life  into  wall- 
pictures  and  altar-pieces,  and  to  quicken  the  dead  conventional- 
ism of  inherited  practice  with  the  fire  of  natural  action  and 
natural  feeling.  Upon  yet  another  point  there  is  no  question; 
and  that  is  that  the  reform  thus  effected  by  Giotto  in  painting 
had  been  anticipated  in  the  sister  art  of  sculpture  by  nearly 
a  whole  generation.  About  the  middle  of  the  i3th  century 
Nicola  Pisano  had  renewed  that  art,  first  by  strict  imitation  of 
classical  models,  and  later  by  infusing  into  his  work  a  fresh 
spirit  of  nature  and  humanity,  perhaps  partly  caught  from  the 
Gothic  schools  of  France.  His  son  Giovanni  had  carried  the  same 
re- vitalising  of  sculpture  a  great  deal  further;  and  hence  to  some 
critics  it  would  seem  that  the  real  inspirer  and  precursor  of  Giotto 
was  Giovanni  Pisano  the  sculptor,  and  not  any  painter  or  wall- 
decorator,  whether  of  Florence,  Siena  or  Rome. 

In  this  division  of  opinion  it  is  safer  to  regard  the  revival  of 
painting  in  Giotto's  hands  simply  as  part  of  the  general  awaken- 
ing of  the  time,  and  to  remember  that,  as  of  all  Italian  com- 
munities Florence  was  the  keenest  in  every  form  of  activity 
both  intellectual  and  practical,  so  it  was  natural  that  a  son  of 
Florence  should  be  the  chief  agent  in  such  an  awakening.  And 
in  considering  his  career  the  question  of  his  possible  participation 
in  the  primitive  frescoes  of  the  upper  courses  at  Assisi  is  best  left 
out  of  account,  the  more  so  because  of  the  deplorable  condition 
in  which  they  now  exist.  But  with  reference  to  the  lowest 
course  of  paintings  on  the  same  walls,  those  illustrating  the  life 
of  St  Francis  according  to  the  narrative  of  St  Bonaventura, 
no  one  has  any  doubt,  at  least  in  regard  to  nineteen  or  twenty 
of  the  twenty-eight  subjects  which  compose  the  series,  that  Giotto 
himself  was  their  designer  and  chief  executant.  In  these,  sadly 
as  they  too  have  suffered  from  time  and  wholesale  repair,  there 
can  nevertheless  be  discerned  the  unmistakable  spirit  of  the 
young  Florentine  master  as  we  know  him  in  his  other  works — 
his  shrewd  realistic  and  dramatic  vigour,  the  deep  sincerity  and 
humanity  of  feeling  which  he  knows  how  to  express  in  every 
gesture  of  his  figures  without  breaking  up  the  harmony  of  their 
grouping  or  the  grandeur  of  their  linear  design,  qualities  in- 
herited from  the  earlier  schools  of  impressive  but  lifeless  hieratic 
decoration.  The  "  Renunciation  of  the  Saint  by  his  Father," 
the  "  Pope's  Dream  of  the  Saint  upholding  the  tottering  Church," 
the  "  Saint  before  the  Sultan,"  the  "  Miracle  of  the  Spring  of 
Water,"  the  "  Death  of  the  Nobleman  of  Celano,"  the  "  Saint 
preaching  before  Pope  Honorius  " — these  are  some  of  the  most 
noted  and  best  preserved  examples  of  the  painter's  power  in  this 
series.  Where  doubt  begins  again  is  as  to  the  relations  of  date 
and  sequence  which  the  series  bears  to  other  works  by  the  master 
executed  at  Assisi  and  at  Rome  in  the  same  early  period  of  his 
career,  that  is,  probably  between  1295  and  1300.  Giotto's 
remaining  undisputed  works  at  Assisi  are  the  four  celebrated 
allegorical  compositions  in  honour  of  St  Francis  in  the  vaulting 
of  the  Lower  Church, — the  "  Marriage  of  St  Francis  to  Poverty," 
the  "  Allegory  of  Chastity,"  the  "  Allegory  of  Obedience  " 
and  the  "  Vision  of  St  Francis  in  Glory."  These  works  are 
scarcely  at  all  retouched,  and  relatively  little  dimmed  by  time; 
they  are  of  a  singular  beauty,  at  once  severe  and  tender,  both 


GIOTTO 


35 


in  colour  and  design;  the  compositions,  especially  the  first  three, 
fitted  with  admirable  art  into  the  cramped  spaces  of  the  vaulting, 
the  subjects,  no  doubt  in  the  main  dictated  to  the  artist  by  his 
Franciscan  employers,  treated  in  no  cold  or  mechanical  spirit 
but  with  a  full  measure  of  vital  humanity  and  original  feeling. 
Had  the  career  and  influence  of  St  Francis  had  no  other  of  their 
vast  and  far-reaching  effects  in  the  world  than  that  of  inspiring 
these  noble  works  of  art,  they  would  still  have  been  entitled 
to  no  small  gratitude  from  mankind.  Other  works  at  Assisi 
which  most  modern  critics,  but  not  all,  attribute  to  Giotto  him- 
self are  three  miracles  of  St  Francis  and  portions  of  a  group  of 
frescoes  illustrating  the  history  of  Mary  Magdalene,  both  in  the 
Lower  Church;  and  again,  in  one  of  the  transepts  of  the  same 
Lower  Church,  a  series  of  ten  frescoes  of  the  Life  of  the  Virgin 
and  Christ,  concluding  with  the  Crucifixion.  It  is  to  be  remarked 
as  to  this  transept  series  that  several  of  the  frescoes  present  not 
only  the  same  subjects,  but  with  a  certain  degree  of  variation 
the  same  compositions,  as  are  found  in  the  master's  great  series 
executed  in  the  Arena  chapel  at  Padua  in  the  fullness  of  his 
powers  about  1306;  and  that  the  versions  in  the  Assisi  transept 
show  a  relatively  greater  degree  of  technical  accomplishment 
than  the  Paduan  versions,  with  a  more  attractive  charm  and 
more  abundance  of  accessory  ornament,  but  a  proportionately 
less  degree  of  that  simple  grandeur  in  composition  and  direct 
strength  of  human  motive  which  are  the  special  notes  of  Giotto's 
style.  Therefore  a  minority  of  critics  refuse  to  accept  the 
modern  attribution  of  this  transept  series  to  Giotto  himself, 
and  see  in  it  later  work  by  an  accomplished  pupil  softening  and 
refining  upon  his  master's  original  creations  at  Padua.  Others, 
insisting  that  these  unquestionably  beautiful  works  must  be 
by  the  hand  of  Giotto  and  none  but  Giotto,  maintain  that  in 
comparison  with  the  Paduan  examples  they  illustrate  a  gradual 
progress,  which  can  be  traced  in  other  of  his  extant  works,  from 
the  relatively  ornate  and  soft  to  the  austerely  grand  and  simple. 
This  argument  is  enforced  by  comparison  with  early  work  of  the 
master's  at  Rome  as  to  the  date  of  which  we  have  positive 
evidence.  In  1298  Giotto  completed  for  Cardinal  Stefaneschi 
for  the  price  of  2200  gold  ducats  a  mosaic  of  Christ  saving  St 
Peter  from  the  waves  (the  celebrated  "  Navicella  ") ;  this  is 
still  to  be  seen,  but  in  a  completely  restored  and  transformed 
state,  in  the  vestibule  of  St  Peter's.  For  the  same  patron  he 
executed,  probably  just  before  the  "  Navicella,"  an  elaborate 
ciborium  or  altar-piece  for  the  high  altar  of  St  Peter's  ,  for  which 
he  received  800  ducats.  It  represents  on  the  principal  face  a 
colossal  Christ  enthroned  with  adoring  angels  beside  him  and 
a  kneeling  donor  at  his  feet,  and  the  martyrdoms  of  St  Peter  and 
St  Paul  on  separate  panels  to  right  and  left;  on  the  reverse  is 
St  Peter  attended  by  St  George  and  other  saints,  receiving  from 
the  donor  a  model  of  his  gift,  with  stately  full-length  figures  of 
two  apostles  to  right  and  two  to  left,  besides  various  accessory 
scenes  and  figures  in  the  predellas  and  the  margins.  The 
separated  parts  of  this  altar-piece  are  still  to  be  seen,  in  a  quite 
genuine  though  somewhat  tarnished  condition,  in  the  sacristy 
of  St  Peter's.  A  third  work  by  the  master  at  Rome  is  a  repainted 
fragment  at  the  Lateran  of  a  fresco  of  Pope  Boniface  VIII. 
proclaiming  the  jubilee  of  1300.  The  "  Navicella  "  and  the 
Lateran  fragment  are  too  much  ruined  to  argue  from;  but  the 
ciborium  panels,  it  is  contended,  combine  with  the  aspects  of 
majesty  and  strength  a  quality  of  ornate  charm  and  suavity 
such  as  is  remarked  in  the  transept  frescoes  of  Assisi.  The 
sequence  proposed  for  these  several  works  is  accordingly,  first 
the  St  Peter's  ciborium,  next  the  allegories  in  the  vaulting  of  the 
Lower  Church,  next  the  three  frescoes  of  St  Francis'  miracles 
in  the  north  transept,  next  the  St  Francis  series  in  the  Upper 
Church;  and  last,  perhaps  after  an  interval  and  with  the  help 
of  pupils,  the  scenes  from  the  life  of  Mary  Magdalene  in  her 
chapel  in  the  Lower  Church.  This  involves  a  complete  reversal 
of  the  prevailing  view,  which  regards  the  unequal  and  sometimes 
clumsy  compositions  of  this  St  Francis  series  as  the  earliest 
independent  work  of  the  master.  It  must  be  admitted  that 
there  is  something  paradoxical  in  the  idea  of  a  progress  from 
the  manner  of  the  Lower  Church  transept  series  of  the  life  of 


Christ  to  the  much  ruder  manner  of  the  Upper  Church  series 
of  St  Francis. 

A  kindred  obscurity  and  little  less  conflict  of  opinion  await 
the  inquirer  at  almost  all  stages  of  Giotto's  career.  In  1841 
there  were  partially  recovered  from  the  whitewash  that  had 
overlain  them  a  series  of  frescoes  executed  in  the  chapel  of  the 
Magdalene,  in  the  Bargello  or  Palace  of  the  Podesta  at  Florence, 
to  celebrate  (as  was  supposed)  a  pacification  between  the  Black 
and  White  parties  in  the  state  effected  by  the  Cardinal  d'Acqua- 
sparta  as  delegate  of  the  pope  in  1302.  In  them  are  depicted  a 
series  of  Bible  scenes,  besides  great  compositions  of  Hell  and 
Paradise,  and  in  the  Paradise  are  introduced  portraits  of  Dante, 
Brunetto  Latini  and  Corso  Donato.  These  recovered  fragments, 
freely  "  restored  "  as  soon  as  they  were  disclosed,  were  acclaimed 
as  the  work  of  Giotto  and  long  held  in  especial  regard  for  the 
sake  of  the  portrait  of  Dante.  Latterly  it  has  been  shown  that 
if  Giotto  ever  executed  them  at  all,  which  is  doubtful,  it  must 
have  been  at  a  later  date  than  the  supposed  pacification,  and 
that  they  must  have  suffered  grievous  injury  in  the  fire  which 
destroyed  a  great  part  of  the  building  in  1332,  and  been  after- 
wards repainted  by  some  well-trained  follower  of  the  school. 
To  about  1302  or  1303  would  belong,  if  there  is  truth  in  it,  the 
familiar  story  of  Giotto's  O.  Pope  Benedict  XI.,  the  successor 
of  Boniface  VIII.,  sent,  as  the  tale  runs,  a  messenger  to  bring 
him  proofs  of  the  painter's  powers.  Giotto  would  give  no  other 
sample  of  his  talent  than  an  O  drawn  with  a  free  sweep  of  the 
brush  from  the  elbow;  but  the  pope  was  satisfied  and  engaged 
him  at  a  great  salary  to  go  and  adorn  with  frescoes  the  papal 
residence  at  Avignon.  Benedict,  however,  dying  at  this  time 
(1305),  nothing  came  of  this  commission;  and  the  remains  of 
Italian  14th-century  frescoes  still  to  be  seen  at  Avignon  are  now 
recognized  as  the  work,  not,  as  was  long  supposed,  of  Giotto, 
but  of  the  Sienese  Simone  Martini  and  his  school. 

At  this  point  in  Giotto's  life  we  come  to  the  greatest  by  far  of 
his  undestroyed  and  undisputed  enterprises,  and  one  which  can 
with  some  certainty  be  dated.  This  is  the  series  of  frescoes 
with  which  he  decorated  the  entire  internal  walls  of  the  chapel 
built  at  Padua  in  honour  of  the  Virgin  of  the  Annunciation  by  a 
rich  citizen  of  the  town,  Enrico  Scrovegni,  perhaps  in  order  to 
atone  for  the  sins  of  his  father,  a  notorious  usurer  whom  Dante 
places  in  the  seventh  circle  of  hell.  The  building  is  on  the  site 
of  an  ancient  amphitheatre,  and  is  therefore  generally  called 
the  chapel  of  the  Arena.  Since  it  is  recorded  that  Dante  was 
Giotto's  guest  at  Padua,  and  since  we  know  that  it  was  in  1306 
that  the  poet  came  from  Bologna  to  that  city,  we  may  conclude 
that  to  the  same  year,  1306,  belongs  the  beginning  of  Giotto's 
great  undertaking  in  the  Arena  chapel.  The  scheme  includes  a 
Saviour  in  Glory  over  the  altar,  a  Last  Judgment,  full  of  various 
and  impressive  incident,  occupying  the  whole  of  the  entrance  wall, 
with  a  series  of  subjects  from  the  Old  and  New  Testament  and 
the  apocryphal  Life  of  Christ  painted  in  three  tiers  on  either  side 
wall,  and  lowest  of  all  a  fourth  tier  with  emblematic  Virtues  and 
Vices  in  monochrome;  the  Virtues  being  on  the  side  of  the  chapel 
next  the  incidents  of  redemption  in  the  entrance  fresco  of  the 
Last  Judgment,  the  Vices  on  the  side  next  the  incidents  of  perdi- 
tion. A  not  improbable  tradition  asserts  that  Giotto  was  helped 
by  Dante  in  the  choice  and  disposition  of  the  subjects.  The 
frescoes,  though  not  free  from  injury  and  retouching,  are  upon 
the  whole  in  good  condition,  and  nowhere  else  can  the  highest 
powers  of  the  Italian  mind  and  hand  at  the  beginning  of  the  I4th 
century  be  so  well  studied  as  here.  At  the  close  of  the  middle 
ages  we  find  Giotto  laying  the  foundation  upon  which  all  the 
progress  of  the  Renaissance  was  afterwards  securely  based. 
In  his  day  the  knowledge  possessed  by  painters  of  the  human 
frame  and  its  structure  rested  only  upon  general  observation 
and  not  upon  detailed  or  scientific  study;  while  to  facts  other 
than  those  of  humanity  their  observation  had  never  been  closely 
directed.  Of  linear  perspective  they  possessed  but  elementary 
and  empirical  ideas,  and  their  endeavours  to  express  aerial  per- 
spective and  deal  with  the  problems  of  light  and  shade  were  rare 
and  partial.  As  far  as  painting  could  possibly  be  carried  under 
these  conditions,  it  was  carried  by  Giotto.  In  its  choice  of 


GIOTTO 


subjects,  his  art  is  entirely  subservient  to  the  religious  spirit  of 
his  age.  Even  in  its  mode  of  conceiving  and  arranging  those 
subjects  it  is  in  part  still  trammelled  by  the  rules  and  consecrated 
traditions  of  the  past.  Many  of  those  truths  of  nature  to  which 
the  painters  of  succeeding  generations  learned  to  give  accurate 
and  complete  expression,  Giotto  was  only  able  to  express  by  way 
of  imperfect  symbol  and  suggestion.  But  among  the  elements  of 
art  over  which  he  has  control  he  maintains  so  just  a  balance  that 
his  work  produces  in  the  spectator  less  sense  of  imperfection 
than  that  of  many  later  and  more  accomplished  masters.  In 
some  particulars  his  mature  painting,  as  we  see  it  in  the  Arena 
chapel,  has  never  been  surpassed — in  mastery  of  concise  and 
expressive  generalized  line  and  of  inventive  and  harmonious 
decorative  tint;  in  the  judicious  division  of  the  field  and  massing 
and  scattering  of  groups;  in  the  combination  of  high  gravity 
with  complete  frankness  in  conception,  and  the  union  of  noble 
dignity  in  the  types  with  direct  and  vital  truth  in  the  gestures 
of  the  personages. 

The  frescoes  of  the  Arena  chapel  must  have  been  a  labour 
of  years,  and  of  the  date  of  their  termination  we  have  no  proof. 
Of  many  other  works  said  to  have  been  executed  by  Giotto  at 
Padua,  all  that  remains  consists  of  some  scarce  recognizable  traces 
in  the  chapter-house  of  the  great  Franciscan  church  of  St  Antonio. 
For  twenty  years  or  more  we  lose  all  authentic  data  as  to  Giotto's 
doings  and  movements.  Vasari,  indeed,  sends  him  on  a  giddy 
but  in  the  main  evidently  fabulous  round  of  travels,  including  a 
sojourn  in  France,  which  it  is  certain  he  never  made.  Besides 
Padua,  he  is  said  to  have  resided  and  left  great  works  at  Ferrara, 
Ravenna,  Urbino,  Rimini,  Faenza,  Lucca  and  other  cities;  in 
some  of  them  paintings  of  his  school  are  still  shown,  but  nothing 
which  can  fairly  be  claimed  to  be  by  his  hand.  It  is  recorded 
also  that  he  was  much  employed  in  his  native  city  of  Florence; 
but  the  vandalism  of  later  generations  has  effaced  nearly  all  that 
he  did  .there.  Among  works  whitewashed  over  by  posterity 
were  the  frescoes  with  which  he  covered  no  less  than  five  chapels 
in  the  church  of  Santa  Croce.  Two  of  these,  the  chapels  of  the 
Bardi  and  the  Peruzzi  families,  were  scraped  in  the  early  part 
of  the  i  Qth  century,  and  very  important  remains  were  uncovered 
and  immediately  subjected  to  a  process  of  restoration  which 
has  robbed  them  of  half  their  authenticity.  But  through  the 
ruins  of  time  we  can  trace  in  some  of  these  Santa  Croce  frescoes 
all  the  qualities  of  Giotto's  work  at  an  even  higher  and  more 
mature  development  than  in  the  best  examples  at  Assisi  or  Padua. 
The  frescoes  of  the  Bardi  chapel  tell  again  the  story  of  St  Francis, 
to* which  so  much  of  his  best  power  had  already  been  devoted; 
those  of  the  Peruzzi  chapel  deal  with  the  lives  of  St  John  the 
Baptist  and  St  John  the  Evangelist.  Such  scenes  as  the  Funeral 
of  St  Francis,  the  Dance  of  Herodias's  Daughter,  and  the  Re- 
surrection of  St  John  the  Evangelist,  which  have  to  some  extent 
escaped  the  disfigurements  of  the  restorer,  are  among  acknow- 
ledged classics  of  the  world's  art.  The  only  clues  to  the  dates 
of  any  of  these  works  are  to  be  found  in  the  facts  that  among  the 
figures  in  the  Bardi  chapel  occurs  that  of  St  Louis  of  Toulouse, 
who  was  not  canonized  till  1317,  therefore  the  painting  must  be 
subsequent  to  that  year,  and  that  the  "  Dance  of  Salome  "  must 
have  been  painted  before  1331,  when  it  was  copied  by  the  Loren- 
zetti  at  Siena.  The  only  other  extant  works  of  Giotto  at  Florence 
are  a  fine  "  Crucifix,"  not  undisputed,  at  San  Marco,  and  the 
majestic  but  somewhat  heavy  altar-piece  of  the  Madonna,  prob- 
ably an  early  work,  which  is  placed  in  the  Academy  beside  a 
more  primitive  Madonna  supposed  to  be  the  work  of  Cimabue. 

Towards  the  end  of  Giotto's  life  we  escape  again  from  confused 
legend,  and  from  the  tantalizing  record  of  works  which  have 
not  survived  for  us  to  verify,  into  the  region  of  authentic  docu- 
ment and  fact.  It  appears  that  Giotto  had  come  under  the  notice 
of  Duke  Charles  of  Calabria,  son  of  King  Robert  of  Naples,  during 
the  visits  of  the  duke  to  Florence  which  took  place  between 
1326  and  1328,  in  which  year  he  died.  Soon  afterwards  Giotto 
must  have  gone  to  King  Robert's  court  at  Naples,  where  he  was 
enrolled  as  an  honoured  guest  and  member  of  the  household  by 
a  royal  decree  dated  the  2oth  of  January  1330.  Another  docu- 
ment shows  him  to  have  been  still  at  Naples  two  years  later. 


Tradition  says  much  about  the  friendship  of  the  king  for  the 
painter  and  the  freedom  of  speech  and  jest  allowed  him;  much 
also  of  the  works  he  carried  out  at  Naples  in  the  Castel  Nuovo, 
the  Castel  dell'  Uovo,  and  the  church  and  convent  of  Sta  Chiara. 
Not  a  trace  of  these  works  remains;  and  others  which  later 
criticism  have  claimed  for  him  in  a  hall  which  formerly  belonged 
to  the  convent  of  Sta  Chiara  have  been  proved  not  to  be  his. 

Meantime  Giotto  had  been  advancing,  not  only  in  years  and 
worldly  fame,  but  in  prosperity.  He  was  married  young,  and 
had,  so  far  as  is  recorded,  three  sons,  Francesco,  Niccola  and 
Donate,  and  three  daughters,  Bice,  Caterina  and  Lucia.  He 
had  added  by  successive  purchases  to  the  plot  of  land  inherited 
from  his  father  at  Vespignano.  His  fellow-citizens  of  all  occupa- 
tions and  degrees  delighted  to  honour  him.  And  now,  in  his  sixty- 
eighth  year  (if  we  accept  the  birth-date  1266/7),  on  his  return 
from  Naples  by  way  of  Gaeta,  he  received  the  final  and  official 
testimony  to  the  esteem  in  which  he  was  held  at  Florence.  By 
a  solemn  decree  of  the  Priori  on  the  I2th  of  April  1334,  he  was 
appointed  master  of  the  works  of  the  cathedral  of  Sta  Reparata 
(later  and  better  known  as  Sta  Maria  del  Fiore)  and  official 
architect  of  the  city  walls  and  the  towns  within  her  territory. 
What  training  as  a  practical  architect  his  earlier  career  had 
afforded  him  we  do  not  know,  but  his  interest  in  the  art  from 
the  beginning  is  made  clear  by  the  carefully  studied  architectural 
backgrounds  of  many  of  his  frescoes.  Dying  on  the  8th  of 
January  1336  (old  style  1337),  Giotto  only  enjoyed  his  new 
dignities  for  two  years.  But  in  the  course  of  them  he  had  found 
time  not  only  to  make  an  excursion  to  Milan,  on  the  invitation 
of  Azzo  Visconti  and  with  the  sanction  of  his  own  government, 
but  to  plan  two  great  architectural  works  at  Florence  and 
superintend  the  beginning  of  their  execution,  namely  the  west 
front  of  the  cathedral  and  its  detached  campanile  or  bell-tower. 
The  unfinished  enrichments  of  the  cathedral  front  were  stripped 
away  in  a  later  age.  The  foundation-stone  of  the  Campanile  was 
laid  with  solemn  ceremony  in  the  presence  of  a  great  concourse 
of  magistrates  and  people  on  the  i8th  of  July  1334.  Its  lower 
courses  seem  to  have  been  completed  from  Giotto's  design,  and 
the  first  course  of  its  sculptured  ornaments  (the  famous  series  of 
primitive  Arts  and  Industries)  actually  by  his  own  hand,  before 
his  death.  It  is  not  clear  what  modifications  of  his  design  were 
made  by  Andrea  Pisano,  who  was  appointed  to  succeed  him, 
or  again  by  Francesco  Talenti,  to  whom  the  work  was  next 
entrusted;  but  the  incomparable  structure  as  we  now  see  it 
stands  justly  in  the  world's  esteem  as  the  most  fitting  monument 
to  the  genius  who  first  conceived  and  directed  it. 

The  art  of  painting,  as  re-created  by  Giotto,  was  carried 
on  throughout  Italy  by  his  pupils  and  successors  with  little 
change  or  development  for  nearly  a  hundred  years,-  until  a  new 
impulse  was  given  to  art  by  the  combined  influences  of  naturalism 
and  classicism  in  the  hands  of  men  like  Donatello  and  Masaccio. 
Most  of  the  anecdotes  related  of  the  master  are  probably  in- 
accurate in  detail,  but  the  general  character  both  as  artist  and 
man  which  tradition  has  agreed  in  giving  him  can  never  be 
assailed.  He  was  from  the  first  a  kind  of  popular  hero.  He  is 
celebrated  by  the  poet  Petrarch  and  by  the  historian  Villani. 
He  is  made  the  subject  of  tales  and  anecdotes  by  Boccaccio 
and  by  Franco  Sacchetti.  From  these  notices,  as  well  as  from 
Vasari,  we  gain  a  distinct  picture  of  the  man,  as  one  whose 
nature  was  in  keeping  with  his  country  origin;  whose  sturdy 
frame  and  plain  features  corresponded  to  a  character  rather 
distinguished  for  shrewd  and  genial  strength  than  for  sublimer 
or  more  ascetic  qualities;  a  master  craftsman,  to  whose  strong 
combining  and  inventing  powers  nothing  came  amiss;  conscious 
of  his  own  deserts,  never  at  a  loss  either  in  the  things  of  art  or  in 
the  things  of  life,  and  equally  ready  and  efficient  whether  he  has 
to  design  the  scheme  of  some  great  spiritual  allegory  in  colour 
or  imperishable  monument  in  stone,  or  whether  he  has  to  show 
his  wit  in  the  encounter  of  practical  jest  and  repartee.  From  his 
own  hand  we  have  a  contribution  to  literature  which  helps  to 
substantiate  this  conception  of  his  character.  A  large  part  of 
Giotto's  fame  as  painter  was  won  in  the  service  of  the  Franciscans, 
and  in  the  pictorial  celebration  of  the  life  and  ordinances  of 


GIPSIES 


37 


their  founder.  As  is  well  known,  it  was  a  part  of  the  ordinances 
of  Francis  that  his  disciples  should  follow  his  own  example  in 
worshipping  and  being  wedded  to  poverty, — poverty  idealized 
and  personified  as  a  spiritual  bride  and  mistress.  Giotto,  having 
on  the  commission  of  the  order  given  the  noblest  pictorial 
embodiment  to  this  and  other  aspects  of  the  Franciscan  doctrine, 
presently  wrote  an  ode  in  which  his  own  views  on  poverty  are 
expressed;  and  in  this  he  shows  that,  if  on  the  one  hand  his 
genius  was  at  the  service  of  the  ideals  of  his  time,  and  his  imagina- 
tion open  to  their  significance,  on  the  other  hand  his  judgment 
was  shrewdly  and  humorously  awake  to  their  practical  dangers 
and  exaggerations. 

AUTHORITIES. — Ghiberti,  Commentari;  Vasari,  Le  Vile,  vol.  i. ; 
Crowe-Cavalcaselle,  History  oj  Painting  in  Italy,  ed.  Langton 
Douglas  (1903);  H.  Thode,  Giotto  (1899);  M.  G.  Zimmermann, 
Giotto  una  die  Kunst  Italiens  im  Mittelalter  (1899);  B.  Berenson, 
Florentine  Painters  of  the  Renaissance;  F.  Mason  Perkin,  Giotto 
(in  "  Great  Masters "  series)  (1902) ;  Basil  de  Se'lincourt,  Giotto 
(1905).  (S.  C.) 

GIPSIES,  or  GYPSIES,  a  wandering  folk  scattered  through 
every  European  land,  over  the  greater  part  of  western  Asia 
and  Siberia;  found  also  in  Egypt  and  the  northern  coast  of 
Africa,  in  America  and  even  in  Australia.  No  correct  estimate 
of  their  numbers  outside  of  Europe  can  be  given,  and  even  in 
Europe  the  information  derived  from  official  statistics  is  often 
contradictory  and  unreliable.  The  only  country  in  which  the 
figures  have  been  given  correctly  is  Hungary.  In  1893  there 
were  274,940  in  Transleithania,  of  whom  243,432  were  settled, 
20,406  only  partly  settled  and  8938  nomads.  Of  these  91,603 
spoke  the  Gipsy  language  in  1890,  but  the  rest  had  already  been 
assimilated.  Next  in  numbers  stands  Rumania,  the  number 
varying  between  250,000  and  200,000  (1895).  Turkey  in  Europe 
counted  117,000  (1903),  of  whom  51,000  were  in  Bulgaria  and 
Eastern  Rumelia,  22,000  in  the  vilayet  of  Adrianople  and  2500  in 
the  vilayet  of  Kossovo.  In  Asiatic  Turkey  the  estimates  vary 
between  67,000  and  200,000.  Servia  has  41,000;  Bosnia  and 
Herzegovina,  18,000;  Greece,  10,000;  Austria  (Cisleithania), 
16,000,  of  whom  13,500  are  in  Bohemia  and  Moravia;  Germany, 
2000;  France,  2000  (5000?);  Basque  Provinces,  500  to  700; 
Italy,  32,000;  Spain,  40,000;  Russia,  58,000;  Poland,  15,000; 
Sweden  and  Norway,  1500;  Denmark  and  Holland,  5000; 
Persia,  15,000;  Transcaucasia,  3000.  The  rest  is  mere  guesswork. 
For  Africa,  America  and  Australia  the  numbers  are  estimated 
between  135,000  and  166,000.  The  estimate  given  by  Miklosich 
(1878)  of  700,000  fairly  agrees  with  the  above  statistics.  No 
statistics  are  forthcoming  for  the  number  in  the  British  Isles. 
Some  estimate  their  number  at  12,000. 

•  The  Gipsies  are  known  principally  by  two  names,  which 
have  been  modified  by  the  nations  with  whom  they  came  in 
contact,  but  which  can  easily  be  traced  to  either  the  one  or  the 
other  of  these  two  distinct  stems.  The  one  group,  embracing 
the  majority  of  Gipsies  in  Europe,  the  compact  masses  living 
in  the  Balkan  Peninsula,  Rumania  and  Transylvania  and 
extending  also  as  far  as  Germany  and  Italy,  are  known  by  the 
name  Atzigan  or  Alsigan,  which  becomes  in  time  Tshingian 
(Turkey  and  Greece),  Tsigan  (Bulgarian,  Servian,  Rumanian), 
Czigany  (Hungarian),  Zigeuner  (Germany),  Zingari  (Italian), 
and  it  is  not  unlikely  that  the  English  word  Tinker  or  Tinkler 
(the  latter  no  doubt  due  to  a  popular  etymology  connecting  the 
gaudy  gipsy  with  the  tinkling  coins  or  the  metal  wares  which 
he  carried  on  his  back  as  a  smith  and  tinker)  may  be  a  local 
transformation  of  the  German  Zigeuner.  The  second  name, 
partly  known  in  the  East,  where  the  word,  however,  is  used  as  an 
expression  of  contempt,  whilst  Zigan  is  not  felt  by  the  gipsies 
as  an  insult,  is  Egyptian;  in  England,  Gipsy;  in  some  German 
documents  of  the  i6th  century  Aegypter;  Spanish  GUano; 
modern  Greek  Gyphtos.  They  are  also  known  by  the  parallel 
expressions  Faraon  (Rumanian)  and  Pharao  Nephka  (Hungarian) 
or  Pharaoh's  people,  which  are  only  variations  connected  with 
the  Egyptian  origin.  In  France  they  are  known  as  Bohemiens, 
a  word  the  importance  of  which  will  appear  later.  To  the  same 
category  belong  other  names  bestowed  upon  them,  such  as 
Walachi,  Saraceni,  Agareni,  Nubiani,  &c.  They  were  also  known 


by  the  name  of  Tartars,  given  to  them  in  Germany,  or  as 
"  Heathen,"  Heydens.  All  these  latter  must  be  considered  as 
nicknames  without  thereby  denoting  their  probable  origin. 
The  same  may  have  now  been  the  case  with  the  first  name 
with  which  they  appear  in  history,  Alzigan.  Much  ingenuity 
has  been  displayed  in  attempts  to  explain  the  name,  for  it  was 
felt  that  a  true  explanation  might  help  to  settle  the  question  of 
their  origin  and  the  date  of  their  arrival  in  Europe.  Here 
again  two  extreme  theories  have  been  propounded,  the  one 
supported  by  Bataillard,  who  connected  them  with  the  Sigynnoi 
of  Herodotus  and  identified  them  with  the  Komodromoi  of  the 
later  Byzantine  writers,  known  already  in  the  6th  century. 
Others  bring  them  to  Europe  as  late  as  the  I4th  century;  and 
the  name  has  also  been  explained  by  de  Goeje  from  the  Persian 
Chang,  a  kind  of  harp  or  zither,  or  the  Persian  Zang,  black, 
swarthy.  Rienzi  (1832)  and  Trumpp  (1872)  have  connected 
the  name  with  the  Changars  of  North-East  India,  but  all  have 
omitted  to  notice  that  the  real  form  was  Atzigan  or  (more  correct) 
Atzingan  and  not  Tsigan.  The  best  explanation  remains  that  sug- 
gested by  Miklosich,  who  derives  the  word  from  the  Athinganoi, 
a  name  originally  belonging  to  a  peculiar  heretical  sect  living 
in  Asia  Minor  near  Phrygia  and  Lycaonia,  known  also  as  the 
Melki-Zedekites.  The  members  of  this  sect  observed  very  strict 
rules  of  purity,  as  they  were  afraid  to  be  defiled  by  the  touch 
of  other  people  whom  they  considered  unclean.  They  therefore 
acquired  the  name  of  Athinganoi  (i.e.  "  Touch-me-nots  ")• 

Miklosich  has  collected  seven  passages  where  the  Byzantine 
historians  of  the  gth  century  describe  the  Athinganoi  as  sooth- 
sayers, magicians  and  serpent-charmers.  From  these  descrip- 
tions nothing  definite  can  be  proved  as  to  the  identity  of  the 
Athinganoi  with  the  Gipsies,  or  the  reason  why  this  name  was 
given  to  soothsayers,  charmers,  &c.  But  the  inner  history  of  the 
Byzantine  empire  of  that  period  may  easily  give  a  clue  to  it 
and  explain  how  it  came  about  that  such  a  nickname  was  given 
to  a  new  sect  or  to  a  new  race  which  suddenly  appeared  in  the 
Greek  Empire  at  that  period.  In  the  history  of  the  Church  we 
find  them  mentioned  in  one  breath  with  the  Paulicians  and  other 
heretical  sects  which  were  transplanted  in  their  tens  of  thousands 
from  Asia  Minor  to  the  Greek  empire  and  settled  especially  in 
Rumelia,  near  Adrianople  and  Philippopolis.  The  Greeks  called 
these  heretical  sects  by  all  kinds  of  names,  derived  from  ancient 
Church  traditions,  and  gave  to  each  sect  such  names  as  first  struck 
them,  on  the  scantiest  of  imaginary  similarities.  One  sect  was 
called  Paulician,  another  Melki-Zedekite;  so  also  these  were 
called  Athinganoi,  probably  being  considered  the  descendants 
of  the  outcast  Samer,  who,  according  to  ancient  tradition,  was 
a  goldsmith  and  the  maker  of  the  Golden  Calf  in  the  desert. 
For  this  sin  Samer  was  banished  and  compelled  to  live  apart 
from  human  beings  and  even  to  avoid  their  touch  (Athinganos: 
"  Touch-me-not  ").  Travelling  from  East  to  West  these  heretical 
sects  obtained  different  names  in  different  countries,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  local  traditions  or  to  imaginary  origins.  The 
Bogomils  and  Patarenes  became  Bulgarians  in  France,  and  so 
the  gypsies  Bohemiens,  a  name  which  was  also  connected  with 
the  heretical  sect  of  the  Bohemian  brothers  (Bohmische  Bruder). 
Curiously  enough  the  Kutzo-Vlachs  living  in  Macedonia  (q.v.) 
and  Rumelia  are  also  known  by  the  nickname  Tsintsari,  a  word 
that  has  not  yet  been  explained.  Very  likely  it  stands  in  close 
connexion  with  Zingari,  the  name  having  been  transferred  from 
one  people  to  the  other  without  the  justification  of  any  common 
ethnical  origin,  except  that  the  Kutzo-Vlachs,  like  the  Zingari, 
differed  from  their  Greek  neighbours  in  race,  as  in  language, 
habits  and  customs;  while  they  probably  followed  similar 
pursuits  to  those  of  the  Zingari,  as  smiths,  &c.  As  to  the  other 
name,  Egyptians,  this  is  derived  from  a  peculiar  tale  which  the 
gipsies  spread  when  appearing  in  the  west  of  Europe.  They 
alleged  that  they  had  come  from  a  country  of  their  own  called 
Little  Egypt,  either  a  confusion  between  Little  Armenia  and 
Egypt  or  the  Peloponnesus. 

Attention  may  be  drawn  to  a  remarkable  passage  in  the  Syriac 
version  of  the  apocryphal  Book  of  Adam,  known  as  the  Cave  of 
Treasures  and  compiled  probably  in  the  6th  century:  "And 


GIPSIES 


of  the  seed  of  Canaan  were  as  I  said  the  Aegyptians;  and,  lo, 
they  were  scattered  all  over  the  earth  and  served  as  slaves  of 
slaves  "  (ed.  Bezold,  German  translation,  p.  25).  No  reference 
to  such  a  scattering  and  serfdom  of  the  Egyptians  is  mentioned 
anywhere  else.  This  must  have  been  a  legend,  current  in  Asia 
Minor,  and  hence  probably  transferred  to  the  swarthy  Gipsies. 

A  new  explanation  may  now  be  ventured  upon  as  to  the  name 
which  the  Gipsies  of  Europe  give  to  themselves,  which,  it  must 
be  emphasized,  is  not  known  to  the  Gipsies  outside  of  Europe. 
Only  those  who  starting  from  the  ancient  Byzantine  empire 
have  travelled  westwards  and  spread  over  Europe,  America  and 
Australia  call  themselves  by  the  name  of  Rom,  the  woman  being 
Romni  and  a  stranger  Gazi.  Many  etymologies  have  been  sug- 
gested for  the  word  Rom.  Paspati  derived  it  from  the  word 
Droma  (Indian),  and  Miklosich  had  identified  it  with  Doma  or 
Domba,  a  "  low  caste  musician,"  rather  an  extraordinary  name 
for  a  nation  to  call  itself  by.  Having  no  home  and  no  country 
of  their  own  and  no  political  traditions  and  no  literature,  they 
would  naturally  try  to  identify  themselves  with  the  people  in 
whose  midst  they  lived,  and  would  call  themselves  by  the  same 
name  as  other  inhabitants  of  the  Greek  empire,  known  also  as 
the  Empire  of  New  Rom,  or  of  the  Romaioi,  Romeliots,  Romanoi, 
as  the  Byzantines  used  to  call  themselves  before  they  assumed 
the  prouder  name  of  Hellenes.  The  Gipsies  would  therefore 
call  themselves  also  Rom,  a  much  more  natural  name,  more 
flattering  to  their  vanity,  and  geographically  and  politically 
more  correct  than  if  they  called  themselves  "low  caste 
musicians."  This  Greek  origin  of  the  name  would  explain  why 
it  is  limited  to  the  European  Gipsies,  and  why  it  is  not  found 
among  that  stock  of  Gipsies  which  has  migrated  from  Asia 
Minor  southwards  and  taken  a  different  route  to  reach  Egypt 
and  North  Africa. 

Appearance  in  Europe. — Leaving  aside  the  doubtful  passages 
in  the  Byzantine  writers  where  the  Athinganoi  are  mentioned, 
the  first  appearance  of  Gipsies  in  Europe  cannot  be  traced 
positively  further  back  than  the  beginning  of  the  I4th  century. 
Some  have  hitherto  believed  that  a  passage  in  what  was  errone- 
ously called  the  Rhymed  Version  of  Genesis  of  Vienna,  but  which 
turns  out  to  be  the  work  of  a  writer  before  the  year  1122, 
and  found  only  in  the  Klagenfurt  manuscript  (edited  by  Ditmar, 
1862),  referred  to  the  Gipsies.  It  runs  as  follows:  Gen.  xiii.  15 — 
"  Hagar  had  a  son  from  whom  were  born  the  Chaltsmide.  When 
Hagar  had  that  child,  she  named  it  Ismael,  from  whom  the 
Ismaelites  descend  who  journey  through  the  land,  and  we  call 
them  Chaltsmide,  may  evil  befall  them!  They  sell  only  things 
with  blemishes,  and  for  whatever  they  sell  they  always  ask  more 
than  its  real  value.  They  cheat  the  people  to  whom  they  sell. 
They  have  no  home,  no  country,  they  are  satisfied  to  live  in 
tents,  they  wander  over  the  country,  they  deceive  the  people, 
they  cheat  men  but  rob  no  one  noisily." 

This  reference  to  the  Chaltsmide  (not  goldsmiths,  but  very 
likely  ironworkers,  smiths)  has  wrongly  been  applied  to  the 
Gipsies.  For  it  is  important  to  note  that  at  least  three  centuries 
before  historical  evidence  proves  the  immigration  of  the  genuine 
Gipsy,  there  had  been  wayfaring  smiths,  travelling  from  country 
to  country,  and  practically  paving  the  way  for  their  successors, 
the  Gipsies,  who  not  only  took  up  their  crafts  but  who  probably 
have  also  assimilated  a  good  proportion  of  these  vagrants  of 
the  west  of  Europe.  The  name  given  to  the  former,  who  pro- 
bably were  Oriental  or  Greek  smiths  and  pedlars,  was  then 
transferred  to  the  new-comers.  The  Komodromoi  mentioned 
by  Theophanes  (758-818),  who  speaks  under  the  date  554  of  one 
hailing  from  Italy,  and  by  other  Byzantine  writers,  are  no 
doubt  the  same  as  the  Chaltsmide  of  the  German  writer  of  the 
1 2th  century  translated  by  Ducange  as  Chaudroneurs.  We 
are  on  surer  ground  in  the  I4th  century.  Hopf  has  proved  the 
existence  of  Gipsies  in  Corfu  before  1326.  Before  1346  the 
empress  Catherine  de  Valois  granted  to  the  governor  of  Corfu 
authority  to  reduce  to  vassalage  certain  vagrants  who  came 
from  the  mainland;  and  in  1386,  under  the  Venetians,  they 
formed  the  Feudum  Acindanorum,  which  lasted  for  many 
centuries.  About  1378  the  Venetian  governor  of  Nauplia 


confirmed  to  the  "  Acingani  "  of  that  colony  the  privileges 
granted  by  his  predecessor  to  their  leader  John.  It  is  even 
possible  to  identify  the  people  described  by  Friar  Simon  in  his 
Itinerarium,  who,  speaking  of  his  stay  in  Crete  in  1322,  says: 
"  We  saw  there  a  people  outside  the  city  who  declare  themselves 
to  be  of  the  race  of  Ham  and  who  worship  according  to  the  Greek 
rite.  They  wander  like  a  cursed  people  from  place  to  place,  not 
stopping  at  all  or  rarely  in  one  place  longer  than  thirty  days; 
they  live  in  tents  like  the  Arabs,  a  little  oblong  black  tent." 
But  their  name  is  not  mentioned,  and  although  the  similarity 
is  great  between  these  "  children  of  Ham  "  and  the  Gipsies, 
the  identification  has  only  the  value  of  an  hypothesis.  By  the 
end  of  the  isth  century  they  must  have  been  settled  for  a 
sufficiently  long  time  in  the  Balkan  Peninsula  and  the  countries 
north  of  the  Danube,  such  as  Transylvania  and  Walachia,  to  have 
been  reduced  to  the  same  state  of  serfdom  as  they  evidently 
occupied  in  Corfu  in  the  second  half  of  the  I4th  century.  The 
voivode  Mircea  I.  of  Walachia  confirms  the  grant  made  by  his 
uncle  Vladislav  Voivode  to  the  monastery  of  St  Anthony  of 
Voditsa  as  to  forty  families  of  "  Atsigane,"  for  whom  no  taxes 
should  be  paid  to  the  prince.  They  were  considered  crown 
property.  The  same  gift  is  renewed  in  the  year  1424  by  the 
voivode  Dan,  who  repeats  the  very  same  words  (i  AcigSne,  m, 
Celiudi.  da  su  slobodni  ot  vstkih  rabot  i  dankov)  (Hajdiiu, 
Arhiva,  i.  20).  At  that  time  there  must  already  have  been 
in  Walachia  settled  Gipsies  treated  as  serfs,  and  migrating 
Gipsies  plying  their  trade  as  smiths,  musicians,  dancers,  sooth- 
sayers, horse-dealers,  &c.,  for  we  find  the  voivode  Alexander  of 
Moldavia  granting  these  Gipsies  in  the  year  1478  "  freedom  of 
air  and  soil  to  wander  about  and  free  fire  and  iron  for  their 
smithy.  "  But  a  certain  portion,  probably  the  largest,  became 
serfs,  who  could  be  sold,  exchanged,  bartered  and  inherited. 
It  may  be  mentioned  here  that  in  the  I7th  century  a  family 
when  sold  fetched  forty  Hungarian  florins,  and  in  the  i8th 
century  the  price  was  sometimes  as  high  as  700  Rumanian 
piastres,  about  £8, .  los.  As  late  as  1845  an  auction  of  200 
families  of  Gipsies  took  place  in  Bucharest,  where  they  were  sold 
in  batches  of  no  less  than  5  families  and  offered  at  a  "  ducat  " 
cheaper  per  head  than  elsewhere.  The  Gipsies  followed  at  least 
four  distinct  pursuits  in  Rumania  and  Transylvania,  where  they 
lived  in  large  masses.  A  goodly  proportion  of  them  were  tied 
to  the  soil;  in  consequence  their  position  was  different  from  that 
of  the  Gipsies  who  had  started  westwards  and  who  are  nowhere 
found  to  have  obtained  a  permanent  abode  for  any  length  of 
time,  or  to  have  been  treated,  except  for  a  very  short  period, 
with  any  consideration  of  humanity. 

Their  appearance  in  the  West  is  first  noted  by  chroniclers 
early  in  the  isth  century.  In  1414  they  are  said  to  have  already 
arrived  in  Hesse.  This  date  is  contested,  but  for  1417  the  reports 
are  unanimous  of  their  appearance  in  Germany.  Some  count 
their  number  to  have  been  as  high  as  1400,  which  of  course  is 
exaggeration.  In  1418  they  reached  Hamburg,  1419  Augsburg, 
1428  Switzerland.  In  1427  they  had  already  entered  France 
(Provence).  A  troupe  is  said  to  have  reached  Bologna  in  1422, 
whence  they  are  said  to  have  gone  to  Rome,  on  a  pilgrimage 
alleged  to  have  been  undertaken  for  some  act  of  apostasy.  After 
this  first  immigration  a  second  and  larger  one  seems  to  have 
followed  in  its  wake,  led  by  Zumbel.  The  Gipsies  spread  over 
Germany,  Italy  and  France  between  the  years  1438  and  1512. 
About  1500  they  must  have  reached  England.  On  the  5th  of 
July  1505  James  IV.  of  Scotland  gave  to  "  Antonius  Gaginae," 
count  of  Little  Egypt,  letters  of  recommendation  to  the  king  of 
Denmark;  and  special  privileges  were  granted  by  James  V. 
on  the  1 5th  of  February  1540  to  "  cure  louit  johnne  Faw  Lord 
and  Erie  of  Litill  Egypt,"  to  whose  son  and  successor  he  granted 
authority  to  hang  and  punish  all  Egyptians  within  the  realm 
(May  26,  1540). 

It  is  interesting  to  hear  what  the  first  writers  who  witnessed 
their  appearance  have  to  tell  us;  for  ever  since  the  Gipsies 
have  remained  the  same.  Albert  Krantzius  (Krantz),  in  his 
Saxonia  (xi.  2),  was  the  first  to  give  a  full  description,  which  was 
afterwards  repeated  by  Munster  in  his  Cosmographia  (iii.  5). 


GIPSIES 


39 


He  says  that  in  the  year  1417  there  appeared  for  the  first  time 
in  Germany  a  people  uncouth,  black,  dirty,  barbarous,  called 
in  Italian  "  Ciani,"  who  indulge  specially  in  thieving  and  cheat- 
ing. They  had  among  them  a  count  and  a  few  knights  well 
dressed,  others  followed  afoot.  The  women  and  children 
travelled  in  carts.  They  also  carried  with  them  letters  of  safe- 
conduct  from  the  emperor  Sigismund  and  other  princes,  and  they 
professed  that  they  were  engaged  on  a  pilgrimage  of  expiation 
for  some  act  of  apostasy. 

The  guilt  of  the  Gipsies  varies  in  the  different  versions  of  the 
story,  but  all  agree  that  the  Gipsies  asserted  that  they  came  from 
their  own  country  called  "  Litill  Egypt,"  and  they  had  to  go 
to  Rome,  to  obtain  pardon  for  that  alleged  sin  of  their  fore- 
fathers. According  to  one  account  it  was  because  they  had  not 
shown  mercy  to  Joseph  and  Mary  when  they  had  sought  refuge 
in  Egypt  from  the  persecution  of  Herod  (Basel  Chronicle). 
According  to  another,  because  they  had  forsaken  the  Christian 
faith  for  a  while  (Rhaetia,  1656),  &c.  But  these  were  fables, 
no  doubt  connected  with  the  legend  of  Cartaphylus  or  the 
Wandering  Jew. 

Krantz's  narrative  continues  as  follows:  This  people  have 
no  country  and  travel  through  the  land.  They  live  like  dogs  and 
have  no  religion  although  they  allow  themselves  to  be  baptized 
in  the  Christian  faith.  They  live  without  care  and  gather  unto 
themselves  also  other  vagrants,  men  and  women.  Their  old 
women  practise  fortune-telling,  and  whilst  they  are  telling  men 
of  their  future  they  pick  their  pockets.  Thus  far  Krantz.  It 
is  curious  that  he  should  use  the  name  by  which  these  people 
were  called  in  Italy,  "  Ciani."  Similarly  Crusius,  the  author  of  the 
Annales  Suevici,  knows  their  Italian  name  Zigani  and  the  French 
Bohemiens.  Not  one  of  these  oldest  writers  mentions  them 
as  coppersmiths  or  farriers  or  musicians.  The  immunity  which 
they  enjoyed  during  their  first  appearance  in  western  Europe 
is  due  to  the  letter  of  safe-conduct  of  the  emperor.  As  it  is  of 
extreme  importance  for  the  history  of  civilization  as  well  as  the 
history  of  the  Gipsies,  it  may  find  a  place  here.  It  is  taken  from 
the  compilation  of  Felix  Oefelius,  Rerum  Boicarum  scriptores 
(Augsburg,  1763),  ii.  15,  who  reproduces  the  "  Diarium 
sexennale  "  of  "  Andreas  Presbyter,"  the  contemporary  of  the 
first  appearance  of  the  Gipsies  in  Germany. 

"  Sigismundus  Dei  gratia  Romanorum  Rex  semper  Augustus, 
ac  Hungariae,  Bohemiae,  Dalmatiae,  Croatiae,  &c.  Rex 
Fidelibus  nostris  universis  Nobilibus,  Militibus,  Castellanis, 
Officialibus,  Tributariis,  civitatibus  liberis,  opidis  et  eorum 
iudicibus  in  Regno  et  sub  domino  nostro  constitutis  ex  existenti- 
bus  salutem  cum  dilectione.  Fideles  nostri  adierunt  in  prae- 
sentiam  personaliter  Ladislaus  Wayuoda  Ciganorum  cum  aliis  ad 
ipsum  spectantibus,  nobis  humilimas  porrexerunt  supplicationes, 
hue  in  sepus  in  nostra  praesentia  supplicationum  precum  cum 
instantia,  ut  ipsis  gratis  nostra  uberiori  providere  dignaremur. 
Unde  nos  illorum  supplicatione  illecti  eisdem  hanc  libertatem 
duximus  concedendam,  qua  re  quandocunque  idem  Ladislaus 
Wayuoda  et  sua  gens  ad  dicta  nostra  dominia  videlicet  civitates 
vel  oppida  pervenerint,  ex  tune  vestris  fidelitatibus  praesentibus 
firmiter  committimus  et  mandamus  ut  eosdem  Ladislaum 
Wayuodam  et  Ciganos  sibi  subiectos  omni  sine  impedimento  ac 
perturbatione  aliquali  fovere  ac  conservare  debeatis,  immo 
ab  omnibus  impetitionibus  seu  offensionibus  tueri  velitis:  Si 
autem  inter  ipsos  aliqua  Zizania  seu  perturbatio  evenerit  ex 
parte,  quorumcunque  ex  tune  non  vos  nee  aliquis  alter  vestrum, 
sed  idem  Ladislaus  Wayuoda  iudicandi  et  liberandi  habeat 
facultatem.  Praesentes  autem  post  earum  lecturam  semper 
reddi  iubemus  praesentanti. 

"Datum  in  Sepus  Dominica  die  ante  festum  St  Georgii  Martyris 
Anno  Domini  MCCCCXXIII.,  Regnorum  nostrorum  anno 
Hungar.  XXXVI.,  Romanorum  vero  XII.,  Bohemiae  tertio." 

Freely  translated  this  reads:  "  We  Sigismund  by  the  grace 
of  God  emperor  of  Rome,  king  of  Hungary,  Bohemia,  &c.  unto 
all  true  and  loyal  subjects,  noble  soldiers,  commanders,  castellans, 
open  districts,  free  towns  and  their  judges  in  our  kingdom 
established  and  under  our  sovereignty,  kind  greetings.  Our 
faithful  voivode  of  the  Tsigani  with  others  belonging  to  him  has 


humbly  requested  us  that  we  might  graciously  grant  them  our 
abundant  favour.  We  grant  them  their  supplication,  we  have 
vouchsafed  unto  them  this  liberty.  Whenever  therefore  this 
voivode  Ladislaus  and  his  people  should  come  to  any  part  of  our 
realm  in  any  town,  village  or  place,  we  commit  them  by  these 
presents,  strongly  to  your  loyalty  and  we  command  you  to  pro- 
tect in  every  way  the  same  voivode  Ladislaus  and  the  Tsigani 
his  subjects  without  hindrance,  and  you  should  show  kindness 
unto  them  and  you  should  protect  them  from  every  trouble  and 
persecution.  But  should  any  trouble  or  discord  happen  among 
them  from  whichever  side  it  may  be,  then  none  of  you  nor  any- 
one else  belonging  to  you  should  interfere,  but  this  voivode 
Ladislaus  alone  should  have  the  right  of  punishing  and  pardoning. 
And  we  moreover  command  you  to  return  these  presents  always 
after  having  read  them.  Given  in  our  court  on  Sunday  the  day 
before  the  Feast  of  St  George  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  1423.  The 
36th  year  of  our  kingdom  of  Hungary,  the  I2th  of  our  being 
emperor  of  Rome  and  the  3rd  of  our  being  king  of  Bohemia." 

There  is  no  reason  to  doubt  the  authenticity  of  this  document, 
which  is  in  no  way  remarkable  considering  that  at  that  time  the 
Gipsies  must  have  formed  a  very  considerable  portion  of  the 
inhabitants  of  Hungary,  whose  king  Sigismund  was.  They  may 
have  presented  the  emperor's  grant  of  favours  to  Alexander 
prince  of  Moldavia  in  1472,  and  obtained  from  him  safe-conduct 
and  protection,  as  mentioned  above. 

No  one  has  yet  attempted  to  explain  the  reason  why  the  Gipsies 
should  have  started  in  the  I4th  and  especially  in  the  first  half 
of  the  1 5th  century  on  their  march  westwards.  But  if,  as  has 
been  assumed  above,  the  Gipsies  had  lived  for  some  length  of 
time  in  Rumelia,  and  afterwards  spread  thence  across  the  Danube 
and  the  plains  of  Transylvania,  the  incursion  of  the  Turks  into 
Europe,  their  successive  occupation  of  those  very  provinces, 
the  overthrow  of  the  Servian  and  Bulgarian  kingdoms  and  the 
dislocation  of  the  native  population,  would  account  to  a  remark- 
able degree  for  the  movement  of  the  Gipsies:  and  this  movement 
increases  in  volume  with  the  greater  successes  of  the  Turks  and 
with  the  peopling  of  the  country  by  immigrants  from  Asia  Minor. 
The  first  to  be  driven  from  their  homes  would  no  doubt  be  the 
nomadic  element,  which  felt  itself  ill  at  ease  in  its  new  surround- 
ings, and  found  it  more  profitable  first  to  settle  in  larger  numbers 
in  Walachia  and  Transylvania  and  thence  to  spread  to  the  western 
countries  of  Europe.  But  their  immunity  from  persecution  did 
not  last  long.  -. 

Later  History. — Less  than  fifty  years  from  the  time  that  they 
emerge  out  of  Hungary,  or  even  from  the  date  of  the  Charter  of 
the  emperor  Sigismund,  they  found  themselves  exposed  to  the 
fury  and  the  prejudices  of  the  people  whose  good  faith  they  had 
abused,  whose  purses  they  had  lightened,  whose  barns  they  had 
emptied,  and  on  whose  credulity  they  had  lived  with  ease  and 
comfort.  Their  inborn  tendency  to  roaming  made  them  the 
terror  of  the  peasantry  and  the  despair  of  every  legislator  who 
tried  to  settle  them  on  the  land.  Their  foreign  appearance,  their 
unknown  tongue  and  their  unscrupulous  habits  forced  the  legis- 
lators of  many  countries  to  class  them  with  rogues  and  vagabonds, 
to  declare  them  outlaws  and  felons  and  to  treat  them  with 
extreme  severity.  More  than  one  judicial  murder  has  been  com- 
mitted against  them.  In  some  places  they  were  suspected  as 
Turkish  spies  and  treated  accordingly,  and  the  murderer  of  a 
Gipsy  was  often  regarded  as  innocent  of  any  crime. 

Weissenbruch  describes  the  wholesale  murder  of  a  group  of 
Gipsies,  of  whom  five  men  were  broken  on  the  wheel,  nine  perished 
on  the  gallows,  and  three  men  and  eight  women  were  decapitated. 
This  took  place  on  the  I4th  and  I5th  of  November  1726.  Acts 
and  edicts  were  issued  in  many  countries  from  the  end  of  the 
i  sth  century  onwards  sentencing  the  "  Egyptians  "  to  exile  under 
pain  of  death.  Nor  was  this  an  empty  threat.  In  Edinburgh 
four  "Faas"  were  hanged  in  1611  "for  abyding  within  the 
kingdome,  they  being  Egiptienis,"  and  in  1636  at  Haddington 
the  Egyptians  were  ordered  "  the  men  to  be  hangied  and  the 
weomen  to  be  drowned,  and  suche  of  the  weo'men  as  hes  children 
to  be  scourgit  throw  the  burg  and  burnt  in  the  cheeks."  The 
burning  on  the  cheek  or  on  the  back  was  a  common  penalty. 


GIPSIES 


In  1692  four  Estremadura  Gipsies  caught  by  the  Inquisition  were 
charged  with  cannibalism  and  made  to  own  that  they  had  eaten 
a  friar,  a  pilgrim  and  even  a  woman  of  their  own  tribe,  for  which 
they  suffered  the  penalty  of  death.  And  as  late  as  1782,  45 
Hungarian  Gipsies  were  charged  with  a  similar  monstrous  crime, 
and  when  the  supposed  victims  of  a  supposed  murder  could  not  be 
found  on  the  spot  indicated  by  the  Gipsies,  they  owned  under 
torture  and  said  on  the  rack,  "  We  ate  them."  Of  course  they 
were  forthwith  beheaded  or  hanged.  The  emperor  Joseph  II., 
who  was  also  the  author  of  one  of  the  first  edicts  in  favour  of  the 
Gipsies,  and  who  abolished  serfdom  throughout  the  Empire, 
ordered  an  inquiry  into  the  incident ;  it  was  then  discovered  that 
no  murder  had  been  committed,  except  that  of  the  victims  of 
this  monstrous  accusation. 

The  history  of  the  legal  status  of  the  Gipsies,  of  their  treatment 
in  various  countries  and  of  the  penalties  and  inflictions  to  which 
they  have  been  subjected,  would  form  a  remarkable  chapter  in 
the  history  of  modern  civilization.  The  materials  are  slowly 
accumulating,  and  it  is  interesting  to  note  as  one  of  the  latest 
instances,  that  not  further  back  than  the  year  1007  a  "  drive  " 
was  undertaken  in  Germany  against  the  Gipsies,  which  fact  may 
account  for  the  appearance  of  some  German  Gipsies  in  England 
in  that  year,  and  that  in  1904  the  Prussian  Landtag  adopted 
unanimously  a  proposition  to  examine  anew  the  question  of 
granting  peddling  licences  to  German  Gipsies;  that  on  the  i7th 
of  February  1906  the  Prussian  minister  issued  special  instructions 
to  combat  the  Gipsy  nuisance;  and  that  in  various  parts  of 
Germany  and  Austria  a  special  register  is  kept  for  the  tracing  of 
the  genealogy  of  vagrant  and  sedentary  Gipsy  families. 

Different  has  been  the  history  of  the  Gipsies  in  what  originally 
formed  the  Turkish  empire  of  Europe,  notably  in  Rumania, 
i.e.  Walachia  and  Moldavia,  and  a  careful  search  in  the  archives 
of  Rumania  would  offer  rich  materials  for  the  history  of  the 
Gipsies  in  a  country  where  they  enjoyed  exceptional  treatment 
almost  from  the  beginning  of  their  settlement.  They  were 
divided  mainly  into  two  classes,  (i)  Robi  or  Serfs,  who  were 
settled  on  the  land  and  deprived  of  all  individual  liberty,  being 
the  property  of  the  nobles  and  of  churches  or  monastic  establish- 
ments, and  (2)  the  Nomadic  vagrants.  They  were  subdivided 
into  four  classes  according  to  their  occupation,  such  as  the 
Lingurari  (woodcarvers;  lit.  "spoonmakers"),  Caldarari  (tinkers, 
coppersmiths  and  ironworkers),  Ursari  (lit.  "  bear  drivers  ") 
and  Rudari  (miners),  also  called  Aurari  (gold- washers),  who  used 
formerly  to  wash  the  gold  out  of  the  auriferous  river-sands 
of  Walachia.  A  separate  and  smaller  class  consisted  of  the 
Gipsy  L&eshi  or  VHtrashi  (settled  on  a  homestead  or  "  having 
a  fireplace  "  of  their  own).  Each  shalra  or  Gipsy  community 
was  placed  under  the  authority  of  a  judge  or  leader,  known  in 
Rumania  as  jude,  in  Hungary  as  aga;  these  officials  were 
subordinate  to  the  bulubasha  or  voivod,  who  was  himself  under 
the  direct  control  of  the  yuzbasha  (or  governor  appointed  by  the 
prince  from  among  his  nobles).  The  yuzbasha  was  responsible 
for  the  regular  income  to  be  derived  from  the  vagrant  Gipsies, 
who  were  considered  and  treated  as  the  prince's  property. 
These  voivodi  or  yuzbashi  who  were  not  Gipsies  by  origin  often 
treated  the  Gipsies  with  great  tyranny.  In  Hungary  down  to 
1648  they  belonged  to  the  aristocracy.  The  last  Polish  Krolestvo 
cyganskie  or  Gipsy  king  died  in  1 790.  The  Robi  could  be  bought 
and  sold,  freely  exchanged  and  inherited,  and  were  treated 
as  the  negroes  in  America  down  to  1856,  when  their  final  freedom 
in  Moldavia  was  proclaimed.  In  Hungary  and  in  Transylvania 
the  abolition  of  servitude  in  1781-1782  carried  with  it  the 
freedom  of  the  Gipsies.  In  the  i8th  and  igth  centuries  many 
attempts  were  made  to  settle  and  to  educate  the  roaming  Gipsies; 
in  Austria  this  was  undertaken  by  the  empress  Maria  Theresa 
and  the  emperor  Francis  II.  (1761-1783),  in  Spain  by  Charles  III. 
(1788).  In  Poland  (1791)  the  attempt  succeeded.  In  England 
(1827)  and  in  Germany  (1830)  societies  were  formed  for  the 
reclamation  of  the  Gipsies,  but  nothing  was  accomplished  in 
either  case.  In  other  countries,  however,  definite  progress  was 
made.  Since  1866  the  Gipsies  have  become  Rumanian  citizens, 
and  the  latest  official  statistics  no  longer  distinguish  between 


the  Rumanians  and  the  Gipsies,  who  are  becoming  thoroughly 
assimilated,  forgetting  their  language,  and  being  slowly  absorbed 
by  the  native  population.  In  Bulgaria  the  Gipsies  were  declared 
citizens,  enjoying  equal  political  rights  in  accordance  with  the 
treaty  of  Berlin  in  1878,  but  through  an  arbitrary  interpretation 
they  were  deprived  of  that  right,  and  on  the  6th  of  January  1906 
the  first  Gipsy  Congress  was  held  in  Sofia,  for  the  purpose  of 
claiming  political  rights  for  the  Turkish  Gipsies  or  Gopti  as  they 
call  themselves.  Ramadan  Alief,  the  tzari-bashi  (i.e.  the  head 
of  the  Gipsies  in  Sofia),  addressed  the  Gipsies  assembled;  they 
decided  to  protest  and  subsequently  sent  a  petition  to  the 
Sobranye,  demanding  the  recognition  of  their  political  rights. 
A  curious  reawakening,  and  an  interesting  chapter  in  the 
history  of  this  peculiar  race. 

Origin  and  Language  of  the  Gipsies. — The  real  key  to  their 
origin  is,  however,  the  Gipsy  language.  The  scientific  study 
of  that  language  began  in  the  middle  of  the  I9th  century  with 
the  work  of  Pott,  and  was  brought  to  a  high  state  of  perfection 
by  Miklosich.  From  that  time  on  monographs  have  multiplied 
and  minute  researches  have  been  carried  on  in  many  parts  of 
the  world,  all  tending  to  elucidate  the  true  origin  of  the  Gipsy 
language.  It  must  remain  for  the  time  being  an  open  question 
whether  the  Gipsies  were  originally  a  pure  race.  Many  a  strange 
element  has  contributed  to  swell  their  ranks  and  to  introduce 
discordant  elements  into  their  vocabulary.  Ruediger  (1782), 
Grellmann  (1783)  and  Marsden  (1783)  almost  simultaneously 
and  independently  of  one  another  came  to  the  same  conclusion, 
that  the  language  of  the  Gipsies,  until  then  considered  a  thieves' 
jargon,  was  in  reality  a  language  closely  allied  with  some  Indian 
speech.  Since  then  the  two  principal  problems  to  be  solved 
have  been,  firstly,  to  which  of  the  languages  of  India  the 
original  Gipsy  speech  was  most  closely  allied,  and  secondly,  by 
which  route  the  people  speaking  that  language  had  reached 
Europe  and  then  spread  westwards.  Despite  the  rapid  increase 
in  our  knowledge  of  Indian  languages,  no  solution  has  yet  been 
found  to  the  first  problem,  nor  is  it  likely  to  be  found.  For  the 
language  of  the  Gipsies,  as  shown  now  by  recent  studies  of  the 
Armenian  Gipsies,  has  undergone  such  a  profound  change  and 
involves  so  many  difficulties,  that  it  is  impossible  to  compare 
the  modern  Gipsy  with  any  modern  Indian  dialect  owing  to  the 
inner  developments  which  the  Gipsy  language  has  undergone 
in  the  course  of  centuries.  All  that  is  known,  moreover,  of  the 
Gipsy  language,  and  all  that  rests  on  reliable  texts,  is  quite 
modern,  scarcely  earlier  than  the  middle  of  the  igth  century. 
Followed  up  in  the  various  dialects  into  which  that  language 
has  split,  it  shows  such  a  thorough  change  from  dialect  to  dialect, 
that  except  as  regards  general  outlines  and  principles  of  inflexion, 
nothing  would  be  more  misleading  than  to  draw  conclusions 
from  apparent  similarities  between  Gipsy,  or  any  Gipsy  dialect, 
and  any  Indian  language;  especially  as  the  Gipsies  must  have 
been  separated  from  the  Indian  races  for  a  much  longer  period 
than  has  elapsed  since  their  arrival  in  Europe  and  since  the  forma- 
tion of  their  European  dialects.  It  must  also  be  borne  in  mind 
that  the  Indian  languages  have  also  undergone  profound  changes 
of  their  own,  under  influences  totally  different  from  those  to 
which  the  Gipsy  language  has  been  subjected.  The  problem 
would  stand  differently  if  by  any  chance  an  ancient  vocabulary 
were  discovered  representing  the  oldest  form  of  the  common 
stock  from  which  the  European  dialects  have  sprung;  for  there 
can  be  no  doubt  of  the  unity  of  the  language  of  the  European 
Gipsies.  The  question  whether  Gipsy  stands  close  to  Sanskrit 
or  Prakrit,  or  shows  forms  more  akin  to  Hindi  dialects,  specially 
those  of  the  North- West  frontier,  or  Dardestan  and  Kafiristan, 
to  which  may  be  added  now  the  dialects  of  the  Pisaca  language 
(Grierson,  1906),  is  affected  by  the  fact  established  by  Fink  that 
the  dialect  of  the  Armenian  Gipsies  shows  much  closer  resem- 
blance to  Prakrit  than  the  language  of  the  European  Gipsies, 
and  that  the  dialects  of  Gipsy  spoken  throughout  Syria  and  Asia 
Minor  differ  profoundly  in  every  respect  from  the  European 
Gipsy,  taken  as  a  whole  spoken.  The  only  explanation  possible 
is  that  the  European  Gipsy  represents  the  first  wave  of  the 
Westward  movement  of  an  Indian  tribe  or  caste  which,  dislocated 


GIPSIES 


at  a  certain  period  by  political  disturbances,  had  travelled 
through  Persia,  making  a  very  short  stay  there,  thence  to  Armenia 
staying  there  a  little  longer,  and  then  possibly  to  the  Byzantine 
Empire  at  an  indefinite  period  between  noo  and  1200;  and  that 
another  clan  had  followed  in  their  wake,  passing  through  Persia, 
settling  in  Armenia  and  then  going  farther  down  to  Syria,  Egypt 
and  North  Africa.  These  two  tribes  though  of  a  common 
remote  Indian  origin  must,  however,  be  kept  strictly  apart 
from  one  another  in  our  investigation,  for  they  stand  to  each 
other  in  the  same  relation  as  they  stand  to  the  various  dialects 
in  India.  The  linguistic  proof  of  origin  can  therefore  now  not 
go  further  than  to  establish  the  fact  that  the  Gipsy  language 
is  in  its  very  essence  an  originally  Indian  dialect,  enriched  in  its 
vocabulary  from  the  languages  of  the  peoples  among  whom 
the  Gipsies  had  sojourned,  whilst  in  its  grammatical  inflection 
it  has  slowly  been  modified,  to  such  an  extent  that  in  some 
cases,  like  the  English  or  the  Servian,  barely  a  skeleton  has 
remained. 

Notwithstanding  the  statements  to  the  contrary,  a  Gipsy 
from  Greece  or  Rumania  could  no  longer  understand  a  Gipsy 
of  England  or  Germany,  so  profound  is  the  difference.  But  the 
words  which  have  entered  into  the  Gipsy  language,  borrowed  as 
they  were  from  the  Greeks,  Hungarians,  Rumanians,  &c.,  are  not 
only  an  indication  of  the  route  taken — and  this  is  the  only  use 
that  has  hitherto  been  made  of  the  vocabulary — but  they  are 
of  the  highest  importance  for  fixing  the  time  when  the  Gipsies 
had  come  in  contact  with  these  languages.  The  absence  of  Arabic 
is  a  positive  proof  that  not  only  did  the  Gipsies  not  come  via 
Arabia  (as  maintained  by  De  Goeje)  before  they  reached  Europe, 
but  that  they  could  not  even  have  been  living  for  any  length  of 
time  in  Persia  after  the  Mahommedan  conquest,  or  at  any  rate 
that  they  could  not  have  come  in  contact  with  such  elements  of 
the  population  as  had  already  adopted  Arabic  in  addition  to 
Persian.  But  the  form  of  the  Persian  words  found  among 
European  Gipsies,  and  similarly  the  form  of  the  Armenian  words 
found  in  that  language,  are  a  clear  indication  that  the  Gipsies 
could  not  have  come  in  contact  with  these  languages  before 
Persian  had  assumed  its  modern  form  and  before  Armenian  had 
been  changed  from  the  old  to  the  modern  form  of  language. 
Still  more  strong  and  clear  is  the  evidence  in  the  case  of  the  Greek 
and  Rumanian  words.  If  the  Gipsies  had  lived  in  Greece,  as  some 
contend,  from  very  ancient  times,  some  at  least  of  the  old  Greek 
words  would  be  found  in  their  language,  and  similarly  the  Slavonic 
words  would  be  of  an  archaic  character,  whilst  on  the  contrary 
we  find  medieval  Byzantine  forms,  nay,  modern  Greek  forms, 
among  the  Gipsy  vocabulary  collected  from  Gipsies  in  Germany 
or  Italy,  England  or  France;  a  proof  positive  that  they  could  not 
have  been  in  Europe  much  earlier  than  the  approximate  date 
given  above  of  the  nth  or  I2th  century.  We  then  find  from  a 
grammatical  point  of  view  the  same  deterioration,  say  among  the 
English  or  Spanish  Gipsies,  as  has  been  noticed  in  the  Gipsy 
dialect  of  Armenia.  It  is  no  longer  Gipsy,  but  a  corrupt  English 
or  Spanish  adapted  to  some  remnants  of  Gipsy  inflections.  The 
purest  form  has  been  preserved  among  the  Greek  Gipsies  and 
to  a  certain  extent  among  the  Rumanian.  Notably  through 
Miklosich's  researches  and  comparative  studies,  it  is  possible 
to  follow  the  slow  change  step  by  step  and  to  prove,  at  any  rate, 
that,  as  far  as  Europe  is  concerned,  the  language  of  these  Gipsies 
was  one  and  the  same,  and  that  it  was  slowly  split  up  into  a 
number  of  dialects  (13  Miklosich,  14  Colocci)  which  shade  off 
into  one  another,  and  which  by  their  transitional  forms  mark 
the  way  in  which  the  Gipsies  have  travelled,  as  also  proved  by 
historical  evidence.  The  Welsh  dialect,  known  by  few,  has 
retained,  through  its  isolation,  some  of  the  ancient  forms. 

Religion,  Habits  and  Customs. — Those  who  have  lived  among 
the  Gipsies  will  readily  testify  that  their  religious  views  are  a 
strange  medley  of  the  local  faith,  which  they  everywhere  embrace, 
and  some  old-world  superstitions  which  they  have  in  common 
with  many  nations.  Among  the  Greeks  they  belong  to  the  Greek 
Church,  among  the  Mahommedans  they  are  Mahommedans,  in 
Rumania  they  belong  to  the  National  Church.  In  Hungary  they 
are  mostly  Catholics,  according  to  the  faith  of  the  inhabitants  of 


that  country.  They  have  no  ethical  principles  and  they  do  not 
recognize  the  obligations  of  the  Ten  Commandments.  There  is 
extreme  moral  laxity  in  the  relation  of  the  two  sexes,  and  on  the 
whole  they  take  life  easily,  and  are  complete  fatalists.  At  the 
same  time  they  are  great  cowards,  and  they  play  the  rdle  of  the 
fool  or  the  jester  in  the  popular  anecdotes  of  eastern  Europe. 
There  the  poltroon  is  always  a  Gipsy,  but  he  is  good-humoured 
and  not  so  malicious  as  those  Gipsies  who  had  endured  the 
hardships  of  outlawry  in  the  west  of  Europe. 

There  is  nothing  specifically  of  an  Oriental  origin  in  their 
religious  vocabulary,  and  the  words  Devla  (God),  Bang  (devil) 
or  Trushul  (Cross),  in  spite  of  some  remote  similarity,  must  be 
taken  as  later  adaptations,  and  not  as  remnants  of  an  old  Sky- 
worship  or  Serpent-worship.  In  general  their  beliefs,  customs, 
tales,  &c.  belong  to  the  common  stock  of  general  folklore,  and 
many  of  their  symbolical  expressions  find  their  exact  counterpart 
in  Rumanian  and  modern  Greek,  and  often  read  as  if  they  were 
direct  translations  from  these  languages.  Although  they  love 
their  children,  it  sometimes  happens  that  a  Gipsy  mother  will  hold 
her  child  by  the  legs  and  beat  the  father  with  it.  In  Rumania 
and  Turkey  among  the  settled  Gipsies  a  good  number  are  carriers 
and  bricklayers;  and  the  women  take  their  full  share  in  every 
kind  of  work,  no  matter  how  hard  it  may  be.  The  nomadic 
Gipsies  carry  on  the  ancient  craft  of  coppersmiths,  or  workers  in 
metal;  they  also  make  sieves  and  traps,  but  in  the  East  they  are 
seldom  farriers  or  horse-dealers.  They  are  far-famed  for  their 
music,  in  which  art  they  are  unsurpassed.  The  Gipsy  musicians 
belong  mostly  to  the  class  who  originally  were  serfs.  They  were 
retained  at  the  courts  of  the  boyars  for  their  special  talent  in 
reciting  old  ballads  and  love  songs  and  their  deftness  in  playing, 
notably  the  guitar  and  the  fiddle.  The  former  was  used  as  an 
accompaniment  to  the  singing  of  either  love  ditties  and  popular 
songs  or  more  especially  in  recital  or  heroic  ballads  and  epic 
songs;  the  latter  for  dances  and  other  amusements.  They 
were  the  troubadours  and  minstrels  of  eastern  Europe;  the 
largest  collection  of  Rumanian  popular  ballads  and  songs  was 
gathered  by  G.  Dem.  Teodorescu  from  a  Gipsy  minstrel,  Petre 
Sholkan;  and  not  a  few  of  the  songs  of  the  guslars  among  the 
Servians  and  other  Slavonic  nations  in  the  Balkans  come  also 
from  the  Gipsies.  They  have  also  retained  the  ancient  tunes 
and  airs,  from  the  dreamy  "  doina  "  of  the  Rumanian  to  the 
fiery  "  czardas  "  of  the  Hungarian  or  the  stately  "  hora  "  of  the 
B  ulgarian.  Liszt  went  so  far  as  to  ascribe  to  the  Gipsies  the  origin 
of  the  Hungarian  national  music.  This  is  an  exaggeration,  as 
seen  by  the  comparison  of  the  Gipsy  music  in  other  parts  of  south- 
east Europe;  but  they  undoubtedly  have  given  the  most 
faithful  expression  to  the  national  temperament.  Equally  famous 
is  the  Gipsy  woman  for  her  knowledge  of  occult  practices.  She 
is  the  real  witch;  she  knows  charms  to  injure  the  enemy  or  to 
help  a  friend.  She  can  break  the  charm  if  made  by  others. 
But  neither  in  the  one  case  nor  in  the  other,  and  in  fact  as  little 
as  in  their  songs,  do  they  use  the  Gipsy  language.  It  is  either 
the  local  language  of  the  natives  as  in  the  case  of  charms,  or  a 
slightly  Romanized  form  of  Greek,  Rumanian  or  Slavonic.  The 
old  Gipsy  woman  is  also  known  for  her  skill  in  palmistry  and 
fortune-telling  by  means  of  a  special  set  of  cards,  the  well-known 
Tarokof  the  Gipsies.  They  have  also  a  large  stock  of  fairy  tales 
resembling  in  each  country  the  local  fairy  tales,  in  Greece  agreeing 
with  the  Greek,  and  in  Rumania  with  the  Rumanian  fairy  tales. 
It  is  doubtful,  however,  whether  they  have  contributed  to  the 
dissemination  of  these  tales  throughout  Europe,  for  a  large 
number  of  Gipsy  tales  can  be  shown  to  have  been  known  in 
Europe  long  before  the  appearance  of  the  Gipsies,  and  others  are 
so  much  like  those  of  other  nations  that  the  borrowing  may  be 
by  the  Gipsy  from  the  Greek,  Slav  or  Rumanian.  It  is,  however, 
possible  that  playing-cards  might  have  been  introduced  to 
Europe  through  the  Gipsies.  The  oldest  reference  to  cards  is 
found  in  the  Chronicle  of  Nicolaus  of  Cavellazzo,  who  says  that 
the  cards  were  first  brought  into  Viterbo  in  1379  from  the  land 
of  the  Saracens,  probably  from  Asia  Minor  or  the  Balkans. 
They  spread  very  quickly,  but  no  one  has  been  able  as  yet  to  trace 
definitely  the  source  whence  they  were  first  brought.  Without 


4,2 


GIPSIES 


entering  here  into  the  history  of  the  playing-cards  and  of  the 
different  forms  of  the  faces  and  of  the  symbolical  meaning  of  the 
different  designs,  one  may  assume  safely  that  the  cards,  before 
they  were  used  for  mere  pastime  or  for  gambling,  may  originally 
have  had  a  mystical  meaning  and  been  used  as  sortes  in  various 
combinations.  To  this  very  day  the  oldest  form  is  known  by  the 
hitherto  unexplained  name  of  Tarock,  played  in  Bologna  at  the 
beginning  of  the  isth  century  and  retained  by  the  French  under 
the  form  Tarot,  connected  direct  with  the  Gipsies,  "  Le  Tarot  des 
Boh6miens."  It  was  noted  abov^  that  the  oldest  chronicler 
(Presbyter)  who  describes  the  appearance  of  the  Gipsies  in  1416 
in  Germany  knows  them  by  their  Italian  name  "  Cianos," 
so  evidently  he  must  have  known  of  their  existence  in  Italy 
previous  to  any  date  recorded  hitherto  anywhere,  and  it  is  there- 
fore not  impossible  that  coming  from  Italy  they  brought  with 
them  also  their  book  of  divination. 

Physical  Characteristics. — As  a  race  they  are  of  small  stature, 
varying  in  colour  from  the  dark  tan  of  the  Arab  to  the  whitish 
hue  of  the  Servian  and  the  Pole.  In  fact  there  are  some  white- 
cdloured  Gipsies,  especially  in  Servia  and  Dalmatia,  and  these 
are  o*ten  not  easily  distinguishable  from  the  native  peoples, 
except  that  they  are  more  lithe  and  sinewy,  better  proportioned 
and  more  agile  in  their  movements  than  the  thick-set  Slavs  and 
the  mixed  race  of  the  Rumanians.  By  one  feature,  however, 
they  are  easily  distinguishable  and  recognize  one  another,  viz. 
by  the  lustre  of  their  eyes  and  the  whiteness  of  their  teeth.  Some 
are  well  built;  others  have  the  features  of  a  mongrel  race,  due 
no  doubt  to  intermarriage  with  outcasts  of  other  races.  The 
women  age  very  quickly  and  the  mortality  among  the  Gipsies 
is  great,  especially  among  children;  among  adults  it  is  chiefly 
due  to  pulmonary  diseases.  They  love  display  and  Oriental 
showiness,  bright-coloured  dresses,  ornaments,  bangles,  &c.; 
red  and  green  are  the  colours  mostly  favoured  by  the  Gipsies 
in  the  East.  Along  with  a  showy  handkerchief  or  some  shining 
gold  coins  round  their  necks,  they  will  wear  torn  petticoats  and 
no  covering  on  their  feet.  And  even  after  they  have  been 
assimilated  and  have  forgotten  their  own  language  they  still 
retain  some  of  the  prominent  features  of  their  character,  such 
as  the  love  of  inordinate  display  and  gorgeous  dress;  and  their 
moral  defects  not  only  remain  for  a  long  time  as  glaring  as  among 
those  who  live  the  life  of  vagrants,  but  even  become  more  pro- 
nounced. The  Gipsy  of  to-day  is  no  longer  what  his  fore- 
fathers have  been.  The  assimilation  with  the  nations  in  the 
near  East  and  the  steps  taken  for  the  suppression  of  vagrancy 
in  the  West,  combine  to  denationalize  the  Gipsy  and  to  make 
"  Roman!  Chib  "  a  thing  of  the  past. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The  scientific  study  of  the  Gipsy  language  and 
its  origin,  as  well  as  the  critical  history  of  the  Gipsy  race,  dates 
(with  the  notable  exception  of  Grellmann)  almost  entirely  from 
Pott's  researches  in  1844. 

I.  Collections  of  Documents,  &c. — Lists  of  older  publications 
appeared  in  the  books  of  Pott,  Miklosich  and  the  archduke  Joseph; 
Pott  adds  a  critical  appreciation  of  the  scientific  value  of  the  books 
enumerated.     See  also  Verzeichnis  von  Werken  und  Aufsatzen  .  .  . 
uber  die  Geschichteund  Sprache  der  Zigeuner,  &c.,  248  entries  (Leipzig, 
1886) ;  J.  Tipray,  "  Adalekok  a  cziganyokrol  szolo  frodalomhoz,"  in 
Magyar  Konyvszemle  (Budapest,  1877);  Ch.  G.  Leland,  A  Collection 
of  Cuttings  .  .  .  relating  to  Gypsies  (1874-1891),  bequeathed    by 
hiratothe  British  Museum.    See  also  the  Orientalischer  Jahresbericht, 
ed.  Muller  (Berlin,  1887  ff.). 

II.  History. — (a)  The  first  appearance  of  the  Gipsies  in  Europe. 
Sources:  A.  F.  Oefelius,  Rerum  Boicarum  scriptores,  &c.  (Augsburg, 
1763);  M.  Freher,  Andreae  Presbyteri  .  .  .  chronicon  de  ducibus 
Bavariae  .  .  .  (1602);  S.  Munster,  Cosmographia  .  .  .  &c.  (Basel, 
1545);  !•  Thurmaier,  AnnaUum  Boiorum  libri  septem,  ed.  T.  Zie- 
glerus  (Ingolstad,  1554);  M.  Crusius,  Annales  Suevici,  &c.  (Frank- 
furt,  1595-1596),   Schwdbische   Chronik  .  .  .   (Frankfurt,    1733); 
A.  Krantz,  Saxonia  (Cologne,  1520);  Simon  Simeon,  Itineraria,  &c., 
ed.  J.  Nasmith  (Cambridge,  1778).     (6)  Origin  and  spread  of  the 
Gipsies:  H.  M.  G.  Grellmann,  Die  Zigeuner,  &c.  (ist  ed.,  Dessau  and 
Leipzig,  1783;  2nd  ed.,  Gottingen,  1787);  English  by  M.  Roper 
(London,  1787;  2nd  ed.,  London,  1807),  entitled  Dissertation  on  the 
Gipsies,  &c.;  Carl  yon  Heister,  Ethnographische  .  .  .  Notizen  uber 
die  Zigeuner  (Konigsberg,   1842),  a  third  and  greatly  improved 
edition  of  Grellmann  and  the  best  book  of  its  kind  up  to  that  date; 
A.  F.  Pott,  Die  Zigeuner  in  Europa  und  Asien  (2  vols.,  Halle,  1844- 
1845),  the  first  scholarly  work  with  complete  and  critical  biblio- 
graphy, detailed  grammar,  etymological  dictionary  and  important 


texts;  C.  Hopf,  Die  Einwanderung  der  Zigeuner  in  Europa  (Gotha, 
1870);  F.  von  Miklosich,  "  Beitrage  zur  Kenntnis  der  Zigeuner- 
Mundarten,"  i.-iv.,  in  Sitzungsber.  d.  Wiener  Akad.  d.  Wissenschaften 
(Vienna,  1874-1878),  "  Uber  die  Mundarten  und  die  Wanderungen 
der  Zigeuner  Europas,"  i.-xii.,  in  Denkschriften  d.  Wiener  Akad.  d. 
Wissenschaften  (1872-1880);  M.  J.  de  Goeje,  Bijdrage  tot  de  ge- 
schiedenis  der  Zigeuners  (Amsterdam,  1875),  English  translation  by 
MacRitchie,  Account  of  the  Gipsies  of  India  (London,  1886);  Zedler, 
Universal-Lexicon,  vol.  Ixii.,  s.v.  Zigeuner,"  pp.  520-544  con- 
taining a  rich  bibliography;  many  publications  of  P.  Bataillard 
from  1844  to  1885;  A.  Colocci,  Storia  d'  un  popolo  errante,  with 
illustrations,  map  and  Gipsy-Ital.  and  Ital.-Gipsy  glossaries  (Turin, 
1889);  F.  H.  Groome,  "  The  Gypsies,"  in  E.  Magnusson,  National 
Life  and  Thought  (1891),  and  art.  "  Gipsies  "  in  Encyclopaedia 
Britannica  (gth  ed.,  1879);  C.  Ame'ro,  Bohemiens,  Tsiganes  et 
Gypsies  (Paris,  1895);  M.  Kogalnitschan,  Esquisse  sur  I'histoire,  les 
mceurs  et  la  langue  des  Cigains  (Berlin,  1837;  German  trans.,  Stutt- 
gart, 1840) — valuable  more  for  the  historical  part  than  for  the 
linguistic;  J.  Czacki,  Dziela,  vol.  iii.  (1844-1845) — for  historic  data 
about  Gipsies  in  Poland;  I.  Kppernicki  and  J.  Mover,  Charaktery- 
styka  fizyczna  ludrosci  galicyjskiej  (1876) — for  the  history  and 
customs  of  Galician  gipsies;  Ungarische  statistische  Mitteilungen, 
vol.  ix.  (Budapest,  1895),  containing  the  best  statistical  information 
on  the  Gipsies;  V.  Dittrich,  A  nagy-idai  czigdnyok  (Budapest, 
1898);  T.  H.  Schwicker,  "  Die  Zigeuner  in  Ungarn  u.  Sieben- 
btirgen,"  in  vol.  xii.  of  Die  Volker  Osterreich-Ungarns  (Vienna, 
1883),  and  in  Mitteilungen  d.  K.  K.  gepgraphischen  Gesellschaft 
(Vienna,  1896) ;  Dr  J.  Polek,  Die  Zigeuner  in  der  Bukowina  (Czerno- 
witz,  1908);  Ficker,  "  Die  Zigeuner  der  Bukowina,"  in  Statist. 
Monatschrift,  v.  6,  Hundert  Jahre  1775-1875:  Zigeuner  in  d.  Buko- 
wina (Vienna,  1875),  Die  Volkerstamme  der  osterr.-ungar.  Monarchic, 
&c.  (Vienna,  1869);  V.  S.  Morwood,  Our  Gipsies  (London,  1885); 
D.  MacRitchie,  Scottish  Gypsies  under  the  Stewarts  (Edinburgh,  1 894) ; 
F.  A.  Coelho,  "  Os  Ciganos  de  Portugal,"  in  Bol.  Soc.  Geog.  (Lisbon, 
1892) ;  A.  Dumbarton,  Gypsy  Life  in  the  Mysore  Jungle  (London, 
1902). 

III.  Linguistic. — [Armenia],  F.  N.  Finck,  "  Die  Sprache  der  arme- 
nischen  Zigeuner,"  in  Memoires  de  I'Acad.  Imp.  des  Sciences,  viii. 
(St  Petersburg,  1907).  [Austria-Hungary],  K.  von  Sowa,  Die 
Mundart  der  slovakischen  Zigeuner  (Gottingen,  1887),  and  Die 
mdhrische  Mundart  der  Romsprache  (Vienna,  1893) ;  A.  J .  Puchmayer, 
Romany  Cib  (Prague,  1821);  P.  Josef  Jesina,  Romdni  Cib  (in  Czech, 
1880;  in  German,  1886);  G.  Ihnatko,  Czigdny  nyelvtan  (Losoncon, 
1877);  A.  Kalina,  La  Langue  des  Tsiganes  slovaques  (Posen,  1882); 
the  archduke  Joseph,  Czigdny  nyelvtan  (Budapest,  1888);  H.  von 
Wlislocki,  Die  Sprache  der  transsilvanischen  Zigeuner  (Leipzig,  1884). 
[Brazil],  A.  T.  de  Mello  Moraes,  Os  ciganos  no  Brazil  (Rio  de  Janeiro, 
1886).  [France,  the  Basques],  A.  Baudrimont,  Vocabulaire  de  la 
langue  des  Bohemiens  habitant  les  pays  basques-fran^ais  (Bordeaux, 


xi.  I,  very  valuable  (Leipzig,  1898);  F.  N.  Finck,  Lehrbuch  des 
Dialekts  der  deutschen  Zigeuner — very  valuable  (Marburg,  1903). 
[Great  Britain,  &c.],  Ch.  G.  Leland,  The  English  Gipsies  and  their 
Language  (London  and  New  York,  1873;  2nd  ed.,  1874),  The  Gipsies 
of  Russia,  Austria,  England,  America,  &c.  (London,  1882) — the 
validity  of  Leland's  conclusions  is  often  doubtful ;  B.  C.  Smart  and 
H.  J.  Crofton,  The  Dialect  of  the  English  Gypsies  (2nd  ed.,  London, 
1875);  G.  Borrow,  Romano  lavo-lil  (London,  1874,  1905),  Lavengro, 
ed.  F.  H.  Groome  (London,  1899).  [Rumania],  B.  Constantinescu, 
Probe  de  Limba  si  literatura  figanilor  din  Romania  (Bucharest, 
1878).  [Russia,  Bessarabia],  O.  Boethlingk,  Uber  die  Sprache  der 
Zigeuner  in  Russland  (St  Petersburg,  1852;  supplement,  1854). 
[Russia,  Caucasus],  K.  Badganian,  Cygany.  Neskoliko  slovu  o  nareii- 
jahu  zakavkazskihu  cyganu  (St  Petersburg,  1887);  Istomin,  Ciganskij 
Jazyku  (1900).  [Spain],  G.  H.  Borrow,  The  Zincali,  or  an  Account 
of  the  Gipsies  of  Spain  (London,  1841,  and  numerous  later  editions) ; 
R.  Campuzano,  Origen  .  .  .  de  los  Gitanos,  y  diccionario  de  su 
dialecto  (2nd  ed.,  Madrid,  1857);  A.  de  C.,  Diccionario  del  dialecto 
gitano,  &c.  (Barcelona,  1851);  M.  de  Sales  y  Guindale,  Historia, 
costumbres  y  dialecto  de  los  Gitanos  (Madrid,  1870);  M.  de  Sales, 
El  Gitanismo  (Madrid,  1870);  J.  Tineo  Rebolledo,  "  A  Chipicalli  " 
la  lengua  gitana:  \diccionario  gitano-espanol  (Granada,  1900). 
[Turkey],  A.  G.  Paspati,  Etudes  sur  les  Tchinghianes,  ou  Bohemiens 
de  V empire  ottoman  (Constantinople,  1870),  with  grammar,  vocabu- 
lary, tales  and  French  glossary;  very  important.  [General],  John 
Sampson,  "  Gypsy  Language  and  Origin,"  in  Journ.  Gypsy  Lore  Soc. 
vol.  i.  (2nd  ser.,  Liverpool,  1907);  J.  A.  Decourdemanche,  Gram- 
maire  du  Tchingant,  &c.  (Paris,  1908) — fantastic  in  some  of  its 
philology;  F.  Kluge,  Rotwelsche  Quetten  (Strassburg,  1901);  L. 
Gilnther,  Das  Rotwelsch  des  deutschen  Gauners  (Leipzig,  1905),  for 
the  influence  of  Gipsy  on  argot;  L.  Besses,  Diccionario  de  argot 
espanol  (Barcelona);  G.  A.  Grierson,  The  Pi'saca  Languages  of 
North-Western  India  (London,  1906),  for  parallels  in  Indian  dialects; 
G.  Borrow,  Criscote  e  majarS  Lucas  .  .  .  El  evangelio  segun  S. 
Lucas  .  .  .  (London,  1837;  2nd  ed.,  1872)— this  is  the  only  complete 
translation  of  any  one  of  the  gospels  into  Gipsy.  For  older  fragments 
of  such  translations,  see  Pott  ii.  464-521. 

IV.  Folklore,  Tales,  Songs,  &c. — Many  songs  and  tales  are  found 


GIRAFFE— GIRALDI,  G.  G. 


43 


in  the  books  enumerated  above,  where  they  are  mostly  accompanied 
by  literal  translations.  See  also  Ch.  G.  Leland,  E.  H.  Palmer  and 
T.  Tuckey,  English  Gipsy  Songs  in  Romany,  with  Metrical  English 
Translation  (London,  1875);  G.  Smith,  Gipsy  Life,  &c.  (London, 
1880);  M.  Rosenfeld,  Lieder  der  Zigeuner  (1882);  Ch.  G.  Leland, 
The  Gypsies  (Boston,  Mass.,  1882),  Gypsy  Sorcery  and  Fortune- 
Telline  (London,  1891);  H.  von  Wlislocki,  Mdrchen  und  Sagen  der 
trans silvanischen  Zigeuner  (Berlin,  1886) — containing  63  tales, 
very  freely  translated;  Volksdichtungen  der  siebenburgischen  und 
sudungarischen  Zigeuner  (Vienna,  1890) — songs,  ballads,  charms, 
proverbs  and  100  tales;  Vom  wandernden  Zigeunervolke  (Hamburg, 
1890);  Wesen  und  Wirkungskreis  der  Zauberfrauen  bei  den  sieben- 
burgischen  Zigeuner  (1891) ;  Aus  dem  inneren  Leben  der  Zigeuner," 
in  Ethnologische  Mitteilungen  (Berlin,  1892);  R.  Pischel,  Bericht 
fiber  Wlislocki  vom  wandernden  Zigeunervolke  (Gottingen,  1890) — a 
strong  criticism  of  Wlislocki's  method,  &c. ;  F.  H.  Groome,  Gypsy 
Folk-Tales  (London,  1899),  with  historical  introduction  andacomplete 
and  trustworthy  collection  of  76  gipsy  tales  from  many  countries; 
Katada,  Contes  gitanos  (Logrono,  1907);  M.  Caster,  Zigeuner- 
mdrchen  aus  Rumanien  (1881);  "  Tiganii,  &c.,"  in  Revista  pentru 
Istorie,  Sfc.,  i.  p.  469  ff.  (Bucharest,  1^83) ;  "  Gypsy  Fairy-Tales  "  in 
Folklore.  The  Journal  of  the  Gipsy-Lore  Society  (Edinburgh,  1888- 
1892)  was  revived  in  Liverpool  in  1907. 

V.  Legal  Status, — A  few  of  the  books  in  which  the  legal  status  of 
the  Gipsies  (either  alone  or  in  conjunction  with  "  vagrants  ")  is 
treated  from  a  juridical  point  of  view  are  here  mentioned,  also  the 
history  of  the  trial  in  1726.  J.  B.  Weissenbruch,  Ausfiihrliche 
Relation  von  der  famosen  Zigeuner-Diebes-Mord  und  Rduber  (Frank- 
furt and  Leipzig,  1727);  A.  Ch.  Thomasius,  Tractatio  juridica  de 
vagabundo,  &fc.  (Leipzig,  1731);  F.  Ch.  B.  Ave-Lallemant,  Das 
deutsche  Gaunertum,  &c.  (Leipzig,  1858-1862);  V.  de  Rochas,  Les 
Farias  de  France  et  d'Espagne  (Paris,  1876);  P.  Chuchul,  Zum 
Kampfe  gegen  Landstreicher  und  Bettler  (Kassel,  1881) ;  R.  Breithaupt, 
Die  Zigeuner  und  der  deutsche  Stoat  (Wurzburg,  1907);  G.  Stein- 
hausen,  Geschichte  der  deutschen  Kultur  (Leipzig  and  Vienna,  1904). 

(M.  G.) 

GIRAFFE,  a  corruption  of  Zarafah,  the  Arabic  name  for  the 
tallest  of  all  mammals,  and  the  typical  representative  of  the 
family  Giraffidae,  the  distinctive  characters  of  which  are  given 
in  the  article  PECORA,  where  the  systematic  position  of  the 
group  is  indicated.  The  classic  term  "  camelopard,"  probably 
introduced  when  these  animals  were  brought  from  North 
Africa  to  the  Roman  amphitheatre,  has  fallen  into  complete 
disuse. 

In  common  with  the  okapi,  giraffes  have  skin-covered  horns 
on  the  head,  but  in  these  animals,  which  form  the  genus  Giraffa, 
these  appendages  are  present  in  both  sexes;  and  there  is  often 
an  unpaired  one  in  advance  of  the  pair  on  the  forehead.  Among 
other  characteristics  of  these  animals  may  be  noticed  the  great 
length  of  the  neck  and  limbs,  the  complete  absence  of  lateral 
toes  and  the  long  and  tufted  tail.  The  tongue  is  remarkable 
for  its  great  length,  measuring  about  17  in.  in  the  dead  animal, 
and  for  its  great  elasticity  and  power  of  muscular  contraction 
while  living.  It  is  covered  with  numerous  large  papillae,  and 
forms,  like  the  trunk  of  the  elephant,  an  admirable  organ  for 
the  examination  and  prehension  of  food.  Giraffes  are  inhabit- 
ants of  open  country,  and  owing  to  their  length  of  neck  and  long 
flexible  tongues  are  enabled  to  browse  on  tall  trees,  mimosas 
being  favourites.  To  drink  or  graze  they  are  obliged  to  straddle 
the  fore-legs  apart;  but  they  seldom  feed  on  grass  and  are 
capable  of  going  iong  without  water.  When  standing  among 
mimosas  they  so  harmonize  with  their  surroundings  that  they 
are  difficult  of  detection.  Formerly  giraffes  were  found  in  large 
herds,  but  persecution  has  reduced  their  number  and  led  to  their 
extermination  from  many  districts.  Although  in  late  Tertiary 
times  widely  spread  over  southern  Europe  and  India,  giraffes  are 
now  confined  to  Africa  south  of  the  Sahara. 

Apart  from  the  distinct  Somali  giraffe  (Giraffa  reticulata), 
characterized  by  its  deep  liver-red  colour  marked  with  a  very 
coarse  network  of  fine  white  lines,  there  are  numerous  local  forms 
of  the  ordinary  giraffe  (Giraffa  camelopardalis).  The  northern 
races,  such  as  the  Nubian  G.  c.  typica  and  the  Kordofan  G.  c. 
antiquorum,  are  characterized  by  the  large  frontal  horn  of  the 
bulls,  the  white  legs,  the  network  type  of  coloration  and  the  pale 
tint.  The  latter  feature  is  specially  developed  in  the  Nigerian 
G.  c.  peralta,  which  is  likewise  of  the  northern  type.  The  Baringo 
G.  c.  rolhschUdi  also  has  a  large  frontal  horn  and  white  legs,  but 
the  spots  in  the  bulls  are  very  dark  and  those  of  the  females 
jagged.  In  the  Kilimanjaro  G.  c.  lippdskirchi  the  frontal  horn 


is  often  developed  in  the  bulls,  but  the  legs  are  frequently  spotted 
to  the  fetlocks.  Farther  south  the  frontal  horn  tends  to  dis- 
appear more  or  less  completely,  as  in  the  Angola  G.  c.  angolensis, 
the  Transvaal  G.  c.  wardi  and  the  Cape  G.  c.  capensis,  while  the 
legs  are  fully  spotted  and  the  colour-pattern  on  the  body 
(especially  in  the  last-named)  is  more  of  a  blotched  type,  that 


^^B^MM=i5=^  <~ 


^^"'^' 


The  North  African  or  Nubian  Giraffe  (Giraffa  camelopardalis). 

is  to  say,  consists  of  dark  blotches  on  a  fawn  ground,  instead  of 
a  network  of  light  lines  on  a  dark  ground. 

For  details,  see  a  paper  on  the  subspecies  of  Giraffa  camelopardalis, 
by  R.  Lydekker  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Zoological  Society  of  London 
for  1904.  (R.  L.*) 

GIRALDI,  GIGLIO  GREGORIO  [LiLius  GREGORIUS  GYRAL- 
DUS]  (1479-1552),  Italian  scholar  and  poet,  was  born  on  the 
I4th  of  June  1479,  at  Ferrara,  where  he  early  distinguished 
himself  by  his  talents  and  acquirements.  On  the  completion 
of  his  literary  course  he  removed  to  Naples,  where  he  lived  on 
familiar  terms  with  Jovianus  Pontanus  and  Sannazaro;  and 
subsequently  to  Lombardy,  where  he  enjoyed  the  favour  of  the 
Mirandola  family.  At  Milan  in  1507  he  studied  Greek  under 
Chalcondylas;  and  shortly  afterwards,  at  Modena,  he  became 
tutor  to  Ercole  (afterwards  Cardinal)  Rangone.  About  the  year 
1514  he  removed  to  Rome,  where,  under  Clement  VII.,  he  held 
the  office  of  apostolic  protonotary;  but  having  in  the  sack  of  that 
city  (1527),  which  almost  coincided  with  the  death  of  his  patron 
Cardinal  Rangone,  lost  all  his  property,  he  returned  in  poverty 
once  more  to  Mirandola,  whence  again  he  was  driven  by  the 
troubles  consequent  on  the  assassination  of  the  reigning  prince  in 
IS33-  The  rest  of  his  life  was  one  long  struggle  with  ill-health, 
poverty  and  neglect;  and  he  is  alluded  to  with  sorrowful  regret 
by  Montaigne  in  one  of  his  Essais  (i.  34),  as  having,  like  Sebastian 
Castalio,  ended  his  days  in  utter  destitution.  He  died  at  Ferrara 
in  February  1552;  and  his  epitaph  makes  touching  and  graceful 
allusion  to  the  sadness  of  his  end.  Giraldi  was  a  man  of  very 


44 


GIRALDI,  G.  B.— GIRARD,  J.  B. 


extensive  erudition;  and  numerous  testimonies  to  his  profundity 
and  accuracy  have  been  given  both  by  contemporary  and  by 
later  scholars.  His  Historia  de  diis  gentium  marked  a  distinctly 
forward  step  in  the  systematic  study  of  classical  mythology; 
and  by  his  treatises  De  annis  et  mensibus,  and  on  the  Calen- 
darium  Romanum  et  Graecum,  he  contributed  to  bring  about  the 
reform  of  the  calendar,  which,  was  ultimately  effected  by  Pope 
Gregory  XIII.  His  Progymnasma  adversus  Uterus  et  literates 
deserves  mention  at  least  among  the  curiosities  of  literature; 
and  among  his  other  works  to  which  reference  is  still  occasionally 
made  are  Historiae  poelarum  Graecorum  ac  Latinorum;  De 
poetis  suorum  temporum;  and  De  sepultura  ac  vario  sepeliendi 
ritu.  Giraldi  was  also  an  elegant  Latin  poet. 
His  Opera  omnia  were  published  at  Leiden  in  1696. 

GIRALDI,  GIOVANNI  BATTISTA  (1504-1573),  surnamed 
CYNTHIUS,  CINTHIO  or  CINTIO,  Italian  novelist  and  poet,  born 
at  Ferrara  in  November  1504,  was  educated  at  the  university 
of  his  native  town,  where  in  1525  he  became  professor  of  natural 
philosophy,  and,  twelve  years  afterwards,  succeeded  Celio 
Calcagnini  in  the  chair  of  belles-lettres.  Between  1542  and  1560 
he  acted  as  private  secretary,  first  to  Ercole  II.  and  afterwards 
to  Alphonso  II.  of  Este;  but  having,  in  connexion  with  a  literary 
quarrel  in  which  he  had  got  involved,  lost  the  favour  of  his 
patron  in  the  latter  year,  he  removed  to  Mondovi,  where  he 
remained  as  a  teacher  of  literature  till  1568.  Subsequently, 
on  the  invitation  of  the  senate  of  Milan,  he  occupied  the  chair 
of  rhetoric  at  Pavia  till  1573,  when,  in  search  of  health,  he 
returned  to  his  native  town,  where  on  the  3oth  of  December  he 
died.  Besides  an  epic  entitled  Ercole  (1557),  in  twenty-six 
cantos,  Giraldi  wrote  nine  tragedies,  the  best  known  of  which, 
Orbeccke,  was  produced  in  1541.  The  sanguinary  and  disgusting 
character  of  the  plot  of  this  play,  and  the  general  poverty  of 
its  style,  are,  in  the  opinion  of  many  of  its  critics,  almost  fully 
redeemed  by  occasional  bursts  of  genuine  and  impassioned 
poetry;  of  one  scene  in  the  third  act  in  particular  it  has  even 
been  affirmed  that,  if  it  alone  were  sufficient  to  decide  the 
question,  the  Orbecche  would  be  the  finest  play  in  the  world. 
Of  the  prose  works  of  Giraldi  the  most  important  is  the  Hecatom- 
mithi  or  Ecatomiti,  a  collection  of  tales  told  somewhat  after  the 
manner  of  Boccaccio,  but  still  more  closely  resembling  the  novels 
of  Giraldi's  contemporary  Bandello,  only  much  inferior  in  work- 
.  manship  to  the  productions  of  either  author  in  vigour,  liveliness 
and  local  colour.  Something,  but  not  much,  however,  may  be 
said  in  favour  of  their  professed  claim  to  represent  a  higher 
standard  of  morality.  Originally  published  at  Monteregale, 
Sicily,  in  1565,  they  were  frequently  reprinted  in  Italy,  while  a 
French  translation  by  Chappuys  appeared  in  1583  and  one  in 
Spanish  in  1590.  They  have  a  peculiar  interest  to  students  of 
English  literature,  as  having  furnished,  whether  directly  or  in- 
directly, the  plots  of  Measure  for  Measure  and  Othello.  That 
of  the  latter,  which  is  to  be  found  in  the  Hecatommithi  (iii.  7), 
is  conjectured  to  have  reached  Shakespeare  through  the  French 
translation;  while  that  of  the  former  (Hecat.  viii.  5)  is  probably 
to  be  traced  to  Whetstone's  Promos  and  Cassandra  (1578),  an 
adaptation  of  Cinthio's  story,  and  to  his  Heptamerone  (1582), 
which  contains  a  direct  English  translation.  To  Giraldi  also 
must  be  attributed  the  plot  of  Beaumont  and  Fletcher's  Custom 
of  the  Country. 

GIRALDUS  CAMBRENSIS  (ii46?-i22o),  medieval  historian, 
also  called  GERALD  DE  BARRI,  was  born  in  Pembrokeshire.  He 
was  the  son  of  William  de  Barri  and  Augharat,  a  daughter  of 
Gerald,  the  ancestors  of  the  Fitzgeralds  and  the  Welsh  princess, 
Nesta,  formerly  mistress  of  King  Henry  I.  Falling  under  the 
influence  of  his  uncle,  David  Fitzgerald,  bishop  of  St  David's, 
he  determined  to  enter  the  church.  He  studied  at  Paris,  and  his 
works  show  that  he  had  applied  himself  closely  to  the  study  of 
the  Latin -poets.  In  1172  he  was  appointed  to  collect  tithe  in 
Wales,  and  showed  such  vigour  that  he  was  made  archdeacon. 
In  1176  an  attempt  was  made  to  elect  him  bishop  of  St  David's, 
but  Henry  II.  was  unwilling  to  see  any  one  with  powerful  native 
connexions  a  bishop  in  Wales.  In  1180,  after  another  visit  to 
Paris,  he  was  appointed  commissiary  to  the  bishop  of  St  David's, 


who  had  ceased  to  reside.  But  Giraldus  threw  up  his  post, 
indignant  at  the  indifference  of  the  bishop  to  the  welfare  of  his 
see.  In  1184  he  was  made  one  of  the  king's  chaplains,  and  was 
elected  to  accompany  Prince  John  on  his  voyage  to  Ireland. 
While  there  he  wrote  a  Topographia  Hibernica,  which  is  full  of 
information,  and  a  strongly  prejudiced  history  of  the  conquest, 
the  Expugnatio  Hibernica.  In  1186  he  read  his  work  with  great 
applause  before  the  masters  and  scholars  of  Oxford.  In  1188 
he  was  sent  into  Wales  with  the  primate  Baldwin  to  preach 
the  Third  Crusade.  Giraldus  declares  that  the  mission  was 
highly  successful;  in  any  case  it  gave  him  the  material  for  his 
Itinerarium  Cambrense,  which  is,  after  the  Expugnatio,  his  best 
known  work.  He  accompanied  the  archbishop,  who  intended 
him  to  be  the  historian  of  the  Crusade,  to  the  continent,  with  the 
intention  of  going  to  the  Holy  Land.  But  in  1189  he  was  sent 
back  to  Wales  by  the  king,  who  knew  his  influence  was  great, 
to  keep  order  among  his  countrymen.  Soon  after  he  was  absolved 
from  his  crusading  vow.  According  to  his  own  statements, 
which  often  tend  to  exaggeration,  he  was  offered  both  the  sees  of 
Bangor  and  Llandaff,  but  refused  them.  From  1192  to  1198 
he  lived  in  retirement  at  Lincoln  and  devoted  himself  to  literature. 
It  is  probably  during  this  period  that  he  wrote  the  Gemma 
ecclesiastica  (discussing  disputed  points  of  doctrine,  ritual,  &c.) 
and  the  Vita  S.  Remigii.  In  1198  he  was  elected  bishop  of  St 
David's.  But  Hubert  Walter,  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
was  determined  to  have  in  that  position  no  Welshman  who 
would  dispute  the  metropolitan  pretensions  of  the  English 
primates.  The  king,  for  political  reasons,  supported  Hubert 
Walter.  For  four  years  Giraldus  exerted  himself  to  get  his 
election  confirmed,  and  to  vindicate  the  independence  of  St 
David's  from  Canterbury.  He  went  three  times  to  Rome. 
He  wrote  the  De  jure  Meneviensis  ecclesiae  in  support  of  the 
claims  of  his  diocese.  He  made  alliances  with  the  princes  of 
North  and  South  Wales.  He  called  a  general  synod  of  his  diocese. 
He  was  accused  of  stirring  up  rebellion  among  the  Welsh,  and 
the  justiciar  proceeded  against  him.  At  length  in  1202  the  pope 
annulled  all  previous  elections,  and  ordered  a  new  one.  The 
prior  of  Llanthony  was  finally  elected.  Gerald  was  immediately 
reconciled  to  the  king  and  archbishop;  the  utmost  favour  was 
shown  to  him;  even  the  expenses  of  his  unsuccessful  election 
were  paid.  He  spent  the  rest  of  his  life  in  retirement,  though 
there  was  some  talk  of  his  being  made  a  cardinal.  He  certainly 
survived  John. 

The  works  of  Giraldus  are  partly  polemical  and  partly  historical. 
His  value  as  a  historian  is  marred  by  his  violent  party  spirit; 
some  of  his  historical  tracts,  such  as  the  Liber  de  inslructione 
principum  and  the  Vita  Galfridi  Archiepiscopi  Eborecensis, 
seem  to  have  been  designed  as  political  pamphlets.  Henry  II., 
Hubert  Walter  and  William  Longchamp,  the  chancellor  of 
Richard  I.,  are  the  objects  of  his  worst  invectives.  His  own 
pretensions  to  the  see  of  St  David  are  the  motive  of  many  of  his 
misrepresentations.  But  he  is  one  of  the  most  vivid  and  witty 
of  our  medieval  historians. 

See  the  Rolls  edition  of  his  works,  ed.  J.  S.  Brewer,  J.  F.  Dimock 
and  G.  F.  Warner  in  8  vols.  (London,  1861-1891),  some  of  which 
have  valuable  introductions. 

GIRANDOLE  (from  the  Ital.  girandold),  an  ornamental 
branched  candlestick  of  several  lights.  It  came  into  use  about 
the  second  half  of  the  I7th  century,  and  was  commonly  made 
and  used  in  pairs.  It  has  always  been,  comparatively  speaking, 
a  luxurious  appliance  for  lighting,  and  in  the  great  18th-century 
period  of  French  house  decoration  the  famous  ciseleurs  designed 
some  exceedingly  beautiful  examples.  A  great  variety  of  metals 
has  been  used  for  the  purpose — sometimes,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
candlestick,  girandoles  have  been  made  in  hard  woods.  Gilded 
bronze  has  been  a  very  frequent  medium,  but  for  table  purposes 
silver  is  still  the  favourite  material. 

GIRARD,  JEAN  BAPTISTS  [known  as  "  Le  Pere  Girard  " 
or"  Le  Pere  Gregoire  "1(1765-1850),  French-Swiss  educationalist, 
was  born  at  Fribourg  and  educated  for  the  priesthood  at  Lucerne. 
He  was  the  fifth  child  in  a  family  of  fourteen,  and  his  gift  for 
teaching  was  early  shown  at  home  in  helping  his  mother  with  the 


GIRARD,  P.  H.  DE— GIRARD,  S. 


45 


younger  children;  and  after  passing  through  his  noviciate  he 
spent  some  time  as  an  instructor  in  convents,  notably  at  Wiirz- 
burg  (1785-1788).  Then  for  ten  years  he  was  busy  with 
religious  duty.  In  1798,  full  of  Kantian  ideas,  he  published  an 
essay  outlining  a  scheme  of  national  Swiss  education;  and  in 
1804  he  began  his  career  as  a  public  teacher,  first  in  the  elementary 
school  at  Fribourg  (1805-1823),  then  (being  driven  away  by 
Jesuit  hostility)  in  the  gymnasium  at  Lucerne  till  1834,  when 
he  retired  to  Fribourg  and  devoted  himself  with  the  production 
of  his  books  on  education,  De  I'enseignement  regulier  de  la 
langue  maternelle  (1834,  pth  ed.  1894;  Eng.  trans,  by  Lord 
Ebrington,  The  Mother  Tongue,  1847),  and  Cours  tducatif  (1844- 
1 846) .  Father  Girard's  reputation  and  influence  as  an  enthusiast 
in  the  cause  of  education  became  potent  not  only  in  Switzerland, 
where  he  was  hailed  as  a  second  Pestalozzi,  but  in  other  countries. 
He  had  a  genius  for  teaching,  his  method  of  stimulating  the 
intelligence  of  the  children  at  Fribourg  and  interesting  them 
actively  in  learning,  and  not  merely  cramming  them  with  rules 
and  facts,  being  warmly  praised  by  the  Swiss  educationalist 
Francois  Naville  (1784-1846)  in  his  treatise  on  public  education 
(1832).  His  undogmatic  method  and  his  Liberal  Christianity 
brought  him  into  conflict  with  the  Jesuits,  but  his  aim  was, 
in  all  his  teaching,  to  introduce  the  moral  idea  into  the  minds  of 
his  pupils  by  familiarizing  them  with  the  right  or  wrong  working 
of  the  facts  he  brought  to  their  attention,  and  thus  to  elevate 
character  all  through  the  educational  curriculum. 

GIRARD,  PHILIPPE  HENRI  DE  (1775-1845),  French 
mechanician,  was  born  at  Lourmarin,  Vaucluse,  on  the  ist  of 
February  1775.  He  is  chiefly  known  in  connexion  with  flax- 
spinning  machinery.  Napoleon  having  in  1810  decreed  a  reward 
of  one  million  francs  to  the  inventor  of  the  best  machine  for 
spinning  flax,  Girard  succeeded  in  producing  what  was  required. 
But  he  never  received  the  promised  reward,  although  in  1853, 
after  his  death,  a  comparatively  small  pension  was  voted  to  his 
heirs,  and  having  relied  on  the  money  to  pay  the  expenses  of 
his  invention  he  got  into  serious  financial  difficulties.  He  was 
obliged,  in  1815,  to  abandon  the  flax  mills  he  had  established 
in  France,  and  at  the  invitation  of  the  emperor  of  Austria 
founded  a  flax  mill  and  a  factory  for  his  machines  at  Hirtenberg. 
In  1825,  at  the  invitation  of  the  emperor  Alexander  I.  of  Russia, 
he  went  to  Poland,  and  erected  near  Warsaw  a  flax  manufactory, 
round  which  grew  up  a  village  which  received  the  name  of 
Girardow.  In  1818  he  built  a  steamer  to  ran  on  the  Danube. 
He  did  not  return  to  Paris  till  1844,  where  he  still  found  some 
of  his  old  creditors  ready  to  press  their  claims,  and  he  died  in 
that  city  on  the  26th  of  August  1845.  He  was  also  the  author 
•of  numerous  minor  inventions. 

GIRARD,  STEPHEN  (1750-1831),  American  financier  and 
philanthropist,  founder  of  Girard  College  in  Philadelphia,  was 
born  in  a  suburb  of  Bordeaux,  France,  on  the  2oth  of  May  1750. 
He  lost  the  sight  of  his  right  eye  at  the  age  of  eight  and  had  little 
education.  His  father  was  a  sea  captain,  and  the  son  cruised 
to  the  West  Indies  and  back,  during  1764-1773,  was  licensed 
captain  in  1773,  visited  New  York  in  1774,  and  thence  with  the 
.assistance  of  a  New  York  merchant  began  to  trade  to  and  from 
New  Orleans  and  Port  au  Prince.  In  May  1776  he  was  driven 
into  the  port  of  Philadelphia  by  a  British  fleet  and  settled  there  as 
a  merchant;  in  June  of  the  next  year  he  married  Mary  (Polly) 
Lum,  daughter  of  a  shipbuilder,  who,  two  years  later,  after 
Girard's  becoming  a  citizen  of  Pennsylvania  (1778),  built  for  him 
the  "  Water  Witch,"  the  first  of  a  fleet  trading  with  New  Orleans 
.and  the  West  Indies — most  of  Girard's  ships  being  named  after 
his  favourite  French  authors,  such  as  "  Rousseau,"  "  Voltaire," 
"  Helv6tius  "  and  "  Montesquieu."  His  beautiful  young  wife 
became  insane  and  spent  the  years  from  1790  to  her  death  in 
1815  in  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital.  In  1810  Girard  used  about 
a  million  dollars  deposited  by  him  with  the  Barings  of  London 
for  the  purchase  of  shares  of  the  much  depreciated  stock  of 
the  Bank  of  the  United  States — a  purchase  of  great  assistance 
to  the  United  States  government  in  bolstering  European  confi- 
dence in  its  securities.  When  the  Bank  was  not  rechartered  the 
.building  and  the  cashier's  house  in  Philadelphia  were  purchased 


at  a  third  of  the  original  cost  by  Girard,  who  in  May 
established  the  Bank  of  Stephen  Girard.  He  subscribed  in 
1814  for  about  95%  of  the  government's  war  loan  of  $5,000,000, 
of  which  only  $20,000  besides  had  been  taken,  and  he  generously 
offered  at  par  shares  which  upon  his  purchase  had  gone  to  a 
premium.  He  pursued  his  business  vigorously  in  person  until 
the  izth  of  February  1830,  when  he  was  injured  in  the  street 
by  a  truck;  he  died  on  the  26th  of  December  1831.  His  public 
spirit  had  been  shown  during  his  life  not  only  financially  but 
personally;  in  1793,  during  the  plague  of  yellow  fever  in  Phil- 
adelphia, he  volunteered  to  act  as  manager  of  the  wretched 
hospital  at  Bush  Hill,  and  with  the  assistance  of  Peter  Helm 
had  the  hospital  cleansed  and  its  work  systematized;  again 
during  the  yellow  fever  epidemic  of  1797-1798  he  took  the  lead 
in  relieving  the  poor  and  caring  for  the  sick.  Even  more  was  his 
philanthropy  shown  in  his  disposition  by  will  of  his  estate, 
which  was  valued  at  about  $7,500,000,  and  doubtless  the  greatest 
fortune  accumulated  by  any  individual  in  America  up  to  that 
time.  Of  his  fortune  he  bequeathed  $116,000  to  various 
Philadelphia  charities,  $500,000  to  the  same  city  for  the  im- 
provement of  the  Delaware  water  front,  $300,000  to  Pennsyl- 
vania for  internal  improvements,  and  the  bulk  of  his  estate  to 
Philadelphia,  to  be  used  in  founding  a  school  or  college,  in 
providing  a  better  police  system,  and  in  making  municipal 
improvements  and  lessening  taxation.  Most  of  his  bequest 
to  the  city  was  to  be  used  for  building  and  maintaining  a  school 
"  to  provide  for  such  a  number  of  poor  male  white  orphan 
children  ...  a  better  education  as  well  as  a  more  comfortable 
maintenance  than  they  usually  receive  from  the  application  of 
the  public  funds."  His  will  planned  most  minutely  for  the 
erection  of  this  school,  giving  details  as  to  the  windows,  doors, 
walls,  &c.;  and  it  contained  the  following  phrase:  "I  enjoin 
and  require  that  no  ecclesiastic,  missionary  or  minister  of  any 
sect  whatsoever,  shall  ever  hold  or  exercise  any  duty  whatsoever 
in  the  said  college;  nor  shall  any  such  person  ever  be  admitted 
for  any  purpose,  or  as  a  visitor,  within  the  premises  appropriated 
to  the  purposes  of  the  said  college.  ...  I  desire  to  keep  the 
tender  minds  of  orphans  .  .  .  free  from  the  excitements  which 
clashing  doctrines  and  sectarian  controversy  are  so  apt  to 
produce."  Girard's  heirs-at-law  contested  the  will  in  1836,  and 
they  were  greatly  helped  by  a  public  prejudice  aroused  by  the 
clause  cited;  in  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  in  1844 
Daniel  Webster,  appearing  for  the  heirs,  made  a  famous  plea 
for  the  Christian  religion,  but  Justice  Joseph  Story  handed  down 
an  opinion  adverse  to  the  heirs  (Vidals  v.  Girard's  Executors). 
Webster  was  opposed  in  this  suit  by  John  Sergeant  and  Horace 
Binney.  Girard  specified  that  those  admitted  to  the  college 
must  be  white  male  orphans,  of  legitimate  birth  and  good 
character,  between  the  ages  of  six  and  ten;  that  no  boy  was 
to  be  permitted  to  stay  after  his  eighteenth  year;  and  that  as 
regards  admissions  preference  was  to  be  shown,  first  to  orphans 
born  in  Philadelphia,  second  to  orphans  born  in  any  other  part  of 
Pennsylvania,  third  to  orphans  born  in  New  York  City,  and 
fourth  to  orphans  born  in  New  Orleans.  Work  upon  the  build- 
ings was  begun  in  1833,  and  the  college  was  opened  on  the  ist 
of  January  1848,  a  technical  point  of  law  making  instruction 
conditioned  upon  the  completion  of  the  five  buildings,  of  which 
the  principal  one,  planned  by  Thomas  Ustick  Walter  (1804-1887), 
has  been  called  "  the  most  perfect  Greek  temple  in  existence." 
To  a  sarcophagus  in  this  main  building  the  remains  of  Stephen 
Girard  were  removed  in  1851.  In  the  40  acres  of  the  college 
grounds  there  were  in  1909  18  buildings  (valued  at  $3,350,000), 
1513  pupils,  and  a  total  "population,"  including  students, 
teachers  and  all  employes,  of  1907.  The  value  of  the  Girard 
estate  in  the  year  1907  was  $35,000,000,  of  which  $550,000 
was  devoted  te  other  charities  than  Girard  College.  The  control 
of  the  college  was  under  a  board  chosen  by  the  city  councils 
until  1869,  when  by  act  of  the  legislature  it  was  transferred  to 
trustees  appointed  by  the  Common  Pleas  judges  of  the  city  of 
Philadelphia.  The  course  of  training  is  partly  industrial — for 
a  long  time  graduates  were  indentured  till  they  came  of  age — 
but  it  is  also  preparatory  to  college  entrance. 


46 


GIRARDIN,  D.  DE— GIRART  DE  ROUSSILLON 


See  H.  A.  Ingram,  The  Life  and  Character  of  Stephen  Girard 
(Philadelphia,  1884),  and  George  P.  Rupp,  "  Stephen  Girard— 
Merchant  and  Mariner,"  in  1848-1808:  Semi- Centennial  of  Girard 
College  (Philadelphia,  1898). 

GIRARDIN,  DELPHINE  DE  (1804-1855),  French  author, 
was  born  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  on  the  26th  of  January  1804.  Her 
mother,  the  well-known  Madame  Sophie  Gay,  brought  her  up 
in  the  midst  of  a  brilliant  literary  society.  She  published  two 
volumes  of  miscellaneous  pieces,  Essais  poetiques  (1824)  and 
Nouveaux  Essais  poetiques  (1825).  A  visit  to  Italy  in  1827, 
during  which  she  was  enthusiastically  welcomed  by  the  literati 
of  Rome  and  even  crowned  in  the  capitol,  was  productive  of 
various  poems,  of  which  the  most  ambitious  was  Napoline  (1833). 
Her  marriage  in  1831  to  Emile  de  Girardin  (see  below)  opened 
up  a  new  literary  career.  The  contemporary  sketches  which 
she  contributed  from  1836  to  1839  to  the  feuilleton  of  La  Presse, 
under  the  nom  de  plume  of  Charles  de  Launay,  were  collected 
under  the  title  of  Lettres  parisiennes  (1843),  and  obtained  a 
brilliant  success.  Contes  d'une  vieille  fille  a  ses  neveux  (1832), 
La  Canne  de  Monsieur  de  Balzac  (1836)  and  //  ne  faut  pas  jouer 
avec  la  douleur  (1853)  are  among  the  best-known  of  her  romances; 
and  her  dramatic  pieces  in  prose  and  verse  include  L'Ecole  des 
journalistes  (1840),  Judith  (1843),  Cleopdtre  (1847),  Lady  Tartufe 
(1853),  and  the  one-act  comedies,  C'est  la  faute  du  mari  (1851), 
La  Joiefait  peur  (1854),  Le  Chapeau  d'un  horloger  (1854)  and  Une 
Femme  qui  deteste  son  mari,  which  did  not  appear  till  after  the 
author's  death.  In  the  literary  society  of  her  time  Madame 
Girardin  exercised  no  small  personal  influence,  and  among  the 
frequenters  of  her  drawing-room  were  Theophile  Gautier  and 
Balzac,  Alfred  de  Musset  and  Victor  Hugo.  She  died  on  the 
29th  of  June  1855.  Her  collected  works  were  published  in  six 
volumes  (1860-1861). 

See  Sainte-Beuve,  Causeries  du  lundi,  t.  iii. ;  G.  de  Molenes, 
"Les  Femmes  poetes,"  in  Revue  des  deux  mondes  (July  1842); 
Taxile  Delord,  Les  Matinees  litter  air  es  (1860);  L' Esprit  de  Madame 
Girardin,  avec  une  preface  par  M.  Lamartine  (1862);  G.  d'Heilly, 
Madame  de  Girardin,  sa  vie  et  ses  ceuvres  (1868);  Imbert  de  Saint 
Amand,  Mme  de  Girardin  (1875). 

GIRARDIN,  EMILE  DE  (1802-1881),  French  publicist,  was 
born,  not  in  Switzerland  in  1806  of  unknown  parents,  but  (as 
was  recognized  in  1837)  in  Paris  in  1802,  the  son  of  General 
Alexandra  de  Girardin  and  of  Madame  Dupuy,  wife  of  a  Parisian 
advocate.  His  first  publication  was  a  novel,  Emile,  dealing 
with  his  birth  and  early  life,  and  appeared  under  the  name  of 
Girardin  in  1827.  He  became  inspector  of  fine  arts  under  the 
Martignac  ministry  just  before  the  revolution  of  1830,  and 
was  an  energetic  and  passionate  journalist.  Besides  his  work 
on  the  daily  press  he  issued  miscellaneous  publications  which 
attained  an  enormous  circulation.  His  Journal  des  connais- 
sances  utiles  had  1 20,000  subscribers,  and  the  initial  edition  of 
his  Almanack  de  France  (1834)  ran  to  a  million  copies.  In  1836 
he  inaugurated  cheap  journalism  in  a  popular  Conservative 
organ,  La  Presse,  the  subscription  to  which  was  only  forty 
francs  a  year.  This  undertaking  involved  him  in  a  duel  with 
Armand  Carrel,  the  fatal  result  of  which  made  him  refuse  satis- 
faction to  later  opponents.  In  1839  he  was  excluded  from  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies,  to  which  he  had  been  four  times  elected, 
on  the  plea  of  his  foreign  birth,  but  was  admitted  in  1842.  He 
resigned  early  in  February  1847,  and  on  the  24th  of  February 
1848  sent  a  note  to  Louis  Philippe  demanding  his  resignation  and 
the  regency  of  the  duchess  of  Orleans.'  In  the  Legislative 
Assembly  he  voted  with  the  Mountain.  He  pressed  eagerly  in 
his  paper  for  the  election  of  Prince  Louis  Napoleon,  of  whom  he 
afterwards  became  one  of  the  most  violent  opponents.  In  1856 
he  sold  La  Presse,  only  to  resume  it  in  1862,  but  its  vogue  was 
over,  and  Girardin  started  a  new  journal,  La  Liberte,  the  sale 
of  which  was  forbidden  in  the  public  streets.  'He  supported 
Emile  Ollivier  and  the  Liberal  Empire,  but  plunged  into  vehement 
journalism  again  to  advocate  war  against  Prussia.  Of  his 
many  subsequent  enterprises  the  most  successful  was  the  purchase 
of  Le  Petit  Journal,  which  served  to  advocate  the  policy  of  Thiers, 
though  he  himself  did  not  contribute.  The  crisis  of  the  i6th 
of  May  1877,  when  Jules  Simon  fell  from  power,  made  him 


resume  his  pen  to  attack  MacMahon  and  the  party  of  reaction 
in  La  France  and  in  Le  Petit  Journal.  Emile  de  Girardin  married 
in  1831  Delphine  Gay  (see  above),  and  after  her  death  in  1855 
Guillemette  Josephine  Brunold,  countess  von  Tieffenbach, 
widow  of  Prince  Frederick  of  Nassau.  He  was  divorced  from 
his  second  wife  in  1872. 

The  long  list  of  his  social  and  political  writings  includes:  De  la 
presse  periodique  au  XIX*  siecle  (1837);  De  I' instruction  publique 
(1838);  Etudes  politiques  (1838);  De  la  liberte  de  la  presse  et  du 
journalisme  (1842) ;  Le  Droit  au  travail  au  Luxembourg  et  a  I'Assemblee 
Nationale  (2  vols.,  1848);  Les  Cinquante-deux  (1849,  &c.),  a  series 
of  articles  on  current  parliamentary  questions;  La  Politique  uni- 
verselle,  decrets  de  I'avenir  (Brussels,  1852);  Le  Condamne  du  6  mars 
(1867),  an  account  of  his  own  differences  with  the  government  in 
1867  when  he  was  fined  5000  fr.  for  an  article  in  La  Liberte;  Le 
Dossier  de  la  guerre  (1877),  a  collection  of  official  documents;  Ques- 
tions de  man  temps,  1836  a  1856,  articles  extracted  from  the  daily 
and  weekly  press  (12  vols.,  1858). 

GIRARDON,  FRANCOIS  (1628-1715),  French  sculptor,  was 
born  at  Troyes  on  the  i7th  of  March  1628.  As  a  boy  he  had  for 
master  a  joiner  and  wood-carver  of  his  native  town,  named 
Baudesson,  under  whom  he  is  said  to  have  worked  at  the  chateau 
of  Liebault,  where  he  attracted  the  notice  of  Chancellor  S6guier. 
By  the  chancellor's  influence  Girardon  was  first  removed  to 
Paris  and  placed  in  the  studio  of  Francois  Anguier,  and  afterwards 
sent  to  Rome.  In  1652  he  was  back  in  France,  and  seems  at 
once  to  have  addressed  himself  with  something  like  ignoble 
subserviency  to  the  task  of  conciliating  the  court  painter  Charles 
Le  Brun.  Girardon  is  reported  to  have  declared  himself  incap- 
able of  composing  a  group,  whether  with  truth  or  from  motives  of 
policy  it  is  impossible  to  say.  This  much  is  certain,  that  a  very 
large  proportion  of  his  work  was  carried  out  from  designs  by 
Le  Brun,  and  shows  the  merits  and  defects  of  Le  Brun's  manner — 
a  great  command  of  ceremonial  pomp  in  presenting  his  subject, 
coupled  with  a  large  treatment  of  forms  which  if  it  were  more 
expressive  might  be  imposing.  The  court  which  Girardon  paid 
to  the  "  premier  peintre  du  roi  "  was  rewarded.  An  immense 
quantity  of  work  at  Versailles  was  entrusted  to  him,  and  in 
recognition  of  the  successful  execution  of  four  figures  for  the 
Bains  d'Apollon,  Le  Brun  induced  the  king  to  present  his  protege 
personally  with  a  purse  of  300  louis,  as  a  distinguishing  mark 
of  royal  favour.  In  1650  Girardon  was  made  member  of  the 
Academy,  in  1659  professor,  in  1674  "  adjoint  au  recteur," 
and  finally  in  1695  chancellor.  Five  years  before  (1690),  on  the 
death  of  Le  Brun,  he  had  also  been  appointed  "  inspecteur 
general  des  ouvrages  de  sculpture  " — a  place  of  power  and  profit. 
In  1699  he  completed  the  bronze  equestrian  statue  of  Louis 
XIV.,  erected  by  the  town  of  Paris  on  the  Place  Louis  le  Grand. 
This  statue  was  melted  down  during  the  Revolution,  and  is 
known  to  us  only  by  a  small  bronze  model  (Louvre)  finished 
by  Girardon  himself.  His  Tomb  of  Richelieu  (church  of  the' 
Sorbonne)  was  saved  from  destruction  by  Alexandre  Lenoir, 
who  received  a  bayonet  thrust  in  protecting  the  head  of  the 
cardinal  from  mutilation.  It  is  a  capital  example  of  Girardon's 
work,  and  the  theatrical  pomp  of  its  style  is  typical  of  the  funeral 
sculpture  of  the  reigns  of  Louis  XIV.  and  Louis  XV. ;  but  amongst 
other  important  specimens  yet  remaining  may  also  be  cited  the 
Tomb  of  Louvois  (St  Eustache),  that  of  Bignon,  the  king's 
librarian,  executed  in  1656  (St  Nicolas  du  Chardonneret),  and 
decorative  sculptures  in  the  Galerie  d'Apollon  and  Chambre  du 
roi  in  the  Louvre.  Mention  should  not  be  omitted  of  the  group, 
signed  and  dated  1699,  "  The  Rape  of  Proserpine  "  at  Versailles, 
which  also  contains  the  "  Bull  of  Apollo."  Although  chiefly 
occupied  at  Paris  Girardon  never  forgot  his  native  Troyes,  the 
museum  of  which  town  contains  some  of  his  best  works,  including 
the  marble  busts  of  Louis  XIV.  and  Maria  Theresa.  In  the 
hotel  de  ville  is  still  shown  a  medallion  of  Louis  XIV.,  and  in  the 
church  of  St  Remy  a  bronze  crucifix  of  some  importance — both 
works  by  his  hand.  He  died  in  Paris  in  1715. 

See  Corrard  de  Breban,  Notice  sur  la  vie  et  les  ceuvres  de  Girardon 
(1850). 

GIRART  DE  ROUSSILLON,  an  epic  figure  of  the  Carolingian 
cycle  of  romance.  In  the  genealogy  of  romance  he  is  a  son  of 
Boon  de  Mayence,  and  he  appears  in  different  and  irreconcilable 


GIRAUD— GIRDLE 


47 


Circumstances  in  many  of  the  chansons  de  geste.  The  legend  of 
Girart  de  Roussillon  is  contained  in  a  Vita  Girardi  de  Roussillon 
(ed.  P.  Meyer,  in  Romania,  1878),  dating  from  the  beginning 
of  the  1 2th  century  and  written  probably  by  a  monk  of  the  abbey 
of  Pothieres  or  of  Vezelai,  both  of  which  were  founded  in  860  by 
Girart;  in  Girart  de  Roussillon,  a  chanson  de  geste  written  early 
in  the  I2th  century  in  a  dialect  midway  between  French  and 
Provencal,  and  apparently  based  on  an  earlier  Burgundian 
poem;  in  a  I4th  century  romance  in  alexandrines  (ed.  T.  J.  A.  P. 
Mignard,  Paris  and  Dijon,  1878);  and  in  a  prose  romance  by 
Jehan  Wauquelin  in  1447  (ed.  L.  de  Montille,  Paris,  1880).  The 
historical  Girard,  son  of  Leuthard  and  Grimildis,  was  a 
Burgundian  chief  who  was  count  of  Paris  in  837,  and  embraced 
the  cause  of  Lothair  against  Charles  the  Bald.  He  fought  at 
Fontenay  in  841,  and  doubtless  followed  Lothair  to  Aix.  In 
855  he  became  governor  of  Provence  for  Lothair's  son  Charles, 
king  of  Provence  (d.  863).  His  wife  Bertha  defended  Vienne 
unsuccessfully  against  Charles  the  Bald  in  870,  and  Girard, 
who  had  perhaps  aspired  to  be  the  titular  ruler  of  the  northern 
part  of  Provence,  which  he  had  continued  to  administer  under 
Lothair  II.  until  that  prince's  death  in  869,  retired  with  his  wife 
to  Avignon,  where  he  died  probably  in  877,  certainly  before  879. 
The  tradition  of  his  piety,  of  the  heroism  of  his  wife  Bertha, 
and  of  his  wars  with  Charles  passed  into  romance;  but  the 
historical  facts  are  so  distorted  that  in  Girart  de  Roussillon  the 
trouvere  makes  him  the  opponent  of  Charles  Martel,  to  whom 
he  stands  in  the  relation  of  brother-in-law.  He  is  nowhere 
described  in  authentic  historic  sources  as  of  Roussillon.  The 
title  is  derived  from  his  castle  built  on  Mount  Lassois,  near 
Chatillon-sur-Seine.  Southern  traditions  concerning  Count 
Girart,  in  which  he  is  made  the  son  of  Garin  de  Monglane,  are 
embodied  in  Girart  de  Viane  (i3th  century)  by  Bertrand  de 
Bar-sur-1'Aube,  and  in  the  Aspramonte  of  Andrea  da  Barberino, 
based  on  the  French  chanson  of  Aspremont  ,  where  he  figures  as 
Girart  de  Frete  or  de  Fratte.1  Girart  de  Viane  is  the  recital  of 
.a  siege  of  Vienne  by  Charlemagne,  and  in  Aspramonte  Girart  de 
Fratte  leads  an  army  of  infidels  against  Charlemagne.  Girart  de 
Roussillon  was  long  held  to  be  of  Provencal  origin,  and  to  be 
.a  proof  of  the  existence  of  an  independent  Provencal  epic, 
but  its  Burgundian  origin  may  be  taken  as  proved. 

See  F.  Michel,  Gerard  de  Rossillon  .  .  .  public  en  fran^ais  et  en 
Provencal  d'apres  les  MSS.  de  Paris  et  de  Londres  (Paris,  1856); 
P.  Meyer,  Girart  de  Roussillon  (1884),  a  translation  in  modern  French 
with  a  comprehensive  introduction.  For  Girart  de  Viane  (ed.  P. 
TarbS,  Reims,  1850)  see  L.  Gautier,  Epopees  franfaises,  vol.  iv. ; 
F.  A.  Wulff,  Notice  sur  les  sagas  de  Magus  et  de  Geirard  (Lund,  1874). 

GIRAUD,  GIOVANNI,  COUNT  (1776-1834),  Italian  dramatist, 
of  French  origin,  was  born  at  Rome,  and  showed  a  precocious 
passion  for  the  theatre.  His  first  play,  L'Onestd  non  si  vince, 
was  successfully  produced  in  1798.  He  took  part  in  politics 
as  an  active  supporter  of  Pius  VI.,  but  was  mainly  occupied  with 
the  production  of  his  plays,  and  in  1809  became  director-general 
of  the  Italian  theatres.  He  died  at  Naples  in  1834.  Count 
Giraud's  comedies,  the  best  of  which  are  Gelosie  per  equivoco 
(1807)  a.ndL'Ajonell'  imbarazzo  (1824),  were  bright  and  amusing 
on  the  stage,  but  of  no  particular  literary  quality. 

His  collected  comedies  were  published  in  1823  and  his  Teatro 
domestico  in  1825. 

GIRDLE  (O.  Eng.  gyrdel,  from  gyrdan,  to  gird;  cf.  Ger.  GUrtel, 
Dutch  gordel,  from  giirlen  and  garden ;  "  gird  "  and  its  doublet 
"  girth  "  together  with  the  other  Teutonic  cognates  have  been 
referred  by  some  to  the  root  ghar — to  seize,  enclose,  seen  in 
Gr.  \t[p,  hand,  Lat.  hortus,  garden,  and  also  English  yard, 
garden,  garth,  &c.),  a  band  of  leather  or  other  material  worn 
round  the  waist,  either  to  confine  the  loose  and  flowing  outer 
robes  so  as  to  allow  freedom  of  movement,  or  to  fasteji  and 
support  the  garments  of  the  wearer.  Among  the  Romans  it 
was  used  to  confine  the  tunica,  and  it  formed  part  of  the  dress 
of  the  soldier;  when  a  man  quitted  military  service  he  was  said, 

1  It  is  of  interest  to  note  that  Freta  was  the  old  name  for  the 
town  of  Saint  Remy,  and  that  it  is  close  to  the  site  of  the  ancient 
town  of  Glanum,  the  name  of  which  is  possibly  preserved  in  Garin 
de  Monglane,  the  ancestor  of  the  heroes  of  the  cycle  of  Guillaume 
d'Orange. 


cingulum  deponere,  to  lay  aside  the  girdle.  Money  being  carried 
in  the  girdle,  zonam  perdere  signified  to  lose  one's  purse,  and, 
among  the  Greeks,  to  cut  the  girdle  was  to  rob  a  man  of  his 
money. 

Girdles  and  girdle-buckles  are  not  often  found  in  Gallo-Roman 
graves,  but  in  the  graves  of  Franks  and  Burgundians  they  are 
constantly  present,  often  ornamented  with  bosses  of  silver  or 
bronze,  chased  or  inlaid.  Sidonius  Apollinaris  speaks  of  the 
Franks  as  belted  round  the  waist,  and  Gregory  of  Tours  in  the 
6th  century  says  that  a  dagger  was  carried  in  the  Prankish 
girdle. 

In  the  Anglo-Saxon  dress  the  girdle  makes  an  unimportant 
figure,  and  the  Norman  knights,  as  a  rule,  wore  their  belts  under 
their  hauberks.  After  the  Conquest,  however,  the  artificers 
gave  more  attention  to  a  piece  whose  buckle  and  tongue  invited 
the  work  of  the  goldsmith.  Girdles  of  varying  richness  are  seen 
on  most  of  the  western  medieval  effigies.  That  of  Queen  Beren- 
garia  lets  the  long  pendant  hang  below  the  knee,  following  a 
fashion  which  frequently  reappears. 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  I3th  century  the  knight's  surcoat 
is  girdled  with  a  narrow  cord  at  the  waist,  while  the  great  belt, 
which  had  become  the  pride  of  the  well-equipped  cavalier, 
loops  across  the  hips  carrying  the  heavy  sword  aslant  over  the 
thighs  or  somewhat  to  the  left  of  the  wearer. 

But  it  is  in  the  second  half  of  the  following  century  that  the 
knightly  belt  takes  its  most  splendid  form.  Under  the  year 
1356  the  continuator  of  the  chronicle  of  Nangis  notes  that  the 
increase  of  jewelled  belts  had  mightily  enhanced  the  price  of 
pearls.  The  belt  is  then  worn,  as  a  rule,  girdling  the  hips  at 
some  distance  below  the  waist,  being  probably  supported  by 
hooks  as  is  the  belt  of  a  modern  infantry  soldier.  The  end  of  the 
belt,  after  being  drawn  through  the  buckle,  is  knotted  or  caught 
up  after  the  fashion  of  the  tang  of  the  Garter.  The  waist  girdle 
either  disappears  from  sight  or  as  a  narrow  and  ornamented 
strap  is  worn  diagonally  to  help  in  the  support  of  the  belt.  A 
mass  of  beautiful  ornament  covers  the  whole  belt,  commonly 
seen  as  an  unbroken  line  of  bosses  enriched  with  curiously 
worked  roundels  or  lozenges  which,  when  the  loose  strap-end 
is  abandoned,  meet  in  a  splendid  morse  or  clasp  on  which  the 
enameller  and  jeweller  had  wrought  their  best.  About  1420 
this  fashion  tends  to  disappear,  the  loose  tabards  worn  over 
armour  in  the  jousting-yard  hindering  its  display.  The  belt 
never  regains  its  importance  as  an  ornament,  and,  at  the  beginning 
of  the  1 6th  century,  sword  and  dagger  are  sometimes  seen  hanging 
at  the  knight's  sides  without  visible  support. 

In  civil  dress  the  magnificent  belt  of  the  I4th  century  is 
worn  by  men  of  rank  over  the  hips  of  the  tight  short-skirted 
coat,  and  in  that  century  and  in  the  isth  and  i6th  there  are 
sumptuary  laws  to  check  the  extravagance  of  rich  girdles  worn 
by  men  and  women  whose  humble  station  made  them  unseemly. 
Even  priests  must  be  rebuked  for  their  silver  girdles  with  baselards 
hanging  from  them.  Purses,  daggers,  keys,  penners  and  inkhorns, 
beads  and  even  books,  dangled  from  girdles  in  the  isth  and 
early  i6th  centuries.  Afterwards  the  girdle  goes  on  as  a  mere 
strap  for  holding  up  the  clothing  or  as  a  sword-belt.  At  the 
Restoration  men  contrasted  the  fashion  of  the  court,  a  light 
rapier  hung  from  a  broad  shoulder-belt,  with  the  fashion  of  the 
countryside,  where  a  heavy  weapon  was  supported  by  a  narrow 
waistbelt.  Soon  afterwards  both  fashions  disappeared.  Sword- 
hangers  were  concealed  by  the  skirt,  and  the  belt,  save  in  certain 
military  and  sporting  costumes,  has  no  more  been  in  sight  in 
England.  Even  as  a  support  for  breeches  or  trousers,  the  use 
of  braces  has  gradually  supplanted  the  girdle  during  the  past 
century. 

In  most  of  those  parts  of  the  Continent — Brittany,  for  example 
— where  the  peasantry  maintains  old  fashions  in  clothing,  the 
belt  or  girdle  is  still  an  important  part  of  the  clothing.  Italian 
non-commissioned  officers  find  that  the  Sicilian  recruit's  main 
objection  to  the  first  bath  of  his  life-time  lies  in  the  fact  that  he 
must  lay  down  the  cherished  belt  which  carries  his  few  valuables. 
With  the  Circassian  the  belt  still  buckles  on  an  arsenal  of  pistols 
and  knives. 


GIRGA— GIRONDE 


Folklore  and  ancient  custom  are  much  concerned  with  the 
girdle.  Bankrupts  at  one  time  put  it  off  in  open  court ;  French 
law  refused  courtesans  the  right  to  wear  it;  Saint  Guthlac 
casts  out  devils  by  buckling  his  girdle  round  a  possessed  man; 
an  earl  is  "  a  belted  earl  "  since  the  days  when  the  putting  on 
of  a  girdle  was  part  of  the  ceremony  of  his  creation;  and  fairy 
tales  of  half  the  nations  deal  with  girdles  which  give  invisibility 
to  the  wearer.  (O.  BA.) 

GIRGA,  or  GIRGEH,  a  town  of  Upper  Egypt  on  the  W.  bank 
of  the  Nile,  313  m.  S.S.E.  of  Cairo  by  rail  and  about  10  m.  N.N.E. 
of  the  ruins  of  Abydos.  Pop.  (1907)  19,893,  of  whom  about 
one-third  are  Copts.  The  town  presents  a  picturesque  appearance 
from  the  Nile,  which  at  this  point  makes  a  sharp  bend.  A 
ruined  mosque  with  a  tall  minaret  stands  by  the  river-brink. 
Many  of  the  houses  are  of  brick  decorated  with  glazed  tiles. 
The  town  is  noted  for  the  excellence  of  its  pottery.  Girga  is 
the  seat  of  a  Coptic  bishop.  It  also  possesses  a  Roman  Catholic 
monastery,  considered  the  most  ancient  in  the  country.  As 
lately  as  the  middle  of  the  i8th  century  the  town  stood  a  quarter 
of  a  mile  from  the  river,  but  is  now  on  the  bank,  the  intervening 
space  having  been  washed  away,  together  with  a  large  part  of 
the  town,  by  the  stream  continually  encroaching  on  its  left 
bank. 

GIRGENTI  (anc.  Agrigentum,  q.v.),  a  town  of  Sicily,  capital 
of  the  province  which  bears  its  name,  and  an  episcopal  see,  on 
the  south  coast,  58  m.  S.  by  E.  of  Palermo  direct  and  845  m.  by 
rail.  Population  (1901)  25,024.  The  town  is  built  on  the 
western  summit  of  the  ridge  which  formed  the  northern  portion 
of  the  ancient  site;  the  main  street  runs  from  E.  to  W.  on 
the  level,  but  the  side  streets  are  steep  and  narrow.  The  cathedral 
occupies  the  highest  point  in  the  town;  it  was  not  founded  till 
the  i3th  century,  taking  the  place  of  the  so-called  temple  of 
Concord.  The  campanile  still  preserves  portions  of  its  original 
architecture,  but  the  interior  has  been  modernized.  In  the 
chapter-house  a  famous  sarcophagus,  with  scenes  illustrating 
the  myth  of  Hippolytus,  is  preserved.  There  are  other  scattered 
remains  of  13th-century  architecture  in  the  town,  while,  in  the 
centre  of  the  ancient  city,  close  to  the  so-called  oratory  of 
Phalaris,  is  the  Norman  church  of  S.  Nicolo.  A  small  museum 
in  the  town  contains  vases,  terra-cottas,  a  few  sculptures,  &c. 
The  port  of  Girgenti,  55  m.  S.W.  by  rail,  now  known  as  Porto 
Empedocle  (population  in  1901,  11,529),  as  the  principal  place 
of  shipment  for  sulphur,  the  mining  district  beginning  immedi- 
ately north  of  Girgenti.  (T.  As.) 

GIRISHK,  a  village  and  fort  of  Afghanistan.  It  stands  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Helmund  78  m.  W.  of  Kandahar  on  the 
road  to  Herat;  3641  ft.  above  the  sea.  The  fort,  which  is 
garrisoned  from  Kandahar  and  is  the  residence  of  the  governor 
of  the  district  (Pusht-i-Rud),  has  little  military  value.  It 
commands  the  fords  of  the  Helmund  and  the  road  to  Seistan, 
from  which  it  is  about  190  m.  distant;  and  it  is  the  centre  of  a 
rich  agricultural  district.  Girishk  was  occupied  by  the  British 
during  the  first  Afghan  War;  and  a  small  garrison  of  sepoys, 
under  a  native  officer,  successfully  withstood  a  siege  of  nine 
months  by  an  overwhelming  Afghan  force.  The  Dasht-i-Bakwa 
stretches  beyond  Girishk  towards  Farah,  a  level  plain  of  consider- 
able width,  which  tradition  assigns  as  the  field  of  the  final 
contest  for  supremacy  between  Russia  and  England. 

GIRNAR,  a  sacred  hill  in  Western  India,  in  the  peninsula 
of  Kathiawar,  10  m.  E.  of  Junagarh  town.  It  consists,  of 
five  peaks,  rising  about  3500  ft.  above  the  sea,  on  which  are 
numerous  old  Jain  temples,  much  frequented  by  pilgrims. 
At  the  foot  of  the  hill  is  a  rock,  with  an  inscription  of  Asoka 
(znd  century  B.C.),  and  also  two  other  inscriptions  (dated  150 
and  455  A.D.)  of  great  historical  importance. 

GIRODET  DE  ROUSSY,  ANNE  LOUIS  (1767-1824),  French 
painter,  better  known  as  Girodet-Trioson,  was  born  at  Montargis 
on  the  5th  of  January  1767.  He  lost  his  parents  in  early  youth, 
and  the  care  of  his  fortune  and  education  fell  to  the  lot  of  his 
guardian,  M.  Trioson, "  medecin  de  mesdames,"  by  whom  he  was 
in  later  life  adopted.  After  some  preliminary  studies  under  a 
painter  named  Luquin,  Girodet  entered  the  school  of  David, 


and  at  the  age  of  twenty-two  he  successfully  competed  for  the 
Prix  de  Rome.  At  Rome  he  executed  his  "  Hippocrate  refusant 
les  presents  d'Artaxerxes  "and"  Endymion dormant  "  (Louvre), 
a  work  which  was  hailed  with  acclamation  at  the  Salon  of  1792. 
The  peculiarities  which  mark  Girodet's  position  as  the  herald 
of  the  romantic  movement  are  already  evident  in  his  "  Endymion." 
The  firm-set  forms,  the  grey  cold  colour,  the  hardness  of  the 
execution  are  proper  to  one  trained  in  the  school  of  David,  but 
these  characteristics  harmonize  ill  with  the  literary,  sentimental 
and  picturesque  suggestions  which  the  painter  has  sought  to 
render.  The  same  incongruity  marks  Girodet's  "  Danae  "  and  his 
"  Quatre  Saisons,"  executed  for  the  king  of  Spain  (repeated  for 
Compiegne) ,  and  shows  itself  to  a  ludicrous  extent  in  his  "  Fingal " 
(St  Petersburg,  Leuchtenberg  collection),  executed  for  Napoleon 
I.  in  1802.  This  work  unites  the  defects  of  the  classic  and 
romantic  schools,  for  Girodet's  imagination  ardently  and  ex- 
clusively pursued  the  ideas  excited  by  varied  reading  both  of 
classic  and  of  modern  literature,  and  the  impressions  which  he 
received  from  the  external  world  afforded  him  little  stimulus  or 
check;  he  consequently  retained  the  mannerisms  of  his  master's 
practice  whilst  rejecting  all  restraint  on  choice  of  subject.  The 
credit  lost  by  "Fingal"  Girodet  regained  in  i8o6,whenheexhibited 
"  Scene  de  Deluge  "  (Louvre),  to  which  (in  competition  with  the 
"Sabines"  of  David)  was  awarded  the  decennial  prize.  This  success 
was  followed  up  in  1808  by  the  production  of  the  "  Reddition  de 
Vienne  "  and  "  Atala  au  Tombeau  " — a  work  which  went  far  to 
deserve  its  immense  popularity,  by  a  happy  choice  of  subject, 
and  remarkable  freedom  from  the  theatricality  of  Girodet's 
usual  manner,  which,  however,  soon  came  to  the  front  again  in 
his  "  Revolte  de  Caire  "  (1810).  His  pcwers  now  began  to  fail, 
and  his  habit  of  working  at  night  and  other  excesses  told  upon 
his  constitution;  in  the  Salon  of  1812  he  exhibited  only  a 
"  Tete  de  Vierge  " ;  in  1819  "  Pygmalion  et  Galatee  "  showed  a  still 
further  decline  of  strength;  and  in  1824 — the  year  in  which  he 
produced  his  portraits  of  Cathelineau  and  Bonchamps — Girodet 
died  on  the  9th  of  December. 

He  executed  a  vast  quantity  of  illustrations,  amongst  which  may 
be  cited  those  to  the  Didot  Virgil  (1798)  and  to  the  Louvre  Racine 
(1801-1805).  Fifty-four  of  his  designs  for  Anacreon  were  engraved 
by  M.  Chatillon.  Girodet  wasted  much  time  on  literary  composition, 
his  poem  Le  Peintre  (a  string  of  commonplaces),  together  with  poor 
imitations  of  classical  poets,  and  essays  on  Le  Genie  and  La  Grace, 
were  published  after  his  death  (1829),  with  a  biographical  notice 
by  his  friend  M.  Coupin  de  la  Couperie;  and  M.  Del6cluze,  in  his 
Louis  David  et  son  temps,  has  also  a  brief  life  of^Girodet. 

GIRONDE,  a  maritime  department  of  south-western  France, 
formed  from  four  divisions  of  the  old  province  of  Guyenne,  viz. 
Bordelais,  Bazadais,  and  parts  of  Perigord  and  Agenais.  Area, 
4140  sq.  m.  Pop.  (1906)  823,925.  It  is  bounded  N.  by  the 
department  of  Charente-Inferieure,  E.  by  those  of  Dordogne 
and  Lot-et-Garonne,  S.  by  that  of  Landes,  and  W.  by  the  Bay 
of  Biscay.  It  takes  its  name  from  the  river  or  estuary  of  the 
Gironde  formed  by  the  union  of  the  Garonne  and  Dordogne. 
The  department  divides  itself  naturally  into  a  western  and  an 
eastern  portion.  The  former,  which  is  termed  the  Landes  (q.v.), 
occupies  more  than  a  third  of  the  department,  and  consists 
chiefly  of  morass  or  sandy  plain,  thickly  planted  with  pines  and 
divided  from  the  sea  by  a  long  line  of  dunes.  These  dunes  are 
planted  with  pines,  which,  by  binding  the  sand  together  with 
their  roots,  prevent  it  from  drifting  inland  and  afford  a  barrier 
against  the  sea.  On  the  east  the  dunes  are  fringed  for  some 
distance  by  two  extensive  lakes,  Carcans  and  Lacanau,  communi- 
cating with  each  other  and  with  the  Bay  of  Arcachon,  near  the 
southern  extremity  of  the  department.  The  Bay  of  Arcachon 
contains  numerous  islands,  and  on  the  land  side  forms  a  vast 
shallow  lagoon,  a  considerable  portion  of  which,  however,  has 
been  drained  and  converted  into  arable  land.  The  eastern 
portion  of  the  department  consists  chiefly  of  a  succession  of  hill 
and  dale,  and,  especially  in  the  valley  of  the  Gironde,  is  very 
fertile.  The  estuary  of  the  Gironde  is  about  45  m.  in  length, 
and  varies  in  breadth  from  2  to  6  m.  It  presents  a  succession  of 
islands  and  mud  banks  which  divide  it  into  two  channels  and 
render  navigation  somewhat  difficult.  It  is,  however,  well 


GIRONDISTS 


49 


buoyed  and  lighted,  and  has  a  mean  depth  of  21  ft.  There  are 
extensive  marshes  on  the  right  bank  to  the  north  of  Blaye,  and 
the  shores  on  the  left  are  characterized,  especially  towards  the 
mouth,  by  low-lying  polders  protected  by  dikes  and  composed 
of  fertile  salt  marshes.  At  the  mouth  of  the  Gironde  stands  the 
famous  tower  of  Cordouan,  one  of  the  finest  lighthouses  of  the 
French  coast.  It  was  built  between  the  years  1585  and  1611 
by  the  architect  and  engineer  Louis  de  Foix,  and  added  to 
towards  the  end  of  the  i8th  century.  The  principal  affluent  of 
the  Dordogne  in  this  department  is  the  Isle.  The  feeders  of  the 
Garonne  are,  with  the  exception  of  the  Dropt,  all  small.  West 
of  the  Garonne  the  only  river  of  importance  is  the  Leyre,  which 
flows  into  the  Bay  of  Arcachon.  The  climate  is  humid  and 
mild  and  very  hot  in  summer.  Wheat,  rye,  maize,  oats  and 
tobacco  are  grown  to  a  considerable  extent.  The  corn  produced, 
however,  does  not  meet  the  wants  of  the  inhabitants.  The 
culture  of  the  vine  is  by  far  the  most  important  branch  of  industry 
carried  on  (see  WINE)  ,  the  vineyards  occupying  about  one-seventh 
of  the  surface  of  the  department.  The  wine-growing  districts 
are  the  Medoc,  Graves,  C6tes,  Palus,  Entre-deux-Mers  and 
Sauternes.  The  Medoc  is  a  region  of  50  m.  in  length  by  about 
6  m.  in  breadth,  bordering  the  left  banks  of  the  Garonne  and  the 
Gironde  between  Bordeaux  and  the  sea.  The  Graves  country 
forms  a  zone  30  m.  in  extent,  stretching  along  the  left  bank  of 
the  Garonne  from  the  neighbourhood  of  Bordeaux  to  Barsac. 
The  Sauternes  country  lies  to  the  S.E.  of  the  Graves.  The 
Cotes  lie  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Dordogne  and  Gironde, 
between  it  and  the  Garonne,  and  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Garonne. 
The  produce  of  the  Palus,  the  alluvial  land  of  the  valleys,  and  of 
the  Entre-deux-Mers,  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Dordogne, 
is  inferior.  Fruits  and  vegetables  are  extensively  cultivated, 
the  peaches  and  pears  being  especially  fine.  Cattle  are  exten- 
sively raised,  the  Bazadais  breed  of  oxen  and  the  Bordelais  breed 
of  milch-cows  being  well  known.  Oyster-breeding  is  carried  on 
on  a  large  scale  in  the  Bay  of  Arcachon.  Large  supplies  of  resin, 
pitch  and  turpentine  are  obtained  from  the  pine  woods,  which 
also  supply  vine-props,  and  there  are  well-known  quarries  of 
limestone.  The  manufactures  are  various,  and,  with  the  general 
trade,  are  chiefly  carried  on  at  Bordeaux  (<?.».),  the  chief  town 
and  third  port  in  France.  Pauillac,  Blaye,  Libourne  and  Arcachon 
are  minor  ports.  Gironde  is  divided  into  the  arrondissements  of 
Bordeaux,  Blaye,  Lesparre,  Libourne,  Bazas  and  La  Reole, 
with  49  cantons  and  554  communes.  The  department  is  served 
by  five  railways,  the  chief  of  which  are  those  of  the  Orleans  and 
Southern  companies.  It  forms  part  of  the  circumscription  of 
the  archbishopric,  the  appeal-court  and  the  acadimie  (educational 
division)  of  Bordeaux,  and  of  the  region  of  the  XVIII.  army 
corps,  the  headquarters  of  which  are  at  that  city.  Besides 
Bordeaux,  Libourne,  La  Reole,  Bazas,  Blaye,  Arcachon,  St 
Emilion  and  St  Macaire  are  the  most  noteworthy  towns  and 
receive  separate  treatment.  Among  the  other  places  of  interest 
the  chief  are  Cadillac,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Garonne,  where 
there  is  a  castle  of  the  i6th  century,  surrounded  by  fortifications 
of  the  i4th  century;  Labrede,  with  a  feudal  chateau  in  which 
Montesquieu  was  born  and  lived;  Villandraut,  where  there  is  a 
ruined  castle  of  the  I3th  century;  Uzeste,  which  has  a  church 
begun  in  1310  by  Pope  Clement  V.;  Mazeres  with  an  imposing 
castle  of  the  I4th  century;  La  Sauve,  which  has  a  church 
(nth  and  I2th  centuries)  and  other  remains  of  a  Benedictine 
abbey;  and  Ste  Foy-la-Grande,  a  bastide  created  in  1255  and 
afterwards  a  centre  of  Protestantism,  which  is  still  strong  there. 
La  Teste  (pop.  in  1906,  5699)  was  the  capital  in  the  middle  ages 
of  the  famous  lords  of  Buch. 

GIRONDISTS  (Fr.  Girondins),  the  name  given  to  a  political 
party  in  the  Legislative  Assembly  and  National  Convention 
during  the  French  Revolution  (1791-1793).  The  Girondists 
were,  indeed,  rather  a  group  of  individuals  holding  certain 
opinions  and  principles  in  common  than  an  organized  political 
party,  and  the  name  was  at  first  somewhat  loosely  applied  to 
them  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  most  brilliant  exponents  of  their 
point  of  view  were  deputies  from  the  Gironde.  These  deputies 
were  twelve  in  number,  six  of  whom — the  lawyers  Vergniaud, 


Guadet,  Gensonn6,  Grangeneuve  and  Jay,  and  the  tradesman 
Jean  Francois  Ducos — sat  both  in  the  Legislative  Assembly 
and  the  National  Convention.  In  the  Legislative  Assembly  these 
represented  a  compact  body  of  opinion  which,  though  not  as  yet 
definitely  republican,  was  considerably  more  advanced  than  the 
moderate  royalism  of  the  majority  of  the  Parisian  deputies. 
Associated  with  these  views  was  a  group  of  deputies  from  other 
parts  of  France,  of  whom  the  most  notable  were  Condorcet, 
Fauchet,  Lasource,  Isnard,  Kersaint,  Henri  Lariviere,  and, 
above  all,  Jacques  Pierre  Brissot,  Roland  and  P6tion,  elected 
mayor  of  Paris  in  succession  to  Bailly  on  the  i6th  of  November 
1791.  On  the  spirit  and  policy  of  the  Girondists  Madame  Roland, 
whose  salon  became  their  gathering-place,  exercised  a  powerful 
influence  (see  ROLAND);  but  such  party  cohesion  as  they 
possessed  they  owed  to  the  energy  of  Brissot  (q.v.),  who  came 
to  be  regarded  as  their  mouthpiece  in  the  Assembly  and  the 
Jacobin  Club.  Hence  the  name  Brissotins,  coined  by  Camille 
Desmoulins,  which  was  sometimes  substituted  for  that  of 
Girondins,  sometimes  closely  coupled  with  it.  As  strictly  party 
designations  these  first  came  into  use  after  the  assembling  of  the 
National  Convention  (September  2oth,  1792),  to  which  a  large 
proportion  of  the  deputies  from  the  Gironde  who  had  sat  in  the 
Legislative  Assembly  were  returned.  Both  were  used  as  terms 
of  opprobrium  by  the  orators  of  the  Jacobin  Club,  who  freely 
denounced  "  the  Royalists,  the  Federalists,  the  Brissotins,  the 
Girondins  and  all  the  enemies  of  the  democracy  "  (F.  Aulard, 
Soc.  des  Jacobins,  vi.  531). 

In  the  Legislative  Assembly  the  Girondists  represented  the 
principle  of  democratic  revolution  within  and  of  patriotic 
defiance  to  the  European  powers  without.  They  were  all- 
powerful  in  the  Jacobin  Club  (see  JACOBINS),  where  Brissot's 
influence  had  not  yet  been  ousted  by  Robespierre,  and  they 
did  not  hesitate  to  use  this  advantage  to  stir  up  popular  passion 
and  intimidate  those  who  sought  to  stay  the  progress  of  the 
Revolution.  They  compelled  the  king  in  1 792  to  choose  a  ministry 
composed  of  their  partisans — among  them  Roland,  Dumouriez, 
Claviere  and  Servan;  and  it  was  they  who  forced  the  declaration 
of  war  against  Austria.  In  all  this  there  was  no  apparent 
line  of  cleavage  between  "  La  Gironde  "  and  the  Mountain. 
Montagnards  and  Girondists  alike  were  fundamentally  opposed 
to  the  monarchy;  both  were  democrats  as  well  as  republicans; 
both  were  prepared  to  appeal  to  force  in  order  to  realize  their 
ideals;  in  spite  of  the  accusation  of  "  federalism  "  freely  brought 
against  them,  the  Girondists  desired  as  little  as  the  Montagnards 
to  break  up  the  unity  of  France.  Yet  from  the  first  the  leaders 
of  the  two  parties  stood  in  avowed  opposition,  in  the  Jacobin 
Club  as  in  the  Assembly.  It  was  largely  a  question  of  tempera- 
ment. The  Girondists  were  idealists,  doctrinaires  and  theorists 
rather  than  men  of  action;  they  encouraged,  it  is  true,  the 
"  armed  petitions  "  which  resulted,  to  their  dismay,  in  the 
tmeute  of  the  aoth  of  June;  but  Roland,  turning  the  ministry  of 
the  interior  into  a  publishing  office  for  tracts  on  the  civic  virtues, 
while  in  the  provinces  riotous  mobs  were  burning  the  chateaux 
unchecked,  is  more  typical  of  their  spirit.  With  the  ferocious 
fanaticism  or  the  ruthless  opportunism  of  the  future  organizers 
of  the  Terror  they  had  nothing  in  common.  As  the  Revolution 
developed  they  trembled  at  the  anarchic  forces  they  had  helped 
to  unchain,  and  tried  in  vain  to  curb  them.  The  overthrow 
of  the  monarchy  on  the  loth  of  August  and  the  massacres  of 
September  were  not  their  work,  though  they  claimed  credit 
for  the  results  achieved. 

The  crisis  of  their  fate  was  not  slow  in  coming.  It  was  they 
who  proposed  the  suspension  of  the  king  and  the  summoning 
of  the  National  Convention;  but  they  had  only  consented  to 
overthrow  the  kingship  when  they  found  that  Louis  XVI.  was 
impervious  to  their  counsels,  and,  the  republic  once  established, 
they  were  anxious  to  arrest  the  revolutionary  movement  which 
they  had  helped  to  set  in  motion.  As  Daunou  shrewdly  observes 
in  his  Mimoires,  they  were  too  cultivated  and  too  polished  to 
retain  their  popularity  long  in  times  of  disturbance,  and  were 
therefore  the  more  inclined  to  work  for  the  establishment 
of  order,  which  would  mean  the  guarantee  of  their  own 


GIRONDISTS 


power.1  Thus  the  Girondists,  who  had  been  the  Radicals  of  the 
Legislative  Assembly,  became  the  Conservatives  of  the  Conven- 
tion. But  they  were  soon  to  have  practical  experience  of  the  fate 
that  overtakes  those  who  attempt  to  arrest  in  mid-career  a  revolu- 
tion they  themselves  have  set  in  motion.  The  ignorant  populace, 
for  whom  the  promised  social  millennium  had  by  no  means 
dawned,  saw  in  an  attitude  seemingly  so  inconsistent  obvious 
proof  of  corrupt  motives,  and  there  were  plenty  of  prophets 
of  misrule  to  encourage  the  delusion — orators  of  the  clubs  and 
the  street  corners,  for  whom  the  restoration  of  order  would  have 
meant  well-deserved  obscurity.  Moreover,  the  Septembriseurs — 
Robespierre,  Danton,  Marat  and  their  lesser  satellites — realized 
that  not  only  their  influence  but  their  safety  depended  on  keeping 
the  Revolution  alive.  Robespierre,  who  hated  the  Girondists, 
whose  lustre  had  so  long  obscured  his  own,  had  proposed  to 
include  them  in  the  proscription  lists  of  September;  the  Mountain 
to  a  man  desired  their  overthrow. 

The  crisis  came  in  March  1793.  The  Girondists,  who  had 
a  majority  in  the  Convention,  controlled  the  executive  council 
and  filled  the  ministry,  believed  themselves  invincible.  Their 
orators  had  no  serious  rivals  in  the  hostile  camp;  their  system 
was  established  in  the  purest  reason.  But  the  Montagnards 
made  up  by  their  fanatical,  or  desperate,  energy  and  boldness 
for  what  they  lacked  in  talent  or  in  numbers.  They  had  behind 
them  the  revolutionary  Commune,  the  Sections  and  the  National 
Guard  of  Paris,  and  they  had  gained  control  of  the  Jacobin  club, 
where  Brissot,  absorbed  in  departmental  work,  had  been  super- 
seded by  Robespierre.  And  as  the  motive  power  of  this  formid- 
able mechanism  of  force  they  could  rely  on  the  native  suspicious- 
ness  of  the  Parisian  populace,  exaggerated  now  into  madness  by 
famine  and  the  menace  of  foreign  invasion.  The  Girondists 
played  into  their  hands.  At  the  trial  of  Louis  XVI.  the  bulk 
•of  them  had  voted  for  the  "  appeal  to  the  people,"  and  so  laid 
themselves  open  to  the  charge  of  "  royalism  ";  they  denounced 
the  domination  of  Paris  and  summoned  provincial  levies  to  their 
aid,  and  so  fell  under  suspicion  of  "  federalism,"  though  they 
rejected  Buzot's  proposal  to  transfer  the  Convention  to  Versailles. 
They  strengthened  the  revolutionary  Commune  by  decreeing 
its  abolition,  and  then  withdrawing  the  decree  at  the  first  sign 
of  popular  opposition;  they  increased  the  prestige  of  Marat  by 
prosecuting  him  before  the  Revolutionary  Tribunal,  where  his 
acquittal  was  a  foregone  conclusion.  In  the  suspicious  temper 
of  the  times  this  vacillating  policy  was  doubly  fatal.  Marat 
never  ceased  his  denunciations  of  the  "faction  des  hommes 
d'lttat,"  by  which  France  was  being  betrayed  to  her  ruin,  and 
his  parrot  cry  of  "Nous  sommes  Irakis  1"  was  re-echoed  from 
group  to  group  in  the  streets  of  Paris.  The  Girondists,  for 
all  their  fine  phrases,  were  sold  to  the  enemy,  as  Lafayette, 
Dumouriez  and  a  hundred  others — once  popular  favourites — 
had  been  sold. 

The  hostility  of  Paris  to  the  Girondists  received  a  fateful 
advertisement  by  the  election,  on  the  isth  of  February  1793, 
of  the  ex-Girondist  Jean  Nicolas  Pache  (1746-1823)  to  the 
mayoralty.  Pache  had  twice  been  minister  of  war  in  the 
Girondist  government;  but  his  incompetence  had  laid  him  open 
to  strong  criticism,  and  on  the  4th  of  February  he  had  been 
superseded  by  a  vote  of  the  Convention.  This  was  enough  to 
secure  him  the  suffrages  of  the  Paris  electors  ten  days  later, 
and  the  Mountain  was  strengthened  by  the  accession  of  an  ally 
whose  one  idea  was  to  use  his  new  power  to  revenge  himself 
on  his  former  colleagues.  Pache,  with  Chaumette,  procureur  of 
the  Commune,  and  Hebert,  deputy  procureur,  controlled  the 
armed  organization  of  the  Paris  Sections,  and  prepared  to 
turn  this  against  the  Convention.  The  abortive  emeute  of  the 
loth  of  March  warned  the  Girondists  of  their  danger,  but  the 
Commission  of  Twelve  appointed  on  the  i8th  of  May,  the  arrest 
of  Marat  and  Hebert,  and  other  precautionary  measures,  were 
defeated  by  the  popular  risings  of  the  27th  and  3ist  of  May, 
and,  finally,  on  the  2nd  of  June,  Hanriot  with  the  National 

1  Daunou,  "  Mdmoires  pour  servir  &  1'hist.  de  la  Convention 
Nationale,"  p.  409,  vol.  xii.  of  M.  Fr.  Barriere,  Bibl.  des  mem.  rel  d 
I'hist.  de  la  France,  &c.  (Paris,  1863). 


Guards  purged  the  Convention  of  the  Girondists.  Isnard's 
threat,  uttered  on  the  25th  of  May,  to  march  France  upon  Paris 
had  been  met  by  Paris  marching  upon  the  Convention. 

The  list  drawn  up  by  Hanriot,  and  endorsed  by  a  decree 
of  the  intimidated  Convention,  included  twenty-two  Girondist 
deputies  and  ten  members  of  the  Commission  of  Twelve,  who 
were  ordered  to  be  detained  at  their  lodgings  "  under  the  safe- 
guard of  the  people."  Some  submitted,  among  them  Gensonne, 
Guadet,  Vergniaud,  Petion,  Birotteau  and  Boyer-Fonfrede. 
Others,  including  Brissot,  Louvet,  Buzot,  Lasource,  Grangeneuve, 
Lariviere  and  Bergoing,  escaped  from  Paris  and,  joined  later 
by  Guadet,  Petion  and  Birotteau,  set  to  work  to  organize  a 
movement  of  the  provinces  against  the  capital.  This  attempt 
to  stir  up  civil  war  determined  the  wavering  and  frightened 
Convention.  On  the  i3th  of  June  it  voted  that  the  city  of 
Paris  had  deserved  well  of  the  country,  and  ordered  the  imprison- 
ment of  the  detained  deputies,  the  filling  up  of  their  places  in 
the  Assembly  by  their  suppliants,  and  the  initiation  of  vigorous 
measures  against  the  movement  in  the  provinces.  The  excuse 
for  the  Terror  that  followed  was  the  imminent  peril  of  France, 
menaced  on  the  east  by  the  advance  of  the  armies  of  the  Coalition, 
on  the  west  by  the  Royalist  insurrection  of  La  Vendee,  and  the 
need  for  preventing  at  all  costs  the  outbreak  of  another  civil 
war.  The  assassination  of  Marat  by  Charlotte  Corday  (q.v.) 
only  served  to  increase  the  unpopularity  of  the  Girondists 
and  to  seal  their  fate.  On  the  28th  of  July  a  decree  of  the 
Convention  proscribed,  as  traitors  and  enemies  of  their  country, 
twenty-one  deputies,  the  final  list  of  those  sent  for  trial  comprising 
the  names  of  Antiboul,  Boilleau  the  younger,  Boyer-Fonfrede, 
Brissot,  Carra,  Duchastel,  the  younger  Ducos,  Dufriche  de 
Valaze,  Duprat,  Fauchet,  Gardien,  Gensonn6,  Lacaze,  Lasource, 
Lauze-Deperret,  Lehardi,  Lesterpt-Beauvais,  the  elder  Minvielle, 
Sillery,  Vergniaud  and  Viger,  of  whom  five  were  deputies  from 
the  Gironde.  The  names  of  thirty-nine  others  were  included  in 
the  final  acte  d 'accusation,  accepted  by  the  Convention  on  the 
24th  of  October,  which  stated  the  crimes  for  which  they  were 
to  be  tried  as  their  perfidious  ambition,  their  hatred  of  Paris, 
their  "  federalism  "  and,  above  all,  their  responsibility  for  the 
attempt  of  their  escaped  colleagues  to  provoke  civil  war. 

The  trial  of  the  twenty-one,  which  began  before  the  Revolu- 
tionary Tribunal  on  the  24th  of  October,  was  a  mere  farce,  the 
verdict  a  foregone  conclusion.  On  the  3ist  they  were  borne 
to  the  guillotine  in  five  tumbrils,  the  corpse  of  Dufriche  de 
Valaze — who  had  killed  himself — being  carried  with  them. 
They  met  death  with  great  courage,  singing  the  refrain  "  Plutdt 
la  mart  que  I'esclavagel "  Of  those  who  escaped  to  the  provinces 
the  greater  number,  after  wandering  about  singly  or  in  groups, 
were  either  captured  and  executed  or  committed  suicide,  among 
them  Barbaroux,  Buzot,  Condorcet,  Grangeneuve,  Guadet, 
Kersaint,  Petion,  Rabaut  de  Saint-fitienne  and  Rebecqui. 
Roland  had  killed  himself  at  Rouen  on  the  isth  of  November, 
a  week  after  the  execution  of  his  wife.  Among  the  very  few 
who  finally  escaped  was  Jean  Baptiste  Louvet,  whose  Memoires 
give  a  thrilling  picture  of  the  sufferings  of  the  fugitives.  In- 
cidentally they  prove,  too,  that  the  sentiment  of  France  was 
for  the  time  against  the  Girondists,  who  were  proscribed  even 
in  their  chief  centre,  the  city  of  Bordeaux.  The  survivors  of 
the  party  made  an  effort  to  re-enter  the  Convention  after  the 
fall  of  Robespierre,  but  it  was  not  until  the  5th  of  March  1795 
that  they  were  formally  reinstated.  On  the  3rd  of  October 
of  the  same  year  (n  Vendemiaire,  year  III.)  a  solemn  fete  in 
honour  of  the  Girondist  "  martyrs  of  liberty  "  was  celebrated 
in  the  Convention.  See  also  the  article  FRENCH  REVOLUTION 
and  separate  biographies. 

Of  the  special  works  on  the  Girondists  Lamartine's  Histoire  des 
Girondins  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1847,  new  ed.  1902,  in  6  vols.)  is  rhetoric 
rather  than  history  and  is  untrustworthy;  the  Histoire  des  Girondins, 
by  A.  Gramier  de  Cassagnac  (Paris,  1860)  led  to  the  publicaton  of  a 
Protestation  by  J.  Guadet,  a  nephew  of  the  Girondist  orator,  which 
was  followed  by  his  Les  Girondins,  leur  vie  privee,  leur  vie  publique, 
leur  proscription  el  leur  mart  (2  yols.,  Paris,  1861,  new  ed.  1890); 
with  which  cf.  Alary,  Les  Girondins  par  Guadet  (Bordeaux,  1863); 
also  Charles  Vatel,  Charlotte  de  Corday  el  les  Girondins:  pieces 
dassees  el  annotees  (3  vols.,  Paris,  1864-1872) ;  Recherches  historiques 


GIRTIN— GISBORNE 


sur  les  Girondins  (2  vols.,  ib.  1873);  Ducos,  Les  Trois  Girondines 
(Madame  Roland,  Charlotte  Corday,  Madame  Bouquey)  et  les 
Girondins  (ib.  1896) ;  Edmond  Bir6,  La  Legende  des  Girondins  (Paris, 
1881,  new  ed.  1896);  also  Helen  Maria  Williams,  State  of  Manners 
and  Opinions  in  the  French  Republic  towards  the  close  of  the  i8th 
Century  (2  vols.,  London,  1801).  Memoirs  or  fragments  of  memoirs 
also  exist  by  particular  Girondists,  e.g.  Barbaroux,  Petion,  Louvet, 
Madame  Roland.  See,  further,  the  bibliography  to  the  article 
FRENCH  REVOLUTION.  (W.  A.  P.) 

GIRTIN,  THOMAS  (1775-1802),  English  painter  and  etcher, 
was  the  son  of  a  well-to-do  cordage  maker  in  Southwark,  London. 
His  father  died  while  Thomas  was  a  child,  and  his  widow  married 
Mr  Vaughan,  a  pattern-draughtsman.  Girtin  learnt  drawing 
as  a  boy,  and  was  apprenticed  to  Edward  Doyes  (1763-1804), 
the  mezzotint  engraver,  and  he  soon  made  J.  M.  W.  Turner's 
acquaintance.  His  architectural  and  topographical  sketches 
and  drawings  soon  established  his  reputation,  his  use  of  water- 
colour  for  landscapes  being  such  as  to  give  him  the  credit  of 
having  created  modern  water-colour  painting,  as  opposed  to 
mere  "  tinting."  His  etchings  also  were  characteristic  of  his 
artistic  genius.  His  early  death  from  consumption  (gth  of 
November  1802)  led  indeed  to  Turner  saying  that  "  had  Tom 
Girtin  lived  I  should  have  starved."  From  1794  to  his  death 
he  was  an  exhibitor  at  the  Royal  Academy;  and  some  fine 
examples  of  his  work  have  been  bequeathed  by  private  owners 
to  the  British  Museum  and  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum. 

GIRVAN,  a  police  burgh,  market  and  fishing  town  of  Ayrshire, 
Scotland,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Girvan,  21  m.  S.W.  of  Ayr,  and 
63  m.  S.W.  of  Glasgow  by  the  Glasgow  &  South-Western  railway. 
Pop.  (1901)  4024.  The  principal  industry  was  weaving,  but  the 
substitution  of  the  power-loom  for  the  hand-loom  nearly  put 
an  end  to  it.  The  herring  fishery  has  developed  to  considerable 
proportions,  the  harbour  having  been  enlarged  and  protected 
by  piers  and  a  breakwater.  Moreover,  the  town  has  grown  in 
repute  as  a  health  and  holiday  resort,  its  situation  being  one  of 
the  finest  in  the  west  of  Scotland.  There  is  excellent  sea- 
bathing, and  a  good  golf-course.  The  vale  of  Girvan,  one  of 
the  most  fertile  tracts  in  the  shire,  is  made  so  by  the  Water  of 
Girvan,  which  rises  in  the  loch  of  Girvan  Eye,  pursues  a  very 
tortuous  course  of  36  m.  and  empties  into  the  sea.  Girvan  is 
the  point  of  communication  with  Ailsa  Craig.  About  13  m. 
S.W.  at  the  mouth  of  the  Stinchar  is  the  fishing  village  of 
Ballantrae  (pop.  511). 

GIRY  (JEAN  MARIE  JOSEPH),  ARTHUR  (1848-1899),  French 
historian,  was  born  at  Trevoux  (Ain)  on  the  2gth  of  February 
1848.  After  rapidly  completing  his  classical  studies  at  the  lycee 
at  Chartres,  he  spent  some  time  in  the  administrative  service 
and  in  journalism.  He  then  entered  the  Ecole  des  Charles, 
where,  under  the  influence  of  J.  Quicherat,  he  developed  a  strong 
inclination  to  the  study  of  the  middle  ages.  The  lectures  at  the 
Ecole  des  Hautes  Etudes,  which  he  attended  from  its  foundation 
in  1868,  revealed  his  true  bent;  and  henceforth  he  devoted 
himself  almost  entirely  to  scholarship.  He  began  modestly  by 
the  study  of  the  municipal  charters  of  St  Omer.  Having  been 
appointed  assistant  lecturer  and  afterwards  full  lecturer  at  the 
Ecole  des  Hautes  Etudes,  it  was  to  the  town  of  St  Omer  that  he 
devoted  his  first  lectures  and  his  first  important  work,  Histoire 
de  la  mile  de  Saint-Omer  et  de  ses  institutions  jusqu'au  XI V' 
siecle  (1877).  He,  however,  soon  realized  that  the  charters  of 
one  town  can  only  be  understood  by  comparing  them  with  those 
of  other  towns,  and  he  was  gradually  led  to  continue  the  work 
which  Augustin  Thierry  had  broadly  outlined  in  his  studies  on 
the  Tiers  Etat.  A  minute  knowledge  of  printed  books  and  a 
methodical  examination  of  departmental  and  communal  archives 
furnished  him  with  material  for  a  long  course  of  successful 
lectures,  which  gave  rise  to  some  important  works  on  municipal 
history  and  led  to  a  great  revival  of  interest  in  the  origins  and 
significance  of  the  urban  communities  in  France.  Giry  himself 
published  Les  Etablissements  de  Rouen  (1883-1885),  a  study,  based 
on  very  minute  researches,  of  the  charter  granted  to  the  capital 
of  Normandy  by  Henry  II.,  king  of  England,  and  of  the  diffusion 
of  similar  charters  throughout  the  French  dominions  of  the 
Plantagenets;  a  collection  of  Documents  sur  les  relations  de 


la  royaule  avec  les  tiilles  de  France  de  1180  A  1314  (1885);  and 
Etude  sur  les  origines  de  la  commune  de  Saint-Quentin  (1887). 

About  this  time  personal  considerations  induced  Giry  to 
devote  the  greater  part  of  his  activity  to  the  study  of  diplomatic, 
which  had  been  much  -neglected  at  the  Ecole  des  Chartes,  but 
had  made  great  strides  in  Germany.  As  assistant  (1883)  and 
successor  (1885)  to  Louis  de  Mas  Latrie,  Giry  restored  the  study 
of  diplomatic,  which  had  been  founded  in  France  by  Dom  Jean 
Mabillon,  to  its  legitimate  importance.  In  1894  he  published 
his  Manuel  de  diplomatique,  a  monument  of  lucid  and  well- 
arranged  erudition,  which  contained  the  fruits  of  his  long 
experience  of  archives,  original  documents  and  textual  criticism; 
and  his  pupils,  especially  those  at  the  Ecole  des  Hautes  Etudes, 
soon  caught  his  enthusiasm.  With  their  collaboration  he  under- 
took th'e  preparation  of  an  inventory  and,  subsequently,  of  a 
critical  edition  of  the  Carolingian  diplomas.  By  arrangement 
with  E.  Muhlbacher  and  the  editors  of  the  Monumenta  Germaniae 
hislorica,  this  part  of  the  joint  work  was  reserved  for  Giry. 
Simultaneously  with  this  work  he  carried  on  the  publication 
of  the  annals  of  the  Carolingian  epoch  on  the  model  of  the  German 
Jahrbucher,  reserving  for  himself  the  reign  of  Charles  the  Bald. 
Of  this  series  his  pupils  produced  in  his  lifetime  Les  Derniers 
Carolingiens  (by  F.  Lot,  1891),  Eudes,  comte  de  Paris  et  roi  de 
France  (by  E.  Favre,  1893),  and  Charles  le  Simple  (by  Eckel, 
1899).  The  biographies  of  Louis  IV.  and  Hugh  Capet  and  the 
history  of  the  kingdom  of  Provence  were  not  published  until 
after  his  death,  and  his  own  unfinished  history  of  Charles  the 
Bald  was  left  to  be  completed  by  his  pupils.  The  preliminary 
work  on  the  Carolingian  diplomas  involved  such  lengthy  and 
costly  researches  that  the  Academic  des  Inscriptions  et  Belles- 
Lettres  took  over  the  expenses  after  Giry's  death. 

In  the  midst  of  these  multifarious  labours  Giry  found  time 
for  extensive  archaeological  researches,  and  made  a  special 
study  of  the  medieval  treatises  dealing  with  the  technical 
processes  employed  in  the  arts  and  industries.  He  prepared 
a  new  edition  of  the  monk  Theophilus's  celebrated  treatise, 
Diversarum  artium  schedula,  and  for  several  years  devoted  his 
Saturday  mornings  to  laboratory  research  with  the  chemist 
Aime  Girard  at  the  Conservatoire  des  Arts  et  Metiers,  the  results 
of  which  were  utilized  by  Marcellin  Berthelot  in  the  first  volume 
( 1 894)  of  his  Chimie  au  moyen  age.  Giry  took  an  energetic  part  in 
the  Collection  de  textes  relatifs  a  I'histoire  du  moyen  Age,  which 
was  due  in  great  measure  to  his  initiative.  He  was  appointed 
director  of  the  section  of  French  history  in  La  Grande  Encyclo- 
pedic, and  contributed  more  than  a  hundred  articles,  many  of 
which,  e.g.  "  Archives "  and  "  Diplomatique,"  were  original 
works.  In  collaboration  with  his  pupil  Andre  Reville,  he  wrote 
the  chapters  on  "  L' Emancipation  des  villes,  les  communes  et  les 
bourgeoisies  "  and  "  Le  Commerce  et  1'industrie  au  moyen  age  " 
for  the  Histoire  generate  of  Lavisse  and  Rambaud.  Giry  took 
a  keen  interest  in  politics,  joining  the  republican  party  and 
writing  numerous  articles  in  the  republican  newspapers,  mainly 
on  historical  subjects.  He  was  intensely  interested  in  the  Dreyfus 
case,  but  his  robust  constitution  was  undermined  by  the  anxieties 
and  disappointments  occasioned  by  the  Zola  trial  and  the  Rennes 
court-martial,  and  he  died  in  Paris  on  the  I3th  of  November  1899. 

For  details  of  Giry's  life  and  works  see  the  funeral  orations  pub- 
lished in  the  Bibliotheque  de  V  Ecole  des  Chartes,  and  afterwards  in  a 
pamphlet  (1899).  See  also  the  biography  by  Ferdinand  Lot  in  the 
Annuaire  de  I'Ecole  des  Hautes  Ettides  for  1901 ;  and  the  bibliography 
of  his  works  by  Henry  Maistre  in  the  Correspondence  historique  et 
archeologique  (1899  and  1900). 

GISBORNE,  a  seaport  of  New  Zealand,  in  Cook  county, 
provincial  district  of  Auckland,  on  Poverty  Bay  of  the  east 
coast  of  North  Island.  Pop.  (1901)  2733;  (1906)5664.  Wool, 
frozen  mutton  and  agricultural  produce  are  exported  from  the 
rich  district  surrounding.  Petroleum  has  been  discovered  in 
the  neighbourhood,  and  about  40  m.  from  the  town  there  are 
warm  medicinal  springs.  Near  the  site  of  Gisborne  Captain 
Cook  landed  in  1769,  and  gave  Poverty  Bay  its  name  from  his 
inability  to  obtain  supplies  owing  to  the  hostility  of  the  natives. 
Young  Nick's  Head,  the  southern  horn  of  the  bay,  was  named 
from  Nicholas  Young,  his  ship's  boy,  who  first  observed  it. 


GISLEBERT— GIULIO  ROMANO 


GISLEBERT  (or  GILBERT)  OF  MONS  (c.  1150-1225),  Flemish 
chronicler,  became  a  clerk,  and  obtained  the  positions  of  provosi 
of  the  churches  of  St  Germanus  at  Mons  and  St  Alban  at  Namur 
in  addition  to  several  other  ecclesiastical  appointments.  In 
official  documents  he  is  described  as  chaplain,  chancellor  or 
notary,  of  Baldwin  V.,  count  of  Hainaut  (d.  1 195),  who  employee 
him  on  important  business.  After  1200  Gislebert  wrote  the 
Chronicon  Hanoniense,  a  history  of  Hainaut  and  the  neighbouring 
lands  from  about  1050  to  1195,  which  is  specially  valuable  for 
the  latter  part  of  the  i2th  century,  and  for  the  life  and  times  o: 
Baldwin  V. 

The  chronicle  is  published  in  Band  xxi.  of  the  Monumenta  Ger- 
maniae  historica  (Hanover,  1826  fol.) ;  and  separately  with  intro- 
duction by  W.  Arndt  (Hanover,  1869).  Another  edition  has  been 
published  by  L.  Vanderkindere  in  the  Recueil  de  textes  pour  servir  a 
I'etude  de  I'histoire  de  Belgique  (Brussels,  1904) ;  and  there  is  a  French 
translation  by  G.  Menilglaise  (Tournai,  1874). 

See  W.  Meyer,  Das  Werk  des  Kanders  Gislebert  von  Mons  ah 
verfassungsgeschichtliche  Quelle  (Konigsberg,  1888);  K.  Huygens 
Sur  la  valeur  historique  de  la  chronique  Gislebert  de  Mons  (Ghent, 
1889);  and  W.  Wattenbach,  Deutschlands  Geschichtsquellen,  Band  ii. 
(Berlin,  1894). 

GISORS,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  department  of  Eure,  situated 
in  the  pleasant  valley  of  the  Epte,  44  m.  N.W.  of  Paris  on  the 
railway  to  Dieppe.  Pop.  (1906)  4345.  Gisors  is  dominated  by 
a  feudal  stronghold  built  chiefly  by  the  kings  of  England  in  the 
1 1  th  and  1 2th  centuries.  The  outer  enceinte,  to  which  is  attached 
a  cylindrical  donjon  erected  by  Philip  Augustus,  king  of  France, 
embraces  an  area  of  over  7  acres.  On  a  mound  in  the  centre  of 
this  space  rises  an  older  donjon,  octagonal  in  shape,  protected 
by  another  enceinte.  The  outer  ramparts  and  the  ground  they 
enclose  have  been  converted  into  promenades.  The  church  of 
St  Gervais  dates  in  its  oldest  parts — the  central  tower,  the  choir 
and  parts  of  the  aisles — from  the  middle  of  the  I3th  century, 
when  it  was  founded  by  Blanche  of  Castile.  The  rest  of  the 
church  belongs  to  the  Renaissance  period.  The  Gothic  and 
Renaissance  styles  mingle  in  the  west  facade,  which,  like  the 
interior  of  the  building,  is  adorned  with  a  profusion  of  sculptures; 
the  fine  carving  on  the  wooden  doors  of  the  north  and  west 
portals  is  particularly  noticeable.  The  less  interesting  buildings 
of  the  town  include  a  wooden  house  of  the  Renaissance  era, 
an  old  convent  now  used  as  an  h&tel  de  ville,  and  a  handsome 
modern  hospital.  There  is  a  statue  of  General  de  Blanmont, 
born  at  Gisors  in  1770.  Among  the  industries  of  Gisors  are 
felt  manufacture,  bleaching,  dyeing  and  leather-dressing. 

In  the  middle  ages  Gisors  was  capital  of  the  Vexin.  Its 
position  on  the  frontier  of  Normandy  caused  its  possession  to 
be  hotly  contested  by  the  kings  of  England  and  France  during 
the  1 2th  century,  at  the  end  of  which  it  and  the  dependent 
fortresses  of  Neaufles  and  Dangu  were  ceded  by  Richard  Cceur 
de  Lion  to  Philip  Augustus.  During  the  wars  of  religion  of  the 
1 6th  century  it  was  occupied  by  the  duke  of  Mayenne  on  behalf 
of  the  League,  and  in  the  I7th  century,  during  the  Fronde,  by 
the  duke  of  Longueville.  Gisors  was  given  to  Charles  Auguste 
Fouquet  in  1718  in  exchange  for  Belle-Ile-en-Mer  and  made  a 
duchy  in  1742.  It  afterwards  came  into  the  possession  of  the 
count  of  Eu  and  the  duke  of  Penthievre. 

GISSING,  GEORGE  ROBERT  (1857-1903),  English  novelist, 
was  born  at  Wakefield  on  the  22nd  of  November  1857.  He  was 
educated  at  the  Quaker  boarding-school  of  Alderley  Edge  and 
at  Owens  College,  Manchester.  His  life,  especially  its  earlier 
period,  was  spent  in  great  poverty,  mainly  in  London,  though 
he  was  for  a  time  also  in  the  United  States,  supporting  him- 
self chiefly  by  private  teaching.  He  published  his  first  novel, 
Workers  in  the  Dawn,  in  1880.  The  Unclassed  (1884)  and  Isabel 
Clarendon  (1886)  followed.  Demos  (1886),  a  novel  dealing  with 
socialistic  ideas,  was,  however,  the  first  to  attract  attention.  It 
was  followed  by  a  series  of  novels  remarkable  for  their  pictures 
of  lower  middle  class  life.  Gissing's  own  experiences  had  pre- 
occupied him  with  poverty  and  its  brutalizing  effects  on  char- 
acter. He  made  no  attempt  at  popular  writing,  and  for  a  long 
time  the  sincerity  of  his  work  was  appreciated  only  by  a  limited 
public.  Among  his  more  characteristic  novels  were:  Thyrza 
(1887),  A  Life's  Morning  (1888),  The  Nether  World  (1889),  New 


Grub  Street  (1891),  Born  in  Exile  (1892),  The  Odd  Women  (1893), 
In  the  Year  of  Jubilee  (1894),  The  Whirlpool  (1897).  Others, 
e.g.  The  Town  Traveller  (1901),  indicate  a  humorous  faculty, 
but  the  prevailing  note  of  his  novels  is  that  of  the  struggling 
life  of  the  shabby-genteel  and  lower  classes  and  the  conflict 
between  education  and  circumstances.  The  quasi-autobio- 
graphical Private  Papers  of  Henry  Ryecroft  (1903)  reflects 
throughout  Gissing's  studious  and  retiring  tastes.  He  was  a 
good  classical  scholar  and  had  a  minute  acquaintance  with  the 
late  Latin  historians,  and  with  Italian  antiquities;  and  his 
posthumous  Veranilda  (1904),  a  historical  romance  of  Italy  in 
the  time  of  Theodoric  the  Goth,  was  the  outcome  of  his  favourite 
studies.  Gissing's  powers  as  a  literary  critic  are  shown  in  his 
admirable  study  on  Charles  Dickens  (1898).  A  book  of  travel, 
By  the  Ionian  Sea,  appeared  in  1901.  He  died  at  St  Jean  de 
Luz  in  the  Pyrenees  on  the  28th  of  December  1903. 

See  also  the  introductory  essay  by  T.  Seccombe  to  The  House  of 
Cobwebs  (1906),  a  posthumous  volume  of  Gissing's  short  stories. 

GITSCHIN  (Czech  Jicin),  a  town  of  Bohemia,  Austria,  65  m. 
N.E.  of  Prague  by  rail.  Pop.  (1900)  9790,  mostly  Czech.  The 
parish  church  was  begun  by  Wallenstein  after  the  model  of 
the  pilgrims'  church  of  Santiago  de  Compostela  in  Spain,  but 
not  completed  till  1655.  The  castle,  which  stands  next  to  the 
church,  was  built  by  Wallenstein  and  finished  in  1630.  It  was 
here  that  the  emperor  Francis  I.  of  Austria  signed  the  treaty  of 
1 8 1 3  by  which  he  threw  in  his  lot  with  the  Allies  against  Napoleon. 
Wallenstein  was  interred  at  the  neighbouring  Carthusian  mon^ 
astery,  but  in  1639  the  head  and  right  hand  were  taken  by 
General  Baner  to  Sweden,  and  in  1702  the  other  remains  were 
removed  by  Count  Vincent  of  Waldstein  to  his  hereditary 
burying  ground  at  Miinchengratz.  Gitschin  was  originally  the 
village  of  Zidineves  and  received  its  present  name  when  it  was 
raised  to  the  dignity  of  a  town  by  Wenceslaus  II.  in  1302.  The 
place  belonged  to  various  noble  Bohemian  families,  and  in  the 
1 7th  century  came  into  the  hands  of  Wallenstein,  who  made  it 
the  capital  of  the  duchy  of  Friedland  and  did  much  to  improve 
and  extend  it.  His  murder,  and  the  miseries  of  the  Thirty 
Years'  War,  brought  it  very  low;  and  it  passed  through  several 
hands  before  it  was  bought  by  Prince  Trauttmannsdorf,  to 
whose  family  it  still  belongs.  On  the  29th  of  June  1866  the 
Prussians  gained  here  a  great  victory  over  the  Austrians.  This 
victory  made  possible  the  junction  of  the  first  and  second 
Prussian  army  corps,  and  had  as  an  ultimate  result  the  Austrian 
defeat  at  Koniggratz. 

GIUDICI,  PAOLO  EMILIANO  (1812-1872),  Italian  writer, 
was  born  in  Sicily.  His  History  of  Italian  Literature  (1844) 
brought  him  to  the  front,  and  in  1848  he  became  professor  of 
Italian  literature  at  Pisa,  but  after  a  few  months  was  deprived 
of  the  chair  on  account  of  his  liberal  views  in  politics.  On  the 
re-establishment  of  the  Italian  kingdom  he  became  professor  of 
aesthetics  (resigning  1862)  and  secretary  of  the  Academy  of 
Fine  Arts  at  Florence,  and  in  1867  was  elected  to  the  chamber 
of  deputies.  He  held  a  prominent  place  as  an  historian,  his 
works  including  a  Storia  del  teatro  (1860),  and  Storia  dei  comuni 
ilaliani  (1861),  besides  a  translation  of  Macaulay's  History  of 
England  (1856).  He  died  at  Tonbridge  in  England,  on  the  8th  of 
September  1872. 
A  Life  appeared  at  Florence  in  1874. 

GIULIO  ROMANO,  or  GIULIO  PIPP.I  (c.  1492-1546),  the  head 
of  the  Roman  school  of  painting  in  succession  to  Raphael. 
This  prolific  painter,  modeller,  architect  and  engineer  receives 
lis  common  appellation  from  the  place  of  his  birth — Rome, 
n  the  Macello  de'  Corbi.    His  name  in  full  was  Giulio  di  Pietro 
de  Filippo  de'  Giannuzzi — Giannuzzi  being  the  true  family  name, 
and  Pippi  (which  has  practically  superseded  Giannuzzi)  being 
an  abbreviation  from  the  name  of  his  grandfather  Filippo. 
The  date  of  Giulio's  birth  is  a  little  uncertain.     Vasari  (who 
knew  him  personally)  speaks  of  him  as  fifty-four  years  old  at 
he  date  of  his  death,  ist  November  1546;  thus  he  would  have 
>een  born  in  1492.    Other  accounts  assign  1498  as  the  date  of 
irth.    This  would  make  Giulio  young  indeed  in  the  early  and 
n  such  case  most  precocious  stages  of  his  artistic  career,  and 


GIULIO  ROMANO 


53 


•would  show  him  as  dying,  after  an  infinity  of  hard  work,  at  the 
•comparatively  early  age  of  forty-eight. 

Giulio  must  at  all  events  have  been  quite  youthful  when  he 
first  became  the  pupil  of  Raphael,  and  at  Raphael's  death  in 
1520  he  was  at  the  utmost  twenty-eight  years  of  age.  Raphael 
had  loved  him  as  a  son,  and  had  employed  him  in  some  leading 
works,  especially  in  the  Loggie  of  the  Vatican;  the  series  there 
popularly  termed  "  Raphael's  Bible  "  is  done  in  large  measure 
by  Giulio, — as  for  instance  the  subjects  of  the  "  Creation  of  Adam 
and  Eve,"  "  Noah's  Ark,"  and  "  Moses  in  the  Bulrushes."  In 
the  saloon  of  the  "  Incendio  del  Borgo,"  also,  the  figures  of 
"  Benefactors  of  the  Church  "  (Charlemagne,  &c.)  are  Giulio's 
handiwork.  It  would  appear  that  in  subjects  of  this  kind 
Raphael  simply  furnished  the  design,  and  committed  the  execu- 
tion of  it  to  some  assistant,  such  as  Giulio, — taking  heed,  however, 
to  bring  it  up,  by  final  retouching,  to  his  own  standard  of  style 
and  type.  Giulio  at  a  later  date  followed  out  exactly  the  same 
plan;  so  that  in  both  instances  inferiorities  of  method,  in  the 
general  blocking-out  and  even  in  the  details  of  the  work,  are  not 
to  be  precisely  charged  upon  the  caposcuola.  Amid  the  multitude 
of  Raphael's  pupils,  Giulio  was  eminent  in  pursuing  his  style,  and 
showed  universal  aptitude;  he  did,  among  other  things,  a  large 
amount  of  architectural  planning  for  his  chief.  Raphael  be- 
queathed to  Giulio,  and  to  his  fellow-pupil  Gianfrancesco  Penni 
("  II  Fattore  "),  his  implements  and  works  of  art;  and  upon 
them  it  devolved  to  bring  to  completion  the  vast  fresco-work  of 
the  "  Hall  of  Constantine  "  in  the  Vatican — consisting,  along 
with  much  minor  matter,  of  the  four  large  subjects,  the  "  Battle  of 
Constantine,"  the  "  Apparition  of  the  Cross,"  the  "  Baptism  of 
Constantine  "  and  the  "  Donation  of  Rome  to  the  Pope."  The 
two  former  compositions  were  executed  by  Pippi,  the  two  latter 
by  Penni.  The  whole  of  this  onerous  undertaking  was  com- 
pleted within  a  period  of  only  three  years, — which  is  the  more 
remarkable  as,  during  some  part  of  the  interval  since  Raphael's 
decease,  the  Fleming,  Adrian  VI.,  had  been  pope,  and  his  anti- 
aesthetic  pontificate  had  left  art  and  artists  almost  in  a  state  of 
inanition.  Clement  VII.  had  now,  however,  succeeded  to  the 
popedom.  By  this  time  Giulio  was  regarded  as  the  first  painter 
in  Rome;  but  his  Roman  career  was  fated  to  have  no  further 
sequel. 

Towards  the  end  of  1524  his  friend  the  celebrated  writer 
Baldassar  Castiglione  seconded  with  success  the  urgent  request 
of  the  duke  of  Mantua,  Federigo  Gonzaga,  that  Giulio  should 
migrate  to  that  city,  and  enter  the  duke's  service  for  the  purpose 
of  carrying  out  his  projects  in  architecture  and  pictorial  decora- 
tion. These  projects  were  already  considerable,  and  under 
Giulio's  management  they  became  far  more  extensive  still. 
The  duke  treated  his  painter  munificently  as  to  house,  table, 
horses  and  whatever  was  in  request;  and  soon  a  very  cordial 
attachment  sprang  up  between  them.  In  Pippi's  multifarious 
work  in  Mantua  three  principal  undertakings  should  be  noted, 
(i)  In  the  Castello  he  painted  the  "  History  of  Troy,"  along  with 
other  subjects.  (2)  In  the  suburban  ducal  residence  named 
the  Palazzo  del  Te  (this  designation  being  apparently  derived 
from  the  form  of  the  roads  which  led  towards  the  edifice)  he 
rapidly  carried  out  a  rebuilding  on  a  vastly  enlarged  scale, — 
the  materials  being  brick  and  terra-cotta,  as  there  is  no  local 
stone, — and  decorated  the  rooms  with  his  most  celebrated 
works  in  oil  and  fresco  painting — the  story  of  Psyche,  Icarus, 
the  fall  of  the  Titans,  and  the  portraits  of  the  ducal  horses  and 
hounds.  The  foreground  figures  of  Titans  are  from  12  to  14  ft. 
high;  the  room,  even  in  its  structural  details,  is  made  to  subserve 
the  general  artistic  purpose,  and  many  of  its  architectural 
features  are  distorted  accordingly.  Greatly  admired  though  these 
pre-eminent  works  have  always  been,  and  at  most  times  even 
more  than  can  now  be  fully  ratified,  they  have  suffered  severely 
at  the  hands  of  restorers,  and  modern  eyes  see  them  only  through 
a  dull  and  deadening  fog  of  renovation.  The  whole  of  the  work 
on  the  Palazzo  del  Te,  which  is  of  the  Doric  order  of  architecture, 
occupied  about  five  years.  (3)  Pippi  recast  and  almost  rebuilt  the 
cathedral  of  Mantua;  erected  his  own  mansion,  replete  with 
numerous  antiques  and  other  articles  of  vertu;  reconstructed 


the  street  architecture  to  a  very  large  extent,  and  made  the  city, 
sapped  as  it  is  by  the  shallows  of  the  Mincio,  comparatively 
healthy;  and  at  Marmiruolo,  some  5  m.  distant  from  Mantua, 
he  worked  out  other  important  buildings  and  paintings.  He 
was  in  fact,  for  nearly  a  quarter  of  a  century,  a  sort  of  Demiurgus 
of  the  arts  of  design  in  the  Mantuan  territory. 

Giulio's  activity  was  interrupted  but  not  terminated  by  the 
death  of  Duke  Federigo.  The  duke's  brother,  a  cardinal  who 
became  regent,  retained  him  in  full  employment.  For  a  while  he 
went  to  Bologna,  and  constructed  the  facade  of  the  church  of 
S.  Petronio  in  that  city.  He  was  afterwards  invited  to  succeed 
Antonio  Sangallo  as  architect  of  St  Peter's  in  Rome, — a  splendid 
appointment,  which,  notwithstanding  the  strenuous  opposition 
of  his  wife  and  of  the  cardinal  regent,  he  had  almost  resolved 
to  accept,  when  a  fever  overtook  him,  and,  acting  upon  a  con- 
stitution somewhat  enfeebled  by  worry  and  labour,  caused  his 
death  on  the  ist  of  November  1 546.  He  was  buried  in  the  church 
of  S.  Barnaba  in  Mantua.  At  the  time  of  his  death  Giulio 
enjoyed  an  annual  income  of  more  than  1000  ducats,  accruing 
from  the  liberalities  of  his  patrons.  He  left  a  widow,  and  a  son 
and  daughter.  The  son,  named  Raffaello,  studied  painting, 
but  died  before  he  could  produce  any  work  of  importance;  the 
daughter,  Virginia,  married  Ercole  Malatesta. 

Wide  and  solid  knowledge  of  design,  combined  with  a  prompti- 
tude of  composition  that  was  never  at  fault,  formed  the  chief 
motive  power  and  merit  of  Giulio  Romano's  art.  Whatever 
was  wanted,  he  produced  it  at  once,  throwing  off,  as  Vasari  says, 
a  large  design  in  an  hour;  and  he  may  in  that  sense,  though  not 
equally  so.  when  an  imaginative  or  ideal  test  is  applied,  be  called 
a  great  inventor.  It  would  be  difficult  to  name  any  other  artist 
who,  working  as  an  architect,  and  as  the  plastic  and  pictorial 
embellisher  of  his  architecture,  produced  a  total  of  work  so  fully 
and  homogeneously  his  own;  hence  he  has  been  named  "the 
prince  of  decorators."  He  had  great  knowledge  of  the  human 
frame,  and  represented  it  with  force  and  truth,  though  some- 
times with  an  excess  of  movement;  he  was  also  learned  in  other 
matters,  especially  in  medals,  and  in  the  plans  of  ancient  buildings. 
In  design  he  was  more  strong  and  emphatic  than  graceful,  and 
worked  a  great  deal  from  his  accumulated  stores  of  knowledge, 
without  consulting  nature  direct.  As  a  general  rule,  his  designs 
are  finer  and  freer  than  his  paintings,  whether  in  fresco  or  in  oil 
— his  easel  pictures  being  comparatively  few,  and  some  of  them 
the  reverse  of  decent;  his  colouring  is  marked  by  an  excess  of 
blackish  and  heavy  tints. 

Giulio  Romano  introduced  the  style  of  Raphael  into  Mantua, 
and  established  there  a  considerable  school  of  art,  which  surpassed 
in  development  that  of  his  predecessor  Mantegna,  and  almost ' 
rivalled  that  of  Rome.  Very  many  engravings — more  than 
three  hundred  are  mentioned — were  made  contemporaneously 
from  his  works;  and  this  not  only  in  Italy,  but  in  France  and 
Flanders  as  well.  His  plan  of  entrusting  principally  to  assistants 
the  pictorial  execution  of  his  cartoons  has  already  been  referred 
to;  Primaticcio  was  one  of  the  leading  coadjutors.  Rinaldo 
Mantovano,  a  man  of  great  ability  who  died  young,  was  the 
chief  executant  of  the  "  Fall  of  the  Giants  ";  he  also  co-operated 
with  Benedetto  Pagni  da  Pescia  in  painting  the  remarkable 
series  of  horses  and  hounds,  and  the  story  of  Psyche.  Another 
pupil  was  Fermo  Guisoni,  who  remained  settled  in  Mantua. 
The  oil  pictures  of  Giulio  Romano  are  not  generally  of  high 
importance;  two  leading  ones  are  the  "  Martyrdom  of  Stephen," 
in  the  church  of  that  saint  in  Genoa,  and  a  "Holy  Family" 
in  the  Dresden  Gallery.  Among  his  architectural  works  not 
already  mentioned  is  the  Villa  Madama  in  Rome,  with  a  fresco 
of  Polyphemus,  and  boys  and  satyrs;  the  Ionic  facade  of  this 
building  may  have  been  sketched  out  by  Raphael. 

Vasari  gives  a  pleasing  impression  of  the  character  of  Giulio. 
He  was  very  loving  to  his  friends,  genial,  affable,  well-bred, 
temperate  in  the  pleasures  of  the  table,  but  Liking  fine  apparel 
and  a  handsome  scale  of  living.  He  was  good-looking,  of 
middle  height,  with  black  curly  hair  and  dark  eyes,  and  an 
ample  beard;  his  portrait,  painted  by  himself,  is  in  the 
Louvre. 


54 


GIUNTA  PISANO— GIUSTINIANI 


Besides  Vasari,  Lanzi  and  other  historians  of  art,  the  following 
works  may  be  mentioned:  C.  D.  Arco,  Vita  di  G.  Pippi  (1828); 
G.  C.  yon  Murr,  Notice  sur  les  estampes  gravees  apres  dessins  de  Jules 
Remain  (1865);  R.  Sanzio,  two  works  on  Etchings  and  Paintings 
(1800,  1836).  (W.  M.  R.) 

GIUNTA  PISANO,  the  earliest  Italian  painter  whose  name  is 
found  inscribed  on  an  extant  work.  He  is  said  to  have  exercised 
his  art  from  1202  to  1236.  He  may  perhaps  have  been  born 
towards  1180  in  Pisa,  and  died  in  or  soon  after  1236;  but  other 
accounts  give  1202  as  the  date  of  his  birth,  and  1258  or  there- 
abouts for  his  death.  There  is  some  ground  for  thinking  that 
his  family  name  was  Capiteno.  The  inscribed  work  above 
referred  to,  one  of  his  earliest,  is  a  "  Crucifix,"  long  in  the  kitchen 
of  the  convent  of  St  Anne  in  Pisa.  Other  Pisan  works  of  like 
date  are  very  barbarous,  and  some  of  them  may  be  also  from 
the  hand  of  Giunta.  It  is  said  that  he  painted  in  the  upper 
church  of  Assisi, — in  especial  a  "Crucifixion  "  dated  I236,with  a 
figure  of  Father  Elias,  the  general  of  the  Franciscans,  embracing 
the  foot  of  the  cross.  In  the  sacristy  is  a  portrait  of  St  Francis, 
also  ascribed  to  Giunta;  but  it  more  probably  belongs  to  the 
close  of  the  I3th  century.  He  was  in  the  practice  of  painting 
upon  cloth  stretched  on  wood,  and  prepared  with  plaster. 

GIURGEVO  (Giurgiu),  the  capital  of  the  department  of 
Vlashca,  Rumania;  situated  amid  mud-flats  and  marshes  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Danube.  Pop.  (1900)  13,977.  Three  small 
islands  face  the  town,  and  a  larger  one  shelters  its  port,  Smarda, 
25  m.  E.  The  rich  corn-lands  on  the  north  are  traversed  by  a 
railway  to  Bucharest,  the  first  line  opened  in  Rumania,  which 
was  built  in  1869  and  afterwards  extended  to  Smarda.  Steamers 
ply  to  Rustchuk,  i\  m.  S.W.  on  the  Bulgarian  shore,  linking 
the  Rumanian  railway  system  to  the  chief  Bulgarian  line  north 
of  the  Balkans  (Rustchuk- Varna).  Thus  Giurgevo,  besides 
having  a  considerable  trade  with  the  home  ports  lower  down 
the  Danube,  is  the  headquarters  of  commerce  between  Bulgaria 
and  Rumania.  It  exports  timber,  grain,  salt  and  petroleum; 
importing  coal,  iron  and  textiles.  There  are  also  large  saw-mills. 

Giurgevo  occupies  the  site  of  Theodorapolis,  a  city  built 
by  the  Roman  emperor  Justinian  (A.D.  483-565).  It  was 
founded  in  the  I4th  century  by  Genoese  merchant  adventurers, 
who  established  a  bank,  and  a  trade  in  silks  and  velvets.  They 
called  the  town,  after  the  patron  saint  of  Genoa,  San  Giorgio 
(St  George) ;  and  hence  comes  its  present  name.  As  a  fortified 
town,  Giurgevo  figured  often  in  the  wars  for  the  conquest  of  the 
lower  Danube;  especially  in  the  struggle  of  Michael  the  Brave 
(1593-1601)  against  the  Turks,  and  in  the  later  Russo-Turkish 
Wars.  It  was  burned  in  1659.  In  1829,  its  fortifications  were 
finally  razed,  the  only  defence  left  being  a  castle  on  the  island  of 
Slobosia,  united  to  the  shore  by  a  bridge. 

GIUSTI,  GIUSEPPE  (1800-1850),  Tuscan  satirical  poet,  was 
born  at  Monsummano,  a  small  village  of  the  Valdinievole,  on 
the  1 2th  of  May  1809.  His  father,  a  cultivated  and  rich  man, 
accustomed  his  son  from  childhood  to  study,  and  himself  taught 
him,  among  other  subjects,  the  first  rudiments  of  music.  After- 
wards, in  order  to  curb  his  too  vivacious  disposition,  he  placed 
the  boy  under  the  charge  of  a  priest  near  the  village,  whose 
severity  did  perhaps  more  evil  than  good.  At  twelve  Giusti 
was  sent  to  school  at  Florence,  and  afterwards  to  Pistoia  and  to 
Lucca;  and  during  those  years  he  wrote  his  first  verses.  In 
1826  he  went  to  study  law  at  Pisa;  but,  disliking  the  study, 
he  spent  eight  years  in  the  course,  instead  of  the  customary  four. 
He  lived  gaily,  however,  though  his  father  kept  him  short  of 
money,  and  learned  to  know  the  world,  seeing  the  vices  of 
society,  and  the  folly  of  certain  laws  and  customs  from  which 
his  country  was  suffering.  The  experience  thus  gained  he  turned 
to  good  account  in  the  use  he  made  of  it  in  his  satire. 

His  father  had  in  the  meantime  changed  his  place  of  abode 
to  Pescia;  but  Giuseppe  did  worse  there,  and  in  November 
1832,  his  father  having  paid  his  debts,  he  returned  to  study  at 
Pisa,  seriously  enamoured  of  a  woman  whom  he  could  not  marry, 
but  now  commencing  to  write  in  real  earnest  in  behalf  of  his 
country.  With  the  poem  called  La  Ghigliottina  (the  guillotine) , 
Giusti  began  to  strike  out  a  path  for  himself,  and  thus  revealed 
his  great  genius.  From  this  time  he  showed  himself  the  Italian 


Beranger,  and  even  surpassed  the  Frenchman  in  richness  of 
language,  refinement  of  humour  and  depth  of  satirical  conception. 
In  Beranger  there  is  more  feeling  for  what  is  needed  for  popular 
poetry.  His  poetry  is  less  studied,  its  vivacity  perhaps  more 
boisterous,  more  spontaneous;  but  Giusti,  in  both  manner  and 
conception,  is  perhaps  more  elegant,  more  refined,  more  pene- 
trating. In  1834  Giusti,  having'at  last  entered  the  legal  profes- 
sion, left  Pisa  to  go  to  Florence,  nominally  to  practise  with  the 
advocate  Capoquadri,  but  really  to  enjoy  life  in  the  capital  of 
Tuscany.  He  fell  seriously  in  love  a  second  time,  and  as  before 
was  abandoned  by  his  love.  It  was  then  he  wrote  his  finest 
verses,  by  means  of  which,  although  his  poetry  was  not  yet 
collected  in  a  volume,  but  for  some  years  passed  from  hand  to 
hand,  his  name  gradually  became  famous.  The  greater  part 
of  his  poems  were  published  clandestinely  at  Lugano,  at  no 
little  risk,  as  the  work  was  destined  to  undermine  the  Austrian 
rule  in  Italy.  After  the  publication  of  a  volume  of  verses  at 
Bastia,  Giusti  thoroughly  established  his  fame  by  his  Gingillino, 
the  best  in  moral  tone  as  well  as  the  most  vigorous  and  effective 
of  his  poems.  The  poet  sets  himself  to  represent  the  vileness 
of  the  treasury  officials,  and  the  base  means  they  used  to  conceal 
the  necessities  of  the  state.  The  Gingillino  has  all  the  character 
of  a  classic  satire.  When  first  issued  in  Tuscany,  it  struck  all 
as  too  impassioned  and  personal.  Giusti  entered  heart  and  soul 
into  the  political  movements  of  1847  and  1848,  served  in  the 
national  guard,  sat  in  the  parliament  for  Tuscany;  but  finding 
that  there  was  more  talk  than  action,  that  to  the  tyranny  of 
princes  had  succeeded  the  tyranny  of  demagogues,  he  began  to 
fear,  and  to  express  the  fear,  that  for  Italy  evil  rather  than 
good  had  resulted.  He  fell,  in  consequence,  from  the  high 
position  he  had  held  in  public  estimation,  and  in  1848  was 
regarded  as  a  reactionary.  His  friendship  for  the  marquis 
Gino  Capponi,  who  had  taken  him  into  his  house  during  the  last 
years  of  his  life,  and  who  published  after  Giusti's  death  a  volume 
of  illustrated  proverbs,  was  enough  to  compromise  him  in  the 
eyes  of  such  men  as  Guerrazzi,  Montanelh'  and  Niccolini.  On 
the  3ist  of  May  1850  he  died  at  Florence  in  the  palace  of  his 
friend. 

The  poetry  of  Giusti,  under  a  light  trivial  aspect,  has  a  lofty 
civilizing  significance.  The  type  of  his  satire  is  entirely  original, 
and  it  had  also  the  great  merit  of  appearing  at  the  right  moment, 
of  wounding  judiciously,  of  sustaining  the  part  of  the  comedy 
that  "  castigat  ridendo  mores."  Hence  his  verse,  apparently 
jovial,  was  received  by  the  scholars  and  politicians  of  Italy  in 
all  seriousness.  Alexander  Manzoni  in  some  of  his  letters  showed 
a  hearty  admiration  of  the  genius  of  Giusti;  and  the  weak 
Austrian  and  Bourbon  governments  regarded  them  as  of  the 
gravest  importance. 

His  poems  have  often  been  reprinted,  the  best  editions  being  those 
of  Le  Monnier,  Carducci  (1859;  3rd  ed.,  1879),  Fioretti  (1876)  and 
Bragi  (1890).  Besides  the  poems  and  the  proverbs  already  men- 
tioned, we  have  a  volume  of  select  letters,  full  of  vigour  and  written 
in  the  best  Tuscan  language,  and  a  fine  critical  discourse  on  Giuseppe 
Parini,  the  satirical  poet.  In  some  of  his  compositions  the  elegiac 
rather  than  the  satirical  poet  is  seen.  Many  of  his  verses  have  been 
excellently  translated  into  German  by  Paul  Heyse.  Good  English 
translations  were  published  in  the  Athenaeum  by  Mrs  T.  A.  Trollope, 
and  some  by  W.  D.  Howells  are  in  his  Modern  Italian  Poets  (1887). 

GIUSTINIANI,  the  name  of  a  prominent  Italian  family  which 
originally  belonged  to  Venice,  but  established  itself  subsequently 
in  Genoa  also,  and  at  various  times  had  representatives  in 
Naples,  Corsica  and  several  of  the  islands  of  the  Archipelago. 
In  the  Venetian  line  the  following  are  most  worthy  of  mention : — 
i.  LORENZO  (1380-1465),  the  Laurentius  Justinianus  of  the 
Roman  calendar,  at  an  early  age  entered  the  congregation  of 
the  canons  of  St  George  in  Alga,  and  in  1433  became  general 
of  that  order.  About  the  same  time  he  was  made  by  Eugenius 
IV.  bishop  of  Venice;  and  his  episcopate  was  marked  by  con- 
siderable activity  in  church  extension  and  reform.  On  the 
removal  of  the  patriarchate  from  Grado  to  Venice  by  Nicholas  V. 
in  1451,  Giustiniani  was  promoted  to  that  dignity,  which  he 
held  for  fourteen  years.  He  died  on  January  8,  1465,  was 
canonized  by  Pope  Alexander  VIII.,  his  festival  (semi-duplex) 


GIUSTO  DA  GUANTO 


55 


being  fixed  by  Innocent  XII.  for  September  5th,  the  anni- 
versary of  his  elevation  to  the  bishopric.  His  works,  consisting 
of  sermons,  letters  and  ascetic  treatises,  have  been  frequently 
reprinted, — the  best  edition  being  that  of  the  Benedictine 
P.  N.  A.  Giustiniani,  published  at  Venice  in  2  vols.  folio,  1751. 
They  are  wholly  devoid  of  literary  merit.  His  life  has  been 
written  by  Bernard  Giustiniani,  by  Maffei  and  also  by  the 
Bollandists. 

2.  LEONARDO  (1388-1446),  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  for 
some  years  a  senator  of  Venice,  and  in  1443  was  chosen  procurator 
of  St  Mark.     He  translated  into  Italian  Plutarch's  Lives  of 
Cinna  and  Lucullus,  and  was  the  author  of  some  poetical  pieces, 
amatory  and  religious — strambolti  and  canzonetti — as  well  as 
of  rhetorical  prose  compositions.     Some  of  the  popular  songs 
set  to  music  by  him  became  known  as  Giustiniani. 

3.  BERNARDO  (1408-1489),  son  of  Leonardo,  was  a  pupil  of 
Guarino  and  of  George  of  Trebizond,  and  entered  the  Venetian 
senate  at  an  early  age.     He  served  on  several  important  diplo- 
matic missions  both  to  France  and  Rome,  and  about   1485 
became  one  of  the  council  of  ten.     His  orations  and  letters 
were  published  in  1492;  but  his  title  to  any  measure  of  fame 
he  possesses  rests  upon  his  history  of  Venice,  De  origine  urbis 
Venetiarum  rebusque  ab  ipsa  gestis  historia  (1492),  which  was 
translated  into  Italian  by  Domenichi  in  1545,  and  which  at  the 
time  of  its  appearance  was  undoubtedly  the  best  work  upon  the 
subject  of  which  it  treated.     It  is  to  be  found  in  vol.  i.  of  the 
Thesaurus  of  Graevius. 

4.  PIETRO,  also  a  senator,  lived  in  the  i6th  century,  and 
wrote  on  Historia  rerum  Venetarum  in  continuation  of  that  of 
Bernardo.     He  was  also  the  author  of  chronicles  De  gestis  Petri 
Mocenigi  and  De  hello  Venetorum  cum  Carolo  VIII.     The  latter 
has  been  reprinted  in  the  Script,  rer.  Hal.  vol.  xxi. 

Of  the  Genoese  branch  of  the  family  the  most  prominent 
members  were  the  following: — 

5.  PAOLO,  DI  MONIGLIA  (1444-1502),  a  member  of  the  order 
of  Dominicans,  was,  from  a  comparatively  early  age,  prior  of 
their  convent  at  Genoa.     As  a  preacher  he  was  very  successful, 
and  his  talents  were  fully  recognized  by  successive  popes,  by 
whom  he  was  made  master  of  the  sacred  palace,  inquisitor- 
general  for  all  the  Genoese  dominions,  and  ultimately  bishop 
of  Scio  and  Hungarian  legate.     He  was  the  author  of  a  number  of 
Biblical  commentaries  (no  longer  extant),  which  are  said  to 
have  been  characterized  by  great  erudition. 

6.  AGOSTINO   (1470-1536)   was  born  at  Genoa,  and  spent 
some  wild  years  in  Valencia,  Spain.     Having  in  1487  joined  the 
Dominican  order,  he  gave  himself  with  great  energy  to  the 
study  of  Greek,  Hebrew,  Chaldee  and  Arabic,  and  in   1514 
began  the  preparation  of  a  polyglot  edition  of  the  Bible.     As 
bishop  of  Nebbio  in  Corsica,  he  took  part  in  some  of  the  earlier 
sittings  of  the  Lateran  council  (1516-1517),  but,  in  consequence 
of  party  complications,  withdrew  to  his  diocese,  and  ultimately 
to  France,  where  he  became  a  pensioner  of  Francis  I.,  and  was 
the  first  to  occupy  a  chair  of  Hebrew  and  Arabic  in  the  university 
of  Paris.     After  an  absence  from  Corsica  for  a  period  of  five 
years,  during  which  he  visited  England  and  the  Low  Countries, 
and  became  acquainted  with  Erasmus  and  More,  he  returned 
to  Nebbio,  about  1522,  and  there  remained,  with  comparatively 
little  intermission,  till  in  1536,  when,  while  returning  from  a 
visit  to  Genoa,  he  perished  in  a  storm  at  sea.     He  was  the 
possessor  of  a  very  fine  library,  which  he  bequeathed  to  the 
republic  of  Genoa.     Of  his  projected  polyglot  only  the  Psalter 
was  published  (Psalterium  Hebraeum,  Graecum,  Arabicum,  el 
Chaldaicum,  Genoa,  1616).     Besides  the  Hebrew  text,  the  LXX. 
translation,  the  Chaldee  paraphrase,  and  an  Arabic  version,  it 
contains  the  Vulgate  translation,  a  new  Latin  translation  by 
the  editor,  a  Latin  translation  of  the  Chaldee,  and  a  collection 
of  scholia.     Giustiniani  printed  2000  copies  at  his  own  expense, 
including  fifty  in  vellum  for  presentation  to  the  sovereigns  of 
Europe  and  Asia;  but  the  sale  of  the  work  did  not  encourage 
him  to  proceed  with  the  New  Testament,  which  he  had  also 
prepared  for  the  press.     Besides  an  edition  of  the  book  of  Job, 
containing  the  original  text,  the  Vulgate,  and  a  new  translation, 


he  published  a  Latin  version  of  the  Moreh  Nevochim of  Maimonides 
(Director  dubitanlium  aut  perplexorum,  1520),  and  also  edited  in 
Latin  the  Aureus  libettus  of  Aeneas  Platonicus,  and  the  Timaeus 
of  Chalcidius.  His  annals  of  Genoa  (Castigalissimi  annali  di 
Cenova)  were  published  posthumously  in  1537. 
The  following  are  also  noteworthy: — 

7.  POMPEIO  (1560-1616),  a  native  of  Corsica,  who  served  under 
Alessandro  Farnese  and  the  marquis  of  Spinola  in  the  Low 
Countries,  where  he  lost  an  arm,  and,  from  the  artificial  substitute 
which  he  wore,  came  to  be  known  by  the  sobriquet  Bras  de  Fer. 
He  also  defended  Crete  against  the  Turks;  and  subsequently  was 
killed  in  a  reconnaissance  at  Friuli.     He  left  in  Italian  a  personal 
narrative  of  the  war  in  Flanders,  which  has  been  repeatedly 
published  in  a  Latin  translation  (Bellum  Belgicum,  Antwerp, 
1609). 

8.  GIOVANNI    (1513-1556),    born   in    Candia,  translator  of 
Terence's  Andria  and  Eunuchus,  of  Cicero's  In  Verrem,  and  of 
Virgil's  Aeneid,  viii. 

9.  ORSATTO  (1538-1603),  Venetian  senator,  translator  of  the 
Oedipus  Tyrannus  of  Sophocles  and  author  of  a  collection  of 
Rime,  in  imitation  of  Petrarch.     He  is  regarded  as  one  of  the 
latest  representatives  of  the  classic  Italian  school. 

10.  GERONIMO,  a  Genoese,  flourished  during  the  latter  half 
of  the  1 6th  century.     He  translated  the  Alcestis  of  Euripides 
and  three  of  the  plays  of  Sophocles;  and  wrote  two  original 
tragedies,  Jephte  and  Christo  in  Passione. 

11.  VINCENZO,  who  in  the  beginning  of  the   I7th  century 
built  the  Roman  palace  and  made  the  art  collection  which  are 
still  associated  with  his  name  (see  Galleria  Giustiniana,  Rome, 
1631).     The  collection  was  removed  in  1807  to  Paris,  where  it 
was  to  some  extent  broken  up.     In  1815  all  that  remained  of  it, 
about  170  pictures,  was  purchased  by  the  king  of  Prussia  and 
removed  to  Berlin,  where  it  forms  a  portion  of  the  royal  museum. 

GIUSTO  DA  GUANTO  [Jooocus,  or  JUSTUS,  or  GHENT] 
(fl.  1465-1475),  Flemish  painter.  The  public  records  of  the  city 
of  Ghent  have  been  diligently  searched,  but  in  vain,  for  a  clue 
to  the  history  of  Justus  or  Jodocus,  whom  Vasari  and  Guicciardini 
called  Giusto  da  Guanto.  Flemish  annalists  of  the  i6th  century 
have  enlarged  upon  the  scanty  statements  of  Vasari,  and  described 
Jodocus  as  a  pupil  of  Hubert  Van  Eyck.  But  there  is  no  source 
to  which  this  fable  can  be  traced.  The  registers  of  St  Luke's 
gild  at  Ghent  comprise  six  masters  of  the  name  of  Joos  or 
Jodocus  who  practised  at  Ghent  in  the  isth  century.  But  none 
of  the  works  of  these  masters  has  been  preserved,  and  it  is 
impossible  to  compare  their  style  with  that  of  Giusto.  It  was 
between  1465  and  1474  that  this  artist  executed  the  "  Communion 
of  the  Apostles  "  which  Vasari  has  described,  and  modern  critics 
now  see  to  the  best  advantage  in  the  museum  of  Urbino.  It 
was  painted  for  the  brotherhood  of  Corpus  Christi  at  the  bidding 
of  Frederick  of  Montefeltro,  who  was  introduced  into  the  picture 
as  the  companion  of  Caterino  Zeno,  a  Persian  envoy  at  that 
time  on  a  mission  to  the  court  of  Urbino.  From  this  curious 
production  it  may  be  seen  that  Giusto,  far  from  being  a  pupil  of 
Hubert  Van  Eyck,  was  merely  a  disciple  of  a  later  and  less 
gifted  master,  who  took  to  Italy  some  of  the  peculiarities  of  his 
native  schools,  and  forthwith  commingled  them  with  those  of 
his  adopted  country.  As  a  composer  and  draughtsman  Giusto 
compares  unfavourably  with  the  better-known  painters  of 
Flanders;  though  his  portraits  are  good,  his  ideal  figures  are 
not  remarkable  for  elevation  of  type  or  for  subtlety  of  character 
and  expression.  His  work  is  technically  on  a  level  with  that  of 
Gerard  of  St  John,  whose  pictures  are  preserved  in  the  Belvedere 
at  Vienna.  Vespasian,  a  Florentine  bookseller  who  contributed 
much  to  form  the  antiquarian  taste  of  Frederick  of  Montefeltro, 
states  that  this  duke  sent  to  the  Netherlands  for  a  capable  artist 
to  paint  a  series  of  "  ancient  worthies  "  for  a  library  recently 
erected  in  the  palace  of  Urbino.  It  has  been  conjectured  that 
the  author  of  these  "  worthies,"  which  are  still  in  existence 
at  the  Louvre  and  in  the  Barberini  palace  at  Rome,  was  Giusto. 
Yet  there  are  notable  divergences  betweeen  these  pictures  and  the 
"  Communion  of  the  Apostles."  Still,  it  is  not  beyond  the  range 
of  probability  that  Giusto  should  have  been  able,  after  a  certain 


GIVET— GLACIAL  PERIOD 


time,  to  temper  his  Flemish  style  by  studying  the  masterpieces 
of  Santi  and  Melozzo,  and  so  to  acquire  the  mixed  manner  of  the 
Flemings  and  Italians  which  these  portraits  of  worthies  display. 
Such  an  assimilation,  if  it  really  took  place,  might  justify  the 
Flemings  in  the  indulgence  of  a  certain  pride,  considering  that 
Raphael  not  only  admired  these  worthies,  but  copied  them  in 
the  sketch-book  which  is  now  the  ornament  of  the  Venetian 
Academy.  There  is  no  ground  for  presuming  that  Giusto  ad 
Guanto  is  identical  with  Justus  d'Allamagna  who  painted  the 
"  Annunciation  "  (1451)  in  the  cloisters  of  Santa  Maria  di  Castello 
at  Genoa.  The  drawing  and  colouring  of  this  wall  painting 
shows  that  Justus  d'Allamagna  was  as  surely  a  native  of  south 
Germany  as  his  homonym  at  Urbino  was  a  born  Netherlander. 

GIVET,  a  town  of  northern  France,  in  the  department  of 
Ardennes,  40  m.  N.  by  E.  of  Mezieres  on  the  Eastern  railway 
between  the  town  and  Namur.  Pop.  (1906)  town,  5110; 
commune,  7468.  Givet  lies  on  the  Meuse  about  i  m.  from  the 
Belgian  frontier,  and  was  formerly  a  fortress  of  considerable 
importance.  It  is  divided  into  three  portions— the  citadel 
called  Charlemont  and  Grand  Givet  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river, 
and  on  the  opposite  bank  Petit  Givet,  connected  with  Grand 
Givet  by  a  stone  bridge  of  five  arches.  The  fortress  of  Charle- 
mont, situated  at  the  top  of  a  precipitous  rock  705  ft.  high,  was 
founded  by  the  emperor  Charles  V.  in  the  i6th  century,  and 
further  fortified  by  Vauban  at  the  end  of  the  I7th  century;  it 
is  the  only  survival  of  the  fortifications  of  the  town,  the  rest 
of  which  were  destroyed  in  1892.  In  Grand  Givet  there  are  a 
church  and  a  town-hall  built  by  Vauban,  and  a  statue  of  the 
composer  Etienne  Mehul  stands  in  the  fine  square  named  after 
him.  Petit  Givet,  the  industrial  quarter,  is  traversed  by  a 
small  tributary  of  the  Meuse,  the  Houille,  which  is  bordered  by 
tanneries  and  glue  factories.  Pencils  and  tobacco-pipes  are 
also  manufactured.  The  town  has  considerable  river  traffic, 
consisting  chiefly  of  coal,  copper  and  stone.  There  is  a  chamber 
of  arts  and  manufactures. 

GIVORS,  a  manufacturing  town  of  south-eastern  France,  in 
the  department  of  Rh&ne,  on  the  railway  between  Lyons  and 
St  Etienne,  14  m.  S.  of  Lyon.  Pop.  (1906)  11,444.  It  is  situated 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhone,  here  crossed  by  a  suspension 
bridge,  at  its  confluence  with  the  Gier  and  the  canal  of  Givors, 
which  starts  at  Grand  Croix  on  the  Gier,  some  13  m.  distant. 
The  chief  industries  are  metal-working,  engineering-construction 
and  glass-working.  There  are  coal  mines  in  the  vicinity.  On  the 
hill  overlooking  the  town  are  the  ruins  of  the  chateau  of  St 
Gerald  and  of  the  convent  of  St  Ferreol,  remains  of  the  old 
town  destroyed  in  1594. 

GJALLAR,  in  Scandinavian  mythology,  the  horn  of  Heimdall, 
the  guardian  of  the  rainbow  bridge  by  which  the  gods  pass  and 
repass  between  earth  and  heaven.  This  horn  had  to  be  blown 
whenever  a  stranger  approached  the  bridge. 

GLABRIO.  i.  MANIUS  ACILTOS  GLABRIO,  Roman  statesman 
and  general,  member  of  a  plebeian  family.  When  consul  in 
191  B.C.  he  defeated  Antiochus  the  Great  of  Syria  at  Thermopylae, 
and  compelled  him  to  leave  Greece.  He  then  turned  his  attention 
to  the  Aetolians,  who  had  persuaded  Antiochus  to  declare  war 
against  Rome,  and  was  only  prevented  from  crushing  them  by 
the  intercession  of  T.  Quinctius  Flamininus.  In  189  Glabrio 
was  a  candidate  for  the  censorship,  but  was  bitterly  opposed 
by  the  nobles.  He  was  accused  by  the  tribunes  of  having 
concealed  a  portion  of  the  Syrian  spoils  in  his  own  house;  his 
legate  gave  evidence  against  him,  and  he  withdrew  his  candi- 
dature. It  is  probable  that  he  was  the  author  of  the  law  which 
left  it  to  the  discretion  of  the  pontiffs  to  insert  or  omit  the 
intercalary  month  of  the  year. 

Censorinus,  De  die  natali,  xx. ;  Macrobius,  Saturnalia,  i.  13; 
index  to  Livy;  Appian,  Syr.  17-21. 

2.  MANIDS  ACILIUS  GLABRIO,  Roman  statesman  and  general, 
grandson  of  the  famous  jurist  P.  Mucius  Scaevola.  When 
praetor  urbanus  (70  B.C.)  he  presided  at  the  trial  of  Verres. 
According  to  Dio  Cassius  (xxxvi.  38),  in  conjunction  with 
L.  Calpurnius  Piso,  his  colleague  in  the  consulship  (67),  he 
brought  forward  a  severe  law  (Lex  Acilia  Calpurnia)  against 


illegal  canvassing  at  elections.  In  the  same  year  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  supersede  L.  Lucullus  in  the  government  of  Cilicia 
and  the  command  of  the  war  against  Mithradates,  but  as  he  did 
absolutely  nothing  and  was  unable  to  control  the  soldiery, 
he  was  in  turn  superseded  by  Pompey  according  to  the  provisions 
of  the  Manilian  law.  Little  else  is  known  of  him  except  that 
he  declared  in  favour  of  the  death  punishment  for  the  Catilinarian 
conspirators. 

Dio  Cassius  xxxvi.  14,  16.  24;  Cicero,  Pro  lege  Manilia,  2.  9; 
Appian,  Mithrid.  90. 

GLACE  BAY,  a  city  and  port  of  entry  of  Cape  Breton  county, 
Nova  Scotia,  Canada,  on  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  14  m.  E.  of  Sydney, 
with  which  it  is  connected  both  by  steam  and  electric  railway. 
It  is  the  centre  of  the  properties  of  the  Dominion  Coal  Company 
(founded  1893),  which  produce  most  of  the  coal  of  Nova  Scotia. 
Though  it  has  a  fair  harbour,  most  of  the  shipping  is  done  from 
Sydney  in  summer  and  from  Louisburg  in  winter.  Pop.  (1892) 
2000;  (1901)  6945;  (1906)  13,000. 

GLACIAL  PERIOD,  in  geology,  the  name  usually  given,  by 
English  and  American  writers,  to  that  comparatively  recent 
time  when  all  parts  of  the  world  suffered  a  marked  lowering 
of  temperature,  accompanied  in  northern  Europe  and  North 
America  by  glacial  conditions,  not  unlike  those  which  now 
characterize  the  Polar  regions.  This  period,  which  is  also 
known  as  the  "  Great  Ice  Age  "  (German  Die  Eiszeit),  is 
synchronous  with  the  Pleistocene  period,  the  earlier  of  the  Post- 
Tertiary  or  Quaternary  divisions  of  geological  time.  Although 
"  Glacial  period  "  and  "  Pleistocene  "  (q.v.)  are  often  used 
synonymously  it  is  convenient  to  consider  them  separately, 
inasmuch  as  not  a  few  Pleistocene  formations  have  no  causal 
relationship  with  conditions  of  glaciation.  Not  until  the  begin- 
ning of  the  i  gth  century  did  the  deposits  now  generally  recog- 
nized as  the  result  of  ice  action  receive  serious  attention;  the 
tendency  was  to  regard  such  superficial  and  irregular  material 
as  mere  rubbish.  Early  ideas  upon  the  subject  usually  assigned 
floods  as  the  formative  agency,  and  this  view  is  still  not  without 
its  supporters  (see  Sir  H.  H.  Howorth,  The  Glacial  Nightmare 
and  the  Flood).  Doubtless  this  attitude  was  in  part  due  to  the 
comparative  rarity  of  glaciers  and  ice-fields  where  the  work  of 
ice  could  be  directly  observed.  It  was  natural  therefore  that  the 
first  scientific  references  to  glacial  action  should  have  been 
stimulated  by  the  Alpine  regions  of  Switzerland,  which  called 
forth  the  writings  of  J.  J.  Scheuchzer,  B.  F.  Kuhn,  H.  B.  de 
Saussure,  F.  G.  Hugi,  and  particularly  those  of  J.  Venetz,  J.  G. 
von  Charpentier  and  L.  Aggasiz.  Canon  Rendu,  J.  Forbes 
and  others  had  studied  the  cause  of  motion  of  glaciers,  while 
keen  observers,  notably  Sir  James  Hall,  A.  Brongniart  and 
J.  Playfair,  had  noted  the  occurrence  of  travelled  and  scratched 
stones. 

The  result  of  these  efforts  was  the  conception  of  great  ice-sheets 
flowing  over  the  land,  grinding  the  rock  surfaces  and  transporting 
rock  debris  in  the  manner  to  be  observed  in  the  existing  glaciers. 
However,  before  this  view  had  become  established  Sir  C.  Lyell 
evolved  the  "  drift  theory  "  to  explain  the  widely  spread  pheno- 
menon of  transported  blocks,  boulder  clay  and  the  allied  deposits; 
in  this  he  was  supported  by  Sir  H.  de  la  Beche,  Charles  Darwin, 
Sir  R.  I.  Murchison  and  many  others.  According  to  the  drift 
theory,  the  transport  and  distribution  of  "  erratic  blocks,"  &c., 
had  been  effected  by  floating  icebergs;  this  view  naturally 
involved  a  considerable  and  widespread  submergence  of  the 
land,  an  assumption  which  appeared  to  receive  support  from 
the  occasional  presence  of  marine  shells  at  high  levels  in  the 
"  drift  "  deposits.  So  great  was  the  influence  of  those  who- 
favoured  the  drift  theory  that  even  to-day  it  cannot  be  said  to 
have  lost  complete  hold;  we  still  speak  of  "  drift  "  deposits  in 
England  and  America,  and  the  belief  in  one  or  more  great  sub- 
mergences during  the  Glacial  period  is  still  held  more  firmly 
by  certain  geologists  than  the  evidence  would  seem  to  warrant. 
The  case  against  the  drift  theory  was  most  clearly  expressed 
by  Sir  A.  C.  Ramsay  for  England  and  Scotland,  and  by  the 
Swedish  scientist  Otto  Torell.  Since  then  the  labours  of  Professor 
James  Geikie,  Sir  Archibald  Geikie,  Professor  P.  Kendall  and 


GLACIAL  PERIOD 


57 


others  in  England;  von  Verendt,  H.  Credner,  de  Geer,  E. 
Geinitz,  A.  Helland,  Jentzsch,  K.  Keilhack,  A.  Penck,  H. 
Schroder,  F.  Wahnschaffe  in  Scandinavia  and  Germany;  T.  C. 
Chamberlin,  W.  Upham,  G.  F.  Wright  in  North  America,  have 
all  tended  to  confirm  the  view  that  it  is  to  the  movement  of 
glaciers  and  ice-sheets  that  we  must  look  as  the  predominant 
agent  of  transport  and  abrasion  in  this  period.  The  three  stages 
through  which  our  knowledge  of  glacial  work  has  advanced 
may  thus  be  summarized:  (i)  the  diluvial  hypothesis,  deposits 
formed  by  floods;  (2)  the  drift  hypothesis,  deposits  formed 
mainly  by  icebergs  and  floating  ice;  (3)  the  ice-sheet  hypothesis, 
deposits  formed  directly  or  indirectly  through  the  agency  of 
flowing  ice. 

Evidences. — The  evidence  relied  upon  by  geologists  for  the 
former  existence  of  the  great  ice-sheets  which  traversed  the 
northern  regions  of  Europe  and  America  is  mainly  of  two  kinds: 
(i)  the  peculiar  erosion  of  the  older  rocks  by  ice  and  ice-borne 
stones,  and  (2)  the  nature  and  disposition  of  ice-borne  rock 
debris.  After  having  established  the  criteria  by  which  the  work 
of  moving  ice  is  to  be  recognized  in  regions  of  active  glaciation, 
the  task  of  identifying  the  results  of  earlier  glaciation  elsewhere 
has  been  carried  on  with  unabated  energy. 

i.  Ice  Erosion. — Although  there  are  certain  points  of  difference 
between  the  work  of  glaciers  and  broad  ice-sheets,  the  former 


Map  showing  the      :^     _.V 
maximum  extension  of  tin'      ^ 
Ice  Sheets  in  the  /.- 

Glacial  Period  /  '* 


I     Ijlreti*  not  affected  by  extreme  glaciation 

S  =  The  Scandinavian  Centrr 

C  =  r*«  Cordilleran  Centn 

K  =  The  Keewatin  Centre 

L  =  The  Labrador  or  Laurentide  Centre 

Arrows  indicate  the  direction  of  Ice-flout 


being  more  or  less  restricted  laterally  by  the  valleys  in  which 
they  flow,  the  general  results  of  their  passage  over  the  rocky 
floor  are  essentially  similar.  Smooth  rounded  outlines  are 
imparted  to  the  rocks,  markedly  contrasting  with  the  pinnacled 
and  irregular  surfaces  produced  by  ordinary  weathering;  where 
these  rounded  surfaces  have  been  formed  on  a  minor  scale  the 
well-known  features  of  roches  moutonnees  (German  Rundhocker) 
are  created;  on  a  larger  scale  we  have  the  erosion-form  known 
as  "  crag  and  tail,"  when  the  ice-sheet  has  overridden  ground 
with  more  pronounced  contours,  the  side  of  the  hill  facing  the 
advancing  ice  being  rounded  and  gently  curved  (German 
Stossseite),  and  the  opposte  side  (Leeseite)  steep,  abrupt  and 
much  less  smooth.  Such  features  are  never  associated  with  the 
erosion  of  water.  The  rounding  of  rock  surfaces  is  regularly 
accompanied  by  grooving  and  striation  (German  Schrammen, 
Schliffe)  caused  by  the  grinding  action  of  stones  and  boulders 
embedded  in  the  moving  ice.  These  "  glacial  striae  "  are  of 
great  value  in  determining  the  latest  path  of  the  vanished  ice- 
sheets  (see  map).  Several  other  erosion-features  are  generally 
associated  with  ice  action ;  such  are  the  circular-headed  valleys, 
"  cirques  "  or  "  corries  "  (German  Zirkus)  of  mountain  districts; 
the  pot-holes,  giants'  kettles  (Strudellocher,  Riesentopfe),ia.mi]ia.Tly 
exemplified  in  the  Gletschergarten  near  Lucerne;  the  "  rock- 
basins  "  (Felsseebecken)  of  mountainous  regions  are  also  believed 
to  be  assignable  to  this  cause  on  account  of  their  frequent 
association  with  other  glacial  phenomena,  but  it  is  more  than 
probable  that  the  action  of  running  water  (waterfalls,  &c.) — 


influenced  no  doubt  by  the  disposition  of  the  ice — has  had  much 
to  do  with  these  forms  of  erosion.  As  regards  rock-basins, 
geologists  are  still  divided  in  opinion:  Sir  A.  C.  Ramsay,  J. 
Geikie,  Tyndall,  Helland,  H.  Hess,  A.  Penck,  and  others  have 
expressed  themselves  in  favour  of  a  glacial  origin;  while  A. 
Heim,  F.  Stapff,  T.  Kjerulf,  L.  Riitimeyer  and  many  others 
have  strongly  opposed  this  view. 

2.  Glacial  deposits  may  be  roughly  classified  in  two  groups: 
those  that  have  been  formed  directly  by  the  action  of  the  ice, 
and  those  formed  through  the  agency  of  water  flowing  under, 
upon,  and  from  the  ice-sheets,  or  in  streams  and  lakes  modified 
by  the  presence  of  the  ice.  To  differentiate  in  practice  between 
the  results  of  these  two  agencies  is  a  matter  of  some  difficulty 
in  the  case  of  unstratified  deposits;  but  the  boulder  clay  may 
be  taken  as  the  typical  formation  of  the  glacier  or  ice-sheet, 
whether  it  has  been  left  as  a  terminal  moraine  at  the  limit  of 
glaciation  or  as  a  ground  moraine  beneath  the  ice.  A  stratified 
form  of  boulder  clay,  which  not  infrequently  rests  upon,  and  is 
therefore  younger  than,  the  more  typical  variety,  is  usually 
regarded  as  a  deposit  formed  by  water  from  the  material 
(englacial,  innenmoran)  held  in  suspension  within  the  ice,  and 
set  free  during  the  process  of  melting.  Besides  the  innumerable 
boulders,  large  and  small,  embedded  in  the  boulder  clay,  isolated 
masses  of  rock,  often  of  enormous  size,  have  been  borne  by  ice- 
sheets  far  from  their  original  home  and  stranded  when  the  ice 
melted.  These  "  erratic  blocks,"  "  perched  blocks  "  (German 
Findlinge)  are  familiar  objects  in  the  Alpine  glacier  districts, 
where  they  have  frequently  received  individual  names,  but  they 
are  just  as  easily  recognized  in  regions  from  which  the  glaciers 
that  brought  them  there  have  long  since  been  banished.  Not 
only  did  the  ice  transport  blocks  of  hard  rock,  granite  and  the 
like,  but  huge  masses  of  stratified  rock  were  torn  from  their 
bed  by  the  same  agency;  the  masses  of  chalk  in  the  cliffs  near 
Cromer  are  well  known;  near  Berlin,  at  Firkenwald,  there  is  a 
transported  mass  of  chalk  estimated  to  be  at  least  2,000,000 
cubic  metres  in  bulk,  which  has  travelled  probably  15  kilometres 
from  its  original  site;  a  block  of  Lincolnshire  oolite  is  recorded 
by  C.  Fox-Strangways  near  Melton  in  Leicestershire,  which  is 
300  yds.  long  and  100  yds.  broad  if  no  more;  and  instances  of  a 
similar  kind  might  be  multiplied. 

When  we  turn  to  the  "  fluvio-glacial  "  deposits  we  find  a 
bewildering  variety  of  stratified  and  partially  bedded  deposits 
of  gravel,  sand  and  clay,  occurring  separately  or  in  every 
conceivable  condition  of  association.  Some  of  these  deposits 
have  received  distinctive  names;  such  are  the  "  Kames  "  of 
Scotland,  which  are  represented  in  Ireland  by  "  Eskers,"  and  in 
Scandinavia  by  "  Asar."  Another  type  of  hillocky  deposit  is 
exemplified  by  the  "  drums  "  or  "  drumlins."  Everywhere 
beyond  the  margin  of  the  advancing  or  retreating  ice-sheets 
these  deposits  were  being  formed;  streams  bore  away  coarse  and 
fine  materials  and  spread  them  out  upon  alluvial  plains  or  upon 
the  floors  of  innumerable  lakes,  many  of  which  were  directly 
caused  by  the  damming  of  the  ordinary  water-courses  by  the  ice. 
As  the  level  of  such  lakes  was  changed  new  beach-lines  were 
produced,  such  as  are  still  evident  in  the  great  lake  region  of 
North  America,  in  the  parallel  roads  of  Glen  Roy,  and  the 
"  Strandlinien  "  of  many  parts  of  northern  Europe. 

Viewed  in  relation  to  man's  position  on  the  earth,  no  geological 
changes  have  had  a  more  profound  importance  than  those  of  the 
Glacial  period.  The  whole  of  the  glaciated  region  bears  evidence 
of  remarkable  modification  of  topographic  features;  in  parts 
of  Scotland  or  Norway  or  Canada  the  old  rocks  are  bared  of 
soil,  rounded  and  smoothed  as  far  as  the  eye  can  see.  The  old 
soil  and  subsoil,  the  product  of  ages  of  ordinary  weathering, 
were  removed  from  vast  areas  to  be  deposited  and  concentrated 
in  others.  Old  valleys  were  filled — often  to  a  great  depth, 
300-400  ft.;  rivers  were  diverted  from  their  old  courses,  never 
to  return;  lakes  of  vast  size  were  caused  by  the  damming  of  old 
outlets  (Lake  Lahontan,  Lake  Agassiz,  &c.,  in  North  America), 
while  an  infinite  number  of  shifting  lakelets — with  their  deposits 
— played  an  important  part  along  the  ice-front  at  all  stages 
of  its  career.  The  influence  of  this  period  upon  the  present 


5» 


GLACIAL  PERIOD 


distribution  of  plant  and  animal  life  in  northern  latitudes  can 
hardly  be  overestimated. 

Much  stress  has  been  laid  upon  supposed  great  changes  in 
the  level  of  the  land  in  northern  regions  during  the  Glacial 
period.  The  occurrence  of  marine  shells  at  an  elevation  of 
1350  ft.  at  Moel  Tryfaen  in  north  Wales,  and  at  1200  ft.  near 
Macclesfield  in  Cheshire,  has  been  cited  as  evidence  of  profound 
submergence  by  some  geologists,  though  others  see  in  these 
and  similar  occurrences  only  the  transporting  action  of  ice-sheets 
that  have  traversed  the  floor  of  the  adjoining  seas.  Marine 
shells  in  stratified  materials  have  been  found  on  the  coast  of 
Scotland  at  100  ft.  and  over,  in  S.  Scandinavia  at  600  to  800  ft., 
and  in  the  "  Champlain  "  deposits  of  North  America  at  various 
heights.  The  dead  shells  of  the  "  Yoldia  clay  "  cover  wide  areas 
at  the  bottom  of  the  North  Atlantic  at  depths  from  500  to  1300 
fathoms,  though  the  same  mollusc  is  now  found  living  in  Arctic 
seas  at  the  depth  of  5  to  15  fathoms.  This  has  been  looked  upon 
as  a  proof  that  in  the  N.W.  European  region  the  lithosphere 
stood  about  2600  ft.  higher  than  it  does  now  (Brogger,  Nansen, 
&c.),  and  it  has  been  suggested  that  a  union  of  the  mainland  of 
Europe  with  that  of  North  America — forming  a  northern  con- 
tinental mass,  "  Prosarctis  " — may  have  been  achieved  by  way 
of  Iceland,  Jan  Mayen  Land  and  Greenland.  The  pre-glacial 
valleys  and  fjords  of  Norway  and  Scotland,  with  their  deeply 
submerged  seaward  ends,  are  regarded  as  proofs  of  former 
elevation.  The  great  depth  of  alluvium  in  some  places  (236 
metres  at  Bremen)  points  in  the  same  direction.  Evidences  of 
changes  of  level  occur  in  early,  middle  and  late  Pleistocene 
formations,  and  the  nature  of  the  evidence  is  such  that  it  is  on 
the  whole  safer  to  assume  the  existence  only  of  the  more  moderate 
degree  of  change. 

The  Cause  of  the  Glacial  Period. — Many  attempts  have  been 
made  to  formulate  a  satisfactory  hypothesis  that  shall  conform 
with  the  known  facts  and  explain  the  great  change  in  climatic 
conditions  which  set  in  towards  the  close  of  the  Tertiary  era, 
and  culminated  during  the  Glacial  period.  Some  of  the  more 
prominent  hypotheses  may  be  mentioned,  but  space  will  not 
permit  of  a  detailed  analysis  of  theories,  most  of  which  rest 
upon  somewhat  unsubstantial  ground.  The  principal  facts 
to  be  taken  into  consideration  are  (i)  the  great  lowering  of 
temperature  over  the  whole  earth;  (2)  the  localization  of 
extreme  glaciation  in  north-west  Europe  and  north-east  America; 
and  (3)  the  local  retrogression  of  the  ice-sheets,  once  or  more 
times  repeated. 

Some  have  suggested  the  simple  solution  of  a  change  in  the 
earth's  axis,  and  have  indicated  that  the  pole  may  have  travelled 
through  some  15°  to  20°  of  latitude;  thus,  the  polar  glaciation, 
as  it  now  exists, might  have  been  in  this  way  transferred  to  include 
north-west  Europe  and  North  America;  but  modern  views  on 
the  rigidity  of  the  earth's  body,  together  with  the  lack  of  any 
evidence  of  the  correlative  movement  of  climatic  zones  in  other 
parts  of  the  world,  render  this  hypothesis  quite  untenable. 
On  similar  grounds  a  change  in  the  earth's  centre  of  gravity  is 
unthinkable.  Theories  based  upon  the  variations  in  the  obliquity 
of  the  ecliptic  or  eccentricity  of  the  earth's  orbit,  or  on  the 
passage  of  the  solar  system  through  cold  regions  of  space,  or 
upon  the  known  variations  in  the  heat  emitted  by  the  sun,  are 
all  insecure  and  unsatisfactory.  The  hypothesis  elaborated  by 
James  Croll  (Phil.  Mag.,  1864,  28,  p.  121;  Climate  and  Time, 
1875;  and  Discussion  on  Climate  and  Cosmology,  1889)  was 
founded  upon  the  assumption  that  with  the  earth's  eccentricity 
at  its  maximum  and  winter  in  the  north  at  aphelion,  there  would 
be  a  tendency  in  northern  latitudes  for  the  accumulation  of  snow 
and  ice,  which  would  be  accentuated  indirectly  by  the  formation 
of  fogs  and  a  modification  of  the  trade  winds.  The  shifting  of 
the  thermal  equator,  and  with  it  the  direction  of  the  trade  winds, 
would  divert  some  of  the  warm  ocean  currents  from  the  cold 
regions,  and  this  effect  was  greatly  enhanced,  he  considered, 
by  the  configuration  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  CrolPs  hypothesis 
was  supported  by  Sir  R.  Ball  (The  Cause  of  the  Great  Ice  Age, 
1893),  and  it  met  with  very  general  acceptance;  but  it  has 
been  destructively  criticized  by  Professor  S.  Newcomb  (Phil. 


Mag.,  1876,  1883,  1884)  and  by  E.  P.  Culverwell  (Phil.  Mag., 
1894,  p.  541,  and  Geol.  Mag.,  1895,  pp.  3  and  55).  The  difficulties 
in  the  way  of  Croll's  theory  are:  (i)  the  fundamental  assump- 
tion, that  midwinter  and  midsummer  temperatures  are  directly 
proportional  to  the  sun's  heat  at  those  periods,  is  not  in  accord- 
ance with  observed  facts;  (2)  the  glacial  periods  would  be 
limited  in  duration  to  an  appropriate  fraction  of  the  precessional 
period  (21,000  years),  which  appears  to  be  too  short  a  time  for 
the  work  that  was  actually  done  by  ice  agency;  and  (3)  Croll's 
glacial  periods  would  alternate  between  the  northern  and 
southern  hemispheres,  affecting  first  one  then  the  other.  Sir 
C.  Lyell  and  others  have  advocated  the  view  that  great  elevation 
of  the  land  in  polar  regions  would  be  conducive  to  glacial  condi- 
tions; this  is  doubtless  true,  but  the  evidence  that  the  Glacial 
period  was  primarily  due  to  this  cause  is  not  well  established. 
Other  writers  have  endeavoured  to  support  the  elevation  theory 
by  combining  with  it  various  astronomical  and  meteorological 
agencies.  More  recently  several  hypotheses  have  been  advanced 
to  explain  the  glacial  period  as  the  result  of  changes  in  the 
atmosphere;  F.  W.  Harmer  ("  The  Influence  of  Winds  upon  the 
Climate  during  the  Pleistocene  Epoch,"  Q.J.G.S.,  1901,  57, 
p.  405)  has  shown  the  importance  of  the  influence  of  winds  in 
certain  circumstances;  Marsden  Manson  ("  The  Evolution  of 
Climate,"  American  Geologist,  1899,  24,  p.  93)  has  laid  stress 
upon  the  influence  of  clouds;  but  neither  of  these  theories 
grapples  successfully  with  the  fundamental  difficulties.  Others 
again  have  requisitioned  the  variability  in  the  amount  of  the 
carbon  dioxide  in  the  atmosphere — hypotheses  which  depend 
upon  the  efficiency  of  this  gas  as  a  thermal  absorbent.  The 
supply  of  carbon  dioxide  may  be  increased  from  time  to  time, 
as  by  the  emanations  from  volcanoes  (S.  Arrhenius  and  A.  G. 
Hogbom),  or  it  may  be  decreased  by  absorption  into  sea- water, 
and  by  the  carbonation  of  rocks.  Professor  T.  C.  Chamberlin 
based  a  theory  of  glaciation  on  the  depletion  of  the  carbon 
dioxide  Of  the  air  ("  An  Attempt  to  frame  a  Working  Hypothesis 
of  the  cause  of  Glacial  Periods  on  an  Atmospheric  Basis,"  //. 
Geol.,  1899,  vii.  752-771;  see  also  Chamberlin  and  Salisbury, 
Geology,  1906,  ii.  674  and  iii.  432).  The  outline  of  this 
hypothesis  is  as  follows:  The  general  conditions  for  glaciation 
were  (i)  that  the  oceanic  circulation  was  interrupted  by  the 
existence  of  land;  (2)  that  vertical  circulation  of  the  atmosphere 
was  accelerated  by  continental  and  other  influences;  (3)  that 
the  thermal  blanketing  of  the  earth  was  reduced  by  a  depletion 
of  the  moisture  and  carbon  dioxide  in  the  atmosphere,  and  that 
hence  the  average  temperature  of  the  surface  of  the  earth  and 
of  the  body  of  the  ocean  was  reduced,  and  diversity  in  the 
distribution  of  heat  and  moisture  introduced.  The  localization 
of  glaciation  is  assignable  to  the  two  great  areas  of  permanent 
atmospheric  depression  that  have  their  present  centres  near 
Greenland  and  the  Aleutian  Islands  respectively.  The  periodicity 
of  glacial  advances  and  retreats,  demanded  by  those  who  believe 
in  the  validity  of  so-called  "  interglacial  "  epochs,  is  explained 
by  a  series  of  complicated  processes  involving  the  alternate 
depletion  and  completion  of  the  normal  charge  of  carbon  dioxide 
in  the  air. 

Whatever  may  be  the  ultimate  verdict  upon  this  difficult 
subject,  it  is  tolerably  clear  that  no  simple  cause  of  glacial 
conditions  is  likely  to  be  discovered,  but  rather  it  will  appear 
that  these  conditions  resulted  from  the  interaction  of  a  compli- 
cated series  of  factors;  and  further,  until  a  greater  degree  of 
unanimity  can  be  approached  in  the  interpretation  of  observed 
facts,  particularly  as  regards  the  substantiality  of  interglacial 
epochs,  the  very  foundations  of  a  sound  working  hypothesis 
are  wanting. 

Classification  of  Glacial  Deposits — Interglacial  Epochs. — Had 
the  deposits  of  glaciated  regions  consisted  solely  of  boulder 
clay  little  difficulty  might  have  been  experienced  in  dealing 
with  their  classification.  But  there  are  intercalated  in  the  boulder 
clays  those  irregular  stratified  and  partially  stratified  masses 
of  sand,  gravel  and  loam,  frequently  containing  marine  or 
freshwater  shells  and  layers  of  peat  with  plant  remains,  which 
have  given  rise  to  the  conception  of  "  interglacial  epochs  " — 


GLACIAL  PERIOD 


59 


pauses  in  the  rigorous  conditions  of  glaciation,  when  the  ice- 
sheets  dwindled  almost  entirely  away,  while  plants  and  animals 
re-established  themselves  on  the  newly  exposed  soil.  Glacialists 
may  be  ranged  in  two  schools:  those  who  believe  that  one  or 
more  phases  of  milder  climatic  conditions  broke  up  the  whole 
Glacial  period  into  alternating  epochs  of  glaciation  and  "de- 
glaciation  ";  and  those1  who  believe  that  the  intercalated 
deposits  represent  rather  the  localized  recessional  movements 
of  the  ice-sheets  within  one  single  period  of  glaciation.  In 
addition  to  the  stratified  deposits  and  their  contents,  important 
evidence  in  favour  of  interglacial  epochs  occurs  in  the  presence 
of  weathered  surfaces  on  the  top  of  older  boulder  clays,  which 
are  themselves  covered  by  younger  glacial  deposits. 

The  cause  of  the  interglacial  hypothesis  has  been  most  ardently 
championed  in  England  by  Professor  James  Geikie;  who  has  en- 
deavoured to  show  that  there  were  in  Europe  six  distinct  glacial 
epochs  within  the  Glacial  period,  separated  by  five  epochs  of  more 
moderate  temperature.  These  are  enumerated  below : 

6th  Glacial  epoch,  Upper  Turbarian,  indicated  by  the  deposits  of 
peat  which  underlie  the  lower  raised  beaches. 
5th  Interracial  epoch,  Upper  Forestian. 

5th  Glacial  epoch,  Lower  Turbarian,  indicated  by  peat  deposits 
overlying  the  lower  forest-bed,  by  the  raised  beaches  and  carse- 
clays  of  Scotland,  and  in  part  by  the  Littorina-clnys  of  Scandinavia. 
4th  Interglacial  epoch.  Lower  Forestian,  the  lower  forests  under 
peat  beds,  the  Ancylus-beds  of  the  great  freshwater  Baltic  lake  and 
the  Liitorina-days  of  Scandinavia. 

4th  Glacial  epoch,  Mecklenburgian,  represented  by  the  moraines 
of  the  last  great  Baltic  glacier,  which  reach  their  southern  limit  in 
Mecklenburg ;  the  loo-ft.  terrace  of  Scotland  and  the  KoWt'a-beds  of 
Scandinavia. 

3rd  Interglacial  epoch,  Neudeckian,  intercalations  of  marine  and 

freshwater  deposits  in  the  boulder  clays  of  the  southern  Baltic  coasts. 

3rd  Glacial  epoch,  Polandian,  glacial  and  fluvio-glacial  formations 

of  the  minor  Scandinavian  ice-sheet;  and  the  "  upper  boulder  clay" 

of  northern  and  western  Europe. 

2nd  Interglacial  epoch,  Helvetian,  interglacial  beds  of  Britain  and 
lignites  of  Switzerland. 

and  Glacial  epoch,  Saxonian,  deposits  of  the  period  of  maximum 
glaciation  when  the  northern  ice-sheet  reached  the  low  ground  of 
Saxony,  and  the  Alpine  glaciers  formed  the  outermost  moraines. 
1st  Interglacial  epoch,  Norfolkian,  the  forest-bed  series  of  Norfolk. 
1st  Glacial  epoch,  Scanian,  represented  only  in  the  south  of  Sweden, 
which  was  overridden  by  a  large  Baltic  glacier.     The  Chillesford 
clay  and  Weybourne  crag  of  Norfolk  and  the  oldest  moraines  and 
fluvio-glacial  gravels  of  the  Arctic  lands  may  belong  to  this  epoch. 

In  a  similar  manner  Professor  Chamberlin  and  other  American 
geologists  have  recognized  the  following  stages  in  the  glaciation  of 
North  America : 

The  Champlain,  marine  substage. 
The  Glacio-lacustrine  substage. 
The  later  Wisconsin  (6th  glacial). 
The  fifth  interglacial. 
The  earlier  Wisconsin  (sth  glacial). 
The  Peorian  (4th  interglacial). 
The  lowan  (4th  glacial). 
The  Sangamon  (jrd  interglacial). 
The  Illinoian  (3rd  glacial). 
The  Yarmouth  or  Buchanan  (2nd  interglacial). 
The  Kansan  (and  glacial). 
The  Aftonian  (ist  inter  glacial). 
The  sub-Aftonian  or  Jerseyan  (1st  glacial). 

Although  it  is  admitted  that  no  strict  correlation  of  the  European 
and  North  American  stages  is  possible,  it  has  been  suggested  that 
the  Aftonian  may  be  the  equivalent  of  the  Helvetian ;  the  Kansan 
may  represent  the  Saxonian;  the  lowan,  the  Polandian;  _the 
Jerseyan,  the  Scanian;  the  early  Wisconsin,  the  Mecklenburgian. 
But  considering  how  fragmentary  is  much  of  the  evidence  in  favour 
of  these  stages  both  in  Europe  and  America,  the  value  of  such 
attempts  at  correlation  must  be  infinitesimal.  This  is  the  more 
evident  when  it  is  observed  that  there  are  other  geologists  of  equal 
eminence  who  are  unable  to  accept  so  large  a  number  of  epochs 
after  a  close  study  of  the  local  circumstances;  thus,  in  the  sub- 
joined scheme  for  north  Germany,  after  H.  W.  Munthe,  there  are 
three  glacial  and  two  interglacial  epochs. 

[The   My  a  time      =  beech-time. 
Post-Glacial  epoch    -i  The  Littorina  time  =  oak-time. 

[The  Ancylus  time  =  pine- and  birch-time. 

(Including  the  upper  boulder  clay, 
"  younger  Baltic  moraine  "  with  the 
Yoldia  or  Dryas  phase  in  the  retro- 
gressive stage. 

and  Interglacial  epoch  including  the  Cyprina-clay. 
2nd  Glacial  epoch,  the  maximum  glaciation. 
1st  Interglacial  epoch. 
ist  Glacial  epoch,  "  older  boulder  clay." 


Again,  in  the  Alps  four  interglacial  epochs  have  been  recognized ; 
while  in  England  there  are  many  who  are  willing  to  concede  one 
such  epoch,  though  even  for  this  the  evidence  is  not  enough  to  satisfy 
all  glacialists  (G.  W.  Lamplugh,  Address,  Section  C,  Brit.  Assoc., 
York,  1906). 

This  great  diversity  of  opinion  is  eloquent  of  the  difficulties  of  the 
subject;  it  is  impossible  not  to  see  that  the  discovery  of  interglacial 
epochs  bears  a  close  relationship  to  the  origin  of  certain  hypotheses 
of  the  cause  of  glaciation;  while  it  is  significant  that  those  who 
have  had  to  do  the  actual  mapping  of  glacial  deposits  have  usually 
greater  difficulty  in  finding  good  evidence  of  such  definite  ameliora- 
tions of  climate,  than  those  who  have  founded  their  views  upon  the 
examination  of  numerous  but  isolated  areas. 

Extent  of  Glacial  Deposits. — From  evidence  of  the  kind  cited  above, 
it  appears  that  during  the  glacial  period  a  series  of  great  ice-sheets 
covered  enormous  areas  in  North  America  and  north-west  Europe. 
The  area  covered  during  the  maximum  extension  of  the  ice  has  been 
reckoned  at  20  million  square  kilometres  (nearly  8  million  sq.  m.) 
in  North  America  and  63  million  square  kilometres  (about  2i  million 
sq.  m.)  in  Europe. 

In  Europe  three  great  centres  existed  from  which  the  ice-streams 
radiated;  foremost  in  importance  was  the  region  of  Fennoscandia 
(the  name  for  Scandinavia  with  Finland  as  a  single  geological  region) ; 
from  this  centre  the  ice  spread  out  far  into  Germany  and  Russia  and 
westward,  across  the  North  Sea,  to  the  shores  of  Britain.  The 
southern  boundary  of  the  ice  extended  from  the  estuary  of  the  Rhine 
in  an  irregular  series  of  lobes  along  the  Schiefergebirge,  Harz, 
Thiiringerwald,  Erzgebirge  and  Riesengebirge,  and  the  northern 
flanks  of  the  Carpathians  towards  Cracow.  Down  the  valley  of 
the  Dnieper  a  lobe  of  the  ice-sheet  projected  as  far  as  40°  50'  N. ; 
another  lobe  extended  down  the  Don  valley  as  far  as  48°  N. ;  thence 
the  boundary  runs  north-easterly  towards  the  Urals  and  the  Kara 
Sea.  The  British  Islands  constituted  the  centre  second  in  import- 
ance; Scotland,  Ireland  and  all  but  the  southern  part  of  England 
were  covered  by  a  moving  ice-cap.  On  the  west  the  ice-sheets  reached 
out  to  sea;  on  the  east  they  were  conterminous  with  those  from 
Scandinavia.  The  third  European  centre  was  the  Alpine  region; 
it  is  abundantly  clear  from  the  masses  of  morainic  detritus  and 
perched  blocks  that  here,  in  the  time  of  maximum  glaciation,  the 
ice-covered  area  was  enormously  in  excess  of  the  shrivelled  remnants, 
which  still  remain  in  the  existing  glaciers.  All  the  valleys  were  filled 
with  moving  ice ;  thus  the  Rhone  glacier  at  its  maximum  filled  Lake 
Geneva  and  the  plain  between  the  Bernese  Oberland  and  the  Jura ; 
it  even  overrode  the  latter  and  advanced  towards  Besancpn.  Ex- 
tensive glaciation  was  not  limited  to  the  aforesaid  regions,  for  all 
the  areas  of  high  ground  had  their  independent  glaciers  strongly 
developed;  the  Pyrenees,  the  central  highlands  of  France,  the 
Vosges,  Black  Forest,  Apennines  and  Caucasus  were  centres  of 
minor  but  still  important  glaciation. 

The  greatest  expansion  of  ice-sheets  was  located  on  the  North 
American  continent;  here,  too,  there  were  three  principal  centres 
of  outflow:  the  "  Cordilleran  "  ice-sheet  in  the  N.W.,  the  "  Kee- 
watin  "  sheet,  radiating  from  the  central  Canadian  plains,  and  the 
eastern  "  Labrador  "  or  "  Laurentide  "  sheet.  From  each  of  these 
centres  the  ice  poured  outwards  in  every  direction,  but  the  principal 
flow  in  each  case  was  towards  the  south-west.  The  southern 
boundary  of  the  glaciated  area  runs  as  an  irregular  line  along  the 
49°  parallel  in  the  western  part  of  the  continent,  thence  it  follows 
the  Mississippi  valley  down  to  its  junction  with  the  Ohio  (southern 
limit  37°  30'  N.),  eastward  it  follows  the  direction  of  that  river  and 
turns  north-eastward  in  the  direction  of  New  Jersey.  As  in  Europe, 
the  mountainous  regions  of  North  America  produced  their  own  local 
glaciers;  in  the  Rockies,  the  Olympics  and  Sierras,  the  Bighorn 
Mountains  of  Wyoming,  the  Uinta  Mountains  of  Utah,  &c.  Although 
it  was  in  the  northern  hemisphere  that  the  most  extensive  glaciation 
took  place,  the  effects  of  a  general  lowering  of  temperature  seem  to 
have  been  felt  in  the  mountainous  regions  of  all  parts;  thus  in  South 
America,  New  Zealand,  Australia  and  Tasmania  glaciers  reached 
down  the  valleys  far  below  the  existing  limits,  and  even  where  none 
are  now  to  be  found.  In  Asia  the  evidences  of  a  former  extension 
of  glaciation  are  traceable  in  the  Himalayas,  and  northward  in  the 
high  ranges  of  China  and  Eastern  Siberia.  The  same  is  true  of  parts  of 
Turkestanand  Lebanon.  I  n  Af  ricaalso,  in  British  East  Africa  moraines 
are  discovered  5400  ft.  below  their  modern  limit.  In  Iceland  and 
Greenland,  and  even  in  the  Antarctic,  there  appears  to  be  evidence 
of  a  former  greater  extension  of  the  ice.  It  is  of  interest  to  note  that 
Alaska  seems  to  be  free  from  excessive  glaciation,  and  that  a  remark- 
able "  driftless  "  area  lies  in  Wisconsin.  The  maximum  glaciation  of 
the  Glacial  period  was  clearly  centred  around  the  North  Atlantic. 

Glacial  Epochs  in  the  Older  Geological  Periods. — Since  Ramsay 
drew  attention  to  the  subject  in  1855  (  On  the  occurrence  of  angular, 
subangular,  polished  and  striated  fragments  and  boulders  in  the 
Permian  Breccia  of  Shropshire,  Worcestershire,  &c.,  and  on  the 
probable  existence  of  glaciers  and  icebergs  in  the  Permian  epoch," 
Q.J.G.S.,  1855,  pp.  185-205),  a  good  deal  of  attention  has  been  paid 
to  such  formations.  It  is  now  generally  acknowledged  that  the 
Permo-carboniferous  conglomerates  with  striated  boulders  and 
polished  rock  surfaces,  such  as  are  found  in  the  Karoo  formation  _of 
South  Africa,  the  Talkir  conglomerate  of  the  Salt  Range  in  India, 
and  the  corresponding  formations  in  Australia,  represent  undeniable 


6o 


GLACIER 


glacial  conditions  at  that  period  on  the  great  Indo-Australian 
continent.  A  glacial  origin  has  been  suggested  for  numerous  other 
conglomeratic  formations,  such  as  the  Pre-Cambrian  Torridonian  of 
Scotland,  and  "  Geisaschichten  "  of  Norway ;  the  basal  Carboniferous 
conglomerate  of  parts  of  England ;  the  Permian  breccias  of  England 
and  parts  of  Europe;  the  Trias  of  Devonshire;  the  coarse  con- 
glomerates in  the  Tertiary  Flysch  in  central  Europe ;  and  the  Miocene 
conglomerates  of  the  Ligurian  Apennines.  In  regard  to  the  glacial 
nature  of  all  these  formations  there  is,  however,  great  divergence  of 
opinion  (see  A.  Heim,  "  Zur  Frage  der  exotischen  Blocke  in  Flysch," 
Eclogue  geologicae  Helvetia*,  vol.  ix.  No.  3,  1907,  pp.  413-424). 

AUTHORITIES. — The  literature  dealing  directly  with  the  Glacial 
period  has  reached  enormous  dimensions ;  in  addition  to  the  works 
already  mentioned  the  following  may  be  taken  as  a  guide  to  the 
general  outline  of  the  subject:  J.  Geikie,  The  Great  Ice  Age  (3rd  ed., 
London,  1904),  also  Earth  Sculpture  (1898);  G.  F.  Wright,  The  Ice 
Age  in  North  America  (4th  ed.,  New  York,  1905)  and  Man  and  the 
Glacial  Period  (1892);  F.  E.  Geinitz,  Die  Eiszeit  (Braunschweig, 
1906) ;  A.  Penck  and  E.  Bruckner,  Die  Alpen  im  Eiszeitalter  (Leipzig, 
1901—1906,  uncompleted).  Many  references  to  the  literature  will  be 
found  in  Sir  A.  Geikie's  Textbook  of  Geology,  vol.  ii.  (4th  ed.,  1903); 
Chamberlin  and  Salisbury,  Geology,  vol.  iii.  (1906).  As  an  example 
of  glacial  theories  cprried  beyond  the  usual  limits,  see  M.  Gugenhan, 
Die  Ergletscherung  der  Erde  von  Pol  zu  Pol  (Berlin,  1906).  See  also 
Zeitschrift  fur  Gletscherkunde  (Berlin,  1906  and  onwards  quarterly); 
Sir  H.  H.  Howorth  (opposing  accepted  glacial  theories),  The  Glacial 
Nightmare  and  the  Flood,  i.,  ii.  (London,  1893),  Ice  and  Water,  i.,  ii. 
(London,  1905),  The  Mammoth  and  the  Flood  (London,  1887). 

(J.  A.  H.) 

GLACIER  (adopted  from  the  French;  from  glace,  ice,  Lat. 
glades),  a  mass  of  compacted  ice  originating  in  a  snow-field. 
Glaciers  are  formed  on  any  portion  of  the  earth's  surface  that 
is  permanently  above  the  snow-line.  This  line  varies  locally 
in  the  same  latitudes,  being  in  some  places  higher  than  in  others, 
but  in  the  main  it  may  be  described  as  an  elliptical  shell  surround- 
ing the  earth  with  its  longest  diameter  in  the  tropics  and  its 
shortest  in  the  polar  regions,  where  it  touches  sea-level.  From 
the  extreme  regions  of  the  Arctic  and  Antarctic  circles  this  cold 
shell  swells  upwards  into  a  broad  dome,  from  15,000  to  18,000  ft. 
high  over  the  tropics,  truncating,  as  it  rises,  a  number  of  peaks 
and  mountain  ranges  whose  upper  portions  like  all  regions 
above  this  thermal  shell  receive  all  their  moisture  in  the  form  of 
snow.  Since  the  temperature  above  the  snow-line  is  below 
freezing  point  evaporation  is  very  slight,  and  as  the  snow  is 
solid  it  tends  to  accumulate  in  snow-fields,  where  the  snow  of 
one  year  is  covered  by  that  of  the  next,  and  these  are  wrapped 
over  many  deeper  layers  that  have  fallen  in  previous  years. 
If  these  piles  of  snow  were  rigid  and  immovable  they  would 
increase  in  height  until  the  whole  field  rose  above  the  zone  of 
ordinary  atmospheric  precipitation,  and  the  polar  ice-caps  would 
add  a  load  to  these  regions  that  would  produce  far-reaching 
results.  The  mountain  regions  also  would  rise  some  miles  in 
height,  and  all  their  features  would  be  buried  in  domes  of  snow 
some  miles  in  thickness.  When,  however,  there  is  sufficient 
weight  the  mass  yields  to  pressure  and  flows  outwards  and 
downwards.  Thus  a  balance  of  weight  and  height  is  established, 
and  the  ice-field  is  disintegrated  principally  at  the  edges,  the 
surplus  in  polar  regions  being  carried  off  in  the  form  of  icebergs, 
and  in  mountain  regions  by  streams  that  flow  from  the  melting 
ends  of  the  glaciers. 

Formation. — The  formation  of  glaciers  is  in  all  cases  due  to 
similar  causes,  namely,  to  periodical  and  intermittent  falls  of 
snow.  After  a  snow-fall  there  is  a  period  of  rest  during  which 
the  snow  becomes  compacted  by  pressure  and  assumes  the 
well-known  granular  character  seen  in  banks  and  patches  of 
ordinary  snow  that  lie  longest  upon  the  ground  when  the  snow 
is  melting.  This  is  thefirn  or  neve.  The  next  fall  of  snow  covers 
and  conceals  the  neve,  but  the  light  fresh  crystals  of  this  new 
snow  in  turn  become  compacted  to  the  coarsely  crystalline 
granular  form  of  the  underlying  layer  and  become  nev6  in  turn. 
The  process  goes  on  continually;  the  lower  layers  become  subject 
to  greater  and  greater  pressure,  and  in  consequence  become 
gradually  compacted  into  dense  clear  ice,  which,  however,  retains 
its  granular  crystalline  texture  throughout.  The  upper  layers 
of  neve  are  usually  stratified,  owing  to  some  individual  peculiarity 
in  the  fall,  or  to  the  accumulation  of  dust  or  debris  upon  the 
surface  before  it  is  covered  by  fresh  snow.  This  stratification 


is  often  visible  on  the  emerging  glacier,  though  it  is  to  be  distin- 
guished from  the  foliation  planes  caused  by  shearing  movement 
in  the  body  of  the  glacier  ice. 

Types. — The  snow-field  upon  which  a  glacier  depends  is 
always  formed  when  snow-fall  is  greater  than  snow-waste.  This 
occurs  under  varying  conditions  with  a  differently  resulting 
type  of  glacier.  There  are  limited  -fields  of  snow  in  many 
mountain  regions  giving  rise  to  long  tongues  of  ice  moving 
slowly  down  the  valleys  and  therefore  called  "  valley  glaciers." 
The  greater  part  of  Greenland  is  covered  by  an  ice-cap  extending 
over  nearly  400,000  sq.  m.,  forming  a  kind  of  enormous  continuous 
glacier  on  its  lower  slopes.  The  Antarctic  ice  region  is  believed 
to  extend  over  more  than  3,000,000  sq.  m.  Each  of  these 
continental  fields,  besides  producing  block  as  distinguished 
from  tongue  glaciers,  sends  into  the  sea  a  great  number  of  ice- 
bergs during  the  summer  season.  These  ice-caps  covering 
great  regions  are  by  far  the  most  important  types.  Between 
these  "  polar  "  or  "  continental  glaciers  "  and  the  "  alpine  >f 
type  there  are  many  grades.  Smaller  detached  ice-caps  may 
rest  upon  high  plateaus  as  in  Iceland,  or  several  tongues  of  ice 
coming  down  neighbouring  valleys  may  splay  out  into  convergent 
lobes  on  lower  ground  and  form  a  "  piedmont  glacier  "  such  as 
the  Malaspina  Glacier  in  Alaska.  When  the  snow-field  lies  in  a 
small  depression  the  glacier  may  remain  suspended  in  the 
hollow  and  advance  no  farther  than  the  edge  of  the  snow-field. 
This  is  called  a  "  cliff -glacier,"  and  is  not  uncommon  in  mountain 
regions.  The  end  of  a  larger  glacier,  or  the  edge  of  an  ice-sheet, 
may  reach  a  precipitous  cliff,  where  the  ice  will  break  from  the 
edge  of  the  advancing  mass  and  fall  in  blocks  to  the  lower  ground, 
where  a  "  reconstructed  glacier  "  will,  be  formed  from  the  frag- 
ments and  advance  farther  down  the  slope. 

When  a  glacier  originates  upon  a  dome-shaped  or  a  level 
surface  the  ice  will  deploy  radially  in  all  directions.  When  a 
snow-field  is  formed  above  steep  valleys  separated  by  high 
ridges  the  ice  will  flow  downwards  in  long  streams.  If  the 
valleys  under  the  snow-fields  are  wide  and  shallow  the  resultant 
glaciers  will  broaden  out  and  partially  fill  them,  and  in  all  cases, 
since  the  conditions  of  glacier  formation  are  similar,  the  resultant 
form  and  the  direction  of  motion  will  depend  upon  the  amount 
of  ice  and  the  form  of  the  surface  over  which  the  glacier  flows. 
A  glacier  flowing  down  a  narrow  gorge  to  an  open  valley,  or  on 
to  a  plain,  will  spread  at  its  foot  into  a  fan-shaped  lobe  as  the 
ice  spreads  outwards  while  moving  downwards.  An  ice-cap 
is  in  the  main  thickest  at  the  centre,  and  thins  out  at  the  edges. 
A  valley  glacier  is  thickest  at  some  point  between  its  source 
and  its  end,  but  nearer  to  its  source  than  to  its  termination, 
but  its  thickness  at  various  portions  will  depend  upon  the 
contour  of  the  valley  floor  over  which  the  glacier  rides,  and 
may  reach  many  hundreds  of  feet.  At  its  centre  the  Greenland 
ice-cap  is  estimated  to  be  over  5000  ft.  thick.  In  all  cases  the 
glacier  ends  where  the  waste  of  ice  is  greater  than  the  supply, 
and  since  the  relationship  varies  in  different  years,  or  cycles  of 
years,  the  end  of  a  glacier  may  advance  or  retreat  in  harmony 
with  greater  or  less  snow-fall  or  with  cooler  or  hotter  summers. 
There  seems  to  be  a  cycle  of  inclusive  contraction  and  expansion 
of  from  35  to  40  or  50  years.  At  present  the  ends  of  the  Swiss 
glaciers  are  cradled  in  a  mass  of  moraine-stuff  due  to  former 
extension  of  the  glaciers,  and  investigations  in  India  show  that 
in  some  parts  of  the  Himalayas  the  glaciers  are  retreating  as 
they  are  in  North  America  and  even  in  the  southern  hemisphere 
(Nature,  January  2,  1908,  p.  201). 

Movement. — The  fact  that  a  glacier  moves  is  easily  demon- 
strated; the  cause  of  the  movement  is  pressure  upon  a  yielding 
mass;  the  nature  of  the  movement  is  still  under  discussion. 
Rows  of  stakes  or  stones  placed  in  line  across  a  glacier  are  found 
to  change  their  position  with  respect  to  objects  on  the  bank  and 
also  with  regard  to  each  other.  The  posts  in  the  centre  of  the 
ice-stream  gradually  move  away  from  those  at  the  side,  proving 
that  the  centre  moves  faster  than  the  sides.  It  has  also  been 
proved  that  the  surface  portions  move  more  rapidly  than  the 
deeper  layers  and  that  the  motion  is  slowest  at  the  sides  and 
bottom  where  friction  is  greatest. 


GLACIER 


61 


The  rate  of  motion  past  the  same  spot  is  not  uniform.  Heat 
accelerates  it,  cold  arrests  it,  and  the  pressure  of  a  large  amount 
of  water  stimulates  the  flow.  The  rate  of  flow  under  the  same 
conditions  varies  at  different  parts  of  the  glacier  directly  as  the 
thickness  of  ice,  the  steepness  of  slope  and  the  smoothness  of 
rocky  floor.  Generally  speaking,  the  rate  of  motion  depends 
upon  the  amount  of  ice  that  forms  the  "  head  "  pressure,  the 
slope  of  the  under  surface  and  of  the  upper  surface,  the  nature 
of  the  floor,  the  temperature  and  the  amount  of  water  present 
in  the  ice.  The  ordinary  rate  of  motion  is  very  slow.  In  Switzer- 
land it  is  from  i  or  2  in.  to  4  ft.  per  day,  in  Alaska  7  ft.,  in  Green- 
land 50  to  60  ft.,  and  occasionally  100  ft.  per  day  in  the  height 
of  summer  under  exceptional  conditions  of  quantity  of  ice  and 
of  water  and  slope.  Measurements  of  Swiss  glaciers  show  that 
near  the  ice  foot  where  wastage  is  great  there  is  very  little 
movement,  and  observations  upon  the  inland  border  of  Greenland 
ice  show  that  it  is  almost  stationary  over  long  distances.  In 
many  aspects  the  motion  of  a  body  of  ice  resembles  that  of  a 
body  of  water,  and  an  alpine  glacier  is  often  called  an  ice-river, 
since  like  a  river  it  moves  faster  in  the  centre  than  at  the  sides 
and  at  the  top  faster  than  at  the  bottom.  A  glacier  follows  a 
curve  in  the  same  way  as  a  river,  and  there  appear  to  be  ice 
swirls  and  eddies  as  well  as  an  upward-  creep  on  shelving  curves 
recalling  many  features  of  stream  action.  The  rate  of  motion 
of  both  ice-stream  and  river  is  accelerated  by  quantity  and 
steepness  of  slope  and  retarded  by  roughness  of  bed,  but  here 
the  comparison  ends,  for  temperature  does  not  affect  the  rate 
of  water  motion,  nor  will  a  liquid  crack  into  crevasses  as  a  glacier 
does,  or  move  upwards  over  an  adverse  slope  as  a  glacier  always 
does  when  there  is  sufficient  "  head  "  of  ice  above  it.  So  that 
although  in  many  respects  ice  behaves  as  a  viscous  fluid  the 
comparison  with  such  a  fluid  is  not  perfect.  The  cause  of  glacier 
motion  must  be  based  upon  some  more  or  less  complex  considera- 
tions. The  flakes  of  snow  are  gradually  transformed  into 
granules  because  the  points  and  angles  of  the  original  flakes 
melt  and  evaporate  more  readily  than  the  more  solid  central 
portions,  which  become  aggregated  round  some  master  flake 
that  continues  to  grow  in  the  neve  at  the  expense  of  its  smaller 
neighbours,  and  increases  in  size  until  finally  the  glacier  ice  is 
composed  of  a  mass  of  interlocked  crystalline  granules,  some  as 
large  as  a  walnut,  closely  compacted  under  pressure  with  the 
principal  crystalline  axes  in  various  directions.  In  the  upper 
portions  of  the  glacier  movement  due  to  pressure  probably 
takes  place  by  the  gliding  of  one  granule  over  another.  In  this 
connexion  it  must  be  noted  that  pressure  lowers  the  melting 
point  of  ice  while  tension  raises  it,  and  at  all  points  of  pressure 
there  is  therefore  a  tendency  to  momentary  melting,  and  also 
to  some  evaporation  due  to  the  heat  caused  by  pressure,  and  at 
the  intermediate  tension  spaces  between  the  points  of  pressure 
this  resultant  liquid  and  vapour  will  be  at  once  re-frozen  and 
become  solid.  The  granular  movement  is  thus  greatly  facilitated, 
while  the  body  of  ice  remains  in  a  crystalline  solid  condition. 
In  this  connexion  it  is  well  to  remember  that  the  pressure  of 
the  glacier  upon  its  floor  will  have  the  same  result,  but  the 
effect  here  is  a  mass-effect  and  facilitates  the  gliding  of  the  ice 
over  obstacles,  since  the  friction  produces  heat  and  the  pressure 
lowers  the  melting  point,  so  that  the  two  causes  tend  to  liquefy 
the  portion  where  pressure  is  greatest  and  so  to  "  lubricate  " 
the  prominences  and  enable  the  glacier  to  slide  more  easily  over 
them,  while  the  liquid  thus  produced  is  re-frozen  when  the 
pressure  is  removed. 

In  polar  regions  of  very  low  temperature  a  very  considerable 
amount  of  pressure  must  be  necessary  before  the  ice  granules 
yield  to  momentary  liquefactjon  at  the  points  of  pressure,  and 
this  probably  accounts  for  the  extreme  thickness  of  the  Arctic 
and  Antarctic  ice-caps  where  the  slopes  are  moderate,  for  although 
equally  low  temperatures  are  found  in  high  Alpine  snow-fields 
the  slopes  there  are  exceedingly  steep  and  motion  is  therefore 
more  easily  produced. 

Observations  made  upon  the  Greenland  glaciers  indicate 
a  considerable  amount  of  "  shearing  "  movement  in  the  lower 
portions  of  a  glacier.  Where  obstacles  in  the  bed  of  the  glacier 


arrest  the  movement  of  the  ice  immediately  above  it,  or  where 
the  lower  portion  of  the  glacier  is  choked  by  debris,  the  upper 
ice  glides  over  the  lower  in  shearing  planes  that  are  sometimes 
strongly  marked  by  debris  caught  and  pushed  forwards  along 
these  planes  of  foliation.  It  must  be  remembered  that  there 
is  a  solid  push  from  behind  upon  the  lower  portion  of  a  glacier, 
quite  different  from  the  pressure  of  a  body  of  water  upon  any 
point,  for  the  pressure  of  a  fluid  is  equal  in  all  directions,  and 
also  that  this  push  will  tend  to  set  the  crystalline  granules  in 
positions  in  which  their  crystalline  axes  are  parallel  along  the 
gliding  planes.  The  production  of  gliding  planes  is  in  some 
cases  facilitated  by  the  descent  into  the  glacier  of  water  melted 
during  summer,  where  it  expands  in  freezing  and  pushes  the 
adjacent  ice  away  from  it,  forming  a  surface  along  which  move- 
ment is  readily  established. 

If  under  all  circumstances  the  glacier  melted  under  pressure 
at  the  bottom,  glacial  abrasion  would  be  nearly  impossible,  since 
every  small  stone  and  fragment  of  rock  would  rotate  in  a  liquid 
shell  as  the  ice  moved  forward,  but  since  the  pressure  is  not 
always  sufficient  to  produce  melting,  the  glacier  sometimes 
remains  dry  at  its  base;  rock  fragments  are  held  firmly;  and 
a  dry  glacier  may  thus  become  a  graving  tool  of  enormous 
power.  Whatever  views  may  be  adopted  as  to  the  causes  of 
glacier  motion,  the  peculiar  character  of  glacier  ice  as  distinct 
from  homogeneous  river  or  pond  ice  must  be  kept  in  view,  as 
well  as  the  characteristic  tendency  of  water  to  expand  in  freezing, 
the  lowering  of  the  melting  point  of  ice  under  pressure,  the 
raising  of  the  melting  point  under  tension,  the  production  of 
gliding  or  shearing  planes  under  pressure  from  above,  the 
presence  in  summer  of  a  considerable  quantity  of  water  in  the 
lower  portions  of  the  glacier  which  are  thus  loosened,  the  cracking 
of  ice  (as  into  crevasses),  under  sudden  strain,  and  the  regelation 
of  ice  in  contact.  A  result  of  this  last  process  is  that  fissures 
are  not  permanent,  but  having  been  produced  by  the  passage 
of  ice  over  an  obstruction,  they  subsequently  become  healed 
when  the  ice  proceeds  over  a  flatter  bed.  Finally  it  must  be 
remembered  that  although  glacier  ice  behaves  in  some  sense 
like  a  viscous  fluid  its  condition  is  totally  different,  since  "  a 
glacier  is  a  crystalline  rock  of  the  purest  and  simplest  type,  and 
it  never  has  other  than  the  crystalline  state." 

Characteristics. — The  general  appearance  of  a  glacier  varies 
according  to  its  environment  of  position  and  temperature. 
The  upper  portion  is  hidden  by  neve  and  often  by  freshly  fallen 
snow,  and  is  smooth  and  unbroken.  During  the  summer,  when 
little  snow  falls,  the  body  of  the  glacier  moves  away  from  the 
snow-field  and  a  gaping  crevasse  of  great  depth  is  usually 
established  called  the  bergschrund,  which  is  sometimes  taken 
as  the  upper  limit  of  the  glacier.  The  glacier  as  it  moves  down 
the  valley  may  become  "  loaded  "  in  various  ways.  Rock-falls 
send  periodical  showers  of  stones  upon  it  from  the  heights,  and 
these  are  spread  out  into  long  lines  at  the  glacier  sides  as  the  ice 
moves  downwards  carrying  the  rock  fragments  with  it.  These 
are  the  "  lateral  moraines."  When  two  or  more  glaciers  descend- 
ing adjacent  valleys  converge  into  one  glacier  one  or  more  sides 
of  the  higher  valleys  disappear,  and  the  ice  that  was  contained 
in  several  valleys  is  now  carried  by  one.  In  the  simplest  case 
where  two  valleys  converge  into  one  the  two  inner  lateral 
moraines  meet  and  continue  to  stream  down  the  larger  valley 
as  one  "  median  moraine."  Where  several  valleys  meet  there 
are  several  such  parallel  median  moraines,  and  so  long  as  the  ice 
remains  unbroken  these  will  be  carried  upon  the  surface  of  the 
glacier  and  finally  tipped  over  the  end.  There  is,  however, 
differential  heating  of  rock  and  ice,  and  if  the  stones  carried 
are  thin  they  tend  to  sink  into  the  ice  because  they  absorb 
heat  readily  and  melt  the  ice  under  them.  Dust  has  the 
same  effect  and  produces  "  dust  wells  "  that  honeycomb  the 
upper  surface  of  the  ice  with  holes  into  which  the  dust  sinks. 
If  the  moraine  rocks  are  thick  they  prevent  the  ice  under 
them  from  melting  in  sunlight,  and  isolated  blocks  often 
remain  supported  upon  ice-pillars  in  the  form  of  ice  tables, 
which  finally  collapse,  so  that  such  rocks  may  be  scattered 
out  of  the  line  of  the  moraine.  As  the  glacier  descends  into 


GLACIER 


the  lower  valleys  it  is  more  strongly  heated,  and  surface 
streams  are  established  in  consequence  that  flow  into  channels 
caused  by  unequal  melting  of  the  ice  and  finally  plunge  into 
crevasses.  These  crevasses  are  formed  by  strains  established 
as  the  central  parts  drag  away  from  the  sides  of  the  glacier  and 
the  upper  surface  from  the  lower,  and  more  markedly  by  the 
tension  due  to  a  sudden  bend  in  the  glacier  caused  by  an  in- 
equality in  its  bed  which  must  be  over-ridden.  These  crevasses 
are  developed  at  right  angles  to  the  strain  and  often  produce 
intersecting  fissures  in  several  directions.  The  morainic  material 
is  gradually  dispersed  by  the  inequalities  produced,  and  is 
further  distributed  by  the  action  of  superficial  streams  until  the 
whole  surface  is  strewn  with  stones  and  debris,  and  presents, 
as  in  the  lower  portions  of  the  Mer  de  Glace,  an  exceedingly 
dirty  appearance.  Many  blocks  of  stone  fall  into  the  gaping 
crevasses  and  much  loose  rock  is  carried  down  as  "  englacial 
material  "  in  the  body  of  the  glacier.  Some  of  it  reaches  the 
bottom  and  becomes  part  of  the  "ground  moraine"  which 
underlies  the  glacier,  at  least  from  the  bergschrundto  the  "  snout," 
where  much  of  it  is  carried  away  by  the  issuing  stream  and 
spread  finally  on  to  the  plains  below.  It  appears  that  a  very 
considerable  amount  of  degradation  is  caused  under  the  berg- 
schrund  by  the  mass  of  ice  "  plucking  "  and  dragging  great 
blocks  of  rock  from  the  side  of  the  mountain  valley  where  the 
great  head  of  ice  rests  in  winter  and  whence  it  begins  to  move 
in  summer.  These  blocks  and  many  smaller  fragments  are 
carried  downwards  wedged  in  the  ice  and  cause  powerful  abrasion 
upon  the  rocky  floor,  rasping  and  scoring  the  channel,  producing 
conspicuous  striae,  polishing  and  rounding  the  rock  surfaces, 
and  grinding  the  contained  fragments  as  well  as  the  surface 
over  which  it  passes  into  small  fragments  and  fine  powder, 
from  which  "  boulder  clay  "  or  "  till  "  is  finally  produced. 
Emerging,  then,  from  the  snow-field  as  pure  granular  ice  the 
glacier  gradually  becomes  strewn  and  filled  with  foreign  material, 
not  only  from  above  but  also,  as  is  very  evident  in  some  Greenland 
glaciers,  occasionally  from  below  by  masses  of  fragments  that 
move  upwards  along  gliding  planes,  or  are  forced  upwards  by 
slow  swirls  in  the  ice  itself. 

As  a  glacier  is  a  very  brittle  body  any  abrupt  change  in  gradient 
will  produce  a  number  of  crevasses,  and  these,  together  with 
those  produced  by  dragging  strains,  will  frequently  wedge  the 
glacier  into  a  mass  of  pinnacles  or  seracs  that  may  be  partially 
healed  but  are  usually  evident  when  the  melting  end  of  the 
glacier  emerges  suddenly  from  a  steep  valley.  Here  the  streams 
widen  the  weaker  portions  and  the  moraine  rocks  fall  from  the 
end  to  produce  the  "  terminal  "  moraine,  which  usually  lies  in 
a  crescentic  heap  encircling  the  glacier  snout,  whence  it  can 
only  be  moved  by  a  further  advance  of  the  glacier  or  by  the 
ordinary  slow  process  of  atmospheric  denudation. 

In  cases  where  no  rock  falls  upon  the  surface  there  is  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  englacial  material  due  to  upturning  either 
over  accumulated  ground  debris  or  over  structural  inequalities 
in  the  rock  floor.  This  is  well  seen  at  the  steep  sides  and  ends 
of  Greenland  glaciers,  where  material  frequently  comes  to  the 
surface  of  the  melting  ice  and  produces  median  and  lateral 
moraines,  besides  appearing  in  enormous  "  eyes  "  surrounded 
m  the  glacial  body  by  contorted  and  foliated  ice  and  sometimes 
producing  heaps  and  embankments  as  it  is  pushed  out  at  the 
end  of  the  melting  ice. 

The  environment  of  temperature  requires  consideration. 
At  the  upper  or  dorsal  portion  of  the  glacier  there  is  a  zone 
of  variable  (winter  and  summer)  temperature,  beneath  which, 
if  the  ice  is  thick  enough,  there  is  a  zone  of  constant  temperature 
which  will  be  about  the  mean  annual  temperature  of  the  region 
of  the  snow-field.  Underlying  this  there  is  a  more  or  less  constant 
ventral  or  ground  temperature,  depending  mainly  upon  the 
internal  heat  of  the  earth,  which  is  conducted  to  the  under 
surface  of  the  glacier  where  it  slowly  melts  the  ice,  the  more 
readily  because  the  pressure  lowers  the  melting  point  consider- 
ably, so  that  streams  of  water  run  constantly  from  beneath  many 
glaciers,  adding  their  volume  to  the  springs  which  issue  from  the 
rock.  The  middle  zone  of  constant  temperature  is  wedge-shaped 


in  "  alpine  "  glaciers,  the  apex  pointing  downwards  to  the  zone 
of  waste.  The  upper  zone  of  variable  temperature  is  thinnest 
in  the  snow-field  where  the  mean  temperature  is  lowest,  and 
entirely  dominant  in  the  snout  end  of  the  glacier  where  the  zone 
of  constant  temperature  disappears.  Two  temperature  wedges 
are  thus  superposed  base  to  point,  the  one  being  thickest  where 
the  other  is  thinnest,  and  both  these  lie  upon  the  basal  film  of 
temperature  where  the  escaping  earth-heat  is  strengthened 
by  that  due  to  friction  and  pressure.  The  cold  wave  of  winter 
may  pass  right  through  a  thin  glacier,  or  the  constant  temperature 
may  be  too  low  to  permit  of  the  ice  melting  at  the  base,  in  which 
cases  the  glacier  is  "  dry  "  and  has  great  eroding  power.  But 
in  the  lower  warmer  portions  water  running  through  crevasses 
will  raise  the  temperature,  and  increase  the  strength  of  the 
downward  heat  wave,  while  the  mean  annual  temperature 
being  there  higher,  the  combined  result  will  be  that  the  glacier 
will  gradually  become  "  wet  "  at  the  base  and  have  little  eroding 
power,  and  it  will  become  more  and  more  wet  as  it  moves  down 
the  lower  valley  zone  of  ice-waste,  until  at  last  the  balance 
is  reached  between  waste  and  supply  and  the  glacier  finally 
disappears. 

If  the  mean  annual  temperature  be  20°  F.,  and  the  mean 
winter  temperature  be  -  12°  F.,  as  in  parts  of  Greenland,  all 
the  ice  must  be  considerably  below  the  melting  point,  since  the 
pressure  of  ice  a  mile  in  depth  lowers  the  melting  point  only 
to  30°  F.,  and  the  earth-heat  is  only  sufficient  to  melt  j  in.  of 
ice  in  a  year.  Therefore  in  these  regions,  and  in  snow-fields  and 
high  glaciers  with  an  equal  or  lower  mean  temperature  than 
20°  F.,  the  glacier  will  be  "  dry  "  throughout,  which  may  account 
for  the  great  eroding  power  stated  to  exist  near  the  bergschrund 
in  glaciers  of  an  alpine  type,  which  usually  have  their  origin  on 
precipitous  slopes. 

A  considerable  amount  of  ice-waste  takes  place  by  water- 
drainage,  though  much  is  the  result  of  constant  evaporation 
from  the  ice  surface.  The  lower  end  of  a  glacier  is  in  summer 
flooded  by  streams  of  water  that  pour  along  cracks  and  plunge 
into  crevasses,  often  forming  "  pot-holes  "  or  moulins  where 
stones  are  swirled  round  in  a  glacial  "  mill  "  and  wear  holes 
in  the  solid  rock  below.  Some  of  these  streams  issue  in  a  spout 
half  way  up  the  glacier's  end  wall,  but  the  majority  find  their 
way  through  it  and  join  the  water  running  along  the  glacier 
floor  and  emerging  where  the  glacier  ends  in  a  large  glacial 
stream. 

Results  of  Glacial  Action. — A  glacier  is  a  degrading  and  an 
aggrading  agent.  Much  difference  of  opinion  exists  as  to  the 
potency  of  a  glacier  to  alter  surface  features,  some  maintaining 
that  it  is  extraordinarily  effective,  and  considering  that  a  valley 
glacier  forms  a  pronounced  cirque  at  the  region  of  its  origin 
and  that  the  cirque  is  gradually  cut  backward  until  a  long  and 
deep  valley  is  formed  (which  becomes  evident,  as  in  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  in  an  upper  valley  with  "  reversed  grade  "  when 
the  glacier  disappears),  and  also  that  the  end  of  a  glacier  plunging 
into  a  valley  or  a  fjord  will  gouge  a  deep  basin  at  its  region  of 
impact.  The  Alaskan  and  Norwegian  fjords  and  the  rock  basins 
of  the  Scottish  lochs  are  adduced  as  examples.  Other  writers 
maintain  that  a  glacier  is  only  a  modifying  and  not  a  dominant 
agent  in  its  effects  upon  the  land-surface,  considering,  for  example, 
that  a  glacier  coming  down  a  lateral  valley  will  preserve  the 
valley  from  the  atmospheric  denudation  which  has  produced 
the  main  valley  over  which  the  lateral  valley  "hangs,"  a  result 
which  the  believers  in  strong  glacial  action  hold  to  be  due  to  the 
more  powerful  action  of  the  main  glacier  as  contrasted  with  the 
weaker  action  of  that  in  the  lateral  valley.  Both  the  advocates 
and  the  opponents  of  strenuous  ice  action  agree  that  a  V-shaped 
valley  of  stream  erosion  is  converted  to  a  U-shaped  valley  of 
glacial  modification,  and  that  rock  surfaces  are  rounded  into 
roches  moutonnies,  and  are  grooved  and  striated  by  the  passage 
of  ice  shod  with  fragments  of  rock,  while  the  subglacial  material 
is  ground  into  finer  and  finer  fragments  until  it  becomes  mud 
and  "  rock-flour  "  as  the  glacier  proceeds.  In  any  case  striking 
results  are  manifest  in  any  formerly  glaciated  region.  The  high 
peaks  rise  into  pinnacles,  and  ridges  with  "  house-roof  "  structure, 


GLACIS— GLADIATORS 


above  the  former  glacier,  while  below  it  the  contours  are  all 
rounded  and  typically  subdued.  A  landscape  that  was  formerly 
completely  covered  by  a  moving  ice-cap  has  none  but  these 
rounded  features  of  dome-shaped  hills  and  U-shaped  valleys 
that  at  least  bear  evidence  to  the  great  modifying  power  that 
a  glacier  has  upon  a  landscape. 

There  is  no  conflict  of  opinion  with  regard  to  glacial  aggradation 
and  the  distribution  of  superglacial,  englacial  and  subglacial 
material,  which  during  the  active  existence  of  a  glacier  is  finally 
distributed  by  glacial  streams  that  produce  very  considerable 
alluviation.  In  many  regions  which  were  covered  by  the 
Pleistocene  ice-sheet  the  work  of  the  glacier  was  arrested  by 
melting  before  it  was  half  done.  Great  deposits  of  till  and  boulder 
clay  that  lay  beneath  the  glaciers  were  abandoned  in  situ,  and 
remain  as  an  unsorted  mixture  of  large  boulders,  pebbles  and 
mingled  fragments,  embedded  in  clay  or  sand.  The  lateral, 
median  and  terminal  moraines  were  stranded  where  they  sank 
as  the  ice  disappeared,  and  together  with  perched  blocks  (roches 
perchies)  remain  as  a  permanent  record  of  former  conditions 
which  are  now  found  to  have  existed  temporarily  in  much  earlier 
geological  times.  In  glaciated  North  America  lateral  moraines 
are  found  that  are  500  to  1000  ft.  high  and  in  northern  Italy 
1500  to  2000  ft.  high.  The  surface  of  the  ground  in  all  these 
places  is  modified  into  the  characteristic  glaciated  landscape, 
and  many  formerly  deep  valleys  are  choked  with  glacial  debris 
either  completely  changing  the  local  drainage  systems,  or  compel- 
ling the  reappearing  streams  to  cut  new  channels  in  a  superposed 
drainage  system.  Kames  also  and  eskers  (q.v.)  are  left  under 
certain  conditions,  with  many  puzzling  deposits  that  are  clearly 
due  to  some  features  of  ice-work  not  thoroughly  understood. 

See  L.  Agassiz,  Etudes  sur  les  glaciers  (Neuchatel,  1840)  and 
Nouvelles  Etudes  .  .  .  (Paris,  1847);  N.  S.  Shaler  and  W.  M.  Davis, 
Glaciers  (Boston,  1881);  A.  Penck,  Die  Begletscherung  der  deulschen 
Alpen  (Leipzig,  1882);  J.  Tyndall,  The  Glaciers  of  the  Alps  (London, 
1896);  T.  G.  Bonney,  Ice-Work,  Past  and  Present  (London,  1896); 
I.  C.  Russell,  Glaciers  of  North  America  (Boston,  1897);  E.  Richter, 
Neue  Ergebnisse  und  Probleme  der  Gletscherforschung  (Vienna,  1899) ; 
F.  Forel,  Essai  sur  les  variations  periodiques  des  glaciers  (Geneva,  1 88 1 
and  1900);  H.  Hess,  Die  Gletscher  (Brunswick,  1904).  (E.  C.  SP.) 

GLACIS,  in  military  engineering  (see  FORTIFICATION  AND 
SIEGECRAFT),  an  artificial  slope  of  earth  in  the  front  of  works, 
so  constructed  as  to  keep  an  assailant  under  the  fire  of  the 
defenders  to  the  last  possible  moment.  On  the  natural  ground- 
level,  troops  attacking  any  high  work  would  be  sheltered  from 
its  fire  when  close  up  to  it;  the  ground  therefore  is  raised  to 
form  a  glacis,  which  is  swept  by  the  fire  of  the  parapet.  More 
generally,  the  term  is  used  to  denote  any  slope,  natural  or 
artificial,  which  fulfils  the  above  requirements. 

GLADBACH,  the  name  of  two  towns  in  Germany  distinguished 
as  Bergisch-Gladbach  and  Miinchen-Gladbach. 

1.  BERGISCH-GLADBACH  is  in  Rhenish  Prussia,  8  m.  N.E.  of 
Cologne  by  rail.     Pop.  (1905)  13,410.    It  possesses  four  large 
paper  mills  and  among  its  other  industries  are  paste-board, 
powder,    percussion    caps,    nets    and    machinery.       Ironsione, 
peat  and  lime  are  found  in  the  vicinity.     The  town  has  four 
Roman  Catholic  churches  and  one  Protestant.    The  Stunden- 
thalshohe,  a  popular  resort,  is  in  the  neighbourhood,  and  near 
Gladbach  is  Altenberg,  with  a  remarkably  fine  church,  built 
for  the  Cistercian  abbey  at  this  place. 

2.  MtiNCHEN-GLADBACH,    also    in    Rhenish    Prussia,    16    m. 
W.S.W.  of  Dusseldorf  on  the  main  line'  of  railway  to  Aix-la- 
Chapelle.  Pop.  (1885)  44,230;  (1005)  60,714.   It  is  one  of  the  chief 
manufacturing  places  in  Rhenish  Prussia,  its  principal  industries 
being  the  spinning  and  weaving  of  cotton,  the  manufacture 
of  silks,  velvet,  ribbon  and  damasks,  and  dyeing  and  bleaching. 
There  are  also  tanneries,  tobacco  manufactories,  machine  works 
and  foundries.     The  town  possesses  a  fine  park  and  has  statues 
of  the  emperor  William  I.  and  of  Prince  Bismarck.     There  are 
ten   Roman  Catholic   churches    here,  among  them  being  the 
beautiful  minster,  with  a  Gothic  choir  dating  from  1250,  a  nave 
dating  from  the  beginning  of  the  I3th  century  and  a  crypt  of 
the  8th  century.     The  town  has  two  hospitals,  several  schools, 
and    is    the    headquarters    of    important    insurance    societies. 


Gladbach  existed  before  the  time  of  Charlemagne,  and  a  Bene- 
dictine monastery  was  founded  near  it  in  793.  It  was  thus 
called  Miinchen-Gladbach  or  Monks'  Gladbach,  to  distinguish 
it  from  another  town  of  the  same  name.  The  monastery  was 
suppressed  in  1802.  It  became  a  town  in  1336;  weaving  was 
introduced  here  towards  the  end  of  the  i8th  century,  and 
having  belonged  for  a  long  time  to  the  duchy  of  Juliers  it  came 
into  the  possession  of  Prussia  in  1815. 

See  Strauss,  Geschichle  der  Sladt  Munchen-Gladbach  (1805);  and 
G.  Eckertz,  Das  Verbruderungs-  und  Todtenbuch  der  Abtei  Gladbach 
(1881). 

GLADDEN,  WASHINGTON  (1836-  ),  American  Congrega- 
tional divine,  was  born  in  Pottsgrove,  Pennsylvania,  on  the  nth 
of  February  1836.  He  graduated  at  Williams  College  in  1859, 
preached  in  churches  in  Brooklyn,  Morrisania  (New  York  City), 
North  Adams,  Massachusetts,  and  Springfield,  Massachusetts, 
and  in  1882  became  pastor  of  the  First  Congregational  Church 
of  Columbus,  Ohio.  He  was  an  editor  of  the  Independent  in 
1871-1875,  and  a  frequent  contributor  to  it  and  other  periodicals. 
He  consistently  and  earnestly  urged  in  pulpit  and  press  the 
need  of  personal,  civil  and,  particularly,  social  righteousness, 
and  in  1900-1902  was  a  member  of  the  city  council  of  Columbus. 
Among  his  many  publications,  which  include  sermons,  occasional 
addresses,  &c.,  are:  Plain  Thoughts  on  the  Art  of  Living  (1868); 
Workingmen  and  their  Employers  (1876);  The  Christian  Way 
(1877);  Things  New  and  Old  (1884);  Applied  Christianity 
(1887);  Tools  and  the  Man — Property  and  Industry  under  the 
Christian  Law  {1893);  The  Church  and  the  Kingdom  (1894), 
arguing  against'  a  confusion  and  misuse  of  these  two  terms; 
Seven  Puzzling  Bible  Books  (1897);  How  much  is  Left  of  the  Old 
Doctrines  (1899);  Social  Salvation  (1901);  Witnesses  of  the 
Light  (1903);  the  William  Belden  Noble  Lectures  (Harvard), 
being  addresses  on  Dante,  Michelangelo,  Fichte,  Hugo,  Wagner 
and  Ruskin;  The  New  Idolatry  (1905);  Christianity  and  Social- 
ism (1906),  and  The  Church  and  Modern  Life  (1908).  In  1909  he 
published  his  Recollections. 

GLADIATORS  (from  Lat.  gladius,  sword),  professional  com- 
batants who  fought  to  the  death  in  Roman  public  shows.  That 
this  form  of  spectacle,  which  is  almost  peculiar  to  Rome  and 
the  Roman  provinces,  was  originally  borrowed  from  Etruria 
is  shown  by  various  indications.  On  an  Etruscan  tomb  dis- 
covered at  Tarquinii  there  is  a  representation  of  gladiatorial 
games;  the  slaves  employed  to  carry  off  the  dead  bodies  from 
the  arena  wore  masks  representing  the  Etruscan  Charon;  and 
we  learn  from  Isidore  of  Seville  (Origines,  x.)  that  the  name  for 
a  trainer  of  gladiators  (lanista)  is  an  Etruscan  word  meaning 
butcher  or  executioner.  These  gladiatorial  games  are  evidently 
a  survival  of  the  practice  of  immolating  slaves  and  prisoners 
on  the  tombs  of  illustrious  chieftains,  a  practice  recorded  in 
Greek,  Roman  and  Scandinavian  legends,  and  traceable  even  as 
late  as  the  igth  century  as  the  Indian  suttee.  Even  at  Rome 
they  were  for  a  long  time  confined  to  funerals,  and  hence  the  older 
name  for  gladiators  was  busluarii;  but  in  the  later  days  of  the 
republic  their  original  significance  was  forgotten,  and  they 
formed  as  indispensable  a  part  of  the  public  amusements  as  the 
theatre  and  the  circus. 

The  first  gladiators  are  said,  on  the  authority  of  Valerius 
Maximus  (ii.  4.  7),  to  have  been  exhibited  at  Rome  in  the  Forum 
Boarium  in  264  B.C.  by  Marcus  and  Decimus  Brutus  at  the 
funeral  of  their  father.  On  this  occasion  only  three  pairs  fought, 
but  the  taste  for  these  games  spread  rapidly,  and  the  number 
of  combatants  grew  apace.  In  1 74  Titus  Flamininus  celebrated 
his  father's  obsequies  by  a  three-days'  fight,  in  which  74  gladiators 
took  part.  Julius  Caesar  engaged  such  extravagant  numbers 
for  his  aedileship  that  his  political  opponents  took  fright  and 
carried  a  decree  of  the  senate  imposing  a  certain  limit  of  numbers, 
but  notwithstanding  this  restriction  he  was  able  to  exhibit  no 
less  than  300  pairs.  During  the  later  days  of  the  republic  the 
gladiators  were  a  constant  element  of  danger  to  the  public 
peace.  The  more  turbulent  spirits  among  the  nobility  had 
each  his  band  of  gladiators  to  act  as  a  bodyguard,  and  the 
armed  troops  of  Clodius,  Milo  and  Catiline  played  the  same  part 


GLADIATORS 


in  Roman  history  as  the  armed  retainers  of  the  feudal  barons 
or  the  condottieri  of  the  Italian  republics.  Under  the  empire, 
notwithstanding  sumptuary  enactments,  the  passion  for  the 
arena  steadily  increased.  Augustus,  indeed,  limited  the  shows 
to  two  a  year,  and  forbade  a  praetor  to  exhibit  more  than  120 
gladiators,  yet  allusions  in  Horace  (Sat.  ii.  3.  85)  and  Persius 
(vi.  48)  show  that  100  pairs  was  the  fashionable  number  for 
private  entertainments;  and  in  the  Marmor  Ancyranum  the 
emperor  states  that  more  than  10,000  men  had  fought  during 
his  reign.  The  imbecile  Claudius  was  devoted  to  this  pastime, 
and  would  sit  from  morning  till  night  in  his  chair  of  state,  descend- 
ing now  and  then  to  the  arena  to  coax  or  force  the  reluctant 
gladiators  to  resume  their  bloody  work.  Under  Nero  senators 
and  even  well-born  women  appeared  as  combatants;  and 
Juvenal  (viii.  199)  has  handed  down  to  eternal  infamy  the 
descendant  of  the  Gracchi  who  appeared  without  disguise  as  a 
retiarius,  and  begged  his  life  from  the  secular,  who  blushed  to 
conquer  one  so  noble  and  so  vile.1  Titus,  whom  his  countrymen 
surnamed  the  Clement,  ordered  a  show  which  lasted  100  days; 
and  Trajan,  in  celebration  of  his  triumph  over  Decebalus, 
exhibited  5000  pairs  of  gladiators.  Domitian  at  the  Saturnalia 
of  A.D.  90  arranged  a  battle  between  dwarfs  and  women.  Even 
women  of  high  birth  fought  in  the  arena,  and  it  was  not  till 
A.D.  200  that  the  practice  was  forbidden  by  edict.  How  widely 
the  taste  for  these  sanguinary  spectacles  extended  throughout 
the  Roman  provinces  is  attested  by  monuments,  inscriptions 
and  the  remains  of  vast  amphitheatres.  From  Britain  to  Syria 
there  was  not  a  town  of  any  size  that  could  not  boast  its  arena 
and  annual  games.  After  Italy,  Gaul,  North  Africa  and  Spain 
were  most  famous  for  their  amphitheatres;  and  Greece  was  the 
only  Roman  province  where  the  institution  never  thoroughly 
took  root. 

Gladiators  were  commonly  drawn  either  from  prisoners  of 
war,  or  slaves  or  criminals  condemned  to  death.  Thus  in  the 
first  class  we  read  of  tattooed  Britons  in  their  war  chariots, 
Thracians  with  their  peculiar  bucklers  and  scimitars,  Moors 
from  the  villages  round  Atlas  and  negroes  from  central  Africa, 
exhibited  in  the  Colosseum.  Down  to  the  time  of  the  empire 
only  greater  malefactors,  such  as  brigands  and  incendiaries, 
were  condemned  to  the  arena;  but  by  Caligula,  Claudius  and 
Nero  this  punishment  was  extended  to  minor  offences,  such  as 
fraud  and  peculation,  in  order  to  supply  the  growing  demand 
for  victims.  For  the  first  century  of  the  empire  it  was  lawful 
for  masters  to  sell  their  slaves  as  gladiators,  but  this  was  forbidden 
by  Hadrian  and  Marcus  Aurelius.  Besides  these  three  regular 
classes,  the  ranks  were  recruited  by  a  considerable  number  of 
freedmen  and  Roman  citizens  who  had  squandered  their  estates 
and  voluntarily  took  the  auctoramentum  gladiatorium,  by  which 
for  a  stated  time  they  bound  themselves  to  the  lanista.  Even 
men  of  birth  and  fortune  not  seldom  entered  the  lists,  either  for 
the  pure  love  of  fighting  or  to  gratify  the  whim  of  some  dissolute 
emperor;  and  one  emperor,  Commodus,  actually  appeared  in 
person  in  the  arena. 

Gladiators  were  trained  in  schools  (ludi)  owned  either  by 
the  state  or  by  private  citizens,  and  though  the  trade  of  a 
lanista  was  considered  disgraceful,  to  own  gladiators  and  let 
them  out  for  hire  was  reckoned  a  legitimate  branch  of  commerce. 
Thus  Cicero,  in  his  letters  to  Atticus,  congratulates  his  friend 
on  the  good  bargain  he  had  made  in  purchasing  a  band,  and 
urges  that  he  might  easily  recoup  himself  by  consenting  to  let 
them  out  twice.  Men  recruited  mainly  from  slaves  and  criminals, 
whose  lives  hung  on  a  thread,  must  have  been  more  dangerous 
characters  than  modern  galley  slaves  or  convicts;  and,  though 
highly  fed  and  carefully  tended,  they  were  of  necessity  subject 
to  an  iron  discipline.  In  the  school  of  gladiators  discovered  at 
Pompeii,  of  the  sixty-three  skeletons  buried  in  the  cells  many 
were  in  irons.  But  hard  as  was  the  gladiators'  lot, — so  hard 
that  special  precautions  had  to  be  taken  to  prevent  suicide, — 
it  had  its  consolations.  A  successful  gladiator  enjoyed  far 
greater  fame  than  any  modern  prize-fighter  or  athlete.  He  was 

*  See  A.  E.  Housmanon  the  passage  in  Classical  Review  (November 
1904). 


presented  with  broad  pieces,  chains  and  jewelled  helmets,  such 
as  may  be  seen  in  the  museum  at  Naples;  poets  like  Martial 
sang  his  prowess;  his  portrait  was  multiplied  on  vases,  lamps 
and  gems;  and  high-born  ladies  contended  for  his  favours. 
Mixed,  too,  with  the  lowest  dregs  of  the  city,  there  must  have 
been  many  noble  barbarians  condemned  to  the  vile  trade  by  the 
hard  fate  of  war.  There  are  few  finer  characters  in  Roman 
history  than  the  Thracian  Spartacus,  who,  escaping  with  seventy 
of  his  comrades  from  the  school  of  Lentulus  at  Capua,  for  three 
years  defied  the  legions  of  Rome;  and  after  Antony's  defeat  at 
Actium,  the  only  part  of  his  army  that  remained  faithful  to 
his  cause  were  the  gladiators  whom  he  had  enrolled  at  Cyzicus 
to  grace  his  anticipated  victory. 

There  were  various  classes  of  gladiators,  distinguished  by 
their  arms  or  modes  of  fighting.  The  Samnites  fought  with  the 
national  weapons — a  large  oblong  shield,  a  vizor,  a  plumed 
helmet  and  a  short  sword.  The  Thraces  had  a  small  round 
buckler  and  a  dagger  curved  like  a  scythe;  they  were  generally 
pitted  against  the  Mirmillones,  who  were  armed  in  Gallic  fashion 
with  helmet,  sword  and  shield,  and  were  so  called  from  the  fish 
(jwppiuXos  or  juop/iiipos)  which  served  as  the  crest  of  their  helmet. 
In  like  manner  the  Retiarius  was  matched  with  the  Secutor: 
the  former  had  nothing  on  but  a  short  tunic  or  apron,  and  sought 
to  entangle  his  pursuer,  who  was  fully  armed,  with  the  cast-net 
(j-aculum)  that  he  carried  in  his  right  hand;  and  if  successful, 
he  despatched  him  with  the  trident  (tridens,  fuscina)  that  he 
carried  in  his  left.  We  may  also  mention  the  Andabatae  who 
are  generally  believed  to  have  fought  on  horseback  and  wore 
helmets  with  closed  vizors;  the  Dimachaeri  of  the  later  empire, 
who  carried  a  short  sword  in  each  hand;  the  Essedarii,  who 
fought  from  chariots  like  the  ancient  Britons;  the  Hoplomachi, 
who  wore  a  complete  suit  of  armour;  and  the  Laquearii,  who 
tried  to  lasso  their  antagonists. 

Gladiators  also  received  special  names  according  to  the 
time  or  circumstances  in  which  they  exercised  their  calling. 
The  Bustuarii  have  already  been  mentioned;  the  Catervarii 
fought,  not  in  pairs,  but  in  bands;  the  Meridian!  came  forward 
in  the  middle  of  the  day  for  the  entertainment  of  those  spectators 
who  had  not  left  their  seats;  the  Ordinarii  fought  only  in  pairs, 
in  the  regular  way;  the  Fiscales  were  trained  and  supported 
at  the  expense  of  the  imperial  treasury;  the  Paegniarii  used 
harmless  weapons,  and  their  exhibition  was  a  sham  one;  the 
Postulaticii  were  those  whose  appearance  was  asked  as  a  favour 
from  the  giver  of  the  show,  in  addition  to  those  already  exhibited. 

The  shows  were  announced  some  days  before  they  took 
place  by  bills  affixed  to  the  walls  of  houses  and  public  buildings, 
copies  of  which  were  also  sold  in  the  streets.  These  bills  gave 
the  names  of  the  chief  pairs  of  competitors,  the  date  of  the  show, 
the  name  of  the  giver  and  the  different  kinds  of  combats.  The 
spectacle  began  with  a  procession  of  the  gladiators  through  the 
arena,  after  which  their  swords  were  examined  by  the  giver  of 
the  show.  The  proceedings  opened  with  a  sham  fight  (praelusio, 
prolusio)  with  wooden  swords  and  javelins.  The  signal  for  real 
fighting  was  given  by  the  sound  of  the  trumpet,  those  who 
showed  fear  being  driven  on  to  the  arena  with  whips  and  red-hot 
irons.  When  a  gladiator  was  wounded,  the  spectators  shouted 
Habet  (he  is  wounded) ;  if  he  was  at  the  mercy  of  his  adversary, 
he  lifted  up  his  forefinger  to  implore  the  clemency  of  the  people, 
with  whom  (in  the  later  times  of  the  republic)  the  giver  left  the 
decision  as  to  his  life  or  death.  If  the  spectators  were  in  favour 
of  mercy,  they  waved  their  handkerchiefs;  if  they  desired  the 
death  of  the  conquered  gladiator,  they  turned  their  thumbs 
downwards.2  The  reward  of  victory  consisted  of  branches  of 
palm,  sometimes  of  money.  Gladiators  who  had  exercised 
their  calling  for  a  long  time,  or  such  as  displayed  special  skill 
and  bravery,  were  presented  with  a  wooden  sword  (rudis),  and 
discharged  from  further  service. 


2  A  different  account  is  given  by  Mayor  on  Juvenal  iii.  36, 
says:  "Those  who  wished  the  death  of  the  conquered  glad 


who 
iator 


turned  their  thumbs  towards  their  breasts,  as  a  signal  to  his  opponents 
to  stab  him ;  those  who  wished  him  to  be  spared,  Burned  their  thumbs 
downwards,  as  a  signal  for  dropping  the  sword." 


GLADIOLUS 


Both  the  estimation  in  which  gladiatorial  games  were  held  by 
Roman  moralists,  and  the  influence  that  they  exercised  upon  the 
morals  and  genius  of  the  nation,  deserve  notice.  The  Roman  was 
essentially  cruel,  not  so  much  from  spite  or  vindictiveness  as  from 
callousness  and  defective  sympathies.  This  element  of  inhumanity 
and  brutality  must  have  been  deeply  ingrained  in  the  national 
character  to  have  allowed  the  games  to  become  popular,  but  there 
'  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  was  fed  and  fostered  by  the  savage  form 
which  their  amusements  took.  That  the  sight  of  bloodshed  provokes 
a  love  of  bloodshed  and  cruelty  is  a  commonplace  of  morals.  To 
the  horrors  of  the  arena  we  may  attribute  in  part,  not  only  the 
brutal  treatment  of  their  slaves  and  prisoners,  but  the  frequency 
of  suicide  among  the  Romans.  On  the  other  hand,  we  should  be 
careful  not  to  exaggerate  the  effects  or  draw  too  sweeping  infer- 
ences from  the  prevalence  of  this  degrading  amusement.  Human 
nature  is  happily  illogical;  and  we  know  that  many  of  the  Roman 
statesmen  who  gave  these  games,  and  themselves  enjoyed  these  sights 
of  blood,  were  in  every  other  department  of  life  irreproachable — 
indulgent  fathers,  humane  generals  and  mild  rulers  of  provinces. 
In  the  present  state  of  society  it  is  difficult  to  conceive  how  a  man 
of  taste  can  have  endured  to  gaze  upon  a  scene  of  human  butchery. 
Yet  we  should  remember  that  it  is  not  so  long  since  bear-baiting  was 
prohibited  in  England,  and  we  are  only  now  attaining  that  stage  of 
morality  in  respect  of  cruelty  to  animals  that  was  reached  in  the  5th 
century,  by  the  help  of  Christianity,  in  respect  of  cruelty  to  men. 
We  shall  not  then  be  greatly  surprised  if  hardly  one  of  the  Roman 
moralists  is  found  to  raise  his  voice  against  this  amusement,  except 
on  the  score  of  extravagance.  Cicero  in  a  well-known  passage  com- 
mends the  gladiatorial  games  as  the  best  discipline  against  the  fear 
of  death  and  suffering  that  can  be  presented  to  the  eye.  The 
younger  Pliny,  who  perhaps  of  all  Romans  approaches  nearest  to  our 
ideal  of  a  cultured  gentleman,  speaks  approvingly  of  them.  Marcus 
Aurelius,  though  he  did  much  to  mitigate  their  horrors,  yet  in  his 
writings  condemns  the  monotony  rather  than  the  cruelty.  Seneca 
is  indeed  a  splendid  exception,  and  his  letter  to  Lentulus  is  an 
eloquent  protest  against  this  inhuman  sport.  But  it  is  without 
a  parallel  till  we  come  to  the  writings  of  the  Christian  fathers, 
Tertullian,  Lactantius,  Cyprian  and  Augustine.  In  the  Confessions 
of  the  last  there  occurs  a  narrative  which  is  worth  quoting  as  a  proof 
of  the  strange  fascination  which  the  games  exercised  even  on  a 
religious  man  and  a  Christian.  He  tells  us  how  his  friend  Alipius 
was  dragged  against  his  will  to  the  amphitheatre,  how  he  strove 
to  quiet  his  conscience  by  closing  his  eyes,  how  at  some  exciting 
crisis  the  shouts  of  the  whole  assembly  aroused  his  curiosity,  how 
he  looked  and  was  lost,  grew  drunk  with  the  sight  of  blood,  and 
returned  again  and  again,  knowing  his  guilt  yet  unable  to  abstain. 
The  first  Christian  emperor  was  persuaded  to  issue  an  edict  abolishing 
gladiatorial  games  (325),  yet  in  404  we  read  of  an  exhibition  of 
gladiators  to  celebrate  the  triumph  of  Honorius  over  the  Goths, 
and  it  is  said  that  they  were  not  totally  extinct  in  the  West  till  the 
time  of  Theodoric. 

Gladiators  formed  admirable  models  for  the  sculptor.  One  of 
the  finest  pieces  of  ancient  sculpture  that  has  come  down  to  us  is 
the  "  Wounded  Gladiator"  of  the  National  Museum  at  Naples.  The 
so-called  "Fighting  Gladiator"  of  the  Borghese  collection,  now  in  the 
Museum  of  the  Louvre,  and  the  "Dying  Gladiator"  of  the  Capitoline 
Museum,  which  inspired  the  famous  stanza  of  Childe  Harold,  have 
been  pronounced  by  modern  antiquaries  to  represent,  not  gladiators, 
but  warriors.  In  this  connexion  we  may  mention  the  admirable 
picture  of  Gerome  which  bears  the  title,  Ave,  Caesar,  morituri  te 
salutant." 

The  attention  of  archaeologists  has  been  recently  directed  to  the 
tesserae  of  gladiators.  These  tesserae,  of  which  about  sixty  exist  in 
various  museums,  are  small  oblong  tablets  of  ivory  or  bone,  with 
an  inscription  on  each  of  the  four  sides.  The  first  line  contains 
a  name  in  the  nominative  case,  presumably  that  of  the  gladiator; 
the  second  line  a  name  in  the  genitive,  that  of  the  patronus  or 
dominus;  the  third  line  begins  with  the  letters  SP  (for  spectatus 
=  approved),  which  shows  that  the  gladiator  had  passed  his  pre- 
liminary trials;  this  is  followed  by  a  day  of  a  Roman  month;  and 
in  the  fourth  line  are  the  names  of  the  consuls  of  a  particular  year. 


in  Marquardt's  Romische  Staatstierwaltung,  iii.  (1885)  p.  554;  see 
also  article  by  G.  Lafaye  in  Daremberg  and  Saglio,  Dictionnaire 
des  anliquites.  See  also  F.  W.  Ritschl,  Tesserae  gladialoriae  (1864) 
and  P.  J.  Meier,  De  gladiatura  Romana  quaestiones  selectae  (1881). 
The  articles  by  Lipsius  on  the  Saturnalia  and  amphitheatrum  in 
Graevius,  Thesaurus  antiquitatum  Romanarum,  ix.,  may  still  be 
consulted  with  advantage. 

GLADIOLUS,  a  genus  of  monocotyledonous  plants,  belonging 
to  the  natural  order  Iridaceae.  They  are  herbaceous  plants 
growing  from  a  solid  fibrous-coated  bulb  (or  conn),  with  long 
narrow  plaited  leaves  and  a  terminal  one-sided  spike  of  generally 
bright-coloured  irregular  flowers.  The  segments  of  the  limb  of 
the  perianth  are  very  unequal,  the  perianth  tube  is  curved,  funnel- 
xii.  3 


shaped  and  widening  upwards,  the  segments  equalling  or 
exceeding  the  tube  in  length.  There  are  about  150  known 
species,  a  large  number  of  which  are  South  African,  but  the 
genus  extends  into  tropical  Africa,  forming  a  characteristic 
feature  of  the  mountain  vegetation,  and  as  far  north  as  central 
Europe  and  western  Asia.  One  species  G.  illyricus  (sometimes 
regarded  as  a  variety  of  G.  communis)  is  found  wild  in  England, 
in  the  New  Forest  and  the  Isle  of  Wight.  Some  of  the  species 
have  been  cultivated  for  a  long  period  in  English  flower-gardens, 
where  both  the  introduced  species  and  the  modern  varieties 
bred  from  them  are  very  ornamental  and  popular.  G.  segetum 
has  been  cultivated  since  1596,  and  G.  byzantinus  since  1629, 
while  many  additional  species  were  introduced  during  the  latter 
half  of  the  i8th  century.  One  of  the  earlier  of  the  hybrids 
originated  in  gardens  was  the  beautiful  G.  Colvillei,  raised  in  the 
nursery  of  Mr  Colville  of  Chelsea  in  1823  from  G.  tristis  fertilized* 
by  G.  cardinalis.  In  the  first  decade  of  the  iQth  century,  however, 
the  Hon.  and  Rev.  W.  Herbert  had  successfully  crossed  the 
showy  G.  cardinalis  with  the  smaller  but  more  free-flowering 
G.  blandus,  and  the  result  was  the  production  of  a  race  of  great 
beauty  and  fertility.  Other  crosses  were  made  with  G.  tristis, 
G.  oppositiflorus,  G.  hirsutus,  G.  alatus  and  G.  psittacinus;  but 
it  was  not  till  after  the  production  of  G.  gandavensis  that  the 
gladiolus  really  became  a  general  favourite  in  gardens.  This 
fine  hybrid  was  raised  in  1837  by  M.  Bedinghaus,  gardener  to 
the  due  d'Aremberg,  at  Enghien,  crossing  G.  psittacinus  and 
G.  cardinalis.  There  can,  however,  be  little  doubt  that  before 
the  gandavensis  type  had  become  fairly  fixed  the  services  of 
other  species  were  brought  into  force,  and  the  most  likely  of 
these  were  G.  oppositiflorus  (which  shows  in  the  white  forms), 
G.  blandus  and  G.  ramosus.  Other  species  may  also  have  been 
used,  but  in  any  case  the  gandavensis  gladiolus,  as  we  now  know 
it,  is  the  result  of  much  crossing  and  inter-crossing  between 
the  best  forms  as  they  developed  (J.  Weathers,  Practical  Guide 
to  Garden  Plants).  Since  that  time  innumerable  varieties  have 
appeared  only  to  sink  into  oblivion  upon  being  replaced  by 
still  finer  productions. 

The  modern  varieties  of  gladioli  have  almost  completely 
driven  the  natural  species  out  of  gardens,  except  in  botanical 
collections.  The  most  gorgeous  groups — in  addition  to  the 
gandavensis  type — are  those  known  under  the  names  of  Lemoinei, 
Childsi,  nanceianus  and  brenchleyensis.  The  last-named  was 
raised  by  a  Mr  Hooker  at  Brenchley  in  1848,  and  although  quite 
distinct  in  appearance  from  gandavensis,  it  undoubtedly  had 
that  variety  as  one  of  its  parents.  Owing  to  the  brilliant  scarlet 
colour  of  the  flowers,  this  is  always  a  great  favourite  for  planting 
in  beds.  The  Lemoinei  forms  originated  at  Nancy,  in  France, 
by  fertilizing  G.  purpureo-auratus  with  pollen  from  G.  gandavensis, 
the  first  flower  appearing  in  1877,  and  the  plants  being  put  into 
commerce  in  1880.  The  Childsi  gladioli  first  appeared  in  1882, 
having  been  raised  at  Baden-Baden  by  Herr  Max  Leichtlin 
from  the  best  forms  of  G.  gandavensis  and  G.  Saundersi.  The 
flowers  of  the  best  varieties  are  of  great  size  and  substance,  often 
measuring  7  to  9  in.  across,  while  the  range  of  colour  is  marvellous, 
with  shades  of  grey,  purple,  scarlet,  salmon,  crimson,  rose,  white, 
pink,  yellow,  &c.,  often  beautifully  mottled  and  blotched  in  the 
throat.  The  plants  are  vigorous  in  growth,  often  reaching  a 
height  of  4  to  5  ft.  G.  nanceianus  was  raised  at  Nancy  by 
MM.  Lemoine  and  were  first  put  into  commerce  in  1889.  Next 
to  the  Childsi  group  they  are  the  most  beautiful,  and  have  the 
blood  of  the  best  forms  of  G.  Saundersi  and  G.  Lemoinei  in  their 
veins.  The  plants  are  quite  as  hardy  as  the  gandavensis  hybrids, 
and  the  colours  of  the  flowers  are  almost  as  brilliant  and  varied 
in  hue  as  those  of  the  Childsi  section. 

A  deep  and  rather  stiff  sandy  loam  is  the  best  soil  for  the  gladiolus, 
and  this  should  be  trenched  up  in  October  and  enriched  with  well- 
decomposed  manure,  consisting  partly  of  cow  dung,  the  manure  being 
disposed  altogether  below  the  corms,  a  layer  at  the  bottom  of  the 
upper  trench,  say  9  in.  from  the  surface,  and  another  layer  at  double 
that  depth.  The  corms  should  be  planted  in  succession  at  intervals 
of  two  or  three  weeks  through  the  months  of  March,  April  and  May ; 
about  3  to  5  in.  deep  and  at  least  I  ft.  apart,  a  little  pure  soil  or  sand 
being  laid  over  each  before  the  earth  is  closed  in  about  them,  an 


66 


GLADSHEIM— GLADSTONE 


arrangement  which  may  be  advantageously  followed  with  bulbous 
plants  generally.  In  hot  summer  weather  they  should  have  a  good 
mulching  of  well-decayed  manure,  and,  as  soon  as  the  flower  spikes 
are  produced,  liquid  manure  may  occasionally  be  given  them  with 
advantage. 

The  gladiolus  is  easily  raised  from  seeds,  which  should  be  sown  in 
March  or  April  in  pots  of  rich  soil  placed  in  slight  heat,  the  pots 
being  kept  near  the  glass  after  they  begin  to  grow,  and  the  plants 
being  gradually  hardened  to  permit  their  being  placed  out-of-doors 
in  a  sheltered  spot  for  the  summer.  Modern  growers  often  grow  the 
seeds  in  the  open  in  April  on  a  nicely  prepared  bed  in  drills  about 
6  in.  apart  and  $  in.  deep,  covering  them  with  finely  sifted  gritty 
mould.  The  seed  bed  is  then  pressed  down  evenly  and  firmly, 
watered  occasionally  and  kept  free  from  weeds  during  the  summer. 
In  October  they  will  have  ripened  off,  and  must  be  taken  out  of  the 
soil,  and  stored  in  paper  bags  in  a  dry  room  secure  from  frost.  They 
will  have  made  little  bulbs  from  the  size  of  a  hazel  nut  downwards, 
according  to  their  vigour.  In  the  spring  they  should  be  planted 
Jike  the  old  bulbs,  and  the  larger  ones  will  flower  during  the  season, 
while  the  smaller  ones  must  be  again  harvested  and  planted  out  as 
before.  The  time  occupied  from  the  sowing  of  the  seed  until  the 
plant  attains  its  full  strength  is  from  three  to  four  years.  The 
approved  sorts,  which  are  identified  by  name,  are  multiplied  by 
means  of  bulblets  or  offsets  or  "  spawn,"  which  form  around  the 
principal  bulb  or  corm;  but  in  this  they  vary  greatly,  some  kinds 
furnishing  abundant  increase  and  soon  becoming  plentiful,  while 
others  persistently  refuse  to  yield  offsets.  The  stately  habit  and 
rich  glowing  colours  of  the  modern  gladioli  render  them  exceedingly 
valuable  as  decorative  plants  during  the  late  summer  months.  They 
are,  moreover,  very  desirable  and  useful  flowers  for  cutting  for  the 
purpose  of  room  decoration,  for  while  the  blossoms  themselves  last 
fresn  for  some  days  if  cut  either  early  in  the  morning  or  late  in  the 
evening,  the  undeveloped  buds  open  in  succession,  if  the  stalks  are 
kept  in  water,  so  that  a  cut  spike  will  go  on  blooming  for  some  time. 

GLADSHEIM  (Old  Norse  Gladsheimr),  in  Scandinavian 
mythology,  the  region  of  joy  and  home  of  Odin.  Valhalla, 
the  paradise  whither  the  heroes  who  fell  in  battle  were  escorted, 
was  situated  there. 

GLADSTONE,  JOHN  HALL  (1827-1902),  English  chemist, 
was  born  at  Hackney,  London,  on  the  7th  of  March  1827.  From 
childhood  he  showed  great  aptitude  for  science;  geology  was 
his  favourite  subject,  but  since  this  in  his  father's  opinion  did 
not  afford  a  career  of  promise,  he  devoted  himself  to  chemistry, 
which  he  studied  under  Thomas  Graham  at  University  College, 
London,  and  Liebig  at  Giessen,  where  he  graduated  as  Ph.D. 
in  1847.  In  1850  he  became  chemical  lecturer  at  St  Thomas's 
hospital,  and  three  years  later  was  elected  a  fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society  at  the  unusually  early  age  of  twenty-six.  From  1858 
to  1 86 1  he  served  on  the  royal  commission  on  lighthouses,  and 
from  1864  to  1868  was  a  member  of  the  war  office  committee 
on  gun-cotton.  From  1874  to  1877  he  was  Fullerian  professor 
of  chemistry  at  the  Royal  Institution,  in  1874  he  was  chosen 
first  president  of  the  Physical  Society,  and  in  1877-1879  he  was 
president  of  the  Chemical  Society.  In  1897  the  Royal  Society 
recognized  his  fifty  years  of  scientific  work  by  awarding  him  the 
Davy  medal.  Dr  Gladstone's  researches  were  large  in  number 
and  wide  in  range,  dealing  to  a  great  extent  with  problems 
that  lie  on  the  border-line  between  physics  and  chemistry. 
Thus  a  number  of  his  inquiries,  and  those  not  the  least  important, 
were  partly  chemical,  partly  optical.  He  determined  the  optical 
constants  of  hundreds  of  substances,  with  the  object  of  discover- 
ing whether  any  of  the  elements  possesses  more  than  one  atomic 
refraction.  Again,  he  investigated  the  connexion  between  the 
optical  behaviour,  density  and  chemical  composition  of  ethereal 
oils,  and  the  relation  between  molecular  magnetic  rotation  and 
the  refraction  and  dispersion  of  nitrogenous  compounds.  So 
early  as  1856  he  showed  the  importance  of  the  spectroscope 
in  chemical  research,  and  he  was  one  of  the  first  to  notice  that 
the  Fraunhofer  spectrum  at  sunrise  and  sunset  differs  from  that 
at  midday,  his  conclusion  being  that  the  earth's  atmosphere 
must  be  responsible  for  many  of  its  absorption  lines,  which 
indeed  were  subsequently  traced  to  the  oxygen  and  water-vapour 
in  the  air.  Another  portion  of  his  work  was  of  an  electro-chemical 
character.  His  studies,  with  Alfred  Tribe  (1840-1885)  and  W. 
Hibbert,  in  the  chemistry  of  the  storage  battery,  have  added 
largely  to  our  knowledge,  while- the  "  copper-zinc  couple,"  with 
which  his  name  is  associated  together  with  that  of  Tribe,  among 
other  things,  afforded  a  simple  means  of  preparing  certain 


organo-metallic  compounds,  and  thus  promoted  research  in 
branches  of  organic  chemistry  where  those  bodies  are  especially 
useful.  Mention  may  also  be  made  of  his  work  on  phosphorus, 
on  explosive  substances,  such  as  iodide  of  nitrogen,  gun-cotton 
and  the  fulminates,  on  the  influence  of  mass  in  the  process  of 
chemical  reactions,  and  on  the  effect  of  carbonic  acid  on  the 
germination  of  plants.  Dr  Gladstone  always  took  a  great 
interest  in  educational  questions,  and  from  1873  to  1894  he  was 
a  member  of  the  London  School  Board.  He  was  also  a  member 
of  the  Christian  Evidence  Society,  and  an  early  supporter  of 
the  Young  Men's  Christian  Association.  His  death  occurred 
suddenly  in  London  on  the  6th  of  October  1902. 

GLADSTONE,  WILLIAM  EWART  (1809-1898),  British 
statesman,  was  born  on  the  29th  of  December  1809  at  No.  62 
Rodney  Street,  Liverpool.  His  forefathers  were  Gledstanes 
of  Gledstanes,  in  the  upper  ward  of  Lanarkshire;  or  in  Scottish 
phrase,  Gledstanes  of  that  Ilk.  As  years  went  on  their  estates 
dwindled,  and  by  the  beginning  of  the  I7th  century  Gledstanes 
was  sold.  The  adjacent  property  of  Arthurshiel  remained  in 
the  hands  of  the  family  for  nearly  a  hundred  years  longer.  Then 
the  son  of  the  last  Gledstanes  of  Arthurshiel  removed  to  Biggar, 
where  he  opened  the  business  of  a  maltster.  His  grandson, 
Thomas  Gladstone  (for  so  the  name  was  modified),  became  a 
corn-merchant  at  Leith.  He  happened  to  send  his  eldest  son, 
John,  to  Liverpool  to  sell  a  cargo  of  grain  there,  and  the  energy 
and  aptitude  of  the  young  man  attracted  the  favourable  notice 
of  a  leading  corn-merchant  of  Liverpool,  who  recommended  him 
to  settle  in  that  city.  Beginning  his  commercial  career  as  a 
clerk  in  his  patron's  house,  John  Gladstone  lived  to  become 
one  of  the  merchant-princes  of  Liverpool,  a  baronet  and  a 
member  of  parliament.  He  died  in  1851  at  the  age  of  eighty- 
seven.  Sir  John  Gladstone  was  a  pure  Scotsman,  a  Lowlander 
by  birth  and  descent.  He  married  Anne,  daughter  of  Andrew 
Robertson  of  Stornoway ,  sometime  provost  of  Dingwall.  Provost 
Robertson  belonged  to  the  Clan  Donachie,  and  by  this  marriage 
the  robust  and  business-like  qualities  of  the  Lowlander  were 
blended  with  the  poetic  imagination,  the  sensibility  and  fire 
of  the  Gael. 

John  and  Anne  Gladstone  had  six  children.  The  fourth  son, 
William  Ewart,  was  named  after  a  merchant  of  Liverpool  who 
was  his  father's  friend.  He  seems  to  have  been  a 
remarkably  good  child,  and  much  beloved  at  home. 
In  1818  or  1819  Mrs  Gladstone,  who  belonged  to  the  tloo_ 
Evangelical  school,  said  in  a  letter  to  a  friend,  that 
she  believed  her  son  William  had  been  "  truly  converted  to  God." 
After  some  tuition  at  the  vicarage  of  Seaforth,  a  watering-place 
near  Liverpool,  the  boy  went  to  Eton  in  1821.  His  tutor  was 
the  Rev.  Henry  Hartopp  Knapp.  His  brothers,  Thomas  and 
Robertson  Gladstone,  were  already  at  Eton.  Thomas  was  in  the 
fifth  form,  and  William,  who  was  placed  in  the  middle  remove 
of  the  fourth  form,  became  his  eldest  brother's  fag.  He  worked 
hard  at  his  classical  lessons,  and  supplemented  the  ordinary 
business  of  the  school  by  studying  mathematics  in  the  holidays. 
Mr  Hawtrey,  afterwards  headmaster,  commended  a  copy  of 
his  Latin  verses,  and  "  sent  him  up  for  good  ";  and  this  ex- 
perience first  led  the  young  student  to  associate  intellectual 
work  with  the  ideas  of  ambition  and  success.  He  was  not  a 
fine  scholar,  in  that  restricted  sense  of  the  term  which  implies 
a  special  aptitude  for  turning  English  into  Greek  and  Latin,  or 
for  original  versification  in  the  classical  languages.  "  His 
composition,"  we  read,  "  was  stiff,"  but  he  was  imbued  with 
the  substance  of  his  authors;  and  a  contemporary  who  was  in 
the  sixth  form  with  him  recorded  that  "  when  there  were  thrilling 
passages  of  Virgil  or  Homer,  or  difficult  passages  in  the  Scriptores 
Graeci,  to  translate,  he  or  Lord  Arthur  Hervey  was  generally 
called  up  to  edify  the  class  with  quotation  or  translation."  By 
common  consent  he  was  pre-eminently  God-fearing,  orderly 
and  conscientious.  "  At  Eton,"  said  Bishop  Hamilton  of 
Salisbury,  "  I  was  a  thoroughly  idle  boy,  but  I  was  saved  from 
some  worse  things  by  getting  to  know  Gladstone."  His  most 
intimate  friend  was  Arthur  Hallam,  by  universal  acknowledg- 
ment the  most  remarkable  Etonian  of  his  day;  but  he  was  not 


GLADSTONE 


67 


generally  popular  or  even  widely  known.  He  was  seen  to  the 
greatest  advantage,  and  was  most  thoroughly  at  home,  in  the 
debates  of  the  Eton  Society,  learnedly  called  "  The  Literati,"  and 
vulgarly  "  Pop,"  and  in  the  editorship  of  the  Eton  Miscellany. 
He  left  Eton  at  Christmas  1827.  He  read  for  six  months  with 
private  tutors,  and  in  October  1828  went  up  to  Christ  Church, 
where,  in  the  following  year,  he  was  nominated  to  a  studentship. 

At  Oxford  Gladstone  read  steadily,  but  not  laboriously, 
till  he  neared  his  final  schools.  During  the  latter  part  of  his 
undergraduate  career  he  took  a  brief  but  brilliant  share  in  the 
proceedings  of  the  Union,  of  which  he  was  successively  secretary 
and  president.  He  made  his  first  speech  on  the  nth  of  February 
1830.  Brought  up  in  the  nurture  and  admonition  of  Canning,  he 
defended  Roman  Catholic  emancipation,  and  thought  the  duke 
of  Wellington's  government  unworthy  of  national  confidence. 
He  opposed  the  removal  of  Jewish  disabilities,  arguing,  we  are 
told  by  a  contemporary,  "  on  the  part  of  the  Evangelicals," 
and  pleaded  for  the  gradual  extinction,  in  preference  to  the 
immediate  abolition,  of  slavery.  But  his  great  achievement 
was  a  speech  against  the  Whig  Reform  Bill.  One  who  heard 
this  famous  discourse  says:  "  Most  of  the  speakers  rose,  more 
or  less,  above  their  usual  level,  but  when  Mr  Gladstone  sat 
down  we  all  of  us  felt  that  an  epoch  in  our  lives  had  occurred. 
It  certainly  was  the  finest  speech  of  his  that  I  ever  heard." 
Bishop  Charles  Wordsworth  said  that  his  experience  of  Gladstone 
at  this  time  "  made  me  (and  I  doubt  not  others  also)  feel  no  less 
sure  than  of  my  own  existence  that  Gladstone,  our  then  Christ 
Church  undergraduate,  would  one  day  rise  to  be  prime  minister 
of  England."  In  December  1831  Gladstone  crowned  his  career 
by  taking  a  double  first-class.  Lord  Halifax  (1800-1885)  used 
to  say,  with  reference  to  the  increase  in  the  amount  of  reading 
requisite  for  the  highest  honours:  "  My  double-first  must  have 
been  a  better  thing  than  Peel's;  Gladstone's  must  have  been 
better  than  mine." 

Now  came  the  choice  of  a  profession.  Deeply  anxious  to  make 
the  best  use  of  his  life,  Gladstone  turned  his  thoughts  to  holy 
orders.  But  his  father  had  determined  to  make  him 
Entry  into  a  politician.  Quitting  Oxford  in  the  spring  of  1832, 
^fa"'  Gladstone  spent  six  months  in  Italy,  learning  the 
language  and  studying  art.  In  the  following  September 
he  was  suddenly  recalled  to  England,  to  undertake  his  first 
parliamentary  campaign.  The  fifth  duke  of  Newcastle  was  one 
of  the  chief  potentates  of  the  High  Tory  party.  His  frank 
claim  to  "  do  what  he  liked  with  his  own  "  in  the  representation 
of  -Newark  has  given  him  a  place  in  political  history.  But  that 
claim  had  been  rudely  disputed  by  the  return  of  a  Radical 
lawyer  at  the  election  of  1831.  The  Duke  was  anxious  to  obtain 
a  capable  candidate  to  aid  him  in  regaining  his  ascendancy  over 
the  rebellious  borough.  His  son,  Lord  Lincoln,  had  heard 
Gladstone's  speech  against  the  Reform  Bill  delivered  in  the 
Oxford  Union,  and  had  written  home  that  "  a  man  had  uprisen 
in  Israel."  At  his  suggestion  the  duke  invited  Gladstone  to 
stand  for  Newark  in  the  Tory  interest  against  Mr  Serjeant 
Wilde,  afterwards  Lord  Chancellor  Truro.  The  last  of  the 
Unreformed  parliaments  was  dissolved  on  the  3rd  of  December 

1832.  Gladstone,  addressing  the  electors  of  Newark,  said  that 
he  was  bound  by  the  opinions  of  no  man  and  no  party,  but  felt 
it  a  duty  to  watch  and  resist  that  growing  desire  for  change 
which  threatened  to  produce  "  along  with  partial  good  a  melan- 
choly preponderance  of  mischief."  The  first  principle  to  which 
he  looked  for  national  salvation  was,  that  the"duties  of  governors 
are  strictly  and  peculiarly  religious,  and  that  legislatures,  like 
individuals,  are  bound  to  carry  throughout  their  acts  the  spirit 
of  the  high  truths  they  have  acknowledged."    The  condition  of 
the  poor  demanded  special  attention;  labour  should  receive 
adequate   remuneration;   and   he   thought   favourably   of   the 
"  allotment   of   cottage   grounds."      He   regarded   slavery   as 
sanctioned  by  Holy  Scripture,  but  the  slaves  ought  to  be  educated 
and  gradually  emancipated.    The  contest  resulted  in  his  return 
at  the  head  of  the  poll. 

The  first  Reformed  parliament  met  on  the  2gth  of  January 

1833,  and  the  young  member  for  Newark  took  his  seat  for  the  first 


time  in  an  assembly  which  he  was  destined  to  adorn,  delight 
and  astonish  for  more  than  half  a  century.  His  maiden  speech 
was  delivered  on  the  3rd  of  June  in  reply  to  what  was 
almost  a  personal  challenge.  The  colonial  secretary,  Tlle  «"••• 
Mr  Stanley,  afterwards  Lord  Derby,  brought  forward  ,;a"J^ 
a  series  of  resolutions  in  favour  of  the  extinction  of 
slavery  in  the  British  colonies.  On  the  first  night  of  the  debate 
Lord  Howick,  afterwards  Lord  Grey,  who  had  been  under- 
secretary for  the  Colonies,  and  who  opposed  the  resolutions 
as  proceeding  too  gradually  towards  abolition,  cited  certain 
occurrences  on  Sir  John  Gladstone's  plantation  in  Demerara 
to  illustrate  his  contention  that  the  system  of  slave-labour  in 
the  West  Indies  was  attended  by  great  mortality  among  the 
slaves.  Gladstone  in  his  reply — his  first  speech  in  the  House — 
avowed  that  he  had  a  pecuniary  interest  in  the  question,  "  and, 
if  he  might  say  so  much  without  exciting  suspicion,  a  still  deeper 
interest  in  it  as  a  question  of  justice,  of  humanity  and  of  religion." 
If  there  had  recently  been  a  high  mortality  on  his  father's  planta- 
tion, it  was  due  to  the  age  of  the  slaves  rather  than  to  any 
peculiar  hardship  in  their  lot.  It  was  true  that  the  particular 
system  of  cultivation  practised  in  Demerara  was  more  trying 
than  some  others;  but  then  it  might  be  said  that  no  two  trades 
were  equally  conducive  to  health.  Steel-grinding  was  notoriously 
unhealthy,  and  manufacturing  processes  generally  were  less 
favourable  to  life  than  agricultural.  While  strongly  condemning 
cruelty,  he  declared  himself  an  advocate  of  emancipation,  but 
held  that  it  should  be  effected  gradually,  and  after  due  prepara- 
tion. The  slaves  must  be  religiously  educated,  and  stimulated 
to  profitable  industry.  The  owners  of  emancipated  slaves  were 
entitled  to  receive  compensation  from  parliament,  because  it 
was  parliament  that  had  established  this  description  of  property. 
"  I  do  not,"  said  Gladstone,  "  view  property  as  an  abstract 
thing;  it  is  the  creature  of  civil  society.  By  the  legislature  it  is 
granted,  and  by  the  legislature  it  is  destroyed.  "  On  the  following 
day  King  William  IV.  wrote  to  Lord  Althorp:  "  The  king 
rejoices  that  a  young  member  has  come  forward  in  so  promis- 
ing a  manner  as  Viscount  Althorp  states  Mr  W.  E.  Gladstone 
to  have  done."  In  the  same  session  Gladstone  spoke  on 
the  question  of  bribery  and  corruption  at  Liverpool,  and 
on  the  temporalities  of  the  Irish  Church.  In  the  session 
of  1834  his  most  important  performance  was  a  speech  in 
opposition  to  Hume's  proposal  to  throw  the  universities  open 
to  Dissenters. 

On  the  loth  of  November  1834  Lord  Althorp  succeeded  to 
his  father's  peerage,  and  thereby  vacated  the  leadership  of 
the  House  of  Commons.  The  prime  minister,  Lord  Melbourne, 
submitted  to  the  king  a  choice  of  names  for  the  chancellorship 
of  the  exchequer  and  leadership  of  the  House  of  Commons; 
but  his  majesty  announced  that,  having  lost  the  services  of 
Lord  Althorp  as  leader  of  the  House  of  Commons,  he  could  feel 
no  confidence  in  the  stability  of  Lord  Melbourne's  government, 
and  that  it  was  his  intention  to  send  for  the  duke  of  Wellington. 
The  duke  took  temporary  charge  of  affairs,  but  Peel  was  felt  to 
be  indispensable.  He  had  gone  abroad  after  the  session,  and 
was  now  in  Rome.  As  soon  as  he  could  be  brought  back  he 
formed  an  administration,  and  appointed  Gladstone  to  a  junior 
lordship  of  the  treasury.  Parliament  was  dissolved  on  the  2pth 
of  December.  Gladstone  was  returned  unopposed,  this  time  in 
conjunction  with  the  Liberal  lawyer  whom  he  had  beaten  at  the 
last  election.  The  new  parliament  met  on  the  igth  of  February 
1835.  The  elections  had  given  the  Liberals  a  considerable 
majority.  Immediately  after  the  meeting  of  parliament  Glad- 
stone was  promoted  to  the  under-secretaryship  for  the  colonies, 
where  his  official  chief  was  Lord  Aberdeen.  The  administration 
was  not  long-lived.  On  the  3oth  of  March  Lord  John  Russell 
moved  a  resolution  in  favour  of  an  inquiry  into  the  temporalities 
of  the  Irish  Church,  with  the  intention  of  applying  the  surplus 
to  general  education  without  distinction  of  religious  creed 
This  was  carried  against  ministers  by  a  majority  of  thirty-three. 
On  the  8th  of  April  Sir  Robert  Peel  resigned,  and  the  under- 
secretary for  the  colonies  of  course  followed  his  chief  into  private 
life. 


68 


GLADSTONE 


Released  from  the  labours  of  office,  Gladstone,  living  in 
chambers  in  the  Albany,  practically  divided  his  time  between 

his  parliamentary  duties  and  study.  Then,  as  always, 
wor™'y  his  constant  companions  were  Homer  and  Dante,  and 

it  is  recorded  that  he  read  the  whole  of  St  Augustine, 
in  twenty-two  octavo  volumes.  He  used  to  frequent  the  services 
at  St  James's,  Piccadilly,  and  Margaret  chapel,  since  better 
known  as  All  Saints',  Margaret  Street.  On  the  2oth  of  June 
1837  King  William  IV.  died,  and  Parliament,  having  been 
prorogued  by  the  young  queen  in  person,  was  dissolved  on  the 
1 7th  of  the  following  month.  Simply  on  the  strength  of  his 
parliamentary  reputation  Gladstone  was  nominated,  without 
his  consent,  for  Manchester,  and  was  placed  at  the  bottom  of 
the  poll;  but,  having  been  at  the  same  time  nominated  at 
Newark,  was  again  returned.  The  year  1838  claims  special  note 
in  a  record  of  Gladstone's  life,  because  it  witnessed  the  appearance 
of  his  famous  work  on  The  State  in  its  Relations  with  the  Church. 
He  had  left  Oxford  just  before  the  beginning  of  that  Catholic 
revival  which  has  transfigured  both  the  inner  spirit  and  the 
outward  aspect  of  the  Church  of  England.  But  the  revival  was 
now  in  full  strength.  The  Tracts  for  the  Times  were  saturating 
England  with  new  influences.  The  movement  counted  no  more 
enthusiastic  or  more  valuable  disciple  than  Gladstone.  Its 
influence  had  reached  him  through  his  friendships,  notably  with 
two  Fellows  of  Merton — Mr  James  Hope,  who  became  Mr  Hope- 
Scott  of  Abbotsford,  and  the  Rev.  H.  E.  Manning,  afterwards 
cardinal  archbishop.  The  State  in  its  Relations  with  the  Church 
was  his  practical  contribution  to  a  controversy  in  which  his 
deepest  convictions  were  involved.  He  contended  that  the 
Church,  as  established  by  law,  was  to  be  "  maintained  for  its 
truth,"  and  that  this  principle,  if  good  for  England,  was  good 
also  for  Ireland. 

On  the  25th  of  July  1839  Gladstone  was  married  at  Ha  warden 
to  Miss  Catherine  Glynne,  sister,  and  in  her  issue  heir,  of  Sir 
Stephen  Glynne,  ninth  and  last  baronet  of  that  name.  In 
1840  he  published  Church  Principles  considered  in  their  Results. 

Parliament  was  dissolved  in  June  1841.  Gladstone  was 
again  returned  for  Newark.  The  general  election  resulted  in 

a  Tory  majority  of  eighty.  Sir  Robert  Peel  became 
cabinet.  *  Prime  minister,  and  made  the  member  for  Newark 

vice-president  of  the  Board  of  Trade.  An  inevitable 
change  is  from  this  time  to  be  traced  in  the  topics  of  Gladstone's 
parliamentary  speaking.  Instead  of  discoursing  on  the  corporate 
conscience  of  the  state  and  the  endowments  of  the  Church,  the 
importance  of  Christian  education,  and  the  theological  unfitness 
of  the  Jews  to  sit  in  parliament,  he  is  solving  business-like 
problems  about  foreign  tariffs  and  the  exportation  of  machinery; 
waxing  eloquent  over  the  regulation  of  railways,  and  a  graduated 
tax  on  corn;  subtle  on  the  monetary  merits  of  half-farthings, 
and  great  in  the  mysterious  lore  of  quassia  and  cocculus  indicus. 
In  1842  he  had  a  principal  hand  in  the  preparation  of  the  revised 
tariff,  by  which  duties  were  abolished  or  sensibly  diminished 
in  the  case  of  1 200  duty-paying  articles.  In  defending  the  new 
scheme  he  spoke  incessantly,  and  amazed  the  House  by  his 
mastery  of  detail,  his  intimate  acquaintance  with  the  commercial 
needs  of  the  country,  and  his  inexhaustible  power  of  exposition. 
In  1843  Gladstone,  succeeding  Lord  Ripon  as  president  of  the 
Board  of  Trade,  became  a  member  of  the  cabinet  at  the  age  of 
thirty-three.  He  has  recorded  the  fact  that  "  the  very  first 
opinion  which  he  ever  was  called  upon  to  give  in  cabinet  "  was 
an  opinion  in  favour  of  withdrawing  the  bill  providing  education 
for  children  in  factories,  to  which  vehement  opposition  was 
offered  by  the  Dissenters,  on  the  ground  that  it  was  too  favourable 
to  the  Established  Church. 

At  the  opening  of  the  session  of  1845  the  government,  in 
pursuance  of  a  promise  made  to  Irish  members  that  they  would 
Mayoooth  deal  with  the  question  of  academical  education  in 
grant:  Ireland,  proposed  to  establish  non-sectarian  colleges 
"o'n""'  m  t^lat  country  and  to  make  a  large  addition  to  the 

grant  to  the  Roman  Catholic  College  of  Maynooth. 
Gladstone  resigned  office,  in  order,  as  he  announced  in  the  debate 
on  the  address,  to  form  "  not  only  an  honest,  but  likewise  an 


Free 
trade. 


independent  and  an  unsuspected  judgment,"  on  the  plan  to  be 
submitted  by  the  government  with  respect  to  Maynooth.  His 
subsequent  defence  of  the  proposed  grant,  on  the  ground  that 
it  would  be  improper  and  unjust  to  exclude  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  in  Ireland  from  a  "  more  indiscriminating  support  " 
which  the  state  might  give  to  various  religious  beliefs,  was 
regarded  by  men  of  less  sensitive  conscience  as  only  proving  that 
there  had  been  no  adequate  cause  for  his  resignation.  Before 
he  resigned  he  completed  a  second  revised  tariff,  carrying 
considerably  further  the  principles  on  which  he  had  acted  in 
the  earlier  revision  of  1842. 

In  the  autumn  of  1845  the  failure  of  the  potato  crop  in  Ireland 
threatened  a  famine,  and  convinced  Sir  Robert  Peel  that  all 
restrictions  on  the  importation  of  food  must  be  at 
once  suspended.  He  was  supported  by  only  three 
members  of  the  cabinet,  and  resigned  on  the  5th  of 
December.  Lord  John  Russell,  who  had  just  announced  his 
conversion  to  total  and  immediate  repeal  of  the  Corn  Laws, 
declined  the  task  of  forming  an  administration,  and  on  the  2oth 
of  December  Sir  Robert  Peel  resumed  office.  Lord  Stanley 
refused  to  re-enter  the  government,  and  his  place  as  secretary 
of  state  for  the  colonies  was  offered  to  and  accepted  by  Gladstone. 
He  did  not  offer  himself  for  re-election  at  Newark,  and  remained 
outside  the  House  of  Commons  during  the  great  struggle  of  the 
coming  year.  It  was  a  curious  irony  of  fate  which  excluded 
him  from  parliament  at  this  crisis,  for  it  seems  unquestionable 
that  he  was  the  most  advanced  Free  Trader  in  Sir  Robert  Peel's 
Cabinet.  The  Corn  Bill  passed  the  House  of  Lords  on  the  28th 
of  June  1846,  and  on  the  same  day  the  government  were  beaten 
in  the  House  of  Commons  on  an  Irish  Coercion  Bill.  Lord  John 
Russell  became  prime  minister,  and  Gladstone  retired  for  a  season 
into  private  life.  Early  in  1847  it  was  announced  that  one  of  the 
two  members  for  the  university  of  Oxford  intended  to  retire  at 
the  general  election,  and  Gladstone  was  proposed  for  the  vacant 
seat.  The  representation  of  the  university  had  been  pronounced 
by  Canning  to  be  the  most  coveted  prize  of  public  life,  and 
Gladstone  himself  confessed  that  he  "  desired  it  with  an  almost 
passionate  fondness."  Parliament  was  dissolved  on  the  23rd 
of  July  1847.  The  nomination  at  Oxford  took  place  on  the  29th 
of  July,  and  at  the  close  of  the  poll  Sir  Robert  Inglis  stood  at 
the  head,  with  Gladstone  as  his  colleague. 

The  three  years  1847,  1848,  1849  were  for  Gladstone  a  period 
of  mental  growth,  of  transition,  of  development.  A  change 
was  silently  proceeding,  which  was  not  completed  for 
twenty  years.  "  There  have  been,"  he  wrote  in  later 
days  to  Bishop  Wilberforce,  "  two  great  deaths,  or 
transmigrations  of  spirit,  in  my  political  existence — one,  very 
slow,  the  breaking  of  ties  with  my  original  party."  This  was 
now  in  progress.  In  the  winter  of  1850-1851  Gladstone  spent 
between  three  and  four  months  at  Naples,  where  he  learned 
that  more  than  half  the  chamber  of  deputies,  who  had  followed 
the  party  of  Opposition,  had  been  banished  or  imprisoned;  that 
a  large  number,  probably  not  less  than  20,000,  of  the  citizens 
had  been  imprisoned  on  charges  of  political  disaffection,  and  that 
in  prison  they  were  subjected  to  the  grossest  cruelties.  Having 
made  careful  investigations,  Gladstone,  on  the  7th  of  April  1851, 
addressed  an  open  letter  to  Lord  Aberdeen,  bringing  an  elaborate, 
detailed  and  horrible  indictment  against  the  rulers  of  Naples, 
especially  as  regards  the  arrangements  of  their  prisons  and  the 
treatment  of  persons  confined  in  them  for  political  offences. 
The  publication  of  this  letter  caused  a  wide  sensation  in  England 
and  abroad,  and  profoundly  agitated  the  court  of  Naples.  In 
reply  to  a  question  in  the  House  of  Commons,  Lord  Palmerston 
accepted  and  adopted  Gladstone's  statement,  expressed  keen 
sympathy  with  the  cause  which  he  had  espoused,  and  sent  a 
copy  of  his  letter  to  the  queen's  representative  at  every  court  of 
Europe.  A  second  letter  and  a  third  followed,  and  their  effect, 
though  for  a  while  retarded,  was  unmistakably  felt  in  the 
subsequent  revolution  which  created  a  free  and  united  Italy. 

In  February  1852  the  Whig  government  was  defeated  on  a 
Militia  Bill,  and  Lord  John  Russell  was  succeeded  by  Lord 
Derby,  formerly  Lord  Stanley,  with  Mr  Disraeli,  'who  now 


Naples 
prison*. 


GLADSTONE 


69 


entered  office  for  the  first  time,  as  chancellor  of  the  exchequer 
and  leader  of  the  House  of  Commons.  Mr  Disraeli  introduced 
and  carried  a  makeshift  budget,  and  the  government 
Gladstone  tjded  over  tne  session,  and  dissolved  parliament  on  the 
"sraeU.  istof  July  1852.  There  was  some  talk  of  inducing  Glad- 
stone to  join  the  Tory  government,  and  on  the  zpth  of 
November  Lord  Malmesbury  dubiously  remarked,  "  I  cannot 
make  out  Gladstone,  who  seems  to  me  a  dark  horse."  In  the 
following  month  the  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  produced  his 
second  budget.  The  government  redeemed  their  pledge  to  do 
something  for  the  relief  of  the  agricultural  interest  by  reducing 
the  duty  on  malt.  This  created  a  deficit,  which  they  repaired  by 
doubling  the  duty  on  inhabited  houses.  The  voices  of  criticism 
were  heard  simultaneously  on  every  side.  The  debate  waxed 
fast  and  furious.  In  defending  his  proposals  Mr  Disraeli  gave  full 
scope  to  his  most  characteristic  gifts;  he  pelted  his  opponents 
right  and  left  with  sarcasms,  taunts  and  epigrams.  Gladstone 
delivered  an  unpremeditated  reply,  which  has  ever  since  been 
celebrated.  Tradition  says  that  he  "  foamed  at  the  mouth." 
The  speech  of  the  chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  he  said,  must  be 
answered  "  on  the  moment:"  It  must  be  "  tried  by  the  laws 
of  decency  and  propriety."  He  indignantly  rebuked  his  rival's 
language  and  demeanour.  He  tore  his  financial  scheme  to 
ribbons.  It  was  the  beginning  of  a  duel  which  lasted  till 
death  removed  one  of  the  combatants  from  the  political  arena. 
"  Those  who  had  thought  it  impossible  that  any  impression 
could  be  made  upon  the  House  after  the  speech  of  Mr  Disraeli 
had  to  acknowledge  that  a  yet  greater  impression  was  produced 
by  the  unprepared  reply  of  Mr  Gladstone."  The  House  divided, 
and  the  government  were  left  in  a  minority  of  nineteen.  Lord 
Derby  resigned. 

The  new  government  was  a  coalition  of  Whigs  and  Peelites. 
Lord  Aberdeen  became  prime  minister,  and  Gladstone  chancellor 
of  the  exchequer.  Having  been  returned  again  for 
Chancellor  tne  university  of  Oxford,  he  entered  on  the  active 
exchequer,  duties  of  a  great  office  for  which  he  was  pre-eminently 
fitted  by  an  unique  combination  of  financial,  adminis- 
trative and  rhetorical  gifts.  His  first  budget  was  introduced  on 
the  i8th  of  April  1853.  It  tended  to  make  life  easier  and  cheaper 
for  large  and  numerous  classes;  it  promised  wholesale  remissions 
of  taxation;  it  lessened  the  charges  on  common  processes  of 
business,  on  locomotion,  on  postal  communication,  and  on 
several  articles  of  general  consumption.  The  deficiency  thus 
created  was  to  be  met  by  a  "  succession-duty,"  or  application 
of  the  legacy-duty  to  real  property;  by  an  increase  of  the  duty 
on  spirits;  and  by  the  extension  of  the  income-tax,  at  sd.  in 
the  pound,  to  all  incomes  between  £100  and  £150.  The  speech 
in  which  these  proposals  were  introduced  held  the  House  spell- 
bound. Here  was  an  orator  who  could  apply  all  the  resources 
of  a  burnished  rhetoric  to  the  elucidation  of  figures;  who  could 
sweep  the  widest  horizon  of  the  financial  future,  and  yet  stoop 
to  bestow  the  minutest  attention  on  the  microcosm  of  penny 
stamps  and  post-horses.  Above  all,  the  chancellor's  mode  of 
handling  the  income-tax  attracted  interest  and  admiration.  It 
was  a  searching  analysis  of  the  financial  and  moral  grounds  on 
which  the  impost  rested,  and  a  historical  justification  and  eulogy 
of  it.  Yet,  great  as  had  been  the  services  of  the  tax  at  a  time 
of  national  danger,  Gladstone  could  not  consent  to  retain  it  as 
a  part  of  the  permanent  and  ordinary  finances  of  the  country. 
It  was  objectionable  on  account  of  its  unequal  incidence,  of  the 
harassing  investigation  into  private  affairs  which  it  entailed, 
and  of  the  frauds  to  which  it  inevitably  led.  Therefore,  having 
served  its  turn,  it  was  to  be  extinguished  in  1860.  The  scheme 
astonished,  interested  and  attracted  the  country.  The  queen 
and  Prince  Albert  wrote  to  congratulate  the  chancellor  of  the 
exchequer.  Public  authorities  and  private  friends  joined  in 
the  chorus  of  eulogy.  The  budget  demonstrated  at  once  its 
author's  absolute  mastery  over  figures  and  the  persuasive  force 
of  his  expository  gift.  It  established  the  chancellor  of  the 
exchequer  as  the  paramount  financier  of  his  day,  and  it  was  only 
the  first  of  a  long  series  of  similar  performances,  different,  of 
course,  in'  detail,  but  alike  in  their  bold  outlines  and  brilliant 


handling.  Looking  back  on  a  long  life  of  strenuous  exertion, 
Gladstone  declared  that  the  work  of  preparing  his  proposals 
about  the  succession-duty  and  carrying  them  through  Parlia- 
ment was  by  far  the  most  laborious  task  which  he  ever  performed. 

War  between  Great  Britain  and  Russia  was  declared  on  the 
27th  of  March  1854,  and  it  thus  fell  to  the  lot  of  the  most  pacific 
of  ministers,  the  devotee  of  retrenchment,  and  the  anxious 
cultivator  of  all  industrial  arts,  to  prepare  a  war  budget,  and  to 
meet  as  well  as  he  might  the  exigencies  of  a  conflict  which  had  so 
cruelly  dislocated  all  the  ingenious  devices  of  financial  optimism. 
No  amount  of  skill  in  the  manipulation  of  figures,  no  ingenuity 
in  shifting  fiscal  burdens,  could  prevent  the  addition  of  forty-one 
millions  to  the  national  debt,  or  could  countervail  the  appalling 
mismanagement  at  the  seat  of  war.  Gladstone  declared  that 
the  state  of  the  army  in  the  Crimea  was  a  "  matter  for  weeping 
all  day  and  praying  all  night."  As  soon  as  parliament  met  in 
January  1855  J.  A.  Roebuck,  the  Radical  member  for  Sheffield, 
gave  notice  that  he  would  move  for  a  select  committee  "  to 
inquire  into  the  condition  of  our  army  before  Sevastopol,  and 
into  the  conduct  of  those  departments  of  the  government  whose 
duty  it  has  been  to  minister  to  the  wants  of  that  army."  On 
the  same  day  Lord  John  Russell,  without  announcing  his  inten- 
tion to  his  colleagues,  resigned  his  office  as  president  of  the 
council  sooner  than  attempt  the  defence  of  the  government. 
Gladstone,  in  defending  the  government  against  Roebuck, 
rebuked  in  dignified  and  significant  terms  the  conduct  of  men 
who,  "  hoping  to  escape  from  punishment,  ran  away  from  duty." 
On  the  division  on  Mr  Roebuck's  motion  the  government  was 
beaten  by  the  unexpected  majority  of  157. 

Lord  Palmerston  became  prime  minister.  The  Peelites 
joined  him,  and  Gladstone  resumed  office  as  chancellor  of  the 
exchequer.  A  shrewd  observer  at  the  time  pronounced  him 
indispensable.  "  Any  other  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  would 
be  torn  in  bits  by  him."  The  government  was  formed  on  the 
understanding  that  Mr  Roebuck's  proposed  committee  was  to 
be  resisted.  Lord  Palmerston  soon  saw  that  further  resistance 
was  useless;  his  Peelite  colleagues  stuck  to  their  text,  and, 
within  three  weeks  after  resuming  office,  Gladstone,  Sir  James 
Graham  and  Mr  Sidney  Herbert  resigned.  Gladstone  once  said 
of  himself  and  his  Peelite  colleagues,  during  the  period  of  political 
isolation,  that  they  were  like  roving  icebergs  on  which  men 
could  not  land  with  safety,  but  with  which  ships  might  come 
into  perilous  collision.  He  now  applied  himself  specially  to 
financial  criticism,  and  was  perpetually  in  conflict  with  the 
chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  Sir  George  Cornewall  Lewis. 

In  1858  Lord  Palmerston  was  succeeded  by  Lord  Derby  at 
the  head  of  a  Conservative  administration,  and  Gladstone 
accepted  the  temporary  office  of  high  commissioner  extraordinary 
to  the  Ionian  Islands.  Returning  to  England  for  the  session  of 
1859,  he  found  himself  involved  in  the  controversy  which  arose 
over  a  mild  Reform  Bill  introduced  by  the  government.  They 
were  defeated  on  the  second  reading  of  the  bill,  Gladstone  voting 
with  them.  A  dissolution  immediately  followed,  and  Gladstone 
was  again  returned  unopposed  for  the  university  of  Oxford. 
As  soon  as  the  new  parliament  met  a  vote  of  want  of  confidence 
in  the  ministry  was  moved  in  the  House  of  Commons.  In  the 
critical  division  which  ensued  Gladstone  voted  with  the  govern- 
ment, who  were  left  in  a  minority.  Lord  Derby  resigned.  Lord 
Palmerston  became  prime  minister,  and  asked  Gladstone  to 
join  him  as  chancellor  of  the  exchequer.  To  vote  confidence 
in  an  imperilled  ministry,  and  on  its  defeat  to  take  office  with 
the  rivals  who  have  defeated  it,  is  a  manoeuvre  which  invites 
the  reproach  of  tergiversation.  But  Gladstone  risked  the  re- 
proach, accepted  the  office  and  had  a  sharp  tussle  for  his  seat. 
He  emerged  from  the  struggle  victorious,  and  entered  on  his 
duties  with  characteristic  zeal.  The  prince  consort  wrote: 
"  Gladstone  is  now  the  real  leader  in  the  House  of  Commons, 
and  works  with'  an  energy  and  vigour  altogether  incredible." 

The  budget  of  1860  was  marked  by  two  distinctive  features. 
It  asked  the  sanction  of  parliament  for  the  commercial  treaty 
which  Cobden  had  privately  arranged  with  the  emperor  Napoleon, 
and  it  proposed  to  abolish  the  duty  on  paper.  The  French  treaty 


7o 


GLADSTONE 


Budget 
of  I860. 


was  carried,  but  the  abolition  of  the  paper-duty  was  defeated  in 
the  House  of  Lords.  Gladstone  justly  regarded  the  refusal  to 
remit  a  duty  as  being  in  effect  an  act  of  taxation,  and 
therefore  as  an  infringement  of  the  rights  of  the  House 
of  Commons.  The  proposal  to  abolish  the  paper- 
duty  was  revived  in  the  budget  of  1861,  the  chief  proposals 
of  which,  instead  of  being  divided,  as  in  previous  years,  into 
several  bills,  were  included  in  one.  By  this  device  the  Lords  were 
obliged  to  acquiesce  in  the  repeal  of  the  paper-duty. 

During  Lord  Palmerston's  last  administration,  which  lasted 
from  1859  to  1865,  Gladstone  was  by  far  the  most  brilliant  and 
most  conspicuous  figure  in  the  cabinet.  Except  in  finance,  he 
was  not  able  to  accomplish  much,  for  he  was  met  and  thwarted 
at  every  turn  by  his  chief's  invincible  hostility  to  change;  but 
the  more  advanced  section  of  the  Liberal  party  began  to  look 
upon  him  as  their  predestined  leader.  In  1864,  in  a  debate  on  a 
private  member's  bill  for  extending  the  suffrage,  he  declared  that 
the  burden  of  proof  lay  on  those  "  who  would  exclude  forty-nine 
fiftieths  of  the  working-classes  from  the  franchise."  In  1865, 
in  a  debate  on  the  condition  of  the  Irish  Church  Establishment, 
he  declared  that  the  Irish  Church,  as  it  then  stood,  was  in  a  false 
position,  inasmuch  as  it  ministered  only  to  one-eighth  or  one- 
ninth  of  the  whole  community.  But  just  in  proportion  as  Glad- 
stone advanced  in  favour  with  the  Radical  party  he  lost  the 
confidence  of  his  own  constituents.  Parliament  was  dissolved 
in  July  1865,  and  the  university  elected  Mr  Gathorne  Hardy 
in  his  place. 

Gladstone  at  once  turned  his  steps  towards  South  Lancashire, 

where  he  was  returned  with  two  Tories  above  him.     The  result 

of  the  general  election  was  to  retain  Lord  Palmerston's 

Leader  of    government  in  power,  but  on  the  i8th  of  October  the 

House  of  .    .  i  •     I        TT  i    j  i       T       j 

Commons.  °W  prime  minister  died.  He  was  succeeded  by  Lord 
Russell,  and  Gladstone,  retaining  the  chancellorship 
of  the  exchequer,  became  for  the  first  time  leader  of  the  House 
of  Commons.  Lord  Russell,  backed  by  Gladstone,  persuaded 
his  colleagues  to  consent  to  a  moderate  Reform  Bill,  and  the 
task  of  piloting  this  measure  through  the  House  of  Commons 
fell  to  Gladstone.  The  speech  in  which  he  wound  up  the  debate 
on  the  second  reading  was  one  of  the  finest,  if  not  indeed  the  very 
finest,  which  he  ever  delivered.  But  it  was  of  no  practical  avail. 
The  government  were  defeated  on  an  amendment  in  committee, 
and  thereupon  resigned.  Lord  Derby  became  prime  minister, 
with  Disraeli  as  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  and  leader  of  the 
House  of  Commons.  On  the  i8th  of  March  1867  the  Tory 
Reform  Bill,  which  ended  in  establishing  Household  Suffrage 
in  the  boroughs,  was  introduced,  and  was  read  a  second  time 
without  a  division.  After  undergoing  extensive  alterations  in 
committee  at  the  hands  of  the  Liberals  and  Radicals,  the  bill 
became  law  in  August. 

At  Christmas  1867  Lord  Russell  announced  his  final  retirement 
from  active  politics,  and  Gladstone  was  recognized  by  acclama- 
tion as  leader  of  the  Liberal  party.  Nominally  he  was 
'n  OPP03'1!011;  but  his  party  formed  the  majority 
party.  °f  the  House  of  Commons,  and  could  beat  the  govern- 
ment whenever  they  chose  to  mass  their  forces. 
Gladstone  seized  the  opportunity  to  give  effect  to  convictions 
which  had  long  been  forming  in  his  mind.  Early  in  the  session 
he  brought  in  a  bill  abolishing  compulsory  church-rates,  and 
this  passed  into  law.  On  the  i6th  of  March,  in  a  debate  raised 
by  an  Irish  member,  he  declared  that  in  his  judgment  the  Irish 
Church,  as  a  State  Church,  must  cease  to  exist.  Immediately 
afterwards  he  embodied  this  opinion  in  a  series  of  resolutions 
concerning  the  Irish  Church  Establishment,  and  carried  them 
against  the  government.  Encouraged  by  this  triumph,  he 
brought  in  a  Bill  to  prevent  any  fresh  appointments  in  the  Irish 
Church,  and  this  also  passed  the  Commons,  though  it  was 
defeated  in  the  Lords.  Parliament  was  dissolved  on  the  nth  of 
November.  A  single  issue  was  placed  before  the  country — Was 
the  Irish  Church  to  be,  or  not  to  be,  disestablished?  The 
response  was  an  overwhelming  affirmative.  Gladstone,  who  had 
been  doubly  nominated,  was  defeated  in  Lancashire,  but  was 
returned  for  Greenwich.  He  chose  this  moment  for  publishing 


a  Chapter  of  Autobiography,  in  which  he  explained  and  justified 
his  change  of  opinion  with  regard  to  the  Irish  Church. 

On  the  2nd  of  December  Disraeli,  who  had  succeeded  Lord 
Derby  as  premier  in  the  preceding  February,  announced  that 
he  and  his  colleagues,  recognizing  their  defeat,  had 
resigned  without  waiting  for  a  formal  vote  of  the  new  Minister- 
parliament.  On  the  following  day  Gladstone  was  Irish 
summoned  to  Windsor,  and  commanded  by  the  Church 
queen  to  form  an  administration.  The  great  task  to  5teAmc*< 
which  the  new  prime  minister  immediately  addressed 
himself  was  the  disestablishment  of  the  Irish  Church.  The 
queen  wrote  to  Archbishop  Tail  that  the  subject  of  the  Irish 
Church  "  made  her  very  anxious,"  but  that  Mr  Gladstone 
"  showed  the  most  conciliatory  disposition."  "  The  government 
can  do  nothing  that  would  tend  to  raise  a  suspicion  of  their 
sincerity  in  proposing  to  disestablish  the  Irish  Church,  and  to 
withdraw  all  state  endowments  from  all  religious  communions 
in  Ireland;  but,  were  these  conditions  accepted,  all  other 
matters  connected  with  the  question  might,  the  queen  thinks, 
become  the  subject  of  discussion  and  negotiation."  The  bill 
was  drawn  and  piloted  on  the  lines  thus  indicated,  and  became 
law  on  the  26th  of  July.  In  the  session  of  1870  Gladstone's 
principal  work  was  the  Irish  Land  Act,  of  which  the  object  was 
to  protect  the  tenant  against  eviction  as  long  as  he  paid  his  rent, 
and  to  secure  to  him  the  value  of  any  improvements  which  his 
own  industry  had  made.  In  the  following  session  Religious 
Tests  in  the  universities  were  abolished,  and  a  bill  to  establish 
secret  voting  was  carried  through  the  House  of  Commons. 
This  was  thrown  out  by  the  Lords,  but  became  law  a  year  later. 
The  House  of  Lords  threw  out  a  bill  to  abolish  the  purchase  of 
commissions  in  the  army.  Gladstone  found  that  purchase 
existed  only  by  royal  sanction,  and  advised  the  queen  to  issue 
a  royal  warrant  cancelling,  on  and  after  the  ist  of  November 
following,  all  regulations  authorizing  the  purchase  of  commissions. 

In  1873  Gladstone  set  his  hand  to  the  third  of  three  great 
Irish  reforms  to  which  he  had  pledged  himself.  His  scheme 
for  the  establishment  of  a  university  which  should  satisfy  both 
Roman  Catholics  and  Protestants  met  with  general  disapproval. 
The  bill  was  thrown  out  by  three  votes,  and  Gladstone  resigned. 
The  queen  sent  for  Disraeli,  who  declined  to  take  office  in  a 
minority  of  the  House  of  Commons,  so  Gladstone  was  compelled 
to  resume.  But  he  and  his  colleagues  were  now,  in  Disraelitish 
phrase,  "  exhausted  volcanoes."  Election  after  election  went 
wrong.  The  government  had  lost  favour  with  the  public,  and 
was  divided  against  itself.  There  were  resignations  and  rumours 
of  resignations.  When  the  session  of  1873  had  come  to  an  end 
Gladstone  took  the  chancellorship  of  the  exchequer,  and,  as 
high  authorities  contended,  vacated  his  seat  by  doing  so.  The 
point  was  obviously  one  of  vital  importance;  and  we  learn  from 
Lord  Selborne,  who  was  lord  chancellor  at  the  time,  that  Glad- 
stone ':  was  sensible  of  the  difficulty  of  either  taking  his  seat 
in  the  usual  manner  at  the  opening  of  the  session,  or  letting  .... 
the  necessary  arrangements  for  business  in  the  House  of  Commons 
be  made  in  the  prime  minister's  absence.  A  dissolution  was  the 
only  escape."  On  the  23rd  of  January  1874  Gladstone  announced 
the  dissolution  in  an  address  to  his  constituents, 
declaring  that  the  authority  of  the  government  had 
now  "  sunk  below  the  point  necessary  for  the  due  de- 
fence and  prosecution  of  the  public  interest."  He  promised  that, 
if  he  were  returned  to  power,  he  would  repeal  the  income-tax. 
This  bid  for  popularity  failed,  the  general  election  resulting  in  a 
Tory  majority  of  forty-six.  Gladstone  kept  his  seat  for  Greenwich, 
but  was  only  second  on  the  poll.  Following  the  example  of 
Disraeli  in  1868,  he  resigned  without  meeting  parliament. 

For  some  years  he  had  alluded  to  his  impending  retirement 
from  public  life,  saying  that  he  was  "  strong  against  going  on  in 

politics  to  the  end."     He  was  now  sixty-four,  and  his  _ 

i  >  1-111  •  •  e       \-        *.        Temporary 

life  had  been  a  continuous  experience  of  exhausting  retirement. 

labour.     On  the   i2th  of  March   1874  he  informed 
Lord  Granville  that  he  could  give  only  occasional  attendance 
in  the  House  of  Commons  during  the  current  session,  and  that 
he  must  "  reserve  his  entire  freedom  to  divest  himself  of  all  the 


, 

° 


GLADSTONE 


responsibilities  of  leadership  at  no  distant  date."  His  most 
important  intervention  in  the  debates  of  1874  was  when  he 
opposed  Archbishop  Tail's  Public  Worship  Bill.  This  was  read 
a  second  time  without  a  division,  but  in  committee  Gladstone 
enjoyed  some  signal  triumphs  over  his  late  solicitor-general, 
Sir  William  Harcourt,  who  had  warmly  espoused  the  cause  of 
the  government  and  the  bill.  At  the  beginning  of  1875  Gladstone 
carried  into  effect  the  resolution  which  he  had  announced  a  year 
before,  and  formally  resigned  the  leadership  of  the  Liberal 
party.  He  was  succeeded  by  Lord  Hartington,  afterwards 
duke  of  Devonshire.  The  learned  leisure  which  Gladstone  had 
promised  himself  when  released  from  official  responsibility 
was  not  of  long  duration.  In  the  autumn  of  1875  an  insurrection 
broke  out  in  Bulgaria,  and  the  suppression  of  it  by  the  Turks 
was  marked  by  massacres  and  outrages.  Public  indignation 
was  aroused  by  what  were  known  as  the  "  Bulgarian  atrocities," 
and  Gladstone  flung  himself  into  the  agitation  against  Turkey 
with  characteristic  zeal.  At  public  meetings,  in  the  press,  and 
in  parliament  he  denounced  the  Turkish  government  and  its 
champion,  Disraeli,  who  had  now  become  Lord  Beaconsfield. 
Lord  Hartington  soon  found  himself  pushed  aside  from  his 
position  of  titular  leadership.  For  four  years,  from  1876  to  1880, 
Gladstone  maintained  the  strife  with  a  courage,  a  persistence 
and  a  versatility  which  raised  the  enthusiasm  of  his  followers 
to  the  highest  pitch.  The  county  of  Edinburgh,  or  Midlothian, 
which  he  contested  against  the  dominant  influence  of 
.  the  duke  of  Buccleuch,  was  the  scene  of  the  most 
astonishing  exertions.  As  the  general  election  ap- 
proached the  only  question  submitted  to  the  electors  was — Do 
you  approve  or  condemn  Lord  Beaconsfield's  foreign  policy  ? 
The  answer  was  given  at  Easter  1880,  when  the  Liberals  were 
returned  by  an  overwhelming  majority  over  Tories  and  Home 
Rulers  combined.  Gladstone  was  now  member  for  Midlothian, 
having  retired  from  Greenwich  at  the  dissolution. 

When  Lord  Beaconsfield  resigned,  the  queen  sent  for  Lord 
Hartington,  the  titular  leader  of  the  Liberals,  but  he  and  Lord 
Granville  assured  her  that  no  other  chief  than  Gladstone  would 
satisfy  the  party.  Accordingly,  on  the  23rd  of  April  he  became 
prime  minister  for  the  second  time.  His  second  administration, 
of  which  the  main  achievement  was  the  extension  of  the  suffrage 
to  the  agricultural  labourers,  was  harassed  by  two  controversies, 
relating  to  Ireland  and  Egypt,  which  proved  disastrous  to  the 
Liberal  party.  Gladstone  alienated  considerable  masses  of 
English  opinion  by  his  efforts  to  reform  the  tenure  of  Irish  land, 
and  provoked  the  Irish  people  by  his  attempts  to  establish 
social  order  and  to  repress  crime.  A  bill  to  provide  compensation 
for  tenants  who  had  been  evicted  by  Irish  landlords  passed  the 
Commons,  but  was  shipwrecked  in  the  Lords,  and  a  ghastly 
record  of  outrage  and  murder  stained  the  following  winter.  A 
Coercion  Bill  and  a  Land  Bill  passed  in  1881  proved  unsuccessful. 
On  the  6th  of  May  1882  the  newly  appointed  chief  secretary 
for  Ireland,  Lord  Frederick  Cavendish,  and  his  under-secretary, 
Mr  Burke,  were  stabbed  to  death  in  the  Phoenix  Park  at  Dublin. 
A  new  Crimes  Act,  courageously  administered  by  Lord  Spencer 
and  Sir  George  Trevelyan,  abolished  exceptional  crime  in  Ireland, 
but  completed  the  breach  between  the  British  government  and 
the  Irish  party  in  parliament. 

The  bombardment  of  the  forts  at  Alexandria  and  the  occupa- 
tion of  Egypt  in  1882  were  viewed  with  great  disfavour  by  the 
bulk  of  the  Liberal  party,  and  were  but  little  congenial  to 
Gladstone  himself.  The  circumstances  of  General  Gordon's 
untimely  death  awoke  an  outburst  of  indignation  against  those 
who  were,  or  seemed  to  be,  responsible  for  it.  Frequent  votes  of 
censure  were  proposed  by  the  Opposition,  and  on  the  8th  of  June 
1885  the  government  were  beaten  on  the  budget.  Gladstone 
resigned.  The  queen  offered  him  the  dignity  of  an  earldom, 
which  he  declined.  He  was  succeeded  by  Lord  Salisbury. 

The  general  election  took  place  in  the  following  November. 
When  it  wasover  the  Liberal  party  was  just  short  of  the  numerical 
strength  which  was  requisite  to  defeat  the  combination  of  Tories 
and  Parnellites.  A  startling  surprise  was  at  hand.  Gladstone 
had  for  some  time  been  convinced  of  the  expediency  of  conceding 


Home  Rule  to  Ireland  in  the  event  of  the  Irish  constituencies 
giving  unequivocal  proof  that  they  desired  it.  His  intentions 
were  made  known  only  to  a  privileged  few,  and 
these,  curiously,  were  not  his  colleagues.  The  general  H0me 
election  of  1885  showed  that  Ireland,  outside  Ulster,  Rule  Bill. 
was  practically  unanimous  for  Home  Rule.  On  the 
I7th  of  December  an  anonymous  paragraph  was  published, 
stating  that  if  Mr  Gladstone  returned  to  office  he  was  prepared 
to  "  deal  in  a  liberal  spirit  with  the  demand  for  Home  Rule." 
It  was  clear  that  if  Gladstone  meant  what  he  appeared  to  mean, 
the  Parnellites  would  support  him,  and  the  Tories  must  leave 
office.  The  government  seemed  to  accept  the  situation.  When 
parliament  met  they  executed,  for  form's  sake,  some  confused 
manoeuvres,  and  then  they  were  beaten  on  an  amendment 
to  the  address  in  favour  of  Municipal  Allotments.  On  the  ist 
of  February  1886  Gladstone  became,  for  the  third  time,  prime 
minister.  Several  of  his  former  colleagues  declined  to  join 
him,  on  the  ground  of  their  absolute  hostility  to  the  policy  of 
Home  Rule;  others  joined  on  the  express  understanding  that 
they  were  only  pledged  to  consider  the  policy,  and  did  not  fetter 
their  further  liberty  of  action.  On  the  8th  of  April  Gladstone 
brought  in  his  bill  for  establishing  Home  Rule,  and  eight  days 
later  the  bill  for  buying  out  the  Irish  landlords.  Meanwhile 
two  members  of  his  cabinet,  feeling  themselves  unable  to  support 
these  measures,  resigned.  Hostility  to  the  bills  grew  apace. 
Gladstone  was  implored  to  withdraw  them,  or  substitute  a 
resolution  in  favour  of  Irish  autonomy;  but  he  resolved  to  press 
at  least  the  Home  Rule  Bill  to  a  second  reading.  In  the  early 
morning  of  the  8th  of  June  the  bill  was  thrown  out  by  thirty. 
Gladstone  immediately  advised  the  queen  to  dissolve  parliament. 
Her  Majesty  strongly  demurred  to  a  second  general  election 
within  seven  months;  but  Gladstone  persisted,  and  she  yielded. 
Parliament  was  dissolved  on  the  26th  of  June.  In  spite  of 
Gladstone's  skilful  appeal  to  the  constituencies  to  sanction 
the  principle  of  Home  Rule,  as  distinct  from  the  practical 
provisions  of  his  late  bill,  the  general  election  resulted  in  a 
majority  of  considerably  over  100  against  his  policy,  and  Lord 
Salisbury  resumed  office.  Throughout  the  existence  of  the  new 
parliament  Gladstone  never  relaxed  his  extraordinary  efforts, 
though  now  nearer  eighty  than  seventy,  on  behalf  of  the  cause 
of  self-government  for  Ireland.  The  fertility  of  argumentative 
resource,  the  copiousness  of  rhetoric,  and  the  physical  energy 
which  he  threw  into  the  enterprise,  would  have  been  remarkable 
at  any  stage  of  his  public  life;  continued  into  his  eighty-fifth 
year  they  were  little  less  than  miraculous.  Two  incidents  of 
domestic  interest,  one  happy  and  the  other  sad,  belong  to  that 
period  of  political  storm  and  stress.  On  the  25th  of  July  1889 
Gladstone  celebrated  the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  his  marriage, 
and  on  the  4th  of  July  1891  his  eldest  son,  William  Henry,  a 
man  of  fine  character  and  accomplishments,  died,  after  a  lingering 
illness,  in  his  fifty-second  year. 

The  crowning  struggle  of  Gladstone's  political  career  was 
now  approaching  its  climax.  Parliament  was  dissolved  on  the 
28th  of  June  1892.  The  general  election  resulted 
in  a  majority  of  forty  for  Home  Rule,  heterogeneously 
composed  of  Liberals,  Labour  members  and  Irish.  BUI. 
As  soon  as  the  new  parliament  met  a  vote  of  want  of 
confidence  in  Lord  Salisbury's  government  was  moved  and 
carried.  Lord  Salisbury  resigned,  and  on  the  isth  of  August 
1892  Gladstone  kissed  hands  as  first  lord  of  the  treasury.  He 
was  the  first  English  statesman  that  had  been  four  times  prime 
minister.  Parliament  reassembled  in  January  1893.  Gladstone 
brought  in  his  new  Home  Rule  Bill  on  the  I3th  of  February. 
It  passed  the  House  of  Commons,  but  was  thrown  out  by  the 
House  of  Lords  on  the  second  reading  on  the  8th  of  September 
1893.  Gladstone's  political  work  was  now,  in  his  own  judgment, 
ended.  He  made  his  last  speech  in  the  House  of  Commons  on  the 
ist  of  March  1894,  acquiescing  in  some  amendments  introduced 
by  the  Lords  into  the  Parish  Councils  Bill;  and  on  the  3rd  of 
March  he  placed  his  resignation  in  the  queen's  hands.  He 
never  set  foot  again  in  the  House  of  Commons,  though  he  re- 
mained a  member  of  it  till  the  dissolution  of  1895.  He  paid 


GLADSTONE— GLAGOLITIC 


occasional  visits  to  friends  in  London,  Scotland  and  the  south 
of  France;  but  the  remainder  of  his  life  was  spent  for  the  most 
part  at  Hawarden.  He  occupied  his  leisure  by  writing  a  rhymed 
translation  of  the  Odes  of  Horace,  and  preparing  an  elaborately 
annotated  edition  of  Butler's  Analogy  and  Sermons.  He  had 
also  contemplated  some  addition  to  the  Homeric  studies  which 
he  had  always  loved,  but  this  design  was  never  carried  into  effect, 
for  he  was  summoned  once  again  from  his  quiet  life  of  study 
and  devotion  to  the  field  of  public  controversy.  The  Armenian 
massacres  in  1894  and  1895  revived  all  his  ancient  hostility  to 
"  the  governing  Turk."  He  denounced  the  massacres  and  their 
perpetrators  at  public  meetings  held  at  Chester  on  the  6th  of 
August  1895,  and  at  Liverpool  on  the  24th  of  September  1896. 
In  March  1897  he  recapitulated  the  hideous  history  in  an  open 
letter  to  the  duke  of  Westminster. 

But  the  end,  though  not  yet  apprehended,  was  at  hand. 
Since  his  retirement  from  office  Gladstone's  physical  vigour, 
up  to  that  time  unequalled,  had  shown  signs  of  impairment. 
Towards  the  end  of  the  summer  of  1897  he  began  to  suffer  from 
an  acute  pain,  which  was  attributed  to  facial  neuralgia,  and 
in  November  he  went  to  Cannes.  In  February  1898  he  returned 
to  England  and  went  to  Bournemouth.  There  he  was  informed 
that  the  pain  had  its  origin  in  a  disease  which  must  soon  prove 
fatal.  He  received  the  information  with  simple  thankfulness, 
and  only  asked  that  he  might  die  at  home.  On  the  22nd  of 
March  he  returned  to  Hawarden,  and  there  he  died 
on  the  1 9th  of  May  1898.  During  the  night  of  the 
25th  of  May  his  body  was  conveyed  from  Hawarden  to  London 
and  the  coffin  was  placed  on  a  bier  in  Westminster  Hall.  Through- 
out the  26th  and  27th  a  vast  train  of  people,  officially  estimated 
at  250,000,  and  drawn  from  every  rank  and  class,  moved  in 
unbroken  procession  past  the  bier.  On  the  28th  of  May  the 
coffin,  preceded  by  the  two  Houses  of  Parliament  and  escorted 
by  the  chief  magnates  of  the  realm,  was  carried  from  Westminster 
Hall  to  Westminster  Abbey.  The  heir-apparent  and  his  son, 
the  prime  minister  and  the  leader  of  the  House  of  Commons, 
were  among  those  who  bore  the  pall.  The  body  was  buried 
in  the  north  transept  of  the  abbey,  where,  on  the  igth  of  June 
1900,  Mrs  Gladstone's  body  was  laid  beside  it. 

Mr  and  Mrs  Gladstone  had  four  sons  and  four  daughters,  of 
whom  one  died  in  infancy.  The  eldest  son,  W.  H.  Gladstone 
Fatally  (1840-1891),  was  a  member  of  parliament  for  many 
years,  and  married  the  daughter  of  Lord  Blantyre,  his 
son  William  (b.  1885)  inheriting  the  family  estates.  The  fourth 
son,  Herbert  John  (b.  1854),  sat  in  parliament  for  Leeds  from 
1880  to  1910,  and  filled  various  offices,  being  home  secretary 
1905-1910;  in  1910  he  was  created  Viscount  Gladstone,  on  being 
appointed  governor-general  of  united  South  Africa.  The  eldest 
daughter,  Agnes,  married  the  Rev.  E.  C.  Wickham,  headmaster  of 
Wellington,  1873-1893,  and  later  Dean  of  Lincoln.  Another 
daughter  married  the  Rev.  Harry  Drew,  rector  of  Hawarden. 
The  youngest,  Helen,  was  for  some  years  vice-principal  of 
Newnham  College,  Cambridge. 

After  a  careful  survey  of  Mr  Gladstone's  life,  enlightened 
by  personal  observation,  it  is  inevitable  to  attempt  some  analysis 

,.      _       of  his  character.     First  among  his  moral  attributes 
Character.  ...         ...  _ 

must  be  placed  his  religiousness.     From  those  early 

days  when  a  fond  mother  wrote  of  him  as  having  been  "  truly 
converted  to  God,"  down  to  the  verge  of  ninety  years,  he  lived 
in  the  habitual  contemplation  of  the  unseen  world,  and  regulated 
his  private  and  public  action  by  reference  to  a  code  higher 
than  that  of  mere  prudence  or  worldly  wisdom.  A  second 
characteristic,  scarcely  less  prominent  than  the  first,  was  his 
love  of  power.  His  ambition  had  nothing  in  common  with  the 
vulgar  eagerness  for  place  and  pay  and  social  standing.  Rather 
it  was  a  resolute  determination  to'possess  that  control  over  the 
machine  of  state  which  should  enable  him  to  fulfil  without  let 
or  hindrance  the  political  mission  with  which  he  believed  that 
Providence  had  charged  him.  The  love  of  power  was  supported 
by  a  splendid  fearlessness.  No  dangers  were  too  threatening 
for  him  to  face,  no  obstacles  tooformidable,no  tasks  too  laborious, 
no  heights  too  steep.  The  love  of  power  and  the  supporting 


courage  were  allied  with  a  marked  imperiousness.  Of  this 
quality  there  was  no  trace  in  his  manner,  which  was  courteous, 
conciliatory  and  even  deferential;  nor  in  his  speech,  which 
breathed  an  almost  exaggerated  humility.  But  the  imperious- 
ness  showed  itself  in  the  more  effectual  form  of  action;  in  his 
sudden  resolves,  his  invincible  insistence,  his  recklessness  of 
consequences  to  himself  and  his  friends,  his  habitual  assumption 
that  the  civilized  world  and  all  its  units  must  agree  with  him, 
his  indignant  astonishment  at  the  bare  thought  of  dissent  or 
resistance,  his  incapacity  to  believe  that  an  overruling  Provid- 
ence would  permit  him  to  be  frustrated  or  defeated.  He  had 
by  nature  what  he  himself  called  a  "  vulnerable  temper  and 
impetuous  moods."  But  so  absolute  was  his  lifelong  self-mastery 
that  he  was  hardly  ever  betrayed  into  saying  that  which,  on 
cooler  reflection,  needed  to  be  recalled.  It  was  easy  enough 
to  see  the  "  vulnerable  temper  "  as  it  worked  within,  but  it 
was  never  suffered  to  find  audible  expression.  It  may  seem 
paradoxical,  but  it  is  true,  to  say  that  Mr  Gladstone  was  by 
nature  conservative.  His  natural  bias  was  to  respect  things  as 
they  were.  In  his  eyes,  institutions,  customs,  systems,  so  long 
as  they  had  not  become  actively  mischievous,  were  good  because 
they  were  old.  It  is  true  that  he  was  sometimes  forced  by 
conviction  or  fate  or  political  necessity  to  be  a  revolutionist 
on  a  large  scale;  to  destroy  an  established  Church;  to  add  two 
millions  of  voters  to  the  electorate;  to  attack  the  parliamentary 
union  of  the  kingdoms.  But  these  changes  were,  in  their  in- 
ception, distasteful  to  their  author.  His  whole  life  was  spent 
in  unlearning  the  prejudices  in  which  he  was  educated.  His 
love  of  freedom  steadily  developed,  and  he  applied  its  principles 
more  and  more  courageously  to  the  problems  of  government. 
But  it  makes  some  difference  to  the  future  of  a  democratic 
state  whether  its  leading  men  are  eagerly  on  the  look-out  for 
something  to  revolutionize,  or  approach  a  constitutional  change 
by  the  gradual  processes  of  conviction  and  conversion. 

Great  as  were  his  eloquence,  his  knowledge  and  his  financial 
skill,  Gladstone  was  accustomed  to  say  of  himself  that  the  only 
quality  in  which,  so  far  as  he  knew,  he  was  distinguished  from 
his  fellow-men  was  his  faculty  of  concentration.  Whatever  were 
the  matter  in  hand,  he  so  concentrated  himself  on  it,  and  absorbed 
himself  in  it,  that  nothing  else  seemed  to  exist  for  him. 

A  word  must  be  said  about  physical  characteristics.  In 
his  prime  Gladstone  was  just  six  feet  high,  but  his  inches 
diminished  as  his  years  increased,  and  in  old  age  the  unusual 
size  of  his  head  and  breadth  of  his  shoulders  gave  him  a  slightly 
top-heavy  appearance.  His  features  were  strongly  marked; 
the  nose  trenchant  and  hawk-like,  and  the  mouth  severely 
lined.  His  flashing  eyes  were  deep-set,  and  in  colour  resembled 
the  onyx  with  its  double  band  of  brown  and  grey.  His  com- 
plexion was  of  an  extreme  pallor,  and,  combined  with  his  jet-black 
hair,  gave  in  earlier  life  something  of  an  Italian  aspect  to  his 
face.  His  dark  eyebrows  were  singularly  flexible,  and  they  per- 
petually expanded  and  contracted  in  harmony  with  what  he 
was  saying.  He  held  himself  remarkably  upright,  and  even 
from  his  school-days  at  Eton  had  been  remarked  for  the  rapid 
pace  at  which  he  habitually  walked.  His  voice  was  a  baritone, 
singularly  clear  and  far-reaching.  In  the  Waverley  Market 
at  Edinburgh,  which  is  said  to  hold  20,000  people,  he  could  be 
heard  without  difficulty;  and  as  late  as  1895  he  said  to  the 
present  writer:  "  What  difference  does  it  make  to  me  whether 
I  speak  to  400  or  4000  people  ?  "  His  physical  vigour  in  old 
age  earned  him  the  popular  nickname  of  the  Grand  Old  Man. 

Lord  Morley  of  Blackburn's  Life  of  Gladstone  was  published  in 
1903.  (G.  W.  E.  R.) 

GLADSTONE,  a  seaport  of  Clinton  county,  Queensland, 
Australia,  328  m.  by  rail  N.E.  of  Brisbane.  Pop.  (1901)  1566. 
It  possesses  a  fine,  well-sheltered  harbour  reputed  one  of  the 
best  in  Queensland,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Boyne.  Gold, 
manganese,  copper  and  coal  are  found  in  the  neighbourhood. 
Gladstone,  founded  in  1847,  became  a  municipality  in  1863. 

See  J.  F.,  Hogan,  The  Gladstone  Colony  (London,  1898). 

GLAGOLITIC,  an  early  Slavonic  alphabet:  also  the  liturgy 
written  therein,  and  the  people  (Dalmatians  and  Roman  Catholic 


GLAIR— GLAMORGANSHIRE 


73 


Montenegrins)  among  whom  it  has  survived  by  special  licence 
of  the  Pope  (see  SLAVS  for  table  of  letters). 

GLAIR  (from  Fr.  glaire,  probably  from  Lat.  clarus,  clear, 
bright),  the  white  of  an  egg,  and  hence  a  term  used  for  a  prepara- 
tion made  of  this  and  used,  in  bookbinding  and  in  gilding,  to 
retain  the  gold  and  as  a  varnish.  The  adjective  "  glairy  "  is 
used  of  substances  having  the  viscous  and  transparent  consistency 
of  the  white  ol  an  egg. 

GLAISHER,  JAMES  (1800-1903),  English  meteorologist  and 
aeronaut,  was  born  in  London  on  the  7th  of  April  1809.  After 
serving  for  a  few  years  on  the  Ordnance  Survey  of  Ireland, 
he  acted  as  an  assistant  at  the  Cambridge  and  Greenwich  ob- 
servatories successively,  and  when  the  department  of  meteorology 
and  magnetism  was  formed  at  the  latter,  he  was  entrusted  with 
its  superintendence,which  he  continued  to  exercise  for  thirty-four 
years,  until  his  retirement  from  the  public  service.  In  1845  he 
published  his  well-known  dew-point  tables,  which  have  gone 
through  many  editions.  In  1850  he  established  the  Meteoro- 
logical Society,  acting  as  its  secretary  for  many  years,  and  in 
1866  he  assisted  in  the  foundation  of  the  Aeronautical  Society 
of  Great  Britain.  He  was  appointed  a  member  of  the  royal 
commission  on, the  warming  and  ventilation  of  dwellings  in  1875, 
and  for  twelve  years  from  1880  acted  as  chairman  of  the  executive 
committee  of  the  Palestine  Exploration  Fund.  But  his  name 
is  best  known  in  connexion  with  the  series  of  balloon  ascents 
which  he  made  between  1862  and  1866,  mostly  in  company 
with  Henry  Tracey  Coxwell.  Many  of  these  ascents  were 
arranged  by  a  committee  of  the  British  Association,  of  which 
he  was  a  member,  and  were  strictly  scientific  in  character,  the 
object  being  to  carry  out  observations  on  the  temperature, 
humidity,  &c.,  of  the  atmosphere  at  high  elevations.  In  one  of 
them,  that  which  took  place  at  Wolverhampton  on  the  5th  of 
September  1862,  Glaisher  and  his  companion  attained  the 
greatest  height  that  had  been  reached  by  a  balloon  carrying 
passengers.  As  no  automatically  recording  instruments  were 
available,  and  Glaisher  was  unable  to  read  the  barometer  at 
the  highest  point  owing  to  loss  of  consciousness,  the  precise 
altitude  can  never  be  known,  but  it  is  estimated  at  about 
7  m.  from  the  earth.  He  died  on  the  7th  of  February  1903  at 
Croydon. 

GLAMIS,  a  village  and  parish  of  Forfarshire,  Scotland,  5!  m. 
W.  by  S.  of  Forfar  by  the  Caledonian  railway.  Pop.  of  parish 
(1901)  1351.  The  name  is  sometimes  spelled  Glammis  and  the 
*  is  mute:  it  is  derived  from  the  Gaelic,  glamhus,  "  a  wide  gap," 
"  a  vale."  The  chief  object  in  the  village  is  the  sculptured  stone, 
traditionally  supposed  to  be  a  memorial  of  Malcolm  II.,  although 
Fordun's  statement  that  the  king  was  slain  in  the  castle  is  now 
rejected.  About  a  mile  from  the  station  stands  Glamis  Castle, 
the  seat  of  the  earl  of  Strathmore  and  Kinghorne,  a  fine  example 
of  the  Scottish  Baronial  style,  enriched  with  certain  features 
of  the  French  chateau.  In  its  present  form  it  dates  mostly 
from  the  i7th  century,  but  the  original  structure  was  as  old  as 
the  nth  century,  for  Macbeth  was  Thane  of  Glamis.  Several 
of  the  early  Scots  kings,  especially  Alexander  III.,  used  it 
occasionally  as  a  residence.  Robert  II.  bestowed  the  thanedom 
on  John  Lyon,  who  had  married  the  king's  second  daughter 
by  Elizabeth  Mure  and  was  thus  the  founder  of  the  existing 
family.  Patrick  Lyon  became  hostage  to  England  for  James  I. 
in  1424.  When,  in  1537,  Janet  Douglas,  widow  of  the  6th  Lord 
Glamis,  was  burned  at  Edinburgh  as  a  witch,  for  conspiring  to 
procure  James  V.'s  death,  Glamis  was  forfeited  to  the  crown,  but 
it  was  restored  to  her  son  six  years  later  when  her  innocence  had 
been  established.  The  3rd  earl  of  Strathmore  entertained  the 
Old  Chevalier  and  eighty  of  his  immediate  followers  in  1715. 
After  discharging  the  duties  of  hospitality  the  earl  joined  the 
Jacobites  at  Sheriff muir  and  fell  on  the  battlefield.  Sir  Walter 
Scott  spent  a  night  in  the  "  hoary  old  pile  "  when  he  was  about 
twenty  years  old,  and  gives  a  striking  relation  of  his  experiences 
in  his  Demonology  and  Witchcraft.  The  hall  has  an  arched 
ceiling  and  several  historical  portraits,  including  those  of  Claver- 
house,  Charles  II.  and  James  II.  of  England.  At  Gossans,  in 
the  parish  of  Glamis,  there  is  a  remarkable  sculptured  monolith, 


and  other  examples  occur  at  the  Hunters'  Hill  and  in  the  old 
kirkyard  of  Eassie. 

GLAMORGANSHIRE  (Welsh  Morgamvg),  a  maritime  county 
occupying  the  south-east  corner  of  Wales,  and  bounded  N.W. 
by  Carmarthenshire,  N.  by  Carmarthenshire  and  Breconshire, 
E.  by  Monmouthshire  and  S.  and  S.W.  by  the  Bristol  Channel 
and  Carmarthen  Bay.  The  contour  of  the  county  is  largely 
determined  by  the  fact  that  it  lies  between  the  mountains  of 
Breconshire  and  the  Bristol  Channel.  Its  extreme  breadth  from 
the  sea  inland  is  29  m.,  while  its  greatest  length  from  east  to 
west  is  53  m.  Its  chief  rivers,  the  Rhymney,  Taff,  Neath  (or 
Nedd)  and  Tawe  or  Tawy,  have  their  sources  in  the  Breconshire 
mountains,  the  two  first  trending  towards  the  south-east,  while 
the  two  last  trend  to  the  south-west,  so  that  the  main  body  of  the 
county  forms  a  sort  of  quarter-circle  between  the  Taff  and  the 
Neath.  Near  the  apex  of  the  angle  formed  by  these  two  rivers 
is  the  loftiest  peak  in  the  county,  the  great  Pennant  scarp  of 
Craig  y  Llyn  or  Carn  Moesyn,  1970  ft.  high,  which  in  the  Glacial 
period  diverted  the  ice-flow  from  the  Beacons  into  the  valley 
on  either  side  of  it.  To  the  south  and  south-east  of  this  peak 
extend  the  great  coal-fields  of  mid-Glamorgan,  their  surface 
forming  an  irregular  plateau  with  an  average  elevation  of  600  to 
1 200  ft.  above  sea-level,  but  with  numerous  peaks  about  j  500  ft. 
high,  or  more;  Mynydd  y  Caerau,  the  second  highest  being 
1823  ft.  Out  of  this  plateau  have  been  carved,  to  the  depth 
of  500  to  800  ft.  below  its  general  level,  three  distinct  series 
of  narrow  valleys,  those  in  each  series  being  more  or  less  parallel. 
The  rivers  which  give  their  names  to  these  valleys  include  the 
Cynon,  the  Great  and  Lesser  Rhondda  (tributaries  of  the  Taff) 
and  the  Ely  flowing  to  the  S.E.,  the  Ogwr  or  Ogmore  (with  its 
tributaries  the  Garw  and  Llynfi)  flowing  south  through  Bridgend, 
and  the  Avan  bringing  the  waters  of  the  Corwg  and  Gwynfi  to 
the  south-west  into  Swansea  Bay  at  Aberavon.  To  the  south 
of  this  central  hill  country,  which  is  wet,  cold  and  sterile,  and 
whose  steep  slopes  form  the  southern  edge  of  the  coal-field,  there 
stretches  out  to  the  sea  a  gently  undulating  plain,  compendiously 
known  as  the  "  Vale  of  Glamorgan,"  but  in  fact  consisting  of  a 
succession  of  small  vales  of  such  fertile  land  and  with  such  a 
mild  climate  that  it  has  been  styled,  not  inaptly,  the  "  Garden 
of  Wales."  To  the  east  of  the  central  area  referred  to  and 
divided  from  it  by  a  spur  of  the  Brecknock  mountains  culminating 
in  Carn  Bugail,  1570  ft.  high,  is  the  Rhymney,  which  forms  the 
county's  eastern  boundary.  On  the  west  other  spurs  of  the 
Beacons  divide  the  Neath  from  the  Tawe  (which  enters  the 
sea  at  Swansea),  and  the  Tawe  from  the  Loughor,  which,  with 
its  tributary  the  Amman,  separates  the  county  on  the  N.W. 
from  Carmarthenshire,  in  which  it  rises,  and  falling  into  Car- 
marthen Bay  forms  what  is  known  as  the  Burry  estuary,  so 
called  from  a  small  stream  of  that  name  in  the  Gower  peninsula. 
The  rivers  are  all  comparatively  short,  the  Taff,  in  every  respect 
the  chief  river,  being  only  33  m.  long. 

Down  to  the  middle  of  the  igth  century  most  of  the  Glamorgan 
valleys  were  famous  for  their  beautiful  scenery,  but  industrial 
operations  have  since  destroyed  most  of  this  beauty,  except  in 
the  so-called  "  Vale  of  Glamorgan,"  the  Vale  of  Neath,  the 
"  combes  "  and  limestone  gorges  of  Gower  and  the  upper  reaches 
of  the  Taff  and  the  Tawe.  The  Vale  of  Neath  is  par  excellence 
the  waterfall  district  of  South  Wales,  the  finest  falls  being  the 
Cilhepste  fall,  the  Sychnant  and  the  three  Clungwyns  on  the 
Mellte  and  its  tributaries  near  the  Vale  of  Neath  railway  from 
Neath  to  Hirwaun,  Scwd  Einon  Gam  and  Scwd  Gladys  on  the 
Pyrddin  on  the  west  side  of  the  valley  close  by,  with  Melin  Court 
and  Abergarwed  still  nearer  Neath.  There  are  also  several 
cascades  on  the  Dulais,  and  in  the  same  district,  though  in 
Breconshire,  is  Scwd  Henrhyd  on  the  Llech  near  Colbren  Junction. 
Almost  the  only  part  of  the  county  which  is  now  well  timbered 
is  the  Vale  of  Neath.  There  are  three  small  lakes,  Llyn  Fawr 
and  Llyn  Fach  near  Craig  y  Llyn  and  Kenfig  Pool  amid  the 
sand-dunes  of  Margam.  The  rainfall  of  the  county  varies  from 
an  average  of  about  25  in.  at  Porthcawl  and  other  parts  of  the 
Vale  of  Glamorgan  to  about  37  in.  at  Cardiff,  40  in.  at  Swansea 
and  to  upwards  of  70  in.  in  the  northern  part  of  the  county, 


74 


GLAMORGANSHIRE 


the  fall  being  still  higher  in  the  adjoining  parts  of  Breconshire 
whence  Cardiff,  Swansea,  Merthyr  and  a  large  area  near  Neath 
draw  their  main  supplies  of  water. 

The  county  has  a  coast-line  of  about  83  m.  Its  two  chief  bays 
are  the  Burry  estuary  and  Swansea,  one  on  either  side  of  the 
Gower  Peninsula,  which  has  also  a  number  of  smaller  inlets  with 
magnificent  cliff  scenery.  The  rest  of  the  coast  is  fairly  regular, 
the  chief  openings  being  at  the  mouths  of  the  Ogmore  and  the 
Taff  respectively.  The  most  conspicuous  headlands  are  Whitef  ord 
Point,  Worms  Head  and  Mumbles  Head  in  Gower,  Nash  Point 
and  Lavernock  Point  on  the  eastern  half  of  the  coast. 

Geology. — The  Silurian  rocks,  the  oldest  in  the  county,  form  a 
small  inlier  about  2  sq.  m.  in  area  at  Rumney  and  Pen-y-lan,  north 
of  Cardiff,  and  consist  of  mudstones  and  sandstones  of  Wenlock  and 
Ludlow  age ;  a  feeble  representative  of  the  Wenlock  Limestone  also 
is  present.  They  are  conformably  succeeded  by  the  Old  Red  Sand- 
stone which  extends  westwards  as  far  as  Cowbridge  as  a  deeply- 
eroded  anticline  largely  concealed  by  Trias  and  Lias.  The  Old 
Red  Sandstone  consists  in  the  lower  parts  of  red  marls  and  sand- 
stones, while  the  upper  beds  are  quartzitic  and  pebbly,  and  form 
bold  scarps  which  dominate  the  low  ground  formed  by  the  softer 
beds  below.  Cefn-y-bryn,  another  anticline  of  Old  Red  Sandstone 
(including  small  exposures  of  Silurian  rocks),  forms  the  prominent 
backbone  of  the  Gower  peninsula.  The  next  formation  is  the 
Carboniferous  Limestone  which  encircles  and  underlies  the  great 
South  Wales  coal-field,  on  the  south  of  which,  west  of  Cardiff,  it 
forms  a  bold  escarpment  of  steeply-dipping  beds  surrounding  the 
Old  Red  Sandstone  anticline.  It  shows  up  through  the  Trias  and 
Lias  in  extensive  inliers  near  Bridgend,  while  in  Gower  it  dips  away 
from  the  Old  Red  Sandstone  of  Cefn-y-bryn.  On  the  north  of  the 
coal-field  it  is  just  reached  near  Merthyr  Tydfil.  The  Millstone  Grit, 
which  consists  of  grits,  sandstones  and  shales,  crops  out  above  the 
limestone  and  serves  to  introduce  the  Coal  Measures,  which  lie  in  the 
form  of  a  great  trough  extending  east  and  west  across  the  county  and 
occupying  most  of  its  surface.  The  coal  seams  are  most  numerous 
in  the  lower  part  of  the  series;  the  Pennant  Sandstone  succeeds 
and  occupies  the  inner  parts  of  the  basin,  forming  an  elevated 
moorland  region  deeply  trenched  by  the  teeming  valleys  (e.g.  the 
Rhondda)  which  cross  the  coal-field  from  north  to  south.  Above 
the  Pennant  Sandstone  still  higher  coals  come  in.  Taken  generally, 
the  coals  are  bituminous  in  the  south-east  and  anthracitic  in  the 
north-west. 

After  the  Coal  Measures  had  been  deposited,  the  southern  part  of 
the  region  was  subjected  to  powerful  folding;  the  resulting  anticlines 
were  worn  down  during  a  long  period  of  detrition,  and  then  sub- 
merged slowly  beneath  a  Triassic  lake  in  which  accumulated  the 
Keuper  conglomerates  and  marls  which  spread  over  the  district 
west  of  Cardiff  and  are  traceable  on  the  coast  of  Gower.  The 
succeeding  Rhaetic  and  Lias  which  form  most  of  the  coastal  plain 
(the  fertile  Vale  of  Glamorgan)  from  Penarth  to  near  Bridgend  were 
laid  down  by  the  Jurassic  sea.  A  well-marked  raised  beach  is 
traceable  in  Gower.  Sand-dunes  are  present  locally  around  Swansea 
Bay.  Moraines,  chiefly  formed  of  gravel  and  clay,  occupy  many 
of  the  Glamorgan  valleys;  and  these,  together  with  the  striated 
surfaces  which  may  be  observed  at  higher  levels,  are  clearly  glacial 
in  origin.  In  the  Coal  Measures  and  the  newer  Limestones  and 
Triassic,  Rhaetic  and  Liassic  conglomerates,  marls  and  shales,  many 
interesting  fossils  have  been  disinterred:  these  include  the  remains 
of  an  air-breathing  reptile  (Anthracespeton).  Bones  of  the  cave-bear, 
lion,  mammoth,  reindeer,  rhinoceros,  along  with  flint  weapons  and 
tools,  have  been  discovered  in  some  caves  of  the  Gower  peninsula. 

Agriculture. — The  low-lying  land  on  the  south  from  Caerphilly  to 
Margam  is  very  fertile,  the  soil  being  a  deep  rich  loam;  and  here  the 
standard  of  agriculture  is  fairly  high,  and  there  prevails  a  well- 
defined  tenant-right  custom,  supposed  to  be  of  ancient  origin  but 
probably  dating  only  from  the  beginning  of  the  igth  century. 
Everywhere  on  the  Coal  Measures  the  soil  is  poor,  while  vegetation  is 
also  injured  by  the  smoke  from  the  works,  especially  copper  smoke. 
Leland  (c.  1535)  describes  the  lowlands  as  growing  good  corn  and 
grass  but  little  wood,  while  the  mountains  had  "  redde  dere,  kiddes 
plenty,  oxen  and  sheep."  The  land  even  in  the  "  Vale  "  seems  to 
have  been  open  and  unenclosed  till  the  end  of  the  isth  or  beginning 
of  the  1 6th  century,  while  enclosure  spread  to  the  uplands  still  later. 
About  one-fifth  of  the  total  area  is  still  common  land,  more  than  half 
of  which  is  unsuitable  for  cultivation.  The  total  area  under  culti- 
vation in  1905  was  269,271  acres  or  about  one-half  of  the  total  are  a 
of  the  county.  The  chief  crops  raised  (giving  them  in  the  order 
of  their  respective  acreages)  are  oats,  barley,  turnips  and  swedes, 
wheat,  potatoes  and  mangolds.  A  steady  decrease  of  the  acreage 
under  grain-crops,  green-crops  and  clover  has  been  accompanied 
by  an  increase  in  the  area  of  pasture.  Dairying  has  been  largely 
abandoned  for  stock-raising,  and  very  little  "  Caerphilly  cheese  "  is 
now  made  in  that  district.  In  1905  Glamorgan  had  the  largest 
number  of  horses  in  agriculture  of  any  Welsh  county  except  those  of 
Carmarthen  and  Cardigan.  Good  sheep  and  ponies  are  reared  in  the 
hill-country.  Pig-keeping  is  much  neglected,  and  despite  the  mild 
climate  very  little  fruit  is  grown.  The  average  size  of  holdings  in 


1905  was  47-3  acres,  there  being  only  46  holdings  above  300  acres, 
and  1719  between  50  and  500  acres. 

Mining  and  Manufactures. — Down  to  the  middle  of  the  i8th 
century  the  county  had  no  industry  of  any  importance  except 
agriculture.  The  coal  which  underlies  practically  the  whole  surface 
of  the  county  except  the  Vale  of  Glamorgan  and  West  Gower  was 
little  worked  till  about  1755,  when  it  began  to  be  used  instead  of 
charcoal  for  the  smelting  of  iron.  By  1811,  when  there  were  25 
blast  furnaces  in  the  county,  the  demand  for  coal  for  this  purpose 
had  much  increased,  but  it  was  in  the  most  active  period  of  railway 
construction  that  it  reached  its  maximum.  Down  to  about  1850, 
if  not  later,  the  chief  collieries  were  owned  by  the  ironmasters  and 
were  worked  for  their  own  requirements,  but  when  the  suitability 
of  the  lower  seams  in  the  district  north  of  Cardiff  for  steam  purposes 
was  realized,  an  export  trade  sprang  up  and  soon  assumed  enormous 
proportions,  so  that  "  the  port  of  Cardiff  "  (including  Barry  and 
Penarth),  from  which  the  bulk  of  the  steam  coal  was  shipped,  became 
the  first  port  in  the  world  for  the  shipment  of  coal .  The  development 
of  the  anthracite  coal-field  lying  to  the  north  and  west  of  Swansea 
(from  which  port  it  is  mostly  shipped)  dates  mainly  from  the  closing 
years  of  the  igth  century,  when  the  demand  for  this  coal  grew 
rapidly.  There  are  still  large  areas  in  the  Rhymney  Valley  on  the 
east,  and  in  the  districts  of  Neath  and  Swansea  on  the  west,  whose 
development  has  only  recently  been  undertaken.  In  connexion  with 
the  coal  industry,  patent  fuel  (made  from  small  coal  and  tar)  is 
largely  manufactured  at  Cardiff,  Port  Talbot  and  Swansea,  the  ship- 
ments from  Swansea  being  the  largest  in  the  kingdom.  Next  in 
importance  to  coal  are  the  iron,  steel  and  tin-plate  industries,  and 
in  the  Swansea  district  the  smelting  of  copper  and  a  variety  of  other 
ores. 

The  manufacture  of  iron  and  steel  is  carried  on  at  Dowlais,  Merthyr 
Tydfil,  Cardiff,  Port  Talbot,  Briton  Ferry,  Pontardawe,  Swansea, 
Gorseinon  and  Gowerton.  During  the  last  quarter  of  the  i<jth  cen- 
tury the  use  of  the  native  ironstone  was  almost  wholly  given  up, 
and  the  necessary  ore  is  now  imported,  mainly  from  Spain*  As  a 
result  several  of  the  older  inland  works,  such  as  those  of  Aberdare, 
Ystalyfera  and  Brynaman  have  been  abandoned,  and  new  works 
have  been  established  on  or  near  the  sea-board;  e.g.  the  Dowlais 
company  in  1891  opened  large  works  at  Cardiff.  The  tin-plate 
industry  is  mainly  confined  to  the  west  of  the  county,  Swansea  being 
the  chief  port  for  the  shipment  of  tin-plates,  though  there  are  works 
near  Llantrisant  and  at  Melin  Griffith  near  Cardiff,  the  latter  being 
the  oldest  in  the  county.  Copper-smelting  is  carried  on  on  a  large 
scale  in  the  west  of  the  county,  at  Port  Talbot,  Cwmavon,  Neath  and 
Swansea,  and  on  a  small  scale  at  Cardiff,  the  earliest  works  having 
been  established  at  Neath  in  1584  and  at  Swansea  in  1717.  There 
are  nickel  works  at  Clydach  near  Swansea,  the  nickel  being  imported 
in  the  form  of  "  matte  "  from  Canada.  Swansea  has  almost  a 
monopoly  of  the  manufacture  of  spelter  or  zinc.  Lead,  silver  and  a 
number  of  other  metals  or  their  by-products  are  treated  in  or  near 
Swansea,  which  is  often  styled  the  metallurgical  capital  of  Wales." 
Limestone  and  silica  quarries  are  worked,  while  sandstone  and  clay 
are  also  raised.  Swansea  and  Nantgarw  were  formerly  famous  for 
their  china,  coarse  ware  is  still  made  chiefly  at  Ewenny  and  terra- 
cotta at  Pencoed.  Large  numbers  of  people  are  employed  in 
engineering  works  and  m  the  manufacture  of  machines,  chains, 
conveyances,  tools,  paper  and  chemicals.  The  textile  factories  are 
few  and  unimportant. 

Fisheries. — Fisheries  exist  all  along  the  coast;  by  lines,  draught- 
nets,  dredging,  trawling,  fixed  nets  and  by  hand.  There  is  a  fleet  of 
trawlers  at  Swansea.  The  principal  fish  caught  are  cod,  herring, 
pollock,  whiting,  flukes,  brill,  plaice,  soles,  turbot,  oysters,  mussels, 
limpets,  cockles,  shrimps,  crabs  and  lobsters.  There  are  good  fish- 
markets  at  Swansea  and  Cardiff. 

Communications. — The  county  has  ample  dock  accommodation. 
The  various  docks  of  Cardiff  amount  to  210  acres,  including  timber 
ponds;  Penarth  has  a  dock  and  basin  of  26  acres  and  a  tidal  harbour 
of  55  acres.  Barry  docks  cover  114  acres;  Swansea  has  147  acres, 
including  its  new  King's  Dock;  and  Port  Talbot  90  acres.  There 
are  also  docks  at  Briton  Ferry  and  Porthcawl,  but  they  are  not 
capable  of  admitting  deep-draft  vessels. 

Besides  its  ports,  Glamorgan  has  abundant  means  of  transit  in 
many  railways,  of  which  the  Great  Western  is  the  chief.  Its  trunk 
line  traversing  the  country  between  the  mountains  and  the  sea  passes 
through  Cardiff,  Bridgend  and  Landore  (on  the  outskirts  of  Swansea) , 
and  throws  off  numerous  branches  to  the  north.  The  Taff  Vale 
railway  serves  all  the  valley  of  the  Taff  and  its  tributaries,  and  has 
also  extensions  to  Barry  and  (through  Llantrisant  and  Cowbridge) 
to  Aberthaw.  The  Rhymney  railway  likewise  serves  the  Rhymney 
Valley,  and  has  a  joint  service  with  the  Great  Western  between 
Cardiff  and  Merthyr  Tydfil — the  latter  town  being  also  the  terminus 
of  the  Brecon  and  Merthyr  and  a  branch  of  the  North-Western  from 
Abergavenny.  The  Barry  railway  visits  Cardiff  and  then  travels  in 
a  north-westerly  direction  to  Pontypridd  and  Forth,  while  it  sends 
another  branch  along  the  coast  through  Llantwit  Major  to  Bridgend. 
Swansea  is  connected  with  Merthyr  by  the  Great  Western,  with 
Brecon  by  the  Midland,  with  Craven  Arms  and  Mid-Wales  generally 
by  the  London  &  North-Western,  with  the  Rhondda  Valley  by 
the  Rhondda  and  Swansea  Bay  (now  worked  by  the  Great  Western) 
and  with  Mumbles  by  the  Mumbles  railway.  The  Port  Talbot 


GLAMORGANSHIRE 


75 


railway  runs  to  Blaengarw,  and  the  Neath  and  Brecon  railway 
(starting  from  Neath)  joins  the  Midland  at  Colbren  Junction.  The 
canals  of  the  county  are  the  Glamorgan  canal  from  Cardiff  to 
Merthyr  Tydfil  (25$  m.),  with  a  branch  (7  m.)  to  Aberdare,  the 
Neath  canal  (13  m.)  from  Briton  Ferry  to  Abernant,  Glyn  Neath 
(whence  a  tramway  formerly  connected  it  with  Aberdare),  the 
Tennant  canal  connecting  the  rivers  Neath  and  Tawe,  and  the  Swan- 
sea canal  (i6J  m.),  running  up  the  Swansea  Valley  from  Swansea  to 
Abercrave  in  Breconshire.  Comparatively  little  use  is  now  made  of 
these  canals,  excepting  the  lower  portions  of  the  Glamorgan  canal. 

Population  and  Administration. — The  area  of  the  ancient  county 
with  which  the  administrative  county  is  conterminous  is  518,863 
acres,  with  a  population  in  1901  0^859,931  persons.  In  the  three 
decades  between  1831  and  1861  it  increased  35'2,  35^4  and  37-1  % 
respectively,  and  in  1881-1891,  34'4,  its  average  increase  in  the  other 
decennial  periods  subsequent  to  1861  being  about  25%.  The 
county  is  divided  into  five  parliamentary  divisions  (viz.  Glamorgan- 
shire East,  South  and  Middle,  Gower  and  Rhondda) ;  it  also  includes 
the  Cardiff  district  of  boroughs  (consisting  of  Cardiff,  Cowbridge  and 
Llantrisant),  which  has  one  member;  the  greater  part  of  the  parlia- 
mentary borough  of  Merthyr  Tydfil  (which  mainly  consists  of  the 
county  borough  of  Merthyr,  the  urban  district  of  Aberdare  and  part 
of  Mountain  Ash),  and  returns  two  members;  and  the  two  divisions 
of  Swansea  District  returning  one  member  each,  one  division  con- 
sisting of  the  major  part  of  Swansea  town,  the  other  comprising  the 
remainder  of  Swansea  and  the  boroughs  of  Aberavon,  Kenfig, 
Llwchwr  and  Neath.  There  are  six  municipal  boroughs:  Aberavon 
(pop.  in  1901,  7553),  Cardiff  (164,333),  Cowbridge  (1202),  Merthyr 
Tydfil  (69,228),  Neath  (13,720)  and  Swansea  (94,537).  Cardiff 
(which  in  1905  was  created  a  city),  Merthyr  Tydfil  and  Swansea  are 
county  boroughs.  The  following  are  urban  districts:  Aberdare 
(43,365),  Barry  (27,030),  Bridgend  (6062),  Briton  Ferry  (6973), 
Caerphilly  (15,835),  Glyncorrwg  (6453),  Maesteg  (15,012),  Margam- 
(9014),  Mountain  Ash  (31,093),  Ogmore  and  Garw  (19,907),  Oyster- 
mouth  (4461),  Penarth  (14,228),  Pontypridd  (32,316),  Porthcawl 
(1872)  and  Rhondda,  previously  known  as  Ystradyfodwg  (113,735). 
Glamorgan  is  in  the  S.  Wales  circuit,  and  both  assizes  and  quarter- 
sessions  are  held  at  Cardiff  and  Swansea  alternately.  All  the 
municipal  boroughs  have  separate  commissions  of  the  peace,  and 
Cardiff  and  Swansea  have  also  separate  courts  of  quarter-sessions. 
The  county  has  thirteen  other  petty  sessional  divisions,  Cardiff,  the 
Rhondda  (with  Pontypridd)  and  the  Merthyr  and  Aberdare  district 
have  stipendiary  magistrates.  There  are  165  civil  parishes.  Ex- 
cepting the  districts  of  Gower  and  Kilvey,  which  are  in  the  diocese 
of  St  David's,  the  whole  county  is  in  the  diocese  of  Llandaff.  There 
are  159  ecclesiastical  parishes  or  districts  situated  wholly  or  partly 
within  the  county. 

History. — The  earliest  known  traces  of  man  within  the  area 
of  the  present  county  are  the  human  remains  found  in  the  famous 
bone-caves  of  Gower,  though  they  are  scanty  as  compared  with 
the  huge  deposits  of  still  earlier  animal  remains.  To  a  later 
stage,  perhaps  in  the  Neolithic  period,  belongs  a  numberof  com- 
plete skeletons  discovered  in  1903  in  sand-blown  tumuli  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Ogmore,  where  many  flint  implements  were 
also  found.  Considerably  later,  and  probably  belonging  to  the 
Bronze  Age  (though  finds  of  bronze  implements  have  been  scanty) , 
are  the  many  cairns  and  tumuli,  mainly  on  the  hills,  such  as  on 
Garth  Mountain  near  Cardiff,  Crug-yr-avan  and  a  number  east 
of  the  Tawe;  the  stone  circles  often  found  in  association  with 
the  tumuli,  that  of  Carn  Llecharth  near  Pontardawe  being  one 
of  the  most  complete  in  Wales;  and  the  fine  cromlechs  of  Cefn 
Bryn  in  Gower  (known  as  Arthur's  Stone),  of  St  Nicholas  and  of 
St  Lythan's  near  Cardiff. 

In  Roman  times  the  country  from  the  Neath  to  the  Wye  was 
occupied  by  the  Silures,  a  pre-Celtic  race,  probably  governed  at 
that  time  by  Brythonic  Celts.  West  of  the  Neath  and  along  the 
fringe  of  the  Brecknock  Mountains  were  probably  remnants  of  the 
earlier  Goidelic  Celts,  who  have  left  traces  in  the  place-names  of 
the  Swansea  valley  (e.g.  llwch,  "  a  lake  ")  and  in  the  illegible 
Ogham  inscription  at  Loughor,  the  only  other  Ogham  stone  in 
the  county  being  at  Kenfig,  a  few  miles  to  the  east  of  the  Neath 
estuary.  The  conquest  of  the  Silures  by  the  Romans  was  begun 
about  A.D.  50  by  Ostorius  Scapula  and  completed  some  25  years 
later  by  Julius  Frontinus,  who  probably  constructed  the  great 
military  road,  called  Via  Julia  Maritima,  from  Gloucester  to  St 
David's,  with  stations  at  Cardiff,  Bovium  (variously  identified 
with  Boverton,  Cowbridge  and  Ewenny),  Nidum  (identified  with 
Neath)  and  Leucarum  or  Loughor.  The  important  station  of 
Gaer  on  the  Usk  near  Brecon  was  connected  by  two  branch 
roads,  one  running  from  Cardiff  through  Gelligaer  (where  there 
was  a  strong  hill  fort)  and  Merthyr  Tydfil,  and  another  from  Neath 


through  Capel  Colbren.  Welsh  tradition  credits  Glamorgan 
with  being  the  first  home  of  Christianity,  and  Llandaff  the  earliest 
bishopric  in  Britain,  the  name  of  three  reputed  missionaries  of 
the  2nd  century  being  preserved  in  the  names  of  parishes  in  south 
Glamorgan.  What  is  certain,  however,  is  that  the  first  two  bishops 
of  Llandaff,  •  St  Dubricius  and  St  Teilo,  lived  during  the  first 
half  of  the  6th  century,  to  which  period  also  belongs  the  establish- 
ment of  the  great  monastic  settlements  of  Llancarvan  by  Cadoc, 
of  Llandough  by  Oudoceus  and  of  Llantwit  Major  by  Illtutus,  the 
last  of  which  flourished  as  a  seat  of  learning  down  to  the  I2th 
century.  A  few  moated  mounds  such  as  at  Cardiff  indicate  that, 
after  the  withdrawal  of  the  Romans,  the  coasts  were  visited  by 
sporadic  bands  of  Saxons,  but  the  Scandinavians  who  came  in 
the  gth  and  succeeding  centuries  left  more  abundant  traces  both 
in  the  place-names  of  the  coast  and  in  such  camps  as  that  on 
Sully  Island,  the  Bulwarks  at  Porthkerry  and  Hardings  Down 
in  Gower.  Meanwhile  the  native  tribes  of  the  district  had 
regained  their  independence  under  a  line  of  Welsh  chieftains, 
whose  domain  was  consolidated  into  a  principality  known  as 
Glywyssing,  till  about  the  end  of  the  loth  century  when  it 
acquired  the  name  of  Morganwg,  that  is  the  territory  of  Morgan, 
a  prince  who  died  in  A.D.  980;  it  then  comprised  the  whole 
country  from  the  Neath  to  the  Wye,  practically  corresponding 
to  the  present  diocese  of  Llandaff.  Gwlad  Morgan,  later  softened 
into  Glamorgan,  never  had  much  vogue  and  meant  precisely  the 
same  as  Morganwg,  though  the  two  terms  became  differentiated 
a  few  centuries  later. 

The  Norman  conquest  of  Morganwg  was  effected  in  the 
closing  years  of  the  nth  century  by  Robert  Fitzhamon,  lord  of 
Gloucester.  His  followers  settled  in  the  low-lying  lands  of  the 
"  Vale,"  which  became  known  as  the  "  body  "  of  the  shire, 
while  in  the  hill  country,  which  consisted  of  ten  "  members," 
corresponding  to  its  ancient  territorial  divisions,  the  Welsh 
retained  their  customary  laws  and  much  of  their  independence. 
Glamorgan,  whose  bounds  were  now  contracted  between  the 
Neath  and  the  Rhymney,  then  became  a  lordship  marcher,  its 
status  and  organization  being  that  of  a  county  palatine;  its 
lord  possessed  jura  regalia,  and  his  chief  official  was  from  the 
first  a  vice-comes,  or  sheriff,  who  presided  over  a  county  court 
composed  of  his  lord's  principal  tenants.  The  inhabitants  of 
Cardiff  in  which,  as  the  capul  baroniae,  this  court  was  held 
(though  sometimes  ambulatory-),  were  soon  granted  municipal 
privileges,  and  in  time  Cowbridge,  Kenfig,  Llantrisant,  Aberavon 
and  Neath  also  became  chartered  market-towns.  The  manorial 
system  was  introduced  throughout  the  "  Vale,"  the  manor  in 
many  cases  becoming  the  parish,  and  the  owner  building  for  its 
protection  first  a  castle  and  then  a  church.  The  church  itself 
became  Normanized,  and  monasteries  were  established — the 
Cistercian  abbey  of  Neath  and  Margam  in  1129  and  1147  re- 
spectively, the  Benedictine  priory  of  Ewenny  in  1141  and  that  of 
Cardiff  in  1147.  Dominican  and  Franciscan  houses  were  also 
founded  at  Cardiff  in  the  following  century. 

Gower  (with  Kilvey)  or  the  country  west  of  the  morass  between 
Neath  and  Swansea  had  a  separate  history.  It  was  conquered 
about  1 100  by  Henry  de  Newburgh,  ist  earl  of  Warwick,  by 
whose  descendants  and  the  powerful  family  of  De  Breos  it 
was  successively  held  as  a  marcher  lordship,  organized  to  some 
extent  on  county  lines,  till  1469.  Swansea  (which  was  the  caput 
baroniae  of  Gower)  and  Loughor  received  their  earlier  charters 
from  the  lords  of  Gower  (see  GOWER). 

For  the  first  two  centuries  after  Fitzhamon's  time  the  lordship 
of  Glamorgan  was  held  by  the  earls  of  Gloucester,  a  title  con- 
ferred by  Henry  I.  on  his  natural  son  Robert,  who  acquired 
Glamorgan  by  marrying  Fitzhamon's  daughter.  To  the  ist 
earl's  patronage  of  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth  and  other  men  of 
letters,  at  Cardiff  Castle  of  which  he  was  the  builder,  is  probably 
due  the  large  place  which  Celtic  romance,  especially  theArthurian 
cycle,  won  for  itself  in  medieval  literature.  The  lordship  passed 
by  descent  through  the  families  of  Clare  (who  held  it  from  1217 
to  1317),  Despenser,  Beauchamp  and  Neville  to  Richard  III.,  on 
whose  fall  it  escheated  to  the  crown.  From  time  to  time,  the 
Welsh  of  the  hills,  often  joined  by  their  countrymen  from  other 


76 


GLANDERS 


parts,  raided  the  Vale,  and  even  Cardiff  Castle  was  seized  about 
11 53  by  Ivor  Bach,  lord  of  Senghenydd,  who  for  a  time  held  its 
lord  a  prisoner.  At  last  Caerphilly  Castle  was  built  to  keep  them 
in  check,  but  this  provoked  an  invasion  in  1270  by  Prince 
Llewelyn  ap  Griffith,  who  besieged  the  castle  and  refused  to  retire 
except  on  conditions.  In  1316  Llewelyn  Bren  headed  a  revolt  in 
the  samedistrict,but  being  defeated  wasput  to  death  by  Despenser, 
whose  great  unpopularity  with  the  Welsh  made  Glamorgan  less 
safe  as  a  retreat  for  Edward  II.  a  few  years  later.  In  1404 
Glendower  swept  through  the  county,  burning  castles  and  laying 
waste  the  possessions  of  the  king's  supporters.  By  the  Act  of 
Union  of  1535  the  county  of  Glamorgan  was  incorporated  as  it 
now  exists,  by  the  addition  to  the  old  county  of  the  lordship 
of  Gower  and  Kilvey,  west  of  the  Neath.  By  another  act  of 
1542  the  court  of  great  sessions  was  established,  and  Glamorgan, 
with  the  counties  of  Brecon  and  Radnor,  formed  one  of  its  four 
Welsh  circuits  from  thence  till  1830,  when  the  English  assize 
system  was  introduced  into  Wales.  In  the  same  year  the  county 
was  given  one  parliamentary  representative,  increased  to  two 
in  1832  and  to  five  in  1885.  The  boroughs  were  also  given  a 
member.  In  1832  Cardiff  (with  Llantrisant  and  Cowbridge),  the 
Swansea  group  of  boroughs  and  the  parliamentary  borough  of 
Merthyr  Tydfil  were  given  one  member  each,  increased  to  two, 
in  the  case  of  Merthyr  Tydfil  in  1867.  In  1885  the  Swansea 
group  was  divided  into  two  constituencies  with  a  member  each. 

The  lordship  of  Glamorgan,  shorn  of  its  quasi-regal  status,  was 
granted  by  Edward  VI.  to  William  Herbert,  afterwards  ist  earl 
of  Pembroke,  from  whom  it  has  descended  to  the  present  marquess 
of  Bute. 

The  rule  of  the  Tudors  promoted  the  rapid  assimilation  of  the 
inhabitants  of  the  county,  and  by  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  even 
the  descendants  of  the  Norman  knights  had  largely  become 
Welsh  both  in  speech  and  sentiment.  Welsh  continued  to  be  the 
prevalent  speech  almost  throughout  the  county,  except  in  the 
peninsular  part  of  Gower  and  perhaps  Cardiff,  till  the  last  quarter 
of  the  ipth  century.  Since  then  it  has  lost  ground  in  the  mari- 
time towns  and  the  south-east  corner  of  the  county  generally, 
while  fairly  holding  its  own,  despite  much  English  migration,  in 
the  industrial  districts  to  the  north.  In  1901  about  56%  of  the 
total  population  above  three  years  of  age  was  returned  as  speaking 
English  only,  37%  as  speaking  both  English  and  Welsh,  and 
about  65  %  as  speaking  Welsh  only. 

In  common  with  the  rest  of  Wales  the  county  was  mainly 
Royalist  in  the  Civil  War,  and  indeed  stood  foremost  in  its 
readiness  to  pay  ship-money,  but  when  Charles  I.  visited  Cardiff 
in  July  1645  he  failed  to  recruit  his  army  there,  owing  to  the 
dissatisfaction  of  the  county,  which  a  few  months  later  declared 
for  the  parliament.  There  was,  however,  a  subsequent  Royalist 
revolt  in  Glamorgan  in  1648,  but  it  was  signally  crushed  by 
Colonel  Horton  at  the  battle  of  St  Pagan's  (8th  of  May). 

The  educational  gap  caused  by  final  disappearance  of  the 
great  university  of  Llantwit  Major,  founded  in  the  6th  century, 
and  by  the  dissolution  of  the  monasteries  was  to  some  extent 
filled  by  the  foundation,  by  the  Stradling  family,  of  a  grammar 
school  at  Cowbridge  which,  refounded  in  1685  by  Sir  Leoline 
Jenkins,  is  still  carried  on  as  an  endowed  school.  The  only  other 
ancient  grammar  school  is  that  of  Swansea,  founded  by  Bishop 
Gore  in  1682,  and  now  under  the  control  of  the  borough  council. 
Besides  the  University  College  of  South  Wales  and  Monmouth- 
shire established  at  Cardiff  in  1883,  and  a  technical  college 
at  Swansea,  there  is  a  Church  of  England  theological  college 
(St  Michael's)  at  Llandaff  (previously  at  Aberdare),  a  training 
college  for  school-mistresses  at  Swansea,  schools  for  the  blind  at 
Cardiff  and  Swansea  and  for  the  deaf  at  Cardiff,  Swansea  and 
Pontypridd. 

Antiquities. — The  antiquities  of  the  county  not  already 
mentioned  include  an  unusually  large  number  of  castles,  all 
of  which,  except  the  castles  of  Morlais  (near  Merthyr  Tydfil), 
Castell  Coch  and  Llantrisant,  are  between  the  hill  country  and 
the  sea.  The  finest  specimen  is  that  of  Caerphilly,  but  there 
are  also  more  or  less  imposing  ruins  at  Oystermouth,  Coity, 
Newcastle  (at  Bridgend),  Llanblethian,  Pennard  and  Swansea. 


Among  the  restored  castles,  resided  in  by  their  present  owners, 
are  St  Donat's,  "  the  latest  and  most  complete  of  the  structures 
built  for  defence,"  Cardiff,  the  residence  of  the  marquess  of 
Bute,  St  Pagan's,  Dunraven,  Fonmon  and  Penrice.  Of  the 
monastic  buildings,  that  of  Ewenny  is  best  preserved,  Neath 
and  Margam  are  mere  ruins,  while  all  the  others  have  disappeared. 
Almost  all  the  older  churches  possess  towers  of  a  somewhat 
military  character,  and  most  of  them,  except  in  Gower,  retain 
Borne  Norman  masonry.  Coity,  Coychurch  and  Ewenny  (all  near 
Bridgend)  are  fine  examples  of  cross  churches  with  embattled 
towers  characteristic  of  the  county.  There  are  interesting 
monumental  effigies  at  St  Mary's,  Swansea,  Oxwich,  Ewenny, 
Llantwit  Major,  Llantrisant,  Coity  and  other  churches  in  the 
Vale.  There  are  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  sculptured  stones, 
of  which  some  sixteen  are  both  ornamented  and  inscribed,  five 
of  the  latter  being  at  Margam  and  three  at  Llantwit  Major, 
and  dating  from  the  gth  century  if  not  earlier. 

AUTHORITIES. — The  records  of  the  Curia  comitatus  or  County 
Court  of  Glamorgan  are  supposed  to  have  perished,  so  also  have 
the  records  of  Neath.  With  these  exceptions,  the  records  of  the 
county  have  been  well  preserved.  A  collection  edited  by  G.  T. 
Clark  under  the  title  Cartae  et  alia  munimenta  quae  ad  dominium  de 
Glamorgan  pertinent  was  privately  printed  by  him  in  four  volumes 
(1885-1893).  A  Descriptive  Catalogue  of  the  Penrice  and  Margam 
Abbey  MSS.  in  the  Possession  of  Miss  Talbot  of  Margam  (6  vols.) 
was  privately  issued  (1893-1905)  under  the  editorship  of  Dr  de 
Gray  Birch,  who  has  also  published  histories  of  the  Abbeys  of 
Neath  and  Margam.  The  Book  of  Llan  Ddf  (edited  by  Dr  Gweno- 
"gvryn  Evans,  1903)  contains  documents  illustrative  of  the  early 
history  of  the  diocese  of  Llandaff.  Cardiff  has  published  its  Records 
in  5  vols.,  and  there  is  a  volume  of  Swansea  charters.  There  is  no 
complete  history  of  the  county,  except  a  modest  but  useful  one 
in  Welsh — Hanes  Morganwg,  by  D.  W.  Jones  (Dafydd  Morganwg) 
( 1 874) ;  the  chief  contributions  are  Rice  Merrick's  Booke  of  Glamorgan- 
shire s  Antiquities,  written  in  1578;  The  Land  of  Morgan  (1883) 
(a  history  of  the  lordship  of  Glamorgan),  by  G.  T.  Clark,  whose 
Genealogies  of  Glamorgan  (1886)  and  Medieval  Military  Architecture 
(1884)  are  also  indispensable;  see  also  T.  Nicholas,  Annals  and 
Antiquities  of  the  Counties  and  County  Families  of  Wales  (2  vols., 
1872).  For  Gower,  see  GOWER.  (D.  LL.  T.) 

GLANDERS,  or  FARCY  (Equinia),  a  specific  infective  and 
contagious  disease,  caused  by  a  tissue  parasite  (Bacillus  mallei), 
to  which  certain  animals,  chiefly  the  horse,  ass  and  mule,  are 
liable,  and  which  is  communicable  from  them  to  man.  Glanders 
in  the  domesticated  animals  is  dealt  with  under  VETERINARY 
SCIENCE;  it  is  happily  a  rare  form  of  disease  in  man,  there  being 
evidently  less  affinity  for  its  development  in  the  human  subject 
than  in  the  equine  species.  For  the  pathology  see  the  article 
PARASITIC  DISEASES.  It  occurs  chiefly  among  those  who  from 
their  occupation  are  frequently  in  contact  with  horses,  such  as 
grooms,  coachmen,  cavalry  soldiers,  veterinary  surgeons,  &c. ;  the 
bacillus  is  communicated  from  a  glandered  animal  either  through 
a  wound  or  scratch  or  through  application  to  the  mucous  mem- 
brane of  the  nose  or  mouth.  A  period  of  incubation,  lasting 
from  three  to  five  days,  generally  follows  the  introduction  of 
the  virus  into  the  human  system.  This  period,  however,  appears 
sometimes  to  be  of  much  longer  duration,  especially  where  there 
has  been  no  direct  inoculation  of  the  poison.  The  first  symptoms 
are  a  general  feeling  of  illness,  accompanied  with  pains  in  the 
limbs  and  joints  resembling  those  of  acute  rheumatism.  If 
the  disease  has  been  introduced  by  means  of  an  abraded  surface, 
pain  is  felt  at  that  point,  and  inflammatory  swelling  takes  place 
there,  and  extends  along  the  neighbouring  lymphatics.  An 
ulcer  is  formed  at  the  point  of  inoculation  which  discharges 
an  offensive  ichor,  and  blebs  appear  in  the  inflamed  skin,  along 
with  diffuse  abscesses,  as  in  phlegmonous  erysipelas.  Sometimes 
the  disease  stops  short  with  these  local  manifestations,  but 
more  commonly  goes  on  rapidly  accompanied  with  symptoms 
of  grave  constitutional  disturbance.  Over  the  whole  surface 
of  the  body  there  appear  numerous  red  spots  or  pustules,  which 
break  and  discharge  a  thick  mucous  or  sanguineous  fluid.  Besides 
these  there  are  larger  swellings  lying  deeper  in  the  subcutaneous 
tissue,  which  at  first  are  extremely  hard  and  painful,  and  to 
which  the  term  farcy  "  buds  "  or  "  buttons  "  is  applied.  These 
ultimately  open  and  become  extensive  sloughing  ulcers. 

The  mucous  membranes  participate  in  the  same  lesions  as 


GLANVILL— GLAPTHORNE 


77 


are  present  in  the  skin,  and  this  is  particularly  the  case  with 
the  interior  of  the  nose,  where  indeed,  in  many  instances,  the 
disease  first  of  all  shows  itself.  This  organ  becomes  greatly 
swollen  and  inflamed,  while  from  one  or  both  nostrils  there 
exudes  a  copious  discharge  of  highly  offensive  purulent  or 
sanguineous  matter.  The  lining  membrane  of  the  nostrils 
is  covered  with  papules  similar  in  character  to  those  on  the 
skin,  which  form  ulcers,  and  may  lead  to  the  destruction  of  the 
cartilaginous  and  bony  textures  of  the  nose.  The  diseased  action 
extends  into  the  throat,  mouth  and  eyes,  while  the  whole  face 
becomes  swollen  and  erysipelatous,  and  the  lymphatic  glands 
under  the  jaws  inflame  and  suppurate.  Not  unfrequently  the 
bronchial  tubes  become  affected,  and  cough  attended  with 
expectoration  of  matter  similar  to  that  discharged  from  the 
nose  is  the  consequence.  The  general  constitutional  symptoms 
are  exceedingly  severe,  and  advance  with  great  rapidity,  the 
patient  passing  into  a  state  of  extreme  prostration.  In  the 
acute  form  of  the  disease  recovery  rarely  if  ever  occurs,  and  the 
case  generally  terminates  fatally  in  a  period  varying  from  two 
or  three  days  to  as  many  weeks. 

A  chronic  form  of  glanders  and  farcy  is  occasionally  met  with, 
in  which  the  symptoms,  although  essentially  the  same  as  those 
above  described,  advance  much  more  slowly,  and  are  attended 
with  relatively  less  urgent  constitutional  disturbance.  Cases 
of  recovery  from  this  form  are  on  record;  but  in  general  the 
disease  ultimately  proves  fatal  by  exhaustion  of  the  patient, 
or  by  a  sudden  supervention,  which  is  apt  to  occur,  of  the  acute 
form.  On  the  other  hand,  acute  glanders  is  never  observed 
to  become  chronic. 

In  the  treatment  of  this  malady  in  human  beings  reliance 
is  mainly  placed  on  the  maintenance  of  the  patient's  strength 
by  strong  nourishment  and  tonic  remedies.  Cauterization 
should  be  resorted  to  if  the  point  of  infection  is  early  known. 
Abscesses  may  be  opened  and  antiseptic  lotions  used.  In  all 
cases  of  the  outbreak  of  glanders  it  is  of  the  utmost  consequence 
to  prevent  the  spread  of  the  disease  by  the  destruction  of  affected 
animals  and  the  cleansing  and  disinfection  of  infected  localities. 

GLANVILL  (or  GLANVIL),  JOSEPH  (1636-1680),  English 
philosopher,  was  born  at  Plymouth  in  1636,  and  was  educated 
at  Exeter  and  Lincoln  colleges,  Oxford,  where  he  graduated  as 
M.A.  in  1658.  After  the  Restoration  he  was  successively  rector 
of  Wimbush,  Essex,  vicar  of  Frome  Selwood,  Somersetshire, 
rector  of  Streat  and  Walton.  In  1666  he  was  appointed  to  the 
abbey  church,  Bath;  in  1678  he  became  prebendary  of  Wor- 
cester Cathedral,  and  acted  as  chaplain  in  ordinary  to  Charles  II. 
from  1672.  He  died  at  Bath  in  November  1680.  Glanvill's 
first  work  (a  passage  in  which  suggested  the  theme  of  Matthew 
Arnold's  Scholar  Gipsy),  The  Vanity  of  Dogmatizing,  or  Con- 
fidence in  Opinions,  manifested  in  a  Discourse  of  the  shortness 
and  uncertainty  of  our  Knowledge,  and  its  Causes,  with  Reflexions 
on  Peripateticism,  and  an  Apology  for  Philosophy  (1661),  is 
interesting  as  showing  one  special  direction  in  which  the  new 
method  of  the  Cartesian  philosophy  might  be  developed.  Pascal 
had  already  shown  how  philosophical  scepticism  might  be 
employed  as  a  bulwark  for  faith,  and  Glanvill  follows  in  the 
same  track.  The  philosophic  endeavour  to  cognize  the  whole 
system  of  things  by  referring  all  events  to  their  causes  appears 
to  him  to  be  from  the  outset  doomed  to  failure.  For  if  we 
inquire  into  this  causal  relation  we  find  that  though  we  know 
isolated  facts,  we  cannot  perceive  any  such  connexion  between 
them  as  that  the  one  should  give  rise  to  the  other.  In  the 
words  of  Hume,  "  they  seem  conjoined  but  never  connected." 
All  causes  then  are  but  secondary,  i.e.  merely  the  occasions 
on  which  the  one  first  cause  operates.  It  is  singular  enough 
that  Glanvill  who  had  not  only  shown,  but  even  exaggerated, 
the  infirmity  of  human  reason,  himself  provided  an  example  of 
its  weakness;  for,  after  having  combated  scientific  dogmatism, 
he  not  only  yielded  to  vulgar  superstitions,  but  actually  en- 
deavoured to  accredit  them  both  in  his  revised  edition  of  the 
Vanity  of  Dogmatizing,  published  as  Scepsis  scientifica  (1665, 
ed.  Rev.  John  Owen,  1885),  and  in  his  Philosophical  Considera- 
tions concerning  the  existence  of  Sorcerers  and  Sorcery  (1666). 


The  latter  work  appears  to  have  been  based  on  the  story  of  the 
drum  which  was  alleged  to  have  been  heard  every  night  in  a 
house  in  Wiltshire  (Tedworth,  belonging  to  a  Mr  Mompesson), 
a  story  which  made  much  noise  in  the  year  1663,  and  which  is 
supposed  to  have  furnished  Addison  with  the  idea  of  his  comedy 
the  Drummer.  At  his  death  Glanvill  left  a  piece  entitled  Saddu- 
cismus  Triumphatus  (printed  in  1681,  reprinted  with  some 
additions  in  1682,  German  trans.  1701).  He  had  there  collected 
twenty-six  relations  or  stories  of  the  same  description  as  that 
of  the  drum,  in  order  to  establish,  by  a  series  of  facts,  the  opinion 
which  he  had  expressed  in  his  Philosophical  Considerations. 
Glanvill  supported  a  much  more  honourable  cause  when  he 
undertook  the  defence  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London,  under 
the  title'  of  _Plus  Ultra,  or  the  Progress  and  Advancement  of 
Science  since  the  time  of  Aristotle  (1668),  a  work  which  shows 
how  thoroughly  he  was  imbued  with  the  ideas  of  the  empirical 
method. 

Besides  the  works  already  noticed,  Glanvill  wrote  Lux  orientals 
(1662);  Philosophia  pia  (1671);  Essays  on  Several  Important 
Subjects  in  Philosophy  and  Religion  (1676);  An  Essay  concerning 
Preaching;  and  Sermons.  See  C.  RSmusat,  Hist,  de  la  phil.  en 
Angleterre,  bk.  iii.  ch.  xi. ;  W.  E.  H.  Lecky,  Rationalism  in  Europe 
(1865),  i.  120-128;  Hallam's  Literature  of  Europe,  iii.  358-362; 
Tulloch's  Rational  Theology,  ii.  443-455. 

GLANVILL,  RANULF  DE  (sometimes  written  GLANVIL, 
GLANVILLE)  (d.  1190),  chief  justiciar  of  England  and  reputed 
author  of  a  book  on  English  law,  was  born  at  Stratford  in  Suffolk, 
but  in  what  year  is  unknown.  There  is  but  little  information 
regarding  his  early  life.  He  first  comes  to  the  front  as  sheriff 
of  Yorkshire  from  1163  to  1170.  In  1173  he  became  sheriff 
of  Lancashire  and  custodian  of  the  honour  of  Richmond.  In 
1174  he  was  one  of  the  English  leaders  at  the  battle  of  Alnwick, 
and  it  was  to  him  that  the  king  of  the  Scots,  William  the  Lion, 
surrendered.  In  1175  he  was  reappointed  sheriff  of  Yorkshire, 
in  1176  he  became  justice  of  the  king's  court  and  a  justice 
itinerant  in  the  northern  circuit,  and  in  1180  chief  justiciar  of 
England.  It  was  with  his  assistance  that  Henry  II.  completed 
his  judicial  reforms,  though  the  principal  of  them  had  been 
carried  out  before  he  came  into  office.  He  became  the  king's 
right-hand  man,  and  during  Henry's  frequent  absences  was  in 
effect  viceroy  of  England.  After  the  death  of  Henry  in  1189, 
Glanvill  was  removed  from  his  office  by  Richard  I.,  and  im- 
prisoned till  he  had  paid  a  ransom,  according  to  one  authority, 
of  £15,000.  Shortly  after  obtaining  his  freedom  he  took  the 
cross,  and  he  died  at  the  siege  of  Acre  in  1190.  At  the  instance, 
it  may  be,  of  Henry  II.,  Glanvill  wrote  or  superintended  the 
writing  of  the  Tractatus  de  legibus  et  consuetudinibus  regni 
Angliae,  which  is  a  practical  treatise  on  the  forms  of  procedure 
in  the  king's  court.  As  the  source  of  our  knowledge  regarding 
the  earliest  form  of  the  curia  regis,  and  for  the  information  it 
affords  regarding  ancient  customs  and  laws,  it  is  of  great  value 
to  the  student  of  English  history.  It  is  now  generally  agreed 
that  the  work  of  Glanvill  is  of  earlier  date  than  the  Scottish  law 
book  known  from  its  first  words  as  Regiam  Majestatem,  a  work 
which  bears  a  close  resemblance  to  his. 

The  treatise  of  Glanvill  was  first  printed  in  1554.  An  English 
translation,  with  notes  and  introduction  by  John  Beames,  was 
published  at  London  in  1812.  A  French  version  is  found  in  various 
MSS.,  but  has  not  yet  been  printed.  (See  also  ENGLISH  LAW: 
History  of.) 

GLAPTHORNE,  HENRY  (fl.  1635-1642),  English  poet  and 
dramatist,  wrote  in  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  All  that  is  known 
of  him  is  gathered  from  his  own  work.  He  published  Poems 
(1639),  many  of  them  in  praise  of  an  unidentified  "  Lucinda  "; 
a  poem  in  honour  of  his  friend  Thomas  Beedome,  whose  Poems 
Divine  and  Humane  he  edited  in  1641;  and  Whitehall  (1642), 
dedicated  to  his  "  noble  friend  and  gossip,  Captain  Richard 
Lovelace."  The  first  volume  contains  a  poem  in  honour  of  the 
duke  of  York,  and  Whitehall  is  a  review  of  the  past  glories  of 
the  English  court,  containing  abundant  evidences  of  the  writer's 
devotion  to  the  royal  cause.  Argalus  and  Parthenia  (1639)  is  a 
pastoral  tragedy  founded  on  an  episode  in  Sidney's  Arcadia; 
Albertus  Wallenstein  (1639),  his  only  attempt  at  historical  tragedy, 
represents  Wallenstein  as  a  monster  of  pride  and  cruelty.  His 


GLARUS 


other  plays  are  The  Hollander  (written  1635;  printed  1640), 
a  romantic  comedy  of  which  the  scene  is  laid  in  Genoa;  Wit  in  a 
Constable  (1640),  which  is  probably  a  version  of  an  earlier  play, 
and  owes  something  to  Shakespeare's  Much  Ado  about  Nothing; 
and  The  Ladies  Priviledge  (1640).  The  Lady  Mother  (1635) 
has  been  identified  (Fleay,  Biog.  Chron.  of  the  Drama)  with  The 
Noble  Trial,  one  of  the  plays  destroyed  by  Warburton's  cook, 
and  Mr  A.  H.  Bullen  prints  it  in  vol.  ii.  of  his  Old  English  Plays 
as  most  probably  Glapthorne's  work.  The  Paraside,  or  Revenge 
for  Honour  (1654),  entered  at  Stationers'  Hall  in  1653  as  Glap- 
thorne's, was  printed  in  the  next  year  with  George  Chapman's 
name  on  the  title-page.  It  should  probably  be  included  among 
Glapthorne's  plays,  which,  though  they  hardly  rise  above  the 
level  of  contemporary  productions,  contain  many  felicitous 
isolated  passages.  . 

The  Plays  and  Poems  of  Henry  Clapthorne  (1874)  contains  an  un- 
signed memoir,  which,  however,  gives  no  information  about  the 
dramatist's  life.  There  is  no  reason  for  supposing  that  the  George 
Glapthorne  of  whose  trial  details  are  given  was  a  relative  of  the  poet. 

GLARUS  (Fr.  Claris),  one  of  the  Swiss  cantons,  the  name 
being  taken  from  that  of  its  chief  town.  Its  area  is  266-8  sq.  m., 
of  which  173-1  sq.  m.  are  classed  as  "productive"  (forests 
covering  41  sq.  m.),  but  it  also  contains  13-9  sq.  m.  of  glaciers, 
ranking  as  the  fifth  Swiss  canton  in  this  respect.  It  is  thus  a 
mountain  canton,  the  loftiest  point  in  it  being  the  Todi  (11,887  ft.), 
the  highest  summit  that  rises  to  the  north  of  the  upper  Aar  and 
Vorder  Rhine  valleys.  It  is  composed  of  the  upper  valley  of 
the  Linth,  that  is  the  portion  which  lies  to  the  south  of  a  line 
drawn  from  the  Lake  of  Zurich  to  the  Walensee.  This  river 
rises  in  the  glaciers  of  the  Todi,  and  has  carved  out  for  itself  a 
deep  bed,  so  that  the  floor  of  the  valley  is  comparatively  level, 
and  therefore  is  occupied  by  a  number  of  considerable  villages. 
Glacier  passes  only  lead  from  its  head  to  the  Grisons,  save  the 
rough  footpath  over  the  Kisten  Pass,  while  a  fine  new  carriage 
road  over  the  Klausen  Pass  gives  access  to  the  canton  of  Uri. 
The  upper  Linth  valley  is  sometimes  called  the  Grossthal  (main 
valley)  to  distinguish  it  from  its  chief  (or  south-eastern)  tributary, 
the  Sernf  valley  or  Kleinthal,  which  joins  it  at  Schwanden,  a 
little  above  Glarus  itself.  At  the  head  of  the  Kleinthal  a  mule 
track  leads  to  the  Grisons  over  the  Panixer  Pass,  as  also  a  foot- 
path over  the  Segnes  Pass.  Just  below  Glarus  town,  another 
glen  (coming  from  the  south-west)  joins  the  main  valley,  and  is 
watered  by  the  Klon,  while  from  its  head  the  Pragel  Pass 
(a  mule  path,  converted  into  a  carriage  road)  leads  over  to 
the  canton  of  Schwyz.  The  Klon  glen  (uninhabited  save  in 
summer)  is  separated  from  the  main  glen  by  the  fine  bold  mass 
of  the  Glarnisch  (9580  ft.),  while  the  Sernf  valley  is  similarly  cut 
off  from  the  Grossthal  by  the  high  ridge  running  northwards 
from  the  Hausstock  (10,342  ft.)  over  the  Karpfstock  (9177  ft.). 
The  principal  lakes,  the  Klonthalersee  and  the  Muttensee,  are 
of  a  thoroughly  Alpine  character,  while  there  are  several  fine 
waterfalls  near  the  head  of  the  main  valley,  such  as  those  formed 
by  the  Sandbach,  the  Schreienbach  and  the  Fatschbach.  The 
Pantenbrucke,  thrown  over  the  narrow  cleft  formed  by  the 
Linth,  is  one  of  the  grandest  sights  of  the  Alps  below  the  snow- 
line.  There  is  a  sulphur  spring  at  Stachelberg,  near  Linthal 
village,  and  an  iron  spring  at  Elm,  while  in  the  Sernf  valley 
there  are  the  Plattenberg  slate  quarries,  and  just  south  of  Elm 
those  of  the  Tschingelberg,  whence  a  terrific  landslip  descended 
to  Elm  (nth  September  1 88 1 ) ,  destroying  many  houses  and  killing 
115  persons.  A  railway  runs  through  the  whole  canton  from 
north  to  south  past  Glarus  to  Linthal  village  (i6|  m.),  while 
from  Schwanden  there  is  an  electric  line  (opened  in  1905)  up  to 
Elm  (8J  m.). 

In  1900  the  population  of  the  canton  was  32,349  (a  decrease 
on  the  33,825  of  1888,  this  being  the  only  Swiss  canton  which 
shows  a  decrease),  of  whom  31,797  were  German-speaking, 
while  there  were  24,403  Protestants,  7918  Romanists  (many  in 
Nafels)  and  3  Jews.  After  the  capital,  Glarus  (q.v.),  the  largest 
villages  are  Nafels  (2 557 inhabitants),  Ennenda  (2494  inhabitants, 
opposite  Glarus,  of  which  it  is  practically  a  suburb),  Netstal 
(2003  inhabitants),  Mollis  (1912  inhabitants)  and  Linththal 


(1894  inhabitants).  The  slate  industry  is  now  the  most  important 
as  the  cotton  manufacture  has  lately  very  greatly  fallen  off, 
this  being  the  real  reason  of  the  diminution  in  the  number  of  the 
population.  There  is  little  agriculture,  for  it  is  a  pastoral  region 
(owing  to  its  height)  and  contains  87  mountain  pastures  (though 
the  finest  of  all  within  the  limits  of  the  canton,  the  Urnerboden, 
or  the  Glarus  side  of  the  Klausen  Pass,  belongs  to  Uri),  which 
can  support  8054  cows,  and  are  of  an  estimated  capital  value 
of  about  £246,000.  One  of  the  most  characteristic  products 
(though  inferior  qualities  are  manufactured  elsewhere  in  Switzer- 
land) is  the  cheese  called  Schabzieger,  Krauterka.se,  or  green  cheese, 
made  of  skim  milk  (Zieger  or  serac),  whether  of  goats  or  cows, 
mixed  with  buttermilk  and  coloured  with  powdered  Steinklee 
(Melilotus  officinalis)  or  blauer  Honigklee  (Melilotus  caerulea). 
The  curds  are  brought  down  from  the  huts  on  the  pastures,  and, 
after  being  mixed  with  the  dried  powder,  are  ground  in  a  mill, 
then  put  into  shapes  and  pressed.  The  cheese  thus  produced 
is  ripe  in  about  a  year,  keeps  a  long  time  and  is  largely  exported, 
even  to  America.  The  ice  formed  on  the  surface  of  the  Klon- 
thalersee in  winter  is  stored  up  on  its  shore  and  exported.  A 
certain  number  of  visitors  come  to  the  canton  in  the  summer, 
either  to  profit  by  one  or  other  of  the  mineral  springs  men- 
tioned above,  or  simply  to  enjoy  the  beauties  of  nature,  especially 
at  Obstalden,  above  the  Walensee.  The  canton  forms  but  a 
single  administrative  district  and  contains  28  communes.  It 
sends  to  the  Federal  Stiinderath  2  representatives  (elected  by 
the  Lands gemeinde)  and  2  also  to  the  Federal  Nationalrath.  The 
canton  still  keeps  its  primitive  democratic  assembly  or  Lands- 
gemeinde  (meeting  annually  in  the  open  air  at  Glarus  on  the  first 
Sunday  in  May),  composed  of  all  male  citizens  of  20  years  of  age. 
It  acts  as  the  sovereign  body,  so  that  no  "  referendum  "  is 
required,  while  any  citizen  can  submit  a  proposal.  It  names  the 
executive  of  6  members,  besides  the  Landammann  or  president, 
all  holding  office  for  three  years.  The  communes  (forming  18 
electoral  circles)  elect  for  three  years  the  Landrath,  a  sort  of 
standing  committee  composed  of  members  in  the  proportion  of 
i  for  every  500  inhabitants  or  fraction  over  250.  The  present 
constitution  dates  from  1887.  (W.  A.  B.  C.) 

GLARUS  (Fr.  Claris),  the  capital  of  the  Swiss  canton  of  the 
same  name.  It  is  a  clean,  modern  little  town,  built  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Linth  (opposite  it  is  the  industrial  suburb  of  Ennenda 
on  the  right  bank),  at  the  north-eastern  foot  of  the  imposing 
rock  peak  of  the  Vorder  Glarnisch  (7648  ft.),  while  on  the  east 
rises  the  Schild  (6400  ft.).  It  now  contains  but  few  houses 
built  before  1861,  for  on  the  10/11  May  1861  practically  the 
whole  town  was  destroyed  by  fire  that  was  fanned  by  a  violent 
Fohn  or  south  wind,  rushing  down  from  the  high  mountains 
through  the  natural  funnel  formed  by  the  Linth  valley.  The 
total  loss  is  estimated  at  about  half  a  million  sterling,  of  which 
about  £100,000  were  made  up  by  subscriptions  that  poured  in 
from  every  side.  It  possesses  the  broad  streets  and  usual 
buildings  of  a  modern  town,  the  parish  church  being  by  far  the 
most  stately  and  well-situated  building;  it  is  used  in  common 
by  the  Protestants  and  Romans.  Zwingli,  the  reformer,  was 
parish  priest  here  from  1506  to  1516,  before  he  became  a  Pro- 
testant. The  town  is  1578  ft.  above  the  sea-level,  and  in  1900 
had  a  population  of  4877,  almost  all  German-speaking,  while 
1248  were  Romanists.  For  the  Linth  canals  (1811  and  1816) 
see  LINTH. 

The  DISTRICT  OF  GLARUS  is  said  to  have  been  converted  to 
Christianity  in  the  6th  century  by  the  Irish  monk,  Fridolin, 
whose  special  protector  was  St  Hilary  of  Poitiers;  the  former 
was  the  founder,  and  both  were  patrons,  of  the  Benedictine 
nunnery  of  Sackingen,  on  the  Rhine  between  'Constance  and 
Basel,  that  about  the  gth  century  became  the  owner  of  the 
district  which  was  then  named  after  St  Hilary.  The  Habsburgs, 
protectors  of  the  nunnery,  gradually  drew  to  themselves  the 
exercise  of  all  the  rights  of  the  nuns,  so  that  in  1352  Glarus 
joined  the  Swiss  Confederation.  But  the  men  of  Glarus  did  not 
gain  their  complete  freedom  till  after  they  had  driven  back  the 
Habsburgs  in  the  glorious  battle  of  Nafels  (1388),  the  comple- 
ment of  Sempach,  so  that  the  Habsburgers  gave  up  their  rights 


GLAS,  G.— GLAS,  J. 


79 


in  1398,  while  those  of  Sackingen  were  bought  up  in  1395,  on 
condition  of  a  small  annual  payment.  Glarus  early  adopted 
Protestantism,  but  there  were  many  struggles  later  on  between 
the  two  parties,  as  the  chief  family,  that  of  Tschudi,  adhered  to 
the  old  faith.  At  last  it  was  arranged  that,  besides  the  common 
Landsgemeinde,  each  party  should  have  its  separate  Lands- 
gemeinde  (1623)  and  tribunals  (1683),  while  it  was  not  till  1798 
that  the  Protestants  agreed  to  accept  the  Gregorian  calendar. 
The  slate-quarrying  industry  appeared  early  in  the  xyth  century, 
while  cotton-spinning  was  introduced  about  1714,  and  calico- 
printing  by  1750.  In  1798,  in  consequence  of  the  resistance 
of  Glarus  to  the  French  invaders,  the  canton  was  united  to  other 
districts  under  the  name  of  canton  of  the  Linth,  though  in  1803 
it  was  reduced  to  its  former  limits.  In  1799  it  was  traversed 
by  the  Russian  army,  under  Suworoff,  coming  over  the  Pragel 
Pass,  but  blocked  by  the  French  at  Nafels,  and  so  driven  over 
the  Panixer  to  the  Grisons.  The  old  system  of  government  was 
set  up  again  in  1814.  But  in  1836  by  the  new  Liberal  con- 
stitution one  single  Landsgemeinde  was  restored,  despite  the 
resistance  (1837)  of  the  Romanist  population  at  Nafels. 

AUTHORITIES. — J.  Biibler,  Die  Alpwirtschaft  im  Kant.  G.  (Soleure. 
1898);  J.  J.  Blumer,  article  on  the  early  history  of  the  canton  in 
vol.  iii.  (Zurich,  1844)  of  the  Archiv f.  schweiz.  Geschichte;  E.  Buss 
and  A.  Heim,  Der  Bergsturz  von  Elm  (1881)  (Zurich,  1881) ;  W.  A.  B. 
Coolidge,  The  Range  of  the  Todi  (London,  1894);  J.  G.  Ebel,  Schilde- 
rung  der  Gebirgsvolker  d.  Schweiz,  vol.  ii.  (Leipzig,  1798);  Gottfried 
Heer,  Geschichte  d.  Landes  Glarus  (to  1830)  (2  vols.,  Glarus,  1898- 
1899),  Glarnerische  Reformationsgeschichte  (Glarus,  1900),  Zur  500 
jdhrigen  Gedachtnisfeier  der  Schlacht  bei  Nafels  (1388)  (Glarus,  1888) 
and  Die  Kirchen  d.  Kant.  Glarus  (Glarus,  1890);  Oswald  Heer  and 
J.  J.  Blumer-Heer,  Der  Kant.  Glarus  (St  Gall,  1846) ;  J.  J.  Hottinger, 
Conrad  Escher  von  der  Linth  (Zurich,  1852);  jahrbuch,  published 
annually  since  1865  by  the  Cantonal  Historical  Society;  A.  Jenny- 
Triimpy,  "  Handel  u.  Industrie  d.  Kant.  G."  (article  in  vol.  xxxih., 
1899,.  of  the  Jahrbuch);  M.  Schuler,  Geschichte  d.  Landes  Glarus 
(Zurich,  1836);  E.  Naf-Blumer,  Clubfiihrer  durch  die  Glarner-Alpen 
(Schwanden,  1902) ;  Aloys  Schulte,  article  on  the  true  and  legendary 
early  history  of  the  Canton,  published  in  vol.  xviii.,  1893,  of  the 
Jahrbuch  f.  schweiz.  Geschichte  (Zurich) ;  J.  J.  Blumer,  Staats-  und 
Rechtsgeschichte  d.  schweiz.  Demokratien  (3  vols.,  St  Gall,  1850- 
1859);  H.  Ryffel,  Die  schweiz.  Landsgemeinden  (Zurich,  1903); 
R.  von  Reding-Biberegg,  Der  Zug  Suworofs  durch  die  Schweiz  in 
1799  (Stans,  1895).  (W.  A.  B.  C.) 

GLAS,  GEORGE  (1725-1765),  Scottish  seaman  and  merchant 
adventurer  in  West  Africa,  son  of  John  Glas  the  divine,  was 
born  at  Dundee  in  1725,  and  is  said  to  have  been  brought  up 
as  a  surgeon.  He  obtained  command  of  a  ship  which  traded 
between  Brazil,  the  N.W.  coasts  of  Africa  and  the  Canary  Islands. 
During  his  voyages  he  discovered  on  the  Saharan  seaboard  a 
river  navigable  for  some  distance  inland,  and  here  he  proposed 
to  found  a  trading  station.  The  exact  spot  is  not  known  with 
certainty,  but  it  is  plausibly  identified  with  Gueder,  a  place 
in  about  29°  10'  N.,  possibly  the  haven  where  the  Spaniards  had 
in  the  isth  and  i6th  centuries  a  fort  called  Santa  Cruz  de  Mar 
Pequena.  Glas  made  an  arrangement  with  the  Lords  of  Trade 
whereby  he  was  granted  £15,000  if  he  obtained  free  cession  of 
the  port  he  had  discovered  to  the  British  crown;  the  proposal 
was  to  be  laid  before  parliament  in  the  session  of  1765. 
Having  chartered  a  vessel,  Glas,  with  his  wife  and  daughter, 
sailed  for  Africa  in  1764,  reached  his  destination  and  made 
a  treaty  with  the  Moors  of  the  district.  He  named  his  settle- 
ment Port  Hillsborough,  after  Wills  Hill,  earl  of  Hillsborough 
(afterwards  marquis  of  Downshire),  president  of  the  Board 
of  Trade  and  Plantations,  1763-1765.  In  November  1764 
Glas  and  some  companions,  leaving  his  ship  behind,  went  in 
the  longboat  to  Lanzarote,  intending  to  buy  a  small  barque 
suitable  for  the  navigation  of  the  river  on  which  was  his  settle- 
ment. From  Lanzarote  he  forwarded  to  London  the  treaty 
he  had  concluded  for  the  acquisition  of  Port  Hillsborough.  A 
few  days  later  he  was  seized  by  the  Spaniards,  taken  to  Teneriffe 
and  imprisoned  at  Santa  Cruz.  In  a  letter  to  the  Lords  of  Trade 
from  Teneriffe,  dated  the  I5th  of  December  1764,  Glas  said 
be  believed  the  reason  for  his  detention  was  the  jealousy  of  the 
Spaniards  at  the  settlement  at  Port  Hillsborough  "  because 
from  thence  in  time  of  war  the  English  might  ruin  their  fishery 
and  effectually  stop  the  whole  commerce  of  the  Canary  Islands." 


The  Spaniards  further  looked  upon  the  settlement  as  a  step 
towards  the  conquest  of  the  islands.  "  They  are  therefore 
contriving  how  to  make  out  a  claim  to  the  port  and  will  forge 
old  manuscripts  to  prove  their  assertion  "  (Calendar  of  Home 
Office  Papers,  1760-1765).  In  March  1765  the  ship's  company 
at  Port  Hillsborough  was  attacked  by  the  natives  and  several 
members  of  it  killed.  The  survivors,  including  Mrs  and  Miss 
Glas,  escaped  to  Teneriffe.  In  October  following,  through  the 
representations  of  the  British  government,  Glas  was  released 
from  prison.  With  his  wife  and  child  he  set  sail  for  England 
on  board  the  barque  "  Earl  of  Sandwich."  On  the  3oth  of 
November  Spanish  and  Portuguese  members  of  the  crew,  who 
had  learned  that  the  ship  contained  much  treasure,  mutinied, 
killing  the  captain  and  passengers.  Glas  was  stabbed  to  death, 
and  his  wife  and  daughter  thrown  overboard.  (The  murderers 
were  afterwards  captured  and  hanged  at  Dublin.)  After  the 
death  of  Glas  the  British  government  appears  to  have  taken 
no  steps  to  carry  out  his  project. 

In  1764  Glas  published  in  London  The  History  of  the  Discovery  and 
Conquest  of  the  Canary  Islands,  which  he  had  translated  from  the 
MS.  of  an  Andalusian  monk  named  Juan  Abreu  de  Galindo,  then 
recently  discovered  at  Palma.  To  this  Glas  added  a  description  of 
the  islands,  a  continuation  of  the  history  and  an  account  of  the 
manners,  customs,  trade,  &c.,  of  the  inhabitants,  displaying  con- 
siderable knowledge  of  the  archipelago. 

GLAS,  JOHN  (1695-1773),  Scottish  divine,  was  born  at 
Auchtermuchty,  Fife,  where  his  father  was  parish  minister, 
on  the  5th  of  October  1695.  He  was  educated  at  Kinclaven  and 
the  grammar  school,  Perth,  graduated  A.M.  at  the  university  of 
St  Andrews  in  1713,  and  completed  his  education  for  the  ministry 
at  Edinburgh.  He  was  licensed  as  a  preacher  by  the  presbytery 
of  Dunkeld,  and  soon  afterwards  ordained  by  that  of  Dundee 
as  minister  of  the  parish  of  Tealing  (1719),  where  his  effective 
preaching  soon  secured  a  large  congregation.  Early  in  his 
ministry  he  was  "  brought  to  a  stand  "  while  lecturing  on  the 
"  Shorter  Catechism "  by  the  question  "  How  doth  Christ 
execute  the  office  of  a  king  ?  "  This  led  to  an  examination  of 
the  New  Testament  foundation  of  the  Christian  Church,  and  in 
1725,  in  a  letter  to  Francis  Archibald,  minister  of  Guthrie, 
Forfarshire,  he  repudiated  the  obligation  of  national  covenants. 
In  the  same  year  his  views  found  expression  in  the  formation  of 
a  society  "  separate  from  the  multitude  "  numbering  nearly  a 
hundred,  and  drawn  from  his  own  and  neighbouring  parishes. 
The  members  of  this  ecclesiola  in  ecdesia  pledged  themselves 
"  to  join  together  in  the  Christian  profession,  to  follow  Christ 
the  Lord  as  the  righteousness  of  his  people,  to  walk  together 
in  brotherly  love,  and  in  the  duties  of  it,  in  subjection  to 
Mr  Glas  as  their  overseer  in  the  Lord,  to  observe  the  ordinance 
of  the  Lord's  Supper  once  every  month,  to  submit  themselves 
to  the  Lord's  law  for  removing  offences,"  &c.  (Matt,  xviii. 
15-20).  From  the  scriptural  doctrine  of  the  essentially  spiritual 
nature  of  the  kingdom  of  Christ,  Glas  in  his  public  teaching 
drew  the  conclusions:  (i)  that  there  is  no  warrant  in  the  New 
Testament  for  a  national  church;  (2)  that  the  magistrate  as 
such  has  no  function  in  the  church;  (3)  that  national  covenants 
are  without  scriptural  grounds;  (4)  that  the  true  Reformation 
cannot  be  carried  out  by  political  and  secular  weapons  but  by 
the  word  and  spirit  of  Christ  only. 

This  argument  is  most  fully  exhibited  in  a  treatise  entitled 
The  Testimony  of  the  King  of  Martyrs  (1729).  For  the  promulga- 
tion of  these  views,  which  were  confessedly  at  variance  with  the 
doctrines  of  the  standards  of  the  national  church  of  Scotland, 
he  was  summoned  (1726)  before  his  presbytery,  where  in  the 
course  of  the  investigations  which  followed  he  affirmed  still 
more  explicitly  his  belief  that  "  every  national  church  established 
by  the  laws  of  earthly  kingdoms  is  antichristian  in  its  constitution 
and  persecuting  in  its  spirit,"  and  further  declared  opinions 
upon  the  subject  of  church  government  which  amounted  to  a 
repudiation  of  Presbyterianism  and  an  acceptance  of  the  puritan 
type  of  Independency.  For  these  opinions  he  was  in  1728 
suspended  from  the  discharge  of  ministerial  functions,  and 
finally  deposed  in  1730.  The  members  of  the  society  already 
referred  to,  however,  for  the  most  part  continued  to  adhere 


8o 


GLASER— GLASGOW 


to  him,  thus  constituting  the  first  "  Glassite  "  or  "  Glasite  " 
church.  The  seat  of  this  congregation  was  shortly  afterwards 
transferred  to  Dundee  (whence  Glas  subsequently  removed  to 
Edinburgh),  where  he  officiated  for  some  time  as  an  "  elder." 
He  next  laboured  in  Perth  for  a  few  years,  where  he  was  joined 
by  Robert  Sandeman  (see  GLASITES),  who  became  his  son-in-law, 
and  eventually  was  recognized  as  the  leader  and  principal 
exponent  of  Glas's  views;  these  he  developed  in  a  direction 
which  laid  them  open  to  the  charge  of  antinomianism.  Ulti- 
mately in  1730  Glas  returned  to  Dundee,  where  the  remainder 
of  his  life  was  spent.  He  introduced  in  his  church  the  primitive 
custom  of  the  "  osculum  pacis  "  and  the  "  agape  "  celebrated 
as  a  common  meal  with  broth.  From  this  custom  his  congrega- 
tion was  known  as  the  "  kail  kirk."  In  1739  the  General 
Assembly,  without  any  application  from  him,  removed  the 
sentence  of  deposition  which  had  been  passed  against  him,  and 
restored  him  to  the  character  and  function  of  a  minister  of  the 
gospel  of  Christ,  but  not  that  of  a  minister  of  the  Established 
Church  of  Scotland,  declaring  that  he  was  not  eligible  for  a 
charge  until  he  should  have  renounced  principles  inconsistent 
with  the  constitution  of  the  church. 

A  collected  edition  of  his  works  was  published  at  Edinburgh  in 
1761  (4  vols.,  8vo),  and  again  at  Perth  in  1782  (5  vols.,  8vo).  He 
died  in  1773. 

Glas's  published  works  bear  witness  to  his  vigorous  mind  and 
scholarly  attainments.  His  reconstruction  of  the  True  Discourse  of 
Celsus  (1753),  from  Origen's  reply  to  it,  is  a  competent  and  learned 
piece  of  work.  The  Testimony  of  the  King  of  Martyrs  concerning  His 
Kingdom  (1729)  is  a  classic  repudiation  of  erastianism  and  defence 
of  the  spiritual  autonomy  of  the  church  under  Jesus  Christ.  His 
common  sense  appears  in  his  rejection  of  Hutchinson's  attempt  to 
prove  that  the  Bible  supplies  a  complete  system  of  physical  science, 
and  his  shrewdness  in  his  Notes  on  Scripture  Texts  (1747).  He 
published  a  volume  of  Christian  Songs  (Perth,  1784).  (D.  MN.) 

GLASER,  CHRISTOPHER,  a  pharmaceutical  chemist  of  the 
1 7th  century,  was  a  native  of  Basel,  became  demonstrator  of 
chemistry  at  the  Jardin  du  Roi  in  Paris  and  apothecary  to 
Louis  XIV.  and  to  the  duke  of  Orleans.  He  is  best  known  by 
his  TraitS  de  la  chymie  (Paris,  1663),  which  went  through  some 
ten  editions  in  about  five-and-twenty  years,  and  was  translated 
into  both  German  and  English.  It  has  been  alleged  that  he  was 
an  accomplice  in  the  notorious  poisonings  carried  out  by  the 
marchioness  de  Brinvilliers,  but  the  extent  of  his  complicity  is 
doubtful.  He  appears  to  have  died  some  time  before  1676. 
The  sal  polychrestum  Glaseri  is  normal  potassium  sulphate  which 
he  prepared  and  used  medicinally. 

GLASGOW,  a  city,  county  of  a  city,  royal  burgh  and  port  of 
Lanarkshire,  Scotland,  situated  on  both  banks  of  the  Clyde, 
4015  m.  N.W.  of  London  by  the  West  Coast  railway  route,  and 
47  m.  W.S.W.  of  Edinburgh  by  the  North  British  railway.  The 
valley  of  the  Clyde  is  closely  confined  by  hills,  and  the  city 
extends  far  over  these,  the  irregularity  of  its  site  making  for 
picturesqueness.  The  commercial  centre  of  Glasgow,  with  the 
majority  of  important  public  buildings,  lies  on  the  north  bank 
of  the  river,  which  traverses  the  city  from  W.S.W.  to  E.N.E., 
and  is  crossed  by  a  number  of  bridges.  The  uppermost  is 
Dalmarnock  Bridge,  dating  from  1891,  and  next  below  it  is 
Rutherglen  Bridge,  rebuilt  in  1896,  and  superseding  a  structure 
of  1 7  7  5.  St  Andrew's  suspension  bridge  gives  access  to  the  Green 
to  the  inhabitants  of  Hutchesontown,  a  district  which  is  ap- 
proached also  by  Albert  Bridge,  a  handsome  erection,  leading 
from  the  Saltmarket.  Above  this  bridge  is  the  tidal  dam  and 
weir.  Victoria  Bridge,  of  granite,  was  opened  in  1856,  taking 
the  place  of  the  venerable  bridge  erected  by  Bishop  Rae  in  1345, 
which  was  demolished  in  1847.  Then  follows  a  suspension  bridge 
(dating  from  1853)  by  which  foot-passengers  from  the  south  side 
obtain  access  to  St  Enoch  Square  and,  finally,  the  most  important 
bridge  of  all  is  reached,  variously  known  as  Glasgow,  Jamaica 
Street,  or  Broomielaw  Bridge,  built  of  granite  from  Telford's 
designs  and  first  used  in  1835.  Towards  the  close  of  the  century 
it.  was  reconstructed,  and  reopened  in  1899.  At  the  busier 
periods  of  the  day  it  bears  a  very  heavy  traffic.  The  stream  is 
spanned  between  Victoria  and  Albert  Bridges  by  a  bridge 
belonging  to  the  Glasgow  &  South- Western  railway  and  by  two 


bridges  carrying  the  lines  of  the  Caledonian  railway,  one  below 
Dalmarnock  Bridge  and  the  other  a  massive  work  immediately 
west  of  Glasgow  Bridge. 

Buildings. — George  Square,  in  the  heart  of  the  city,  is  an 
open  space  of  which  every  possible  advantage  has  been  taken. 
On  its  eastern  side  stand  the  municipal  buildings,  a  palatial 
pile  in  Venetian  renaissance  style,  from  the  designs  of  William 
Young,  a  native  of  Paisley.  They  were  opened  in  1889  and  cost 
nearly  £600,000.  They  form  a  square  block  four  storeys  high 
and  carry  a  domed  turret  at  each  end  of  the  western  facade, 
from  the  centre  of  which  rises  a  massive  tower.  The  entrance 
hall  and  grand  staircase,  the  council  chamber,  banqueting  hall 
and  reception  rooms  are  decorated  in  a  grandiose  style,  not 
unbecoming  to  the  commercial  and  industrial  metropolis  of 
Scotland.  Several  additional  blocks  have  been  built  or  rented 
for  the  accommodation  of  the  municipal  staff.  Admirably 
equipped  sanitary  chambers  were  opened  in  1897,  including  a 
bacteriological  and  chemical  laboratory.  Up  till  1810  the  town 
council  met  in  a  hall  adjoining  the  old  tolbooth.  It  then  moved 
to  the  fine  classical  structure  at  the  foot  of  the  Saltmarket, 
which  is  now  used  as  court-houses.  This  was  vacated  in  1842 
for  the  county  buildings  in  Wilson  Street.  Growth  of  business 
compelled  another  migration  to  Ingram  Street  in  1875,  and, 
fourteen  years  later,  it  occupied  its  present  quarters.  On  the 
southern  side  of  George  Square  the  chief  structure  is  the  massive 
General  Post  Office.  On  the  western  side  stand  two  ornate  Italian 
buildings,  the  Bank  of  Scotland  and  the  Merchants'  House,  the 
head  of  which  (the  dean  of  gild),  along  with  the  head  of  the 
Trades'  House  (the  deacon-convener  of  trades)  has  been  de  facto 
member  of  the  town  council  since  1711,  an  arrangement  devised 
with  a  view  to  adjusting  the  frequent  disputes  between  the  two 
gilds.  The  Royal  Exchange,  a  Corinthian  building  with  a  fine 
portico  of  columns  in  two  rows,  is  an  admired  example  of  the 
work  of  David  Hamilton  (1768-1843),  a  native  of  Glasgow,  who 
designed  several  of  the  public  buildings  and  churches,  and  gained 
the  second  prize  for  a  design  for  the  Houses  of  Parliament.  The 
news-room  of  the  exchange  is  a  vast  apartment,  130  ft.  long, 
60  ft.  wide,  130  ft.  high,  with  a  richly-decorated  roof  supported 
by  Corinthian  pillars.  Buchanan  Street,  the  most  important 
and  handsome  street  in  the  city,  contains  the  Stock  Exchange, 
the  Western  Club  House  (by  David  Hamilton)  and  the  offices  of 
the  Glasgow  Herald.  In  Sauchiehall  Street  are  the  Fine  Art 
Institute  and  the  former  Corporation  Art  Gallery.  Argyll 
Street,  the  busiest  thoroughfare,  mainly  occupied  with  shops, 
leads  to  Trongate,  where  a  few  remains  of  the  old  town  are  now 
carefully  preserved.  On  the  south  side  of  the  street,  spanning 
the  pavement,  stands  the  Tron  Steeple,  a  stunted  spire  dating 
from  1637.  It  is  all  that  is  left  of  St  Mary's  church,  which  was 
burned  down  in  1793  during  the  revels  of  a  notorious  body 
known  as  the  Hell  Fire  Club.  On  the  opposite  side,  at  the  corner 
of  High  Street,  stood  the  ancient  tolbooth,  or  prison,  a  turreted 
building,  five  storeys  high,  with  a  fine  Jacobean  crown  tower. 
The  only  remnant  of  the  structure  is  the  tower  known  as  the 
Cross  Steeple. 

Although  almost  all  the  old  public  buildings  of  Glasgow  have 
been  swept  away,  the  cathedral  remains  in  excellent  preservation. 
It  stands  in  the  north-eastern  quarter  of  the  city  at  a 
height  of  104  ft.  above  the  level  of  the  Clyde.  It  is  a 
beautiful  example  of  Early  English  work,  impressive 
in  its  simplicity.  Its  form  is  that  of  a  Latin  cross, 
with  imperfect  transepts.  Its  length  from  east  to  west  is  319  ft., 
and  its  width  63  ft. ;  the  height  of  the  choir  is  93  ft.,  and  of  the 
nave  85  ft.  At  the  centre  rises  a  fine  tower,  with  a  short  octagonal 
spire,  225  ft.  high.  The  choir,  locally  known  as  the  High  Church, 
serves  as  one  of  the  city  churches,  and  the  extreme  east  end  of  it 
forms  the  Lady  chapel.  The  rich  western  doorway  is  French 
in  design  but  English  in  details.  The  chapter-house  projects 
From  the  north-eastern  corner  and  somewhat  mars  the  harmony 
of  the  effect.  It  was  built  in  the  isth  century  and  has  a  groined 
roof  supported  by  a  pillar  20  ft.  high.  Many  citizens  have 
contributed  towards  filling  the  windows  with  stained  glass, 
executed  at  Munich,  the  government  providing  the  eastern 


GLASGOW 


81 


GLASGOW 

and  Environs 

Scale,  1:90,000 


I,    Swc/NWflrt  Sfr«t  stot/on      ll- SE.Mwnoo'i  Cain*tf«/ 


7.  Gtoryt  Sqvarr  .       19.  ffutAcs/tn  Brfagt 

9.  Municipal  Building*  -      x.  St  4iKtnu't  Sriitgt 

9.  Post  tyA1*  «'•  ^/6"t  fl/vrfpe 

10.  Koyat  ficnangy  sx  Victoria  Bridgt 

It.  Slot*  EjtcfMna*  »f  SutDtmion  Br'xly*     • 

n.rro"  Stffptt  '•       •"  14.  Clatgoa 


UfBra»llM  »Ml»-Lll«Jr'.l*lli«OrjMB<*liir*t7.  fcy  p«TBilMtg>  of  the  Coouullrl  nl  H.H.SlMlvvM;  OffiM. 


troiry  WAIKJ  K. 


window  in  recognition  of  their  enterprise.  The  crypt  beneath 
the  choir  is  not  the  least  remarkable  part  of  the  edifice,  being 
without  equal  in  Scotland.  It  is  borne  on  65  pillars  and  lighted 
by  41  windows.  The  sculpture  of  the  capitals  of  the  columns 
and  bosses  of  the  groined  vaulting  is  exquisite  and  the  whole 
is  in  excellent  preservation.  Strictly  speaking,  it  is  not  a  crypt, 
but  a  lower  church  adapted  to  the  sloping  ground  of  the  right 
bank  of  the  Molendinar  burn.  The  dripping  aisle  is  so  named 
from  the  constant  dropping  of  water  from  the  roof.  St  Mungo's 
Well  in  the  south-eastern  corner  was  considered  to  possess 
therapeutic  virtues,  and  in  the  crypt  a  recumbent  effigy,  headless 
and  handless,  is  faithfully  accepted  as  the  tomb  of  Kentigern. 
The  cathedral  contains  few  monuments  of  exceptional  merit, 
but  the  surrounding  graveyard  is  almost  completely  paved  with 
tombstones.  In  1115  an  investigation  was  ordered  by  David, 
prince  of  Cumbria,  into  the  lands  and  churches  belonging  to  the 
bishopric,  and  from  the  deed  then  drawn  up  it  is  clear  that  at 
that  date  a  cathedral  had  already  been  endowed.  When  David 
ascended  the  throne  in  1124  he  gave  to  the  see  of  Glasgow  the 
lands  of  Partick,  besides  restoring  many  possessions  of  which 
it  had  been  deprived.  Jocelin  (d.  1199),  made  bishop  in  1174, 
was  the  first  great  bishop,  and  is  memorable  for  his  efforts  to 
replace  the  cathedral  built  in  1 136  by  Bishop  John  Achaius,  which 
had  been  destroyed  by  fire.  The  crypt  is  his  work,  and  he  began 
the  choir,  Lady  chapel,  and  central  tower.  The  new  structure 


was  sufficiently  advanced  to  be  dedicated  in  1197.  Other  famous 
bishops  were  Robert  Wishart  (d.  1316),  appointed  in  1272,  who 
was  among  the  first  to  join  in  the  revolt  of  Wallace,  and  received 
Robert  Bruce  when  he  lay  under  the  ban  of  the  church  for  the 
murder  of  Comyn;  John  Cameron  (d.  1446),  appointed  in  1428, 
under  whom  the  building  as  it  stands  was  completed;  and 
William  Turnbull  (d.  1454),  appointed  in  1447,  who  founded  the 
university  in  1450.  James  Beaton  or  Bethune  (1517-1603) 
was  the  last  Roman  Catholic  archbishop.  He  fled  to  France  at 
the  reformation  in  1560,  and  took  with  him  the  treasures  and 
records  of  the  see,  including  the  Red  Book  of  Glasgow  dating 
from  the  reign  of  Robert  III.  The  documents  were  deposited 
in  the  Scots  College  in  Paris,  were  sent  at  the  outbreak  of  the 
Revolution  for  safety  to  St  Omer,  and  were  never  recovered. 
This  loss  explains  the  paucity  of  the  earlier  annals  of  the  city. 
The  zeal  of  the  Reformers  led  them  to  threaten  to  mutilate  the 
cathedral,  but  the  building  was  saved  by  the  prompt  action  of 
the  craftsmen,  who  mustered  in  force  and  dispersed  the  fanatics. 
Excepting  the  cathedral,  none  of  the  Glasgow  churches 
possesses  historical  interest;  and,  speaking  generally,  it  is 
only  the  buildings  that  have  been  erected  since  the  cftureftM. 
beginning  of  the  I9th  century  that  have  pronounced 
architectural  merit.  This  was  due  largely  to  the  long  survival 
of  the  severe  sentiment  of  the  Covenanters,  who  discouraged, 
if  they  did  not  actually  forbid,  the  raising  of  temples  of  beautiful 


GLASGOW 


design.  Representative  examples  of  later  work  are  found  in  the 
United  Free  churches  in  Vincent  Street,  in  Caledonia  Road  and 
at  Queen's  Park,  designed  by  Alexander  Thomson  (1817-1875), 
an  architect  of  distinct  originality;  St  George's  church,  in  West 
George  Street,  a  remarkable  work  by  William  Stark,  erected 
in  the  beginning  of  the  igth  century;  St  Andrew's  church 
in  St  Andrew's  Square  off  the  Saltmarket,  modelled  after 
St  Martin's-in-the-Fields,  London,  with  a  fine  Roman  portico; 
some  of  the  older  parish  churches,  such  as  St  Enoch's,  dating 
from  1780,  with  a  good  spire  (the  saint's  name  is  said  to  be  a 
corruption  of  Tanew,  mother  of  Kentigern);  the  episcopal 
church  of  St  Mary  (1870),  in  Great  Western  Road,  by  Sir  G.  G. 
Scott;  the  Roman  Catholic  cathedral  of  St  Andrew,  on  the 
river-bank  between  Victoria  and  Broomielaw  bridges;  the 
Barony  church,  replacing  the  older  kirk  in  which  Norman 
Macleod  ministered;  and  several  admirable  structures,  well 
situated,  on  the  eastern  confines  of  Kelvingrove  Park. 

The  principal  burying-ground  is  the  Necropolis,  occupying 
Fir  Park,  a  hill  about  300  ft.  high  in  the  northern  part  of  the 
city.  It  provides  a  not  inappropriate  background  to  the  cathe- 
dral, from  which  it  is  approached  by  a  bridge,  known  as  the 
"  Bridge  of  Sighs,"  over  the  Molendinar  ravine.  The  ground, 
which  once  formed  portion  of  the  estate  of  Wester  Craigs,  belongs 
to  the  Merchants'  House,  which  purchased  it  in  1650  from  Sir 
Ludovic  Stewart  of  Minto.  A  Doric  column  to  the  memory  of 
Knox,  surmounted  by  a  colossal  statue  of  the  reformer,  was 
erected  by  public  subscription  on  the  crown  of  the  height  in 
1824,  and  a  few  years  later  the  idea  arose  of  utilizing  the  land  as 
a  cemetery.  The  Jews  have  reserved  for  their  own  people  a 
detached  area  in  the  north-western  corner  of  the  cemetery. 

Education. — The  university,  founded  in  1450  by  Bishop 
Turnbull  under  a  bull  of  Pope  Nicholas  V.,  survived  in  its  old 
quarters  till  far  in  the  ipth  century.  The  paedagogium, 
Glasgow  or  coiiege  of  arts,  was  at  first  housed  in  Rottenrow, 
versity.  Dut  was  rnoved  in  1460  to  a  site  in  High  Street, 
where  Sir  James  Hamilton  of  Cadzow,  first  Lord 
Hamilton  (d.  1479) ,  gave  it  four  acres  of  land  and  some  buildings. 
Queen  Mary  bestowed  upon  it  thirteen  acres  of  contiguous 
ground,  and  her  son  granted  it  a  new  charter  and  enlarged  the 
endowments.  Prior  to  the  Revolution  its  fortunes  fluctuated, 
but  in  the  i8th  century  it  became  very  famous.  By  the  middle 
of  the  i pth  century,  however,  its  surroundings  had  deteriorated, 
and  in  1860  it  was  decided  to  rebuild  it  elsewhere.  The  ground 
had  enormously  increased  in  value  and  a  railway  company 
purchased  it  for  £100,000.  In  1864  the  university  bought  the 
Gilmore  Hill  estate  for  £65,000,  the  adjacent  property  of  Dowan 
Hill  for  £16,000  and  the  property  of  Clayslaps  for  £17,400.  Sir 
G.  G.  Scott  was  appointed  architect  and  selected  as  the  site  of 
the  university  buildings  the  ridge  of  Gilmore  Hill — the  finest 
situation  in  Glasgow.  The  design  is  Early  English  with  a 
suggestion  in  parts  of  the  Scots-French  style  of  a  much  later 
period.  The  main  structure  is  540  ft.  long  and  300  ft.  broad. 
The  principal  front  faces  southwards  and  consists  of  a  lofty  central 
tower  with  spire  and  corner  blocks  with  turrets,  between  which 
are  buildings  of  lower  height.  Behind  the  tower  lies  the  Bute 
hall,  built  on  cloisters,  binding  together  the  various  departments 
and  smaller  halls,  and  dividing  the  massive  edifice  into  an 
eastern  and  western  quadrangle,  on  two  sides  of  which  are 
ranged  the  class-rooms  in  two  storeys.  The  northern'  facade 
comprises  two  corner  blocks,  besides  the  museum,  the  library 
and,  in  the  centre,  the  students'  reading-room  on  one  floor  and 
the  Hunterian  museum  on  the  floor  above.  On  the  south  the 
ground  falls  in  terraces  towards  Kelvingrove  Park  and  the 
Kelvin.  On  the  west,  but  apart  from  the  main  structure,  stand 
the  houses  of  the  principal  and  professors.  The  foundation 
stone  was  laid  in  1868  and  the  opening  ceremony  was  held  in 
1870.  The  total  cost  of  the  university  buildings  amounted  to 
£500,000,  towards  which  government  contributed  £120,000  and 
public  subscription  £250,000.  The  third  marquess  of  Bute 
(1847-1900)  gave  £40,000  to  provide  the  Bute  or  common  hall, 
a  room  of  fine  proportions  fitted  in  Gothic  style  and  divided 
by  a  beautiful  Gothic  screen  from  the  Randolph  hall,  named 


after  another  benefactor,  Charles  Randolph  (1809-1878),  a 
native  of  Stirling,  who  had  prospered  as  shipbuilder  and  marine 
engineer  and  left  £60,000  to  the  university.  The  graceful  spire 
surmounting  the  tower  was  provided  from  the  bequest  of  £5000 
by  Mr  A.  Cunningham,  deputy  town-clerk,  and  Dr  John  M'Intyre 
erected  the  Students'  Union  at  a  cost  of  £5000,  while  other 
donors  completed  the  equipment  so  generously  that  the  senate 
was  enabled  to  carry  on  its  work,  for  the  first  time  in  its  history, 
in  almost  ideal  circumstances.  The  library  includes  the  collec- 
tion of  Sir  William  Hamilton,  and  the  Hunterian  museum, 
bequeathed  by  William  Hunter,  the  anatomist,  is  particularly 
rich  in  coins,  medals,  black-letter  books  and  anatomical  prepara- 
tions. The  observatory  on  Dowan  Hill  is  attached  to  the  chair 
of  astronomy.  An  interesting  link  with  the  past  are  the  exhibi- 
tions founded  by  John  Snell  (1629-1679),  a  native  of  Colmonell 
in  Ayrshire,  for  the  purpose  of  enabling  students  of  distinction 
to  continue  their  career  at  Balliol  College,  Oxford.  Amongst 
distinguished  exhibitioners  have  been  Adam  Smith,  John 
Gibson  Lockhart,  John  Wilson  ("  Christopher  North"),  Arch- 
bishop Tail,  Sir  William  Hamilton  and  Professor  Shairp.  The 
curriculum  of  the  university  embraces  the  faculties  of  arts, 
divinity,  medicine,  law  and  science.  The  governing  body 
includes  the  chancellor,  elected  for  life  by  the  general  council, 
the  principal,  also  elected  for  life,  and  the  lord  rector  elected 
triennially  by  the  students  voting  in  "  nations  "  according  to 
their  birthplace  (Glottiana,  natives  of  Lanarkshire;  Trans- 
forthana,  of  Scotland  north  of  the  Forth;  Rothseiana,  of  the 
shires  of  Bute,  Renfrew  and  Ayr;  and  Loudonia,  all  others). 
There  are  a  large  number  of  well-endowed  chairs  and  lectureships 
and  the  normal  number  of  students  exceeds  2000.  The  uni- 
versities of  Glasgow  and  Aberdeen  unite  to  return  one  member 
to  parliament.  Queen  Margaret  College  for  women,  established 
in  1883,  occupies  a  handsome  building  close  to  the  botanic 
gardens,  has  an  endowment  of  upwards  of  £25,000,  and  was 
incorporated  with  the  university  in  1893.  Muirhead  College 
is  another  institution  for  women. 

Elementary  instruction  is  supplied  at  numerous  board  schools. 
Higher,  secondary  and  technical  education  is  provided  at  several 
well-known  institutions.  There  are  two  educational 
endowments  boards  which  apply  a  revenue  of  about  Schools 
£10,000  a  year  mainly  to  the  foundation  of  bursaries.  aafi 
Anderson  College  in  George  Street  perpetuates  the  «>"«*««• 
memory  of  its  founder,  John  Anderson  (1726-1796),  professor  of 
natural  philosophy  in  the  university,  who  opened  a  class  in  physics 
for  working  men,  which  he  conducted  to  the  end  of  his  life.  By  his 
will  he  provided  for  an  institution  for  the  instruction  of  artisans  and 
others  unable  to  attend  the  university.  The  college  which  bears  his 
name  began  in  1796  with  lectures  on  natural  philosophy  and  chemistry 
by  Thomas  Garnett  (1766-1802).  Two  years  later  mathematics  and 
geography  were  added.  In  1799  Dr  George  Birkbeck  (1776-18^1) 
succeeded  Garnett  and  began  those  lectures  on  mechanics  and  applied 
science  which,  continued  elsewhere,  ultimately  led  to  the  foundation 
of  mechanics'  institutes  in  many  towns.  In  later  years  the  college 
was  further  endowed  and  its  curriculum  enlarged  by  the  inclusion 
of  literature  and  languages,  but  ultimately  it  was  determined  to 
limit  the  scope  of  its  work  to  medicine  (comprising,  however,  physics, 
chemistry  and  botany  also).  The  lectures  of  its  medical  school, 
incorporated  in  1887  and  situated  near  the  Western  Infirmary,  are 
accepted  by  Glasgow  and  other  universities.  The  Glasgow  and 
West  of  Scotland  Technical  College,  formed  in  1886  out  of  a  com- 
bination of  the  arts  side  of  Anderson  College,  the  College  of  Science 
and  Arts,  Allan  Glen's  Institution  and  the  Atkinson  Institution,  is 
subsidized  by  the  corporation  and  the  endowments  board,  and  is 
especially  concerned  with  students  desirous  of  following  an  in- 
dustrial career.  St  Mungo's  College,  which  has  developed  from  an 
extra-mural  school  in  connexion  with  the  Royal  Infirmary,  was 
incorporated  in  1889,  with  faculties  of  medicine  and  law.  The 
United  Free  Church  College,  finely  situated  near  Kelvingrove  Park, 
the  School  of  Art  and  Design,  and  the  normal  schools  for  the  training 
of  teachers,  are  institutions  with  distinctly  specialize'd  objects. 

The  High  school  in  Elmbank  is  the  successor  of  the  grammar 
school  (long  housed  in  John  Street)  which  was  founded  in  the  I4th 
century  as  an  appanage  of  the  cathedral.  It  was  placed  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  school  board  in  1873.  Other  secondary  schools 
include  Glasgow  Academy,  Kelvinside  Academy  and  the  girls'  and 
boys'  schools  endowed  by  the  Hutcheson  trust.  Several  of  the 
schools  under  the  board  are  furnished  with  secondary  departments 
or  equipped  as  science  schools,  and  the  Roman  Catholics  maintain 
elementary  schools  and  advanced  academies. 

Art  Galleries,  Libraries  and  Museums. — Glasgow  merchants  and 


GLASGOW 


manufacturers  alike  have  been  constant  patrons  of  art,  and  their 
liberality  may  have  had  some  influence  on  the  younger  painters  who, 
towards  the  close  of  the  igth  century,  broke  away  from  tradition 
and,  stimulated  by  training  in  the  studios  of  Paris,  became  known 
as  the  "Glasgow  school."  The  art  gallery  and  museum  in  Kelvin- 
grove  Park,  which  was  built  at  a  cost  of  £250,000  (partly  derived 
From  the  profits  of  the  exhibitions  held  in  the  park  in  1888  and  1901), 
is  exceptionally  well  appointed.  The  collection  originated  in  1854 
in  the  purchase  of  the  works  of  art  belonging  to  Archibald  M'Lellan, 
and  was  supplemented  from  time  to  time  by  numerous  bequests  of 
important  pictures.  It  was  housed  for  many  years  in  the  Corpora- 
tion galleries  in  Sauchiehall  Street.  The  Institute  of  Fine  Arts,  in 
Sauchiehall  Street,  is  mostly  devoted  to  periodical  exhibitions  of 
modern  art.  There  are  also  pictures  on  exhibition  in  the  People's 
Palace  on  Glasgow  Green,  which  was  built  by  the  corporation  in 
1898  and  combines  an  art  gallery  and  museum  with  a  conservatory 
and  winter  garden,  and  in  the  museum  at  Camphill,  situated 
within  the  bounds  of  Queen's  Park.  The  library  and  Huntcrian 
museum  in  the  university  are  mostly  reserved  for  the  use  of  students. 
The  faculty  of  procurators  possess  a  valuable  library  which  is  housed 
in  their  hall,  an  Italian  Renaissance  building,  in  West  George  Street. 
In  Bath  Street  there  are  the  Mechanics  and  the  Philosophical 
Society's  libraries,  and  the  Physicians'  is  in  St  Vincent  Street. 
Miller  Street  contains  the  headquarters  of  the  public  libraries.  The 
premises  once  occupied  by  the  water  commission  have  been  converted 
to  house  the  Mitchell  library,  which  grew  out  of  a  bequest  of  £70,000 
by  Stephen  Mitchell,  largely  reinforced  by  further  gifts  of  libraries 
and  funds,  and  now  contains  upwards  of  100,000  volumes.  It  is 
governed  by  the  city  council  and  has  been  in  use  since  1877.  Another 
building  in  this  street  accommodates  both  the  Stirling  and  Baillie 
libraries.  The  Stirling,  with  some  50,000  volumes,  is  particularly 
rich  in  tracts  of  the  i6th  and  I7th  centuries,  and  the  Baillie  was 
endowed  by  George  Baillie,  a  solicitor  who,  in  1863,  gave  £18,000 
for  educational  objects.  The  Athenaeum  in  St  George's  Place,  an 
institution  largely  concerned  with  evening  classes  in  various  subjects, 
contains  an  excellent  library  and  reading-room. 

Charities. —  The  old  Royal  Infirmary,  designed  by  Robert  Adam 
and  opened  in  1794,  adjoining  the  cathedral,  occupies  the  site  of  the 
archiepiscopal  palace,  the  last  portion  of  which  was  remwer<?>  towards 
the  close  of  the  i8th  century.  The  chief  architectural  feature  of  the 
infirmary  is  the  central  dome  forming  the  roof  of  the  operating 
theatre.  On  the  northern  side  are  the  buildings  of  the  medical 
school  attached  to  the  institution.  The  new  infirmary  commemor- 
ates the  Diamond  Jubilee  of  Queen  Victoria.  A  little  farther  north, 
in  Castle  Street,  is  the  blind  asylum.  The  Western  Infirmary  is  to 
some  extent  used  for  the  purposes  of  clinical  instruction  in  connexion 
with  the  university,  to  which  it  stands  in  immediate  proximity. 
Near  it  is  the  Royal  hospital  for  sick  children.  To  the  south  of 
Queen's  Park  is  Victoria  Infirmary,  and  close  to  it  the  deaf  and  dumb 
institution.  On  the  bank  of  the  river,  not  far  from  the  south-eastern 
boundary  of  the  city,  is  the  Belvedere  hospital  for  infectious  diseases, 
and  at  Ruchill,  in  the  north,  is  another  hospital  of  the  same  character 
opened  in  1900.  The  Royal  asylum  at  Gartnavel  is  situated  near 
lordanhill  station,  and  the  District  asylum  at  Gartloch  (with  a 
branch  at  West  Muckroft)  lies  in  the  parish  of  Cadder  beyond  the 
north-eastern  boundary.  There  are  numerous  hospitals  exclusively 
devoted  to  the  treatment  of  special  diseases,  and  several  nursing 
institutions  and  homes.  Hutcheson's  Hospital,  designed  by  David 
Hamilton  and  adorned  with  statues  of  the  founders,  is  situated  in 
Ingram  Street,  and  by  the  increase  in  the  value  of  its  lands  has  become 
a  very  wealthy  body.  George  Hutcheson  (1580-1639),  a  lawyer  in 
the  Trongate  near  the  tolbooth,  who  afterwards  lived  in  the  Bishop's 
castle,  which  stood  close  to  the  spot  where  the  Kelvin  enters  the  Clyde, 
founded  the  hospital  for  poor  old  men.  His  brother  Thomas  (1589- 
1641)  established  in  connexion  with  it  a  school  for  the  lodging  and 
education  of  orphan  boys,  the  sons  of  burgesses.  The  trust,  through 
the  growth  of  its  funds,  has  been  enabled  to  extend  its  educational 
scope  and  to  subsidize  schools  apart  from  the  charity. 

Monuments. — Most  of  the  statues  have  been  erected  in  George 
Square.  They  are  grouped  around  a  fluted  pillar  80  ft.  high,  sur- 
mounted by  a  colossal  statue  of  Sir  Walter  Scott  by  John  Ritchie 
(1809-1850),  erected  in  1837,  and  include  Queen  Victoria  and  the 
Prince  Consort  (both  equestrian)  by  Baron  Marochctti;  James  Watt 
by  Chantrey;  Sir  Robert  Peel,  Thomas  Campbell  the  poet,  who 
was  born  in  Glasgow,  and  David  Livingstone,  all  by  John  Mpssman; 
Sir  John  Moore,  a  native  of  Glasgow,  by  Flaxman,  erected  in  1819; 
James  Oswald,  the  first  member  returned  to  parliament  for  the  city 
after  the  Reform  Act  of  1832;  Lord  Clyde  (Sir  Colin  Campbell), 
also  a  native,  by  Foley,  erected  in  1868;  Dr  Thomas  Graham, 
master  of  the  mint,  another  native,  by  Brodie;  Robert  Burns  by 
G.  E.  Ewing,  erected  in  1877,  subscribed  for  in  shillings  by  the  work- 
ing men  of  Scotland;  and  William  Ewart  Gladstone  by  Hamo 
Thornycroft,  unveiled  by  Lord  Rosebery  in  1902.  In  front  of  the 
Royal  Exchange  stands  the  equestrian  monument  of  the  duke  of 
Wellington.  In  Cathedral  Square  are  the  statues  of  Norman 
Macleod,  James  White  and  James  Arthur,  and  in  front  of  the  Royal 
infirmary  is  that  of  Sir  James  Lumsden,  lord  provost  and  benefactor. 
Nelson  is  commemorated  by  an  obelisk  143  ft.  high  on  the  Green, 
which  was  erected  in  1806  and  is  said  to  be  a  copy  of  that  in  the 
Piazza  del  Popolo  at  Rome.  One  of  the  most  familiar  statues  is  the 


equestrian  figure  of  William  III.  in  the  Trongate,  which  was  presented 
to  the  town  in  1735  by  James  Macrae  (1677-1744),  a  poor  Ayrshire 
lad  who  had  amassed  a  fortune  in  India,  where  he  was  governor  of 
Madras  from  1725  to  1730. 

Recreations.— Of  the  theatres  the  chief  are  the  King's  in  Bath 
Street,  the  Royal  and  the  Grand  in  Cowcaddens,  the  Royalty  and 
Gaiety  in  Sauchiehall  Street,  and  the  Princess's  in  Mam  Street. 
Variety  theatres,  headed  by  the  Empire  in  Sauchiehall  Street,  are 
found  in  various  parts  of  the  town.  There  is  a  circus  in  Waterloo 
Street,  a  hippodrome  in  Sauchiehall  Street  and  a  zoological  garden 
in  New  City  Road.  The  principal  concert  halls  are  the  great  hall 
of  the  St  Andrew's  Halls,  a  group  of  rooms  belonging  to  the  corpora- 
tion; the  City  Hall  in  Candleriggs,  the  People's  Palace  on  the  Green, 
and  Queen's  Rooms  close  to  Kelvingrove  Park.  Throughout  winter 
enormous  crowds  throng  the  football  grounds  of  the  Queen's  Park, 
the  leading  amateur  club,  and  the  Celtic,  the  Rangers,  the  Third 
Lanark  and  other  prominent  professional  clubs. 

Parks  and  Open  Spaces. — The  oldest  open  space  is  the  Green 
(140  acres),  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river,  adjoining  a  densely- 
populated  district.  It  once  extended  farther  west,  but  a  portion 
was  built  over  at  a  time  when  public  rights  were  not  vigilantly 
guarded.  It  is  a  favourite  area  for  popular  demonstrations,  and 
sections  have  been  reserved  for  recreation  or  laid  out  in  flower-beds. 
Kelvingrove  Park,  in  the  west  end,  has  exceptional  advantages,  for 
the  Kelvin  burn  flows  through  it  and  the  ground  is  naturally  terraced, 
while  the  situation  is  beautified  by  the  adjoining  Gilmore  Hill  with 
the  university  on  its  summit.  The  park  was  laid  out  under  the 
direction  of  Sir  Joseph  Paxton,  and  contains  the  Stewart  fountain, 
erected  to  commemorate  the  labours  of  Lord  Provost  Stewart 
and  his  colleagues  in  the  promotion  of  the  Loch  Katrine  water  scheme. 
The  other  parks  on  the  right  bank  are,  in  the  north,  Ruchill  (53 
acres),  acquired  in  1891,  and  Springburn  (53}  acres),  acquired  in 
1892,  and,  in  the  east,  Alexandra  Park  (120  acres),  in  which  is  laid 
down  a  nine-hole  golf-course,  and  Tollcross  (82j  acres),  beyond  the 
municipal  boundary,  acquired  in  1897.  On  the  left  bank  Queen's 
f^rk  (130  acres),  occupying  a  commanding  site,  was  laid  out  by  Sir 
Joseph  Paxton,  and  considerably  enlarged  in  1894  by  the  enclosure 
of  the  grounds  of  Camphill.  The  other  southern  parks  are  Richmond 
(44  acres),  acquired  in  1898,  and  named  after  Lord  Provost  Sir  David 
Richmond,  who  opened  it  in  1899;  Maxwell,  which  was  taken  over 
on  the  annexation  of  Pollokshields  in  1891;  Bellahouston  (176 
acres),  acquired  in  1895;  and  Cathkin  Braes  (50  acres),  3jm.  beyond 
the  south-eastern  boundary,  presented  to  the  city  in  1886  by  James 
Dick,  a  manufacturer,  containing  "  Queen  Mary's  stone,"  a  point 
which  commands  a  view  of  the  lower  valley  of  the  Clyde.  In  the 
north-western  district  of  the  town  40  acres  between  Great  Western 
Road  and  the  Kelvin  are  devoted  to  the  Royal  Botanic  Gardens, 
which  became  public  property  in  1891.  They  are  beautifully  laid 
out,  and  contain  a  great  range  of  hothouses.  The  gardens  owed 
much  to  Sir  William  Hooker,  who  was  regius  professor  of  botany  in 
Glasgow  University  before  his  appointment  to  the  directorship  of 
Kew  Gardens. 

Communications. — The  North  British  railway  terminus  is  situated 
in  Queen  Street,  and  consists  of  a  high-level  station  (main  line) 
and  a  low-level  station,  used  in  connexion  with  the  City  &  District 
line,  largely  underground,  serving  the  northern  side  of  the  town, 
opened  in  1886.  The  Great  Northern  and  North-Eastern  railways 
use  the  high-level  line  of  the  N.B.R.,  the  three  companies  forming  the 
East  Coast  Joint  Service.  The  Central  terminus  of  the  Caledonian 
railway  in  Gordon  Street,  served  by  the  West  Coast  system  (in 
which  the  London  &  North-Western  railway  shares),  also  comprises 
a  high-level  station  for  the  main  line  traffic  and  a  low-level  station 
for  the  Cathcart  District  railway,  completed  in  1886  and  made 
circular  for  the  southern  side  and  suburbs  in  1894,  and  also  for  the 
connexion  between  Maryhill  and  Rutherglen,  which  is  mostly  under- 
ground. Both  the  underground  lines  communicate  with  certain 
branches  of  the  main  line,  either  directly  or  by  change  of  carriage. 
The  older  terminus  of  the  Caledonian  railway  in  Buchanan  Street 
now  takes  the  northern  and  eastern  traffic.  The  terminus  of  the 
Glasgow  &  South-Western  railway  company  in  St  Enoch  Square 
serves  the  country  indicated  in  its  title,  and  also  gives  the  Midland 
railway  of  England  access  to  the  west  coast  and  Glasgow.  The 
Glasgow  Subway — an  underground  cable  passenger  line,  6J  m.  long, 
worked  in  two  tunnels  and  passing  below  the  Clyde  twice-^-was 
opened  in  1896.  Since  no  more  bridge-building  will  be  sanctioned 
west  of  the  railway  bridge  at  the  Broomielaw,  there  are  at  certain 
points  steam  ferry  boats  or  floating  bridges  for  conveying  vehicles 
across  the  harbour,  and  at  Stobcross  there  is  a  subway  for  foot  and 
wheeled  traffic.  Steamers,  carrying  both  goods  and  passengers, 
constantly  leave  the  Broomielaw  quay  for  the  piers  and  ports  on 
the  river  and  firth,  and  the  islands  and  sea  lochs  of  Argyllshire. 
The  city  is  admirably  served  by  tramways  which  penetrate  every 
populous  district  and  cross  the  river  by  Glasgow  and  Albert  bridges. 

Trade. — Natural  causes,  such  as  proximity  to  the  richest  field  of 
coal  and  ironstone  in  Scotland  and  the  vicinity  of  hill  streams  of  pure 
water,  account  for  much  of  the  great  development  of  trade  in  Glasgow. 
It  was  in  textiles  that  the  city  showed  its  earliest  predominance, 
which,  however,  has  not  been  maintained,  owing,  it  is  alleged,  to 
the  shortage  of  female  labour.  Several  cotton  mills  are  still  worked, 
but  the  leading  feature  in  the  trade  has  always  been  the  manufacture 


GLASGOW 


of  such  light  textures  as  plain,  striped  and  figured  muslins,  ginghams 
and  fancy  fabrics.  Thread  is  made  on  a  considerable  scale,  but  jute 
and  silk  are  of  comparatively  little  importance.  The  principal 
varieties  of  carpets  are  woven.  Some  factories  are  exclusively 
devoted  to  the  making  of  lace  curtains.  The  allied  industries  of 
bleaching,  printing  and  dyeing,  on  the  other  hand,  have  never 
declined.  The  use  of  chlorine  in  bleaching  was  first  introduced  in 
Great  Britain  at  Glasgow  in  1787,  on  the  suggestion  of  James  Watt, 
whose  father-in-law  was  a  bleacher;  and  it  was  a  Glasgow  bleacher, 
Charles  Tennant,  who  first  discovered  and  made  bleaching  powder 
(chloride  of  lime).  Turkey-red  dyeing  was  begun  at  Glasgow  by 
David  Dale  and  George  M'Intosh,  and  the  colour  was  long  known 
locally  as  Dale's  red.  A  large  quantity  of  grey  cloth  continues  to  be 
sent  from  Lancashire  and  other  mills  to  be  bleached  and  printed  in 
Scottish  works.  These  industries  gave  a  powerful  impetus  to  the 
manufacture  of  chemicals,  and  the  works  at  St  Rollox  developed 
rapidly.  Among  prominent  chemical  industries  are  to  be  reckoned 
the  alkali  trades — including  soda,  bleaching  powder  and  soap- 
making — the  preparation  of  alum  and  prussiates  of  potash,  bichro- 
mate of  potash,  white  lead  and  other  pigments,  dynamite  and  gun- 
powder. Glass-making  and  paper-making  are  also  carried  on,  and 
there  are  several  breweries  and  distilleries,  besides  factories  for  the 
making  of  aerated  waters,  starch,  dextrine  and  matches.  Many 
miscellaneous  trades  flourish,  such  as  clothing,  confectionery, 
cabinet-making,  bread  and  biscuit  making,  boot  and  shoe  making, 
flour  mills  and  saw  mills,  pottery  and  indiarubber.  Since  the  days 
of  the  brothers  Robert  Foulis  (1705-1776)  and  Andrew  Foulis 
(1712-1775),  printing,  both  letterpress  and  colour,  has  been  identified 
with  Glasgow,  though  in  a  lesser  degree  than  with  Edinburgh. 
The  tobacco  trade  still  flourishes,  though  much  lessened.  But  the 
great  industry  is  iron-founding.  The  discovery  of  the  value  of 
blackband  ironstone,  till  then  regarded  as  useless  "  wild  coal,"  by 
David  Mushet  (1772-1847),  and  Neilson's  invention  of  the  hot-air 
blast  threw  the  control  of  the  Scottish  iron  trade  into  the  hands  of 
Glasgow  ironmasters,  although  the  furnaces  themselves  were  mostly 
erected  in  Lanarkshire  and  Ayrshire.  The  expansion  of  the  industry 
was  such  that,  in  1859,  one-third  of  the  total  output  in  the  United 
Kingdom  was  Scottish.  During  the  following  years,  however,  the 
trade  seemed  to  have  lost  its  elasticity,  the  annual  production 
averaging  about  one  million  tons  of  pig-iron.  Mild  steel  is  manu- 
factured extensively,  and  some  crucible  cast  steel  is  made.  In  addi- 
tion to  brass  foundries  there  are  works  for  the  extraction  of  copper 
and  the  smelting  of  lead  and  zinc.  With  such  resources  every 
branch  of  engineering  is  well  represented.  Locomotive  engines  are 
built  for  every  country  where  railways  are  employed,  and  all  kinds  of 
builder's  ironwork  is  forged  in  enormous  quantities,  and  the  sewing- 
machine  factories  in  the  neighbourhood  are  important.  Boiler- 
making  and  marine  engine  works,  in  many  cases  in  direct  connexion 
with  the  shipbuilding  yards,  are  numerous.  Shipbuilding,  indeed,  is 
the  greatest  of  the  industries  of  Glasgow,  and  in  some  years  more 
than  half  of  the  total  tonnage  in  the  United  Kingdom  has  been 
launched  on  the  Clyde,  the  yards  of  which  extend  from  the  harbour 
to  Dumbarton  on  one  side  and  Greenock  on  the  other  side  of  the  river 
and  firth.  Excepting  a  trifling  proportion  of  wooden  ships,  the 
Clyde-built  vessels  are  of  iron  and  steel,  the  trade  having  owed  its 
immense  expansion  to  the  prompt  adoption  of  this  material.  Every 
variety  of  craft  is  turned  out,  from  battleships  and  great  liners  to 
dredging-plant  and  hopper  barges. 

The  Port. — The  harbour  extends  from  Glasgow  Bridge  to  the  point 
where  the  Kelvin  joins  the  Clyde,  and  occupies  206  acres.  For  the 
most  part  it  is  lined  by  quays  and  wharves,  which  have  a  total 
length  of  8J  m.,  and  from  the  harbour  to  the  sea  vessels  drawing 
26  ft.  can  go  up  or  down  on  one  tide.  It  is  curious  to  remember 
that  in  the  middle  of  the  l8th  century  the  river  was  fordable  on 
foot  at  Dumbuck,  12  m.  below  Glasgow  and  ij  m.  S.E.  of  Dum- 
barton. Even  within  the  limits  of  the  present  harbour  Smeaton 
reported  to  the  town  council  in  1740  that  at  Pointhouse  ford,  just 
east  of  the  mouth  of  the  Kelvin,  the  depth  at  low  water  was  only 
15  in.  and  at  high  water  39  in.  The  transformation  effected  within 
a  century  and  a  half  is  due  to  the  energy  and  enterprise  of  the  Clyde 
Navigation  Trust.  The  earliest  shipping- port  of  Glasgow  was  Irvine 
jn  Ayrshire,  but  lighterage  was  tedious  and  land  carriage  costly,  and 
in  1658  the  civic  authorities  endeavoured  to  purchase  a  site  for  a 
spacious  harbour  at  Dumbarton.  Being  thwarted  by  the  magistrates 
of  that  burgh,  however,  in  1662  they  secured  13  acres  on  the  southern 
bank  at  a  spot  some  2  m.  above  Greenock,  which  became  known  as 
Port  Glasgow,  where  they  built  harbours  and  constructed  the  first 
graving  dock  in  Scotland.  Sixteen  years  later  the  Broomielaw  quay 
was  built,  but  it  was  not  until  the  tobacco  merchants  appreciated 
the  necessity  of  bringing  their  wares  into  the  heart  of  the  city  that 
serious  consideration  was  paid  to  schemes  for  deepening  the  water- 
way. Smeaton's  suggestion  of  a  lock  and  dam  4  m.  below  the 
Broomielaw  was  happily  not  accepted.  In  1768  John  Golborne 
advised  the  narrowing  of  the  river  and  the  increasing  of  the  scour 
by  the  construction  of  rubble  jetties  and  the  dredging  of  sandbanks 
and  shoals.  After  James  Watt's  report  in  1769  on  the  ford  at 
Dumbuck,  Golborne  succeeded  in  1775  in  deepening  the  ford  to  6  ft. 
at  low  water  with  a  width  of  300  ft.  By  Rennie's  advice  in  1799, 
following  up  Golborne's  recommendation,  as  many  as  200  jetties 
were  built  between  Glasgow  and  Bowling,  some  old  ones  were 


shortened  and  low  rubble  walls  carried  from  point  to  point  of  the 
jetties,  and  thus  the  channel  was  made  more  uniform  and  much  land 
reclaimed.  By  1836  there  was  a  depth  of  7  or  8  ft.  at  the  Broomielaw 
at  low  water,  and  in  1840  the  whole  duty  of  improving  the  navigation 
was  devolved  upon  the  Navigation  Trust.  Steam  dredgers  were 
kept  constantly  at  work,  shoals  were  removed  and  rocks  blasted 
away.  Two  million  cubic  yards  of  matter  are  lifted  every  year 
and  dumped  in  Loch  Long.  By  1900  the  channel  had  been  deepened 
to  a  minimum  of  22  ft.,  and,  as  already  indicated,  the  largest  vessels 
make  the  open  sea  in  one  tide,  whereas  in  1840  it  took  ships  drawing 
only  15  ft.  two  and  even  three  tides  to  reach  the  sea.  The  debt  of  the 
Trust  amounts  to  £6,000,000,  and  the  annual  revenue  to  £450,000. 
Long  before  these  great  results  had  been  achieved,  however,  the 
shipping  trade  had  been  revolutionized  by  the  application  of  steam 
to  navigation,  and  later  by  the  use  of  iron  for  wood  in  shipbuilding, 
in  both  respects  enormously  enhancing  the  industry  and  commerce 
of  Glasgow.  From  1812  to  1820  Henry  Bell's  "  Comet,"  30  tons, 
driven  by  an  engine  of  3  horse-power,  plied  between  Glasgow  and 
Greenock,  until  she  was  wrecked,  being  the  first  steamer  to  run 
regularly  on  any  river  in  the  Old  World.  Thus  since  the  appearance 
of  that  primitive  vessel  phenomenal  changes  had  taken  place  on  the 
Clyde.  When  the  quays  and  wharves  ceased  to  be  able  to  accom- 
modate the  growing  traffic,  the  construction  of  docks  became 
imperative.  In  1867  Kingston  Dock  on  the  south  side,  of  5$  acres, 
was  opened,  but  soon  proved  inadequate,  and  in  1880  Queen's  Dock 
(two  basins)  at  Stobcross,  on  the  north  side,  of  30  acres,  was  com- 
pleted. Although  this  could  accommodate  one  million  tons  of 
shipping,  more  dock  space  was  speedily  called  for,  and  in  1897 
Prince's  Dock  (three  basins)  on  the  opposite  side,  of  72  acres,  was 
opened,  fully  equipped  with  hydraulic  and  steam  cranes  and  all  the 
other  latest  appliances.  There  are,  besides,  three  graving  docks, 
the  longest  of  which  (880  ft.)  can  be  made  at  will  into  two  docks 
of  417  ft.  and  457  ft.  in  length.  The  Caledonian  and  Glasgow  & 
South-Western  railways  have  access  to  the  harbour  for  goods  and 
minerals  at  Terminus  Quay  to  the  west  of  Kingston  Dock,  and  a 
mineral  dock  has  been  constructed  by  the  Trust  at  Clydebank, 
about  3!  m.  below  the  harbour.  The  shipping  attains  to  colossal 
proportions.  The  imports  consist  chiefly  of  flour,  fruit,  timber, 
iron  ore,  ''nvt  stock  and  wheat;  and  the  exports  principally  of  cotton 
manufactures,  manufactured  iron  and  steel,  machinery,  whisky, 
cotton  yarn,  linen  fabrics,  coal,  jute,  jam  and  foods,  and  woollen 
manufactures. 

Government. — By  the  Local  Government  (Scotland)  Act  1889  the 
city  was  placed  entirely  in  the  county  of  Lanark,  the  districts  then 
transferred  having  previously  belonged  to  the  shires  of  Dumbarton 
and  Renfrew.  In  1891  the  boundaries  were  enlarged  to  include 
six  suburban  burghs  and  a  number  of  suburban  districts,  the  area 
being  increased  from  6m  acres  to  11,861  acres.  The  total  area 
of  the  city  and  the  conterminous  burghs  of  Govan,  Partick  and 
Kinning  Park — which,  though  they  successfully  resisted  annexation 
in  1891,  are  practically  part  of  the  city — is  15,659  acres.  The 
extreme  length  from  north  to  south  and  from  east  to  west  is  about 
5  m.  each  way,  and  the  circumference  measures  27  m.  In  1893  the 
municipal  burgh  was  constituted  a  county  of  a  city.  Glasgow  is 
governed  by  a  corporation  consisting  of  77  members,  including  14 
bailies  and  the  lord  provost.  In  1895  all  the  powers  which  the  town 
council  exercised  as  police  commissioners  and  trustees  for  parks, 
markets,  water  and  the  like  were  consolidated  and  conferred  upon 
the  corporation.  Three  years  later  the  two  parish  councils  of  the 
city  and  barony,  which  administered  the  poor  law  over  the  greater 
part  of  the  city  north  of  the  Clyde,  were  amalgamated  as  the  parish 
council  of  Glasgow,  with  31  members.  As  a  county  of  a  city  Glasgow 
has  a  lieutenancy  (successive  lords  provost  holding  the  office)  and  a 
court  of  quarter  sessions,  which  is  the  appeal  court  from  the  magis- 
trates sitting  as  licensing  authority.  Under  the  corporation  municipal 
ownership  has  reached  a  remarkable  development,  the  corporation 
owning  the  supplies  of  water,  gas  and  electric  power,  tramways  and 
municipal  lodging-houses.  The  enterprise  of  the  corporation  has 
brought  its  work  prominently  into  notice,  not  only  in  the  United 
Kingdom,  but  in  the  United  States  of  America  and  elsewhere. 
In  1859  water  was  conveyed  by  aqueducts  and  tunnels  from  Loch 
Katrine  (364  ft.  above  sea-level,  giving  a  pressure  of  70  or  80  ft. 
above  the  highest  point  in  the  city)  to  the  reservoir  at  Mugdock 
(with  a  capacity  of  500,000,000  gallons),  a  distance  of  27  m.,  whence 
after  filtration  it  was  distributed  by  pipes  to  Glasgow,  a  further 
distance  of  7  m.,  or  34  m.  in  all.  During  the  next  quarter  of  a  cen- 
tury it  became  evident  that  this  supply  would  require  to  be  aug- 
mented, and  powers  were  accordingly  obtained  in  1895  to  raise  Loch 
Katrine  5  ft.  and  to  connect  with  it  by  tunnel  Loch  Arklet  (455  ft. 
above  the  sea),  with  storage  for  2,050,000,000  gallons,  the  two  lochs 
together  possessing  a  capacity  of  twelve  thousand  million  gallons. 
The  entire  works  between  the  loch  and  the  city  were  duplicated 
over  a  distance  of  23^  m.,  and  an  additional  reservoir,  holding 
694,000,000  gallons,  was  constructed,  increasing  the  supply  held  in 
reserve  from  I2jdays'  to  30^  days'.  In  1909  the  building  of  a  dam 
was  undertaken  I  i  m.  west  of  the  lower  end  of  Loch  Arklet,  designed 
to  create  a  sheet  of  water  2  J  m.  long  and  to  increase  the  water-supply 
of  the  city  by  ten  million  gallons  a  day.  The  water  committee 
supplies  hydraulic  power  to  manufacturers  and  merchants.  In 
1869  the  corporation  acquired  the  gasworks,  the  productive  capacity 


GLASGOW 


of  which  exceeds  70  million  cub.  ft.  a  day.  In  1893  the  supply 
of  electric  light  was  also  undertaken,  and  since  that  date  the  city  has 
been  partly  lighted  by  electricity.  The  corporation  also  laid  down 
the  tramways,  which  were  leased  by  a  company  for  twenty-three 
years  at  a  rental  of  £150  a  mile  per  annum.  When  the  lease  expired 
in  1894  the  town  council  took  over  the  working  of  the  cars,  substitut- 
ing overhead  electric  traction  for  horse-power.  One  of  the  most 
difficult  problems  that  the  corporation  has  had  to  deal  with  was  the 
housing  of  the  poor.  By  the  lapse  of  time  and  the  congestion  of 
population,  certain  quarters  of  the  city,  in  old  Glasgow  especially, 
had  become  slums  and  rookeries  of  the  worst  description.  The 
condition  of  the  town  was  rapidly  growing  into  a  byword,  when  the 
municipality  obtained  parliamentary  powers  in  1866  enabling  it  to 
condemn  for  purchase  over-crowded  districts,  to  borrow  money  and 
levy  rates.  The  scheme  of  reform  contemplated  the  demolition  of 
10,000  insanitary  dwellings  occupied  by  50,000  persons,  but  the 
corporation  was  required  to  provide  accommodation  for  the  dis- 
lodged whenever  the  numbers  exceeded  500.  In  point  of  fact  they 
never  needed  to  build,  as  private  enterprise  more  than  kept  pace 
with  the  operations  of  the  improvement.  The  work  was  carried  out 
promptly  and  effectually,  and  when  the  act  expired  in  1881  whole 
localities  had  been  recreated  and  nearly  40,000  persons  properly 
housed.  Under  the  amending  act  of  1881  the  corporation  began  in 
1888  to  build  tenement  houses  in  which  the  poor  could  rent  one  or 
more  rooms  at  the  most  moderate  rentals;  lodging-houses  for  men 
and  women  followed,  and  in  1896  a  home  was  erected  for  the  accom- 
modation of  families  in  certain  circumstances.  The  powers  of  the 
improvement  trustees  were  practically  exhausted  in  1896,  when  it 
appeared  that  during  twenty-nine  years  £i  ,955, 550  had  been  spent 
in  buying  and  improving  land  and  buildings,  and  £231 ,500  in  building 
tenements  and  lodging-houses;  while,  on  the  other  side,  ground 
had  been  sold  for  £1,072,000,  and  the  trustees  owned  heritable 
property  valued  at  £692,000,  showing  a  deficiency  of  £423,050. 
Assessment  of  ratepayers  for  the  purposes  of  the  trust  had  yielded 
£593,000,  and  it  was  estimated  that  these  operations,  beneficial  to 
the  city  in  a  variety  of  ways,  had  cost  the  citizens  £24,000  a  year. 
In  1897  an  act  was  obtained  for  dealing  in  similar  fashion  with  in- 
sanitary and  congested  areas  in  the  centre  of  the  city,  and  on  the 
south  side  of  the  river,  and  for  acquiring  not  more  than  25  acres  of 
land,  within  or  without  the  city,  for  dwellings  for  the  poorest  classes. 
Along  with  these  later  improvements  the  drainage  system  was 
entirely  remodelled,  the  area  being  divided  into  three  sections, 
each  distinct,  with  separate  works  for  the  disposal  of  its  own  sewage. 
One  section  (authorized  in  1891  and  doubled  in  1901)  comprises  II 
sq.  m. — one-half  within  the  city  north  of  the  river,  and  the  other  in 
the  district  in  Lanarkshire — with  works  at  Dalmarnock;  another 
section  (authorized  in  1896)  includes  the  area  on  the  north  bank 
not  provided  for  in  1891,  as  well  as  the  burghs  of  Partick  and  Clyde- 
bank  and  intervening  portions  of  the  shires  of  Renfrew  and  Dum- 
barton, the  total  area  consisting  of  14  sq.  m.,  with  works  at  Dalmuir, 
7  m.  below  Glasgow;  and  the  third  section  (authorized  in  1898) 
embraces  the  whole  municipal  area  on  the  south  side  of  the  river, 
the  burghs  of  Rutherglen,  Pollokshaws,  Kinning  Park  and  Govan, 
and  certain  districts  m  the  counties  of  Renfrew  and  Lanark — 14 
sq.  m.  in  all,  which  may  be  extended  by  the  inclusion  of  the  burghs 
of  Renfrew  and  Paisley — with  works  at  Braehead,  I  tn.  east  of 
Renfrew.  Among  other  works  in  which  it  has  interests  there  may  be 
mentioned  its  representation  on  the  board  of  the  Clyde  Navigation 
Trust  and  the  governing  body  of  the  West  of  Scotland  Technical 
College.  In  respect  of  parliamentary  representation  the  Reform 
Act  of  1832  gave  two  members  to  Glasgow,  a  third  was  added  in 
1868  (though  each  elector  had  only  two  votes),  and  in  1885  the  city 
was  split  up  into  seven  divisions,  each  returning  one  member. 

Population. — Throughout  the  igth  century  the  population  grew 
prodigiously.  Only  77,385  in  1801,  it  was  nearly  doubled  in  twenty 
years,  being  147,043  in  1821,  already  outstripping  Edinburgh.  It 
had  become  395,503  in  1861,  and  in  1881  it  was  511,415.  In  1891, 
prior  to  extension  of  the  boundary,  it  was  565,839,  and,  after  ex- 
tension, 658,198,  and  in  1901  it  stood  at  761,709.  The  birth-rate 
averages  33,  and  the  death-rate  21  per  1000,  but  the  mortality  before 
the  city  improvement  scheme  was  carried  out  was  as  high  as  33 
per  1000.  Owing  to  its  being  convenient  of  access  from  the  High- 
lands, a  very  considerable  number  of  Gaelic-speaking  persons  live  in 
Glasgow,  while  the  great  industries  attract  an  enormous  number  of 
persons  from  other  parts  of  Scotland.  The  valuation  of  the  city, 
which  in  1878-1879  was  £3,420,697,  now  exceeds  £5,000,000. 

History. — There  are  several  theories  as  to  the  origin  of  the 
name  of  Glasgow.  One  holds  that  it  comes  from  Gaelic  words 
meaning  "  dark  glen,"  descriptive  of  the  narrow  ravine  through 
which  the  Molendinar  flowed  to  the  Clyde.  But  the  more 
generally  accepted  version  is  that  the  word  is  the  Celtic  Cleschu, 
afterwards  written  Glesco  or  Glasghu,  meaning  "  dear  green 
spot  "  (glas,  green;  cu  or  ghu,  dear),  which  is  supposed  to  have 
been  the  name  of  the  settlement  that  Kentigern  found  here 
when  he  came  to  convert  the  Britons  of  Strathclyde.  Mungo 
became  the  patron-saint  of  Glasgow,  and  the  motto  and  arms 


of  the  city  are  wholly  identified  wkh  him — "  Let  Glasgow 
Flourish  by  the  Preaching  of  the  Word,"  usually  shortened  to 
"  Let  Glasgow  Flourish."  It  is  not  till  the  1 2th  century,  however, 
that  the  history  of  the  city  becomes  clear.  About  1178  William 
the  Lion  made  the  town  by  charter  a  burgh  of  barony,  and  gave 
it  a  market  with  freedom  and  customs.  Amongst  more  or  less 
isolated  episodes  of  which  record  has  been  preserved  may  be 
mentioned  the  battle  of  the  Bell  o'  the  Brae,  on  the  site  of  High 
Street,  in  which  Wallace  routed  the  English  under  Percy  in 
1300;  the  betrayal  of  Wallace  to  the  English  in  1305  in  a  barn 
situated,  according  to  tradition,  in  Robroyston,  just  beyond  the 
north-eastern  boundary  of  the  city;  the  ravages  of  the  plague  in 
1350  and  thirty  years  later;  the  regent  Arran's  siege,  in  1544, 
of  the  bishop's  castle,  garrisoned  by  the  earl  of  Glencairn,  and 
the  subsequent  fight  at  the  Butts  (now  the  Gallowgate)  when 
the  terms  of  surrender  were  dishonoured,  in  which  the  regent's 
men  gained  the  day.  Most  of  the  inhabitants  were  opposed  to 
Queen  Mary  and  many  actively  supported  Murray  in  the  battle 
of  Langside — the  site  of  which  is  now  occupied  by  the  Queen's 
Park — on  the  I3th  of  May  1568,  in  which  she  lost  crown  and 
kingdom.  A  memorial  of  the  conflict  was  erected  on  the  site 
in  1887.  Under  James  VI.  the  town  became  a  royal  burgh  in 
1636,  with  freedom  of  the  river  from  the  Broomielaw  to  the  Cloch. 
But  the  efforts  to  establish  episcopacy  aroused  the  fervent 
anti-prelatical  sentiment  of  the  people,  who  made  common 
cause  with  the  Covenanters  to  the  end  of  their  long  struggle. 
Montrose  mulcted  the  citizens  heavily  after  the  battle  of  Kilsyth 
in  1645,  and  three  years  later  the  provost  and  bailies  were  deposed 
for  contumacy  to  their  sovereign  lord.  Plague  and  famine  devast- 
ated the  town  in  1649,  and  in  1652  a  conflagration  laid  a  third 
of  the  burgh  in  ashes.  Even  after  the  restoration  its  sufferings 
were  acute.  It  was  the  headquarters  of  the  Whiggamores 
of  the  west  and  its  prisons  were  constantly  filled  with  rebels 
for  conscience'  sake.  The  government  scourged  the  townsfolk 
with  an  army  of  .Highlanders,  whose  brutality  only  served  to 
strengthen  the  resistance  at  the  battles  of  Drumclog  and  Bothwell 
Brig.  With  the  Union,  hotly  resented  as  it  was  at  the  time, 
the  dawn  of  almost  unbroken  prosperity  arose.  By  the  treaty 
of  Union  Scottish  ports  were  placed,  in  respect  of  trade,  on  the 
same  footing  as  English  ports,  and  the  situation  of  Glasgow 
enabled  it  to  acquire  a  full  share  of  the  ever-increasing  Atlantic 
trade.  Its  commerce  was  already  considerable  and  in  population 
it  was  now  the  second  town  in  Scotland.  It  enjoyed  a  practical 
monopoly  of  the  sale  of  raw  and  refined  sugars,  had  the  right 
to  distil  spirits  from  molasses  free  of  duty,  dealt  largely  in  cured 
herring  and  salmon,  sent  hides  to  English  tanners  and  manu- 
factured soap  and  linen.  It  challenged  the  supremacy  of  Bristol 
in  the  tobacco  trade — fetching  cargoes  from  Virginia,  Maryland 
and  Carolina  in  its  own  fleet — so  that  by  1772  its  importations 
of  tobacco  amounted  to  more  than  half  of  the  whole  quantity 
brought  into  the  United  Kingdom.  The  tobacco  merchants 
built  handsome  mansions  and  the  town  rapidly  extended  west- 
wards. With  the  surplus  profits  new  industries  were  created, 
whigh  helped  the  city  through  the  period  of  the  American  War. 
Most,  though  not  all,  of  the  manufactures  in  which  Glasgow 
has  always  held  a  foremost  place  date  from  this  period.  It  was 
in  1764  that  James  Watt  succeeded  in  repairing  a  hitherto 
unworkable  model  of  Newcomen's  fire  (steam)  engine  in  his  small 
workshop  within  the  college  precincts.  Shipbuilding  on  a 
colossal  scale  and  the  enormous  developments  in  the  iron  in- 
dustries and  engineering  were  practically  the  growth  of  the  igth 
century.  The  failure  of  the  Western  bank  in  1857,  the  Civil 
War  in  the. United  States,  the  collapse  of  the  City  of  Glasgow 
bank  in  1878,  among  other  disasters,  involved  heavy  losses  and 
distress,  but  recovery  was  always  rapid. 

AUTHORITIES. — J.  Cleland,  Annals  of  Glasgow  (Glasgow,  1816); 
Duncan,  Literary  History  of  Glasgow  (Glasgow,  1886);  Registrum 
Episcopates  Glasgow  (Maitland  Club,  1843);  Pagan,  Sketch  of  the 
History  of  Glasgow  (Glasgow,  1847);  Sir  J.  D.  Warwick,  Extracts 
from  the  Burgh  Records  of  Glasgow  (Burgh  Records  Society) ;  Charters 
relating  to  Glasgow  (Glasgow,  1891);  River  Clyde  and  Harbour  of 
Glasgow  (Glasgow,  1898) ;  Glasgow  Past  and  Present  (Glasgow,  1884) ; 
Munimenta  Universitatis  Glasgow  (Maitland  Club,  1854);  J.  Strang, 


86 


GLASITES— GLASS 


Glasgow  and  its  Clubs  (Glasgow,  1864) ;  Reid  ("  Senex  "),  Old  Glasgow 
(Glasgow,  1864);  A.  Macgeorge,  Old  Glasgow  (Glasgow,  1888); 
Deas,  The  River  Clyde  (Glasgow,  1881);  Gale,  Loch  Katrine  Water- 
works (Glasgow,  1883);  Mason,  Public  and  Private  Libraries  of 
Glasgow  (Glasgow,  1885);  J.  Nicol,  Vital,  Social  and  Economic 
Statistics  of  Glasgow  (1881) ;  J.B.Russell,  Life  in  One  Room  (Glasgow, 
1888);  Ticketed  Houses  (Glasgow,  1889);  T.  Somerville,  George 
Square  (Glasgow,  1891);  J.  A.  Kilpatrick,  Literary  Landmarks  of 
Glasgow  (Glasgow,  1898);  J.  K.  M'Dowall,  People's  History  of 
Glasgow  (Glasgow,  1899);  Sir  J.  Bell  and  J.  Paton,  Glasgow:  Its 
Municipal  Organization  and  Administration  (Glasgow,  1896);  Sir 
D.  Richmond,  Notes  on  Municipal  Work  (Glasgow,  1899);  J.  M. 
Lang,  Glasgow  and  the  Barony  (Glasgow,  1 895) ;  Old  Glasgow  (Glasgow, 
1896) ;  J.  H.  Muir,  Glasgow  in  IQOI. 

GLASITES,  or  SANDEMANIANS,'  a  Christian  sect,  founded  in 
Scotland  by  John  Glas  (q.v.).  It  spread  into  England  and 
America,  but  is  now  practically  extinct.  Glas  dissented  from 
the  Westminster  Confession  only  in  his  views  as  to  the  spiritual 
nature  of  the  church  and  the  functions  of  the  civil  magistrate. 
But  his  son-in-law  Robert  Sandeman  added  a  distinctive  doctrine 
as  to  the  nature  of  faith  which  is  thus  stated  on  his  tombstone: 
"  That  the  bare  death  of  Jesus  Christ  without  a  thought  or 
deed  on  the  part  of  man,  is  sufficient  to  present  the  chief  of  sinners 
spotless  before  God."  In  a  series  of  letters  to  James  Hervey, 
the  author  of  Theron  and  Aspasia,  he  maintained  that  justifying 
faith  is  a  simple  assent  to  the  divine  testimony  concerning 
Jesus  Christ,  differing  in  no  way  in  its  character  from  belief  in  any 
ordinary  testimony.  In  their  practice  the  Glasite  churches  aimed 
at  a  strict  conformity  with  the  primitive  type  of  Christianity 
as  understood  by  them.  Each  congregation  had  a  plurality  of 
elders,  pastors  or  bishops,  who  were  chosen  according  to  what 
were  believed  to  be  the  instructions  of  Paul,  without  regard  to 
previous  education  or  present  occupation,  and  who  enjoy  a 
perfect  equality  in  office.  To  have  been  married  a  second  time 
disqualified  for  ordination,  or  for  continued  tenure  of  the  office 
of  bishop.  In  all  the  action  of  the  church  unanimity  was  con- 
sidered to  be  necessary;  if  any  member  differed  in  opinion  from 
the  rest,  he  must  either  surrender  his  judgment  to  that  of  the 
church,  or  be  shut  out  from  its  communion.  To  join  in  prayer 
with  any  one  not  a  member  of  the  denomination  was  regarded 
as  unlawful,  and  even  to  eat  or  drink  with  one  who  had  been 
excommunicated  was  held  to  be  wrong.  The  Lord's  Supper 
was  observed  weekly;  and  between  forenoon  and  afternoon 
service  every  Sunday  a  love  feast  was  held  at  which  every 
member  was  required  to  be  present.  Mutual  exhortation  was 
practised  at  all  the  meetings  for  divine  service,  when  any  member 
who  had  the  gift  of  speech  (xapi<7jua)  was  allowed  to  speak. 
The  practice  of  washing  one  another's  feet  was  at  one  time 
observed;  and  it  was  for  a  long  time  customary  for  each  brother 
and  sister  to  receive  new  members,  on  admission,  with  a  holy 
kiss.  "  Things  strangled  "  and  "  blood  "  were  rigorously  ab- 
stained from;  the  lot  was  regarded  as  sacred;  the  accumulation 
of  wealth  they  held  to  be  unscriptural  and  improper,  and  each 
member  considered  his  property  as  liable  to  be  called  upon 
at  any  time  to  meet  the  wants  of  the  poor  and  the  necessities 
of  the  church.  Churches  of  this  order  were  founded  in  Paisley, 
Glasgow,  Edinburgh,  Leith,  Arbroath,  Montrose,  Aberdeen, 
Dunkeld,  Cupar,  Galashiels,  Liverpool  and  London,  where 
Michael  Faraday  was  long  an  elder.  Their  exclusiveness 
in  practice,  neglect  of  education  for  the  ministry,  and  the 
antinomian  tendency  of  their  doctrine  contributed  to  their 
dissolution.  Many  Glasites  joined  the  general  body  of  Scottish 
Congregationalists,  and  the  sect  may  now  be  considered  extinct. 
The  last  of  the  Sandemanian  churches  in  America  ceased  to 
exist  in  1890. 

See  James  Ross,  History  of  Congregational  Independency  in 
Scotland  (Glasgow,  1900).  (D.  MN.) 

GLASS  (O.E.  glees,  cf.  Ger.  Glas,  perhaps  derived  from  an  old 
Teutonic  root  gla-,  a  variant  of  glo-,  having  the  general  sense  of 
shining,  cf.  "  glare,"  "  glow  "),  a  hard  substance,  usually  trans- 
parent or  translucent,  which  from  a  fluid  condition  at  a  high 
temperature  has  passed  to  a  solid  condition  with  sufficient 
rapidity  to  prevent  the  formation  of  visible  crystals.  There 
•  'jjh^  name  Glasites  or  Glassites  was  generally  used  in  Scotland ; 
in  England  and  America  the  name  Sandemanians  was  more  common. 


are  many  varieties  of  glass  differing  widely  in  chemical  com- 
position and  in  physical  qualities.  Most  varieties,  however, 
have  certain  qualities  in  common.  They  pass  through  a  viscous 
stage  in  cooling  from  a  state  of  fluidity;  they  develop  effects 
of  colour  when  the  glass  mixtures  are  fused  with  certain  metallic 
oxides;  they  are,  when  cold,  bad  conductors  both  of  electricity 
and  heat,  they  are  easily  fractured  by  a  blow  or  shock  and  show  a 
conchoidal  fracture;  they  are  but  slightly  affected  by  ordinary 
solvents,  but  are  readily  attacked  by  hydrofluoric  acid. 

The  structure  of  glass  has  been  the  subject  of  repeated  in- 
vestigations. The  theory  most  widely  accepted  at  present  is 
that  glass  is  a  quickly  solidified  solution,  in  which  silica,'  silicates, 
berates,  phosphates  and  aluminates  may  be  either  solvents  or 
solutes,  and  metallic  oxides  and  metals  may  be  held  either 
in  solution  or  in  suspension.  Long  experience  has  fixed  the 
mixtures,  so  far  as  ordinary  furnace  temperatures  are  con- 
cerned, which  produce  the  varieties  of  glass  in  common  use.  The 
essential  materials  of  which  these  mixtures  are  made  are,  for 
English  flint  glass,  sand,  carbonate  of  potash  and  red  lead; 
for  plate  and  sheet  glass,  sand,  carbonate  or  sulphate  of  soda 
and  carbonate  of  lime;  and  for  Bohemian  glass,  sand,  carbonate 
of  potash  and  carbonate  of  lime.  It  is  convenient  to  treat 
these  glasses  as  "  normal  "  glasses,  but  they  are  in  reality 
mixtures  of  silicates,  and  cannot  rightly  be  regarded  as  definite 
chemical  compounds  or  represented  by  definite  chemical 
formulae. 

The  knowledge  of  the  chemistry  of  glass-making  has  been 
considerably  widened  by  Dr  F.  O.  Schott's  experiments  at  the 
Jena  glass-works.  The  commercial  success  of  these  works  has 
demonstrated  the  value  of  pure  science  to  manufactures. 

The  recent  large  increase  in  the  number  of  varieties  of  glass 
has  been  chiefly  due  to  developments  in  the  manufacture  of 
optical  glass.  Glasses  possessing  special  qualities  have  been 
required,  and  have  been  supplied  by  the  introduction  of  new 
combinations  of  materials.  The  range  of  the  specific  gravity 
of  glasses  from  2-5  to  5-0  illustrates  the  effect  of  modified 
compositions.  In  the  same  way  glass  can  be  rendered  more  or 
less  fusible,  and  its  stability  can  be  increased  both  in  relation 
to  extremes  of  temperature  and  to  the  chemical  action  of 
solvents.  .  . 

The  fluidity  of  glass  at  a  high  temperature  renders  possible 
the  processes  of  ladelling,  pouring,  casting  and  stirring.  A 
mass  of  glass  in  a  viscous  state  can  be  rolled  with  an  iron  roller 
like  dough;  can  be  rendered  hollow  by  the  pressure  of  the  human 
breath  or'by  compressed  air;  can  be  forced  by  air  pressure,  or 
by  a  mechanically  driven  plunger,  to  take  the  shape  and  im- 
pression of  a  mould;  and  can  be  almost  indefinitely  extended  as 
solid  rod  or  as  hollow  tube.  So  extensible  is  viscous  glass  that 
it  can  be  drawn  out  into  a  filament  sufficiently  fine  and  elastic 
to  be  woven  into  a  fabric. 

Glasses  are  generally  transparent  but  may  be  translucent  or 
opaque.  Semi-opacity  due  to  crystallization  may  be  induced 
in  many  glasses  by  maintaining  them  for  a  long  period  at  a 
temperature  just  insufficient  to  cause  fusion.  In  this  way  is  pro- 
duced the  crystalline,  devitrified  material,  known  as  Reaumur's 
porcelain.  Semi-opacity  and  opacity  are  usually  produced 
by  the  addition  to  the  glass-mixtures  of  materials  which  will 
remain  in  suspension  in  the  glass,  such  as  oxide  of  tin,  oxide 
of  arsenic,  phosphate  of  lime,  cryolite  or  a  mixture  of  felspar 
and  fluorspar. 

Little  is  known  about  the  actual  cause  of  colour  in  glass 
beyond  the  fact  that  certain  materials  added  to  and  melted 
with  certain  glass-mixtures  will  in  favourable  circumstances 
produce  effects  of  colour.  The  colouring  agents  are  generally 
metallic  oxides.  The  same  oxide  may  produce  different  colours 
with  different  glass-mixtures,  and  different  oxides  of  the  same 
metal  may  produce  different  colours.  The  purple-blue  of  cobalt, 
the  chrome  green  or  yellow  of  chromium,  the  dichroic  canary- 
colour  of  uranium  and  the  violet  of  manganese,  are  constant. 
Ferrous  oxide  produces  an  olive  green  or  a  pale  blue  according 
to  the  glass  with  which  it  is  mixed.  Ferric  oxide  gives  a  yellow 
colour,  but  requires  the  presence  of  an  oxidizing  agent  to  prevent 


GLASS 


reduction  to  the  ferrous  state.  Lead  gives  a  pale  yellow  colour. 
Silver  oxide,  mixed  as  a  paint  and  spread  on  the  surface  of  a 
piece  of  glass  and  heated,  gives  a  permanent  yellow  stain.  Finely 
divided  vegetable  charcoal  added  to  a  soda-lime  glass  gives  a 
yellow  colour.  It  has  been  suggested  that  the  colour  is  due  to 
sulphur,  but  the  effect  can  be  produced  with  a  glass  mixture 
containing  no  sulphur,  free  or  combined,  and  by  increasing 
the  proportion  of  charcoal  the  intensity  of  the  colour  can  be 
increased  until  it  reaches  black  opacity.  Selenites  and  selenates 
give  a  pale  pink  or  pinkish 
yellow.  Tellurium  appears 
to  give  a  pale  pink  tint. 
Nickel  with  a  potash-lead 
glass  gives  a  violet  colour, 
and  a  brown  colour  with 
a  soda-lime  glass.  Copper 
gives  a  peacock-blue  which 
becomes  green  if  the  pro- 
portion of  the  copper  oxide 
is  increased.  If  oxide  of 
copper  is  added  to  a  glass 
mixture  containing  a  strong 
reducing  agent,  a  glass  is 
produced  which  when  first 
taken  from  the  crucible  is 
colourless  but  on  being  re- 
heated develops  a  deep 
crimson  -  ruby  colour.  A 
similar  glass,  if  its  cooling 


source  of  heat,  or  by  placing  them  in  a  heated  kiln  and  allowing 
the  heat  gradually  to  die  out. 

The  furnaces  (fig.  15)  employed  for  melting  glass  are  usually 
heated  with  gas  on  the  "  Siemens,"  or  some  similar  system  of 
regenerative  heating.  In  the  United  States  natural  gas  is  used 
wherever  it  is  available.  In  some  English  works  coal  is  still 
employed  for  direct  heating  with  various  forms  of  mechanical 
stokers.  Crude  petroleum  and  a  thin  tar,  resulting  from  the 
process  of  enriching  water-gas  with  petroleum,  have  been  used 


•737 


FIG.  15. — Siemens's  Continuous  Tank  Furnace. 


is  greatly  retarded,  produces  throughout  its  substance  minute 
crystals  of  metallic  copper,  and  closely  resembles  the  mineral 
called  avanturine.  There  is  also  an  intermediate  stage  in  which 
the  glass  has  a  rusty  red  colour  by  reflected  light,  and  a  purple- 
blue  colour  by  transmitted  light.  Glass  containing  gold  behaves 
in  almost  precisely  the  same  way,  but  the  ruby  glass  is  less  crimson 
than  copper  ruby  glass.  J.  E.  C.  Maxwell  Garnett,  whohasstudied 
the  optical  properties  of  theee  glasses,  has  suggested  that  the 
changes  in  colour  correspond  with  changes  effected  in  the 
structure  of  the  metals  as  they  pass  gradually  from  solution  in 
the  glass  to  a  state  of  crystallization. 

Owing  to  impurities  contained  in  the  materials  from  which 
glasses  are  made,  accidental  coloration  or  discoloration  is  often 
produced.  For  this  reason  chemical  agents  are  added  to  glass 
mixtures  to  remove  or  neutralize  accidental  colour.  Ferrous 
oxide  is  the  usual  cause  of'discoloration.  By  converting  ferrous 
into  ferric  oxide  the  green  tint  is  changed  to  yellow,  which  is 
less  noticeable.  Oxidation  may  be  effected  by  the  addition  to 
the  glass  mixture  of  a  substance  which  gives  up  oxygen  at  a 
high  temperature,  such  as  manganese  dioxide  or  arsenic  trioxide. 
With  the  same  object,  red  lead  and  saltpetre  are  used  in  the 
mixture  for  potash-lead  glass.  Manganese  dioxide  not  only  acts 
as  a  source  of  oxygen,  but  develops  a  pink  tint  in  the  glass,  which 
is  complementary  to  and  neutralizes  the  green  colour  due  to 
ferrous  oxide. 

Glass  is  a  bad  conductor  of  heat.  When  boiling  water  is 
poured  into  a  glass  vessel,  the  vessel  frequently  breaks,  on 
account  of  the  unequal  expansion  of  the  inner  and  outer  layers. 
If  in  the  process  of  glass  manufacture  a  glass  vessel  is  suddenly 
cooled,  the  constituent  particles  are  unable  to  arrange  themselves 
and  the  vessel  remains  in  a  state  of  extreme  tension.  The  surface 
of  the  vessel  may  be  hard,  but  the  vessel  is  liable  to  fracture 
on  receiving  a  trifling  shock.  M.  de  la  Bastie's  process  of 
"  toughening  "  glass  consisted  in  dipping  glass,  raised  to  a 
temperature  slightly  below  the  melting-point,  into  molten 
tallow.  The  surface  of  the  glass  was  hardened,  but  the  inner 
layers  remained  in  unstable  equilibrium.  Directly  the  crust 
was  pierced  the  whole  mass  was  shattered  into  minute  fragments. 
In  all  branches  of  glass  manufacture  the  process  of  "  annealing," 
i.e.  cooling  the  manufactured  objects  sufficiently  slowly  to  allow 
the  constituent  particles  to  settle  into  a  condition  of  equilibrium, 
is  of  vital  importance.  The  desired  result  is  obtained  either  by 
moving  the  manufactured  goods  gradually  away  from  a  constant 


both  with  compressed  air  and  with  steam  with  considerable 
success.  Electrical  furnaces  have  not  as  yet  been  employed 
for  ordinary  glass-making  on  a  commercial  scale,  but  the  electrical 
plants  which  have  been  erected  for  melting  and  moulding 
quartz  suggest  the  possibility  of  electric  heating  being  employed 
for  the  manufacture  of  glass.  Many  forms  of  apparatus  have 
been  tried  for  ascertaining  the  temperature  of  glass  furnaces. 
It  is  usually  essential  that  some  parts  of  the  apparatus  shall  be 
made  to  acquire  a  temperature  identical  with  the  temperature 
to  be  measured.  Owing  to  the  physical  changes  produced  in  the 
material  exposed  prolonged  observations  of  temperature  are 
impossible.  In  the  Fery  radiation  pyrometer  this  difficulty 
is  obviated,  as  the  instrument  may  be  placed  at  a  considerable 
distance  from  the  furnace.  The  radiation  passing  out  from  an 
opening  in  the  furnace  falls  upon  a  concave  mirror  in  a  telescope 
and  is  focused  upon  a  thermoelectric  couple.  The  hotter  the 
furnace  the  greater  is  the  rise  of  temperature  of  the  couple. 
The  electromotive  force  thus  generated  is  measured  by  a  galvano- 
meter, the  scale  of  which  is  divided  and  figured  so  that  the 
temperature  may  be  directly  read.  (See  THERMOMETRY.) 

In  dealing  with  the  manufacture  of  glass  it  is  convenient 
to  group  the  various  branches  in  the  following  manner: 
Manufactured  Class. 
I.  Optical  Glass 


)ttles. 


III.  Mechanically  Pressed  Glass 

A.  Plate  and  rolled  plate  glass.  B.  Pressed  table  glass. 

I.  OPTICAL  GLASS. — As  regards  both  mode  of  production  and 
essential  properties  optical  glass  differs  widely  from  all  other 
varieties.  These  differences  arise  primarily  from  the  fact  that 
glass  for  optical  uses  is  required  in  comparatively  large  and  thick 
pieces,  while  for  most  other  purposes  glass  is  used  in  the  form 
of  comparatively  thin  sheets;  when,  therefore,  as  a  consequence 


II.  Blown  Glass 

1 

A. 

1 
Table  glass. 

B.  Tube. 

Special  glasses 
for   thermo- 
meters, and 
other     special 
glasses. 

C.    Sheet     D.  B 
and  crown 

glass. 

GLASS 


of  Dollond's  invention  of  achromatic  telescope  objectives  in 
1757,  a  demand  first  arose  for  optical  glass,  the  industry  was 
unable  to  furnish  suitable  material.  Flint  glass  particularly, 
which  appeared  quite  satisfactory  when  viewed  in  small  pieces, 
was  found  to  be  so  far  from  homogeneous  as  to  be  useless  for 
lens  construction.  The  first  step  towards  overcoming  this  vital 
defect  in  optical  glass  was  taken  by  P.  L.  Guinand,  towards  the 
end  of  the  i8th  century,  by  introducing  the  process  of  stirring 
the  molten  glass  by  means  of  a  cylinder  of  fireclay.  Guinand 
was  induced  to  migrate  from  his  home  in  Switzerland  to  Bavaria, 
where  he  worked  at  the  production  of  homogeneous  flint  glass, 
first  with  Joseph  von  Utzschneider  and  then  with  J.  Fraunhofer; 
the  latter  ultimately  attained  considerable  success  and  produced 
telescope  disks  up  to  28  centimetres  (i  i  in.)  diameter.  Fraunhofer 
further  initiated  the  specification  of  refraction  and  dispersion 
in  terms  of  certain  lines  of  the  spectrum,  and  even  attempted 
an  investigation  of  the  effect  of  chemical  composition  on  the 
relative  dispersion  produced  by  glasses  in  different  parts  of  the 
spectrum.  Guinand's  process  was  further  developed  in  France 
by  Guinand's  sons  and  subsequently  by  Bontemps  and  E.  Feil. 
In  1848  Bontemps  was  obliged  to  leave  France  for  political 
reasons  and  came  to  England,  where  he  initiated  the  optical 
glass  manufacture  at  Chance's  glass  works  near  Birmingham, 
and  this  firm  ultimately  attained  a  considerable  reputation  in 
the  production  of  optical  glass,  especially  of  large  disks  for 
telescope  objectives.  Efforts  at  improving  optical  glass  had, 
however,  not  been  confined  to  the  descendants  and  successors 
of  Guinand  and  Fraunhofer.  In  1824  the  Royal  Astronomical 
Society  of  London  appointed  a  committee  on  the  subject,  the 
experimental  work  being  carried  out  by  Faraday.  Faraday 
independently  recognized  the  necessity  for  mechanical  agitation 
of  the  molten  glass  in  order  to  ensure  homogeneity,  and  to 
facilitate  his  manipulations  he  worked  with  dense  lead  borate 
glasses  which  are  very  fusible,  but  have  proved  too  unstable 
for  ordinary  optical  purposes.  Later  Maes  of  Clichy  (France) 
exhibited  some  "  zinc  crown  "  glass  in  small  plates  of  optical 
quality  at  the  London  Exhibition  of  1851;  and  another  French 
glass-maker,  Lamy,  produced  a  dense  thallium  glass  in  1867. 
In  1834  W.  V.  Harcourt  began  experiments  in  glass-making, 
in  which  he  was  subsequently  joined  by  G.  G.  Stokes.  Their 
object  was  to  pursue  the  inquiry  begun  by  Fraunhofer  as  to  the 
effect  of  chemical  composition  on  the  distribution  of  dispersion. 
The  specific  effect  of  boric  acid  in  this  respect  was  correctly 
ascertained  by  Stokes  and  Harcourt,  but  they  mistook  the  effect 
of  titanic  acid.  J.  Hopkinson,  working  at  Chance's  glass  works, 
subsequently  made  an  attempt  to  produce  a  titanium  silicate 
glass,  but  nothing  further  resulted. 

The  next  and  most  important  forward  step  in  the  progress  of 
optical  glass  manufacture  was  initiated  by  Ernst  Abbe  and 
carried  out  jointly  by  him  and  O.  Schott  at  Jena  in  Germany. 
Aided  by  grants  from  the  Prussian  government,  these  workers 
systematically  investigated  the  effect  of  introducing  a  large 
number  of  different  chemical  substances  (oxides)  into  vitreous 
fluxes.  As  a  result  a  whole  series  of  glasses  of  novel  composition 
and  optical  properties  were  produced.  A  certain  number  of  the 
most  promising  of  these,  from  the  purely  optical  point  of  view, 
had  unfortunately  to  be  abandoned  for  practical  use  owing  to 
their  chemical  instability,  and  the  problem  of  Fraunhofer,  viz. 
the  production  of  pairs  of  glasses  of  widely  differing  refraction 
and  dispersion,  but  having  a  similar  distribution  of  dispersion 
in  the  various  regions  of  the  spectrum,  was  not  in  the  first  instance 
solved.  On  the  other  hand,  while  in  the  older  crown  and  flint 
glasses  the  relation  between  refraction  and  dispersion  had  been 
practically  fixed,  dispersion  and  refraction  increasing  regularly 
with  the  density  of  the  glass,  in  some  of  the  new  glasses  introduced 
by  Abbe  and  Schott  this  relation  is  altered  and  a  relatively 
low  refractive  index  is  accompanied  by  a  relatively  high  disper- 
sion, while  in  others  a  high  refractive  index  is  associated  with 
low  dispersive  power. 

The  initiative  of  Abbe  and  Schott,  which  was  greatly  aided 
by  the  resources  for  scientific  investigation  available  at  the 
Physikalische  Reichsanstalt  (Imperial  Physical  Laboratory), 


led  to  such  important  developments  that  similar  work  was 
undertaken  in  France  by  the  firm  of  Mantois,  the  successors 
of  Feil,  and  somewhat  later  by  Chance  in  England.  The  manu- 
facture of  the  new  varieties  of  glass,  originally  known  as  "  Jena  " 
glasses,  is  now  carried  out  extensively  and  with  a  considerable 
degree  of  commercial  success  in  France,  and  also  to  a  less  extent 
in  England,  but  none  of  the  other  makers  of  optical  glass  has 
as  yet  contributed  to  the  progress  of  the  industry  to  anything 
like  the  same  extent  as  the  Jena  firm. 

The  older  optical  glasses,  now  generally  known  as  the 
"/ordinary  "  crown  and  flint  glasses,  are  all  of  the  nature  of  pure 
silicates,  the  basic  constituents  being,  in  the  case  of  crown 
glasses,  lime  and  soda  or  lime  and  potash,  or  a  mixture  of  both, 
and  in  the  case  of  flint  glasses,  lead  and  either  (or  both)  soda  and 
potash.  With  the  exception  of  the  heavier  flint  (lead)  glasses, 
these  can  be  produced  so  as  to  be  free  both  from  noticeable 
colour  and  from  such  defects  as  bubbles,  opaque  inclusions  or 
"  striae,"  but  extreme  care  in  the  choice  of  all  the  raw  materials 
and  in  all  the  manipulations  is  required  to  ensure  this  result. 
Further,  these  glasses,  when  made  from  properly  proportioned 
materials,  possess  a  very  considerable  degree  of  chemical  stability, 
which  is  amply  sufficient  for  most  optical  purposes.  The  newer 
glasses,  on  the  other  hand,  contain  a  much  wider  variety  of 
chemical  constituents,  the  most  important  being  the  oxides  of 
barium,  magnesium,  aluminium  and  zinc,  used  either  with  or 
without  the  addition  of  the  bases  already  named  in  reference 
to  the  older  glasses,  and — among  acid  bodies — boric  anhydride 
(B2O3)  which  replaces  the  silica  of  the  older  glasses  to  a  varying 
extent.  It  must  be  admitted  that,  by  the  aid  of  certain  of  these 
new  constituents,  glasses  can  be  produced  which,  as  regards 
purity  of  colour,  freedom  from  defects  and  chemical  stability  are 
equal  or  even  superior  to  the  best  of  the  "  ordinary  "  glasses,  but 
it  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  when  this  is  the  case  the  optical 
properties  of  the  new  glass  do  not  fall  very  widely  outside 
the  limits  set  by  the  older  glasses.  On  the  other  hand,  the  more 
extreme  the  optical  properties  of  these  new  glasses,  i.e.  the 
further  they  depart  from  the  ratio  of  refractive  index  to  dispersive 
power  found  in  the  older  glasses,  the  greater  the  difficulty  found 
in  obtaining  them  of  either  sufficient  purity  or  stability  to  be  of 
practical  use.  It  is,  in  fact,  admitted  that  some  of  the  glasses, 
most  useful  optically,  the  dense  barium  crown  glasses,  which 
are  so  widely  used  in  modern  photographic  lenses,  cannot  be 
produced  entirely  free  either  from  noticeable  colour  or  from 
numerous  small  bubbles,  while  the  chemical  nature  of  these 
glasses  is  so  sensitive  that  considerable  care  is  required  to  protect 
the  surfaces  of  lenses  made  from  them  if  serious  tarnishing  is  to 
be  avoided.  In  practice,  however,  it  is  not  found  that  the  presence 
either  of  a  decidedly  greenish-yellow  colour  or  of  numerous 
small  bubbles  interferes  at  all  seriously  with  the  successful  use 
of  the  lenses  for  the  majority  of  purposes,  so  that  it  is  preferable 
to  sacrifice  the  perfection  of  the  glass  in  order  to  secure  valuable 
optical  properties. 

It  is  a  further  striking  fact,  not  unconnected  with  those  just 
enumerated,  that  the  extreme  range  of  optical  properties  covered 
even  by  the  relatively  large  number  of  optical  glasses  now  available 
is  in  reality  very  small.  The  refractive  indices  of  all  glasses  at 
present  available  lie  between  1-46  and  1-90,  whereas  transparent 
minerals  are  known  having  refractive  indices  lying  considerably 
outside  these  limits;  at  least  one  of  these,  fluorite  (calcium 
fluoride),  is  actually  used  by  opticians  in  the  construction  of 
certain  lenses,  so  that  probably  progress  is  to  be  looked  for  in  a 
considerable  widening  of  the  limits  of  available  optical  materials; 
possibly  such  progress  may  lie  in  the  direction  of  the  artificial 
production  of  large  mineral  crystals. 

The  qualities  required  in  optical  glasses  have  already  been 
partly  referred  to,  but  may  now  be  summarized: — 

1.  Transparency  and  Freedom  from  Colour. — These  qualities  can 
be  readily  judged  by  inspection  of  the  glass  in  pieces  of  considerable 
thickness,  and  they  may  be  quantitatively  measured  by  means  of  the 
spectro-photometer. 

2.  Homogeneity. — The  optical  desideratum  is  uniformity   of   re- 
fractive incfex  and  dispersive  power  throughout  the  mass  of  the  glass. 
This  is  probably  never  completely  attained,  variations  in  the  sixth 


GLASS 


89 


significant  figure  of  the  refractive  index  being  observed  in  different 
parts  of  single  large  blocks  of  the  most  perfect  glass.  While  such 
minute  and  gradual  variations  are  harmless  for  most  optical  purposes, 
sudden  variations  which  generally  take  the  form  of  striae  or  veins 
are  fatal  defects  in  all  optical  glass.  In  their  coarsest  forms  such 
striae  are  readily  visible  to  the  unaided  eye,  but  finer  ones  escape 
detection  unless  special  means  are  taken  for  rendering  them  visible; 
such  special  means  conveniently  take  the  form  of  an  apparatus  for 
examining  the  glass  in  a  beam  of  parallel  light,  when  the  striae 
scatter  the  light  and  appear  as  either  dark  or  bright  lines  according 
to  the  position  of  the  eye.  Plate  glass  of  the  usual  quality,  which 
appears  to  be  perfectly  homogeneous  when  looked  at  in  the  ordinary 
way,  is  seen  to  be  a  mass  of  fine  striae,  when  a  considerable  thickness 
is  examined  in  parallel  light.  Plate  glass  is,  nevertheless,  consider- 
ably used  for  the  cheaper  forms  of  lenses,  where  the  scattering  of 
the  light  and  loss  of  definition  arising  from  these  fine  striae  is  not 
readily  recognized. 

Bubbles  and  enclosures  of  opaque  matter,  although  more  readily 
observed,  do  not  constitute  such  serious  defects;  their  presence  in  a 
lens,  to  a  moderate  extent,  does  not  interfere  with  its  performance 
(see  above). 

3.  Hardness  and  Chemical  Stability. — These  properties  contribute 
to  the  durability  of  lenses,  and  are  specially  desirable  in  the  outer 
members  of  lens  combinations  which  are  likely  to  be  subjected  to 
frequent  handling  or  are  exposed  to  the  weather.     As  a  general  rule, 
to   which,   however,   there  are   important  exceptions,   both   these 
qualities  are  found  to  a  greater  degree,  the  lower  the  refractive  index 
of  the  glass.     The  chemical  stability,  i.e.  the  power  of  resisting  the 
disintegrating  effects  of  atmospheric  moisture  and  carbonic  acid, 
depends  largely  upon  the  quantity  of  alkalis  contained  in  the  glass 
and  their  proportion  to  the  lead,  lime  or  barium  present,  the  stability 
being  generally  less  the  higher  the  proportion  of  alkali.     A  high 
silica-content  tends  towards  both  hardness  and  chemical  stability, 
and  this  can  be  further  increased  by  the  addition  of  small  proportions 
of  boric  acid;  in  larger  quantities,  however,  the  latter  constituent 
produces  the  opposite  effect. 

4.  Absence  of  Internal  Strain. — Internal  strain  in  glass  arises  from 
the  unequal  contraction  of  the  outer  and  inner  portions  of  masses 
of  glass  during  cooling.     Processes  of  annealing,  or  very  gradual 
cooling,  are  intended  to  relieve  these  strains,  but  such  processes  are 
only  completely  effective  when  the  cooling,  particularly  through 
those  ranges  of  temperature  where  the  glass  is  just  losing  the  last 
traces  of  plasticity,  is  extremely  gradual,  a  rate  measured  in  hours 
per  degree  Centigrade  being  required.     The  existence  of  internal 
strains  in  glass  can  be  readilv  recognized  by  examination  in  polarized 
light,  any  signs  of  double  refraction  indicating  the  existence  of  strain. 
If  the  glass  is  very  badly  annealed,  the  lenses  made  from  it  may  fly 
to  pieces  during  or  after  manufacture,  but  apart  from  such  extreme 
cases  the  optical  effects  of  internal  strain  are  not  readily  observed 
except  in  large  optical  apparatus.     Very  perfectly  annealed  optical 
glass  is  now,  however,  readily  obtainable. 

5.  Refraction  and  Dispersion. — The  purely  optical  properties  of 
refraction   and   dispersion,   although   of  the  greatest   importance, 
cannot  be  dealt  with  in  any  detail  here;  for  an  account  of  the  optical 
properties  required  in  glasses  for  various  forms  of  lenses  see  the 
articles  LENS  and  ABERRATION:  II.  In  Optical  Systems.    As  typical 
of  the  range  of  modern  optical  glasses  Table  I.  is  given,  which 
constituted  the  list  of  optical  glasses  exhibited  by  Messrs  Chance 
at  the  Optical  Convention  in  London  in  1905.     In  this  table  n  is  the 


refractive  index  of  the  glass  for  sodium  light  (the  D  line  of  the  solar 
spectrum),  while  the  letters  C,  F  and  G'  refer  to  lines  in  the  hydrogen 
spectrum  by  which  dispersion  is  now  generally  specified.  The 
symbol  v  represents  the  inverse  of  the  dispersive  power,  its  value 
being  (nD-i)/(C-F).  The  very  much  longer  lists  of  German  and 
French  firms  contain  only  a  few  types  not  represented  in  this  table. 
Manufacture  of  Optical  Glass. — In  its  earlier  stages,  the  process 
for  the  production  of  optical  glass  closely  resembles  that  used  in 
the  production  of  any  other  glass  of  the  highest  quality.  The  raw 
materials  are  selected  with  great  care  to  assure  chemical  purity, 
but  whereas  in  most  glasses  the  only  impurities  to  be  dreaded 
are  those  that  are  either  infusible  or  produce  a  colouring  effect 
upon  the  glass,  for  optical  purposes  the  admixture  of  other 
glass-forming  bodies  than  those  which  are  intended  to  be  present 
must  be  avoided  on  account  of  their  effect  in  modifying  the 
optical  constants  of  the  glass.  Constancy  of  composition  of  the 
raw  materials  and  their  careful  and  thorough  admixture  in  con- 
stant proportions  are  therefore  essential  to  the  production  of  the 
required  glasses.  The  materials  are  generally  used  in  the  form 
either  of  oxides  (lead,  zinc,  silica,  &c.)  or  of  salts  readily  decom- 
posed by  heat,  such  as  the  nitrates  or  carbonates.  Fragments  of 
glass  of  the  same  composition  as  that  aimed  at  are  generally 
incorporated  to  a  limited  extent  with  the  mixed  raw  materials 
to  facilitate  their  fusion.  The  crucibles  or  pots  used  for  the 
production  of  optical  glass  very  closely  resemble  those  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  flint  glass  for  other  purposes;  they  are  "  covered  " 
and  the  molten  materials  are  thus  protected  from  the  action  of 
the  furnace  gases  by  the  interposition  of  a  wall  of  fireclay,  but 
as  crucibles  for  optical  glass  are  used  for  only  one  fusion  and  are 
then  broken  up,  they  are  not  made  so  thick  and  heavy  as  those 
used  in  flint-glass  making,  since  the  latter  remain  in  the  furnace 
for  many  weeks.  On  the  other  hand,  the  chemical  and  physical 
nature  of  the  fireclays  used  in  the  manufacture  of  such  crucibles 
requires  careful  attention  in  order  to  secure  the  best  results. 
The  furnace  used  for  the  production  of  optical  glass  is  generally 
constructed  to  take  one  crucible  only,  so  that  the  heat  of  the 
furnace  may  be  accurately  adjusted  to  the  requirements  of  the 
particular  glass  under  treatment.  These  small  furnaces  are 
frequently  arranged  for  direct  coal  firing,  but  regenerative  gas- 
fired  furnaces  are  also  employed.  The  empty  crucible,  having 
first  been  gradually  dried  and  heated  to  a  bright  red  heat  in  a 
subsidiary  furnace,  is  taken  up  by  means  of  massive  iron  tongs 
and  introduced  into  the  previously  heated  furnace,  the  tempera- 
ture of  which  is  then  gradually  raised.  When  a  suitable  tempera- 
ture for  the  fusion  of  the  particular  glass  in  question  has  been 
attained,  the  mixture  of  raw  materials  is  introduced  in  com- 
paratively small  quantities  at  a  time.  In  this  way  the  crucible 
is  gradually  filled  with  a  mass  of  molten  glass,  which  is,  however, 


TABLE  I. — Optical  Properties. 


Factory 
Number. 

Name. 

"D. 

V. 

Medium 
Dispersion. 
C-F. 

Partial  and  Relative  Partial  Dispersions. 

C-D. 

C-D 
T=F7 

D-F. 

D-F 

F-G'. 

F-G' 

C.  644 
B.  646 
A.  605 
C.  577 

Extra  Hard  Crown 
Boro-silicate  Crown     . 
Hard  Crown 
Medium  Barium  Crown 
Densest  Barium  Crown 

•4959 
•5096 
•5175 
•5738 
•6065 

64-4 

63-3 
60-5 

57-9 
57'9 

•00770 
•00803 
•00856 
•00990 
•01046 

•00228 
•00236 
•00252 
•00293 
•00308 

•296 
•294 
•294 
•296 

•294 

•00542 
•00562 
•00604 
•00697 
•00738 

•704 
•700 
•706 
•704 
•7°5 

•00431 
•00446 
•00484 
•00552 
•00589 

•56o 
•555 
•554 
•557 
•563 

A.  560 
B.  563 
B.  535 
A.  490 
A.  485 
C.  474 
B.  466 

Soft  Crown    . 
Medium  Barium  Crown 
Barium  Light  Flint 
Extra  Light  Flint 
Extra  Light  Flint 
Boro-silicate  Flint 
Barium  Light  Flint 

•5152 
1-5660 
•5452 

•5333 
•5623 

•5833 

56-9 
56-3 
53-5 
49-0 

48-5 
47-4 
46-6 

•00906 
•01006 

•OIO2O 
•01085 
•OIO99 
•OII87 
•OI25I 

•00264 
•00297 
•00298 
•00313 
•00322 
•00343 
•00362 

•291 

•295 
•292 
•288 
•293 
•289 
•288 

•00642 
•00709 
•00722 
•00772 
•00777 
•00844 
•00889 

•708 
•704 
•701 
•711 
•707 
•711 
•711 

•00517 
•00576 
•00582 
•00630 
•00640 
•00693 
•00721 

•570 
•572 
•57° 
•58o 

•584 
•576 

B.  458 

Soda  Flint 

•5482 

45-8 

•OII95 

•00343 

•287 

•00852 

•7'3 

•00690 

•577 

A.  458 

Light  Flint 

•5472 

45-8 

•OII96 

•00348 

•291 

•00848 

•709 

•00707 

A.  432 
A.  410 

Light  Flint 
Light  Flint 

•5610 
•5760 

43-2 
41-0 

•01299 
•OI4O4 

•00372 
•00402 

•287 
•286 

•00927 

•OIOO2 

•713 
•713 

•00770 
•00840 

•593 
•598 

B.  407 

Light  Flint 

•5787 

40-7 

•OI42O 

•00404 

•284 

•OIOI6 

•00840 

•591 

A.  370 

Dense  Flint 

•6118 

36-9 

•01657 

•00470 

•284 

•OII87 

•716 

•01004 

•606 

A.  361 
A.  360 
A.  337 

Dense  Flint 
Dense  Flint 
Extra  Dense  Flint 

•6214 
•6225 
•6469 

36-1 
36-0 
337 

•OI722 
•01729 
•OI9I7 

•00491 
•00493 
•00541 

•285 
•286 
•285 

•OI23I 
•01236 
•01376 

•715 
•715 
•720 

•01046 
•01054 
•01170 

•608 
•609 
•655 

A.  299 

Densest  Flint 

•7129 

29-9 

•02384 

•00670 

•281 

•OI7I4 

•789 

•01661 

•678 

9o 


GLASS 


full  of  bubbles  of  all  sizes.  These  bubbles  arise  partly  from  the 
air  enclosed  between  the  particles  of  raw  materials  and  partly 
from  the  gaseous  decomposition  products  of  the  materials 
themselves.  In  the  next  stage  of  the  process,  the  glass  is  raised 
to  a  high  temperature  in  order  to  render  it  sufficiently  fluid  to 
allow  of  the  complete  elimination  of  these  bubbles;  the  actual 
temperature  required  varies  with  the  chemical  composition  of 
the  glass,  a  bright  red  heat  sufficing  for  the  most  fusible  glasses, 
while  with  others  the  utmost  capacity  of  the  best  furnaces 
is  required  to  attain  the  necessary  temperature.  With  these 
latter  glasses  there  is,  of  course,  considerable  risk  that  the 
partial  fusion  and  consequent  contraction  of  the  fireclay  of  the 
crucible  may  result  in  its  destruction  and  the  entire  loss  of  the 
glass.  The  stages  of  the  process  so  far  described  generallyoccupy 
from  36  to  60  hours,  and  during  this  time  the  constant  care  and 
watchfulness  of  those  attending  the  furnace  is  required.  This  is 
still  more  the  case  in  the  next  stage.  The  examination  of  small 
test-pieces  of  the  glass  withdrawn  from  the  crucible  by  means 
of  an  iron  rod  having  shown  that  the  molten  mass  is  free  from 
bubbles,  the  stirring  process  may  be  begun,  the  object  of  this 
manipulation  being  to  render  the  glass  as  homogeneous  as  possible 
and  to  secure  the  absence  of  veins  or  striae  in  the  product.  For 
this  purpose  a  cylinder  of  fireclay,  provided  with  a  square  axial 
hole  at  the  upper  end,  is  heated  in  a  small  subsidiary  furnace  and 
is  then  introduced  into  the  molten  glass.  Into  the  square  axial 
hole  fits  the  square  end  of  a  hooked  iron  bar  which  projects 
several  yards  beyond  the  mouth  of  the  furnace;  by  means  of 
this  bar  a  workman  moves  the  fireclay  cylinder  about  in  the  glass 
with  a  steady  circular  sweep.  Although  the  weight  of  the  iron 
bar  is  carried  by  a  support,  such  as  an  overhead  chain  or  a  swivel 
roller,  this  operation  is  very  laborious  and  trying,  more  especially 
during  the  earlier  stages  when  the  heat  radiated  from  the  open 
mouth  of  the  crucible  is  intense.  The  men  who  manipulate  the 
stirring  bars  are  therefore  changed  at  short  intervals,  while  the 
bars  themselves  have  also  to  be  changed  at  somewhat  longer 
intervals,  as  they  rapidly  become  oxidized,  and  accumulated 
scale  would  tend  to  fall  off  them,  thus  contaminating  the  glass 
below.  The  stirring  process  is  begun  when  the  glass  is  perfectly 
fluid  at  a  temperature  little  short  of  the  highest  attained  in  its 
fusion,  but  as  the  stirring  proceeds  the  glass  is  allowed  to  cool 
gradually  and  thus  becomes  more  and  more  viscous  until  finally 
the  stirring  cylinder  can  scarcely  be  moved.  When  the  glass  has 
acquired  this  degree  of  consistency  it  is  supposed  that  no  fresh 
movements  can  occur  within  its  mass,  so  that  if  homogeneity  has 
been  attained  the  glass  will  preserve  it  permanently.  The  stirring 
is  therefore  discontinued  and  the  clay  cylinder  is  either  left 
embedded  in  the  glass,  or  by  the  exercise  of  considerable  force 
it  may  be  gradually  withdrawn.  The  crucible 
with  the  semi-solid  glass  which  it  contains  is  now 
allowed  to  cool  considerably  in  the  melting  furnace, 
or  it  may  be  removed  to  another  slightly  heated 
furnace.  When  the  glass  has  cooled  so  far  as 
to  become  hard  and  solid,  the  furnace  is  hermetic- 
ally sealed  up  and  allowed  to  cool  very  gradually 
to  the  ordinary  temperature.  If  the  cooling  is  very 
gradual — occupying  several  weeks — it  sometimes 
happens  that  the  entire  contents  of  a  large  crucible,  weighing 
perhaps  1000  Ib,  are  found  intact  as  a  single  mass  of  glass,  but 
more  frequently  the  mass  is  found  broken  up  into  a  number  of 
fragments  of  various  sizes.  From  the  large  masses  great  lenses 
and  mirrors  may  be  produced,  while  the  smaller  pieces  are  used 
for  the  production  of  the  disks  and  slabs  of  moderate  size,  in 
which  the  optical  glass  of  commerce  is  usually  supplied.  In  order 
to  allow  of  the  removal  of  the  glass,  the  cold  crucible  is  broken 
up  and  the  glass  carefully  separated  from  the  fragments  of  fire- 
clay. The  pieces  of  glass  are  then  examined  for  the  detection  of 
the  grosser  defects,  and  obviously  defective  pieces  are  rejected. 
As  the  fractured  surfaces  of  the  glass  in  this  condition  are  un- 
suitable for  delicate  examination  a  good  deal  of  glass  that  passes 
this  inspection  has  yet  ultimately  to  be  rejected.  The  next  stage 
in  the  preparation  of  the  glass  is  the  process  of  moulding  and 
annealing.  Lumps  of  glass  of  approximately  the  right  weight 


are  chosen,  and  are  heated  to  a  temperature  just  sufficient  to 
soften  the  glass,  when  the  lumps  are  caused  to  assume  the  shape 
of  moulds  made  of  iron  or  fireclay  either  by  the  natural  flow  of 
the  softened  glass  under  gravity,  or  by  pressure  from  suitable 
tools  or  presses.  The  glass,  now  in  its  approximate  form,  is 
placed  in  a  heated  chamber  where  it  is  allowed  to  cool  very 
gradually — the  minimum  time  of  cooling  from  a  dull  red  heat 
being  six  days,  while  for  "  fine  annealing  "  a  much  longer  period 
is  required  (see  above).  At  the  end  of  the  annealing  process  the 
glass  issues  in  the  shape  of  disks  or  slabs  slightly  larger  than 
required  by  the  optician  in  each  case.  The  glass  is,  however,  by 
no  means  ready  for  delivery,  since  it  has  yet  to  be  examined 
with  scrupulous  care,  and  all  defective  pieces  must  be  rejected 
entirely  or  at  least  the  defective  part  must  be  cut  out  and  the 
slab  remoulded  or  ground  down  to  a  smaller  size.  For  the  purpose 
of  rendering  this  minute  examination  possible,  opposite  plane 
surfaces  of  the  glass  are  ground  approximately  flat  and  polished, 
the  faces  to  be  polished  being  so  chosen  as  to  allow  of  a  view 
through  the  greatest  possible  thickness  of  glass;  thus  in  slabs 
the  narrow  edges  are  polished. 

It  will  be  readily  understood  from  the  above  account  of  the 
process  of  production  that  optical  glass,  relatively  to  other 
kinds  of  glass,  is  very  expensive,  the  actual  price  varying  from 
35.  to  305.  per  Ib  in  small  slabs  or  disks.  The  price,  however, 
rapidly  increases  with  the  total  bulk  of  perfect  glass  required  in 
one  piece,  so  that  large  disks  of  glass  suitable  for  telescope 
objectives  of  wide  aperture,  or  blocks  for  large  prisms,  become 
exceedingly  costly.  The  reason  for  this  high  cost  is  to  be  found 
partly  in  the  fact  that  the  yield  of  optically  perfect  glass  even 
in  large  and  successful  meltings  rarely  exceeds  20%  of  the  total 
weight  of  glass  melted.  Further,  all  the  subsequent  processes 
of  cutting,  moulding  and  annealing  become  increasingly  difficult, 
owing  to  the  greatly  increased  risk  of  breakage  arising  from 
either  external  injury  or  internal  strain,  as  the  dimensions  of 
the  individual  piece  of  glass  increase.  Nevertheless,  disks  of 
optical  glass,  both  crown  and  flint,  have  been  produced  up  to 
39  in.  in  diameter. 

II.  BLOWN  GLASS.  (A)  Table-ware  and  Vases. — The  varieties 
of  glass  used  for  the  manufacture  of  table-ware  and  vases  are 
the  potash-lead  glass,  the  soda-lime  glass  and  the  potash-lime 
glass.  These  glasses  may  be  colourless  or  coloured.  Venetian 
glass  is  a  soda-lime  glass;  Bohemian  glass  is  a  potash-lime 
glass.  The  potash-lead  glass,  which  was  first  used  on  a  com-* 
mercial  scale  in  England  for  the  manufacture  of  table-ware, 
and  which  is  known  as  "  flint "  glass  or  "  crystal,"  is  also  largely 
used  in  France,  Germany  and  the  United  States.  Table  II. 
shows  the  typical  composition  of  these  glasses. 

TABLE  II. 


SiOz. 

K20. 

PbO. 

Na2O. 

CaO. 

MgO. 

Fe*0, 
and 
AljOs. 

Potash-lead  (flint)  glass  . 
Soda-lime  (Venetian)  glass     . 
Potash-lime  (Bohemian)  glass 

53-17 
73-4° 
71-70 

13-88 
12-70 

32-95 

18-58 
2-50 

5-06 
10-30 

2-48 
0-90 

For  melting  the  leadless  glasses,  open,  bowl-shaped  crucibles 
are  used,  ranging  from  12  to  40  in.  in  diameter.  Glass  mixtures 
containing  lead  are  melted  in  covered,  beehive-shaped  crucibles 
holding  from  12  to  18  cwt.  of  glass.  They  have  a  hooded  open- 
ing on  one  side  near  the  top.  This  opening  serves  for  the  intro- 
duction of  the  glass-mixture,  for  the  removal  of  the  melted 
glass  and  as  a  source  of  heat  for  the  processes  of  manipulation. 

The  Venetian  furnaces  in  the  island  of  Murano  are  small 
low  structures  heated  with  wood.  The  heat  passes  from  the 
melting  furnace  into  the  annealing  kiln.  In  Germany,  Austria 
and  the  United  States,  gas  furnaces  are  generally  used.  In 
England  directly-heated  coal  furnaces  are  still  in  common  use, 
which  in  many  cases  are  stoked  by  mechanical  feeders.  There 
are  two  systems  of  annealing.  The  manufactured  goods  are 
either  removed  gradually  from  a  constant  source  of  heat  by  means 
of  a  train  of  small  iron  trucks  drawn  along  a  tramway  by  an 


GLASS 


91 


endless  chain,  or  are  placed  in  a  heated  kiln  in  which  the  fire  is 
allowed  gradually  to  die  out.  The  second  system  is  especially 
used  for  annealing  large  and  heavy  objects.  The  manufacture 
of  table-ware  is  carried  on  by  small  gangs  of  men  and  boys.  In 
England  each  "  gang  "  or  "  chair  "  consists  of  three  men  and  one 
boy.  In  works,  however,  in  which  most  of  thegoodsare  moulded, 
and  where  less  skilled  labour  is  required,  the  proportion  of  boy 
labour  is  increased.  There  are  generally  two  shifts  of  workmen, 
each  shift  working  six  hours,  and  the  work  is  carried  on  continu- 
ously from  Monday  morning  until  Friday  morning.  Directly 
work  is  suspended  the  glass  remaining  in  the  crucibles  is  ladled 
into  water,  drained  and  dried.  It  is  then  mixed  with  the  glass 
mixture  and  broken  glass  ("  cullet  "),  and  replaced  in  the 


P 

F*IG.  1 6. — Pontils  and  Blowing  Iron. 
a,  Puntee;   b,  spring  puntee;   c,  blowing  iron. 

crucibles.  The  furnaces  are  driven  to  a  white  heat  in  order  to 
fuse  the  mixture  and  expel  bubbles  of  gas  and  air.  Before  work 
begins  the  temperature  is  lowered  sufficiently  to  render  the  glass 
viscous.  In  the  viscous  state  a  mass  of  glass  can  be  coiled  upon 
the  heated  end  of  an  iron  rod,  and  if  the  rod  is  hollow  can  be 
blown  into  a  hollow  bulb.  The  tools  used  are  extremely  primitive 
— hollow  iron  blowing-rods,  solid  rods  for  holding  vessels  during 
manipulation,  spring  tools,  resembling  sugar-tongs  in  shape, 
with  steel  or  wooden  blades  for  fashioning  the  viscous  glass, 
callipers,  measure-sticks,  and  a  variety  of  moulds  of  wood, 
carbon,  cast  iron,  gun-metal  and  plaster  of  Paris  (figs.  i6and  17). 
The  most  important  tool,  however,  is  the  bench  or  "  chair  " 
on  which  the  workman  sits,  which  serves  as  his  lathe.  He  sits 


FIG.  17. — Shaping  and  Measuring  Tools. 

d,  "  Sugar-tongs  "  tool  with  wooden  /,  Pincers, 

ends.  g,  Scissors. 

e,  e,  "  Sugar-tongs  "  tools  with  cutting  h.  Battledore. 

edges.  i,  Marking  compacs. 

between  two  rigid  parallel  arms,  projecting  forwards  and  back- 
wards and  sloping  slightly  from  back  to  front.  Across  the  arms 
he  balances  the  iron  rod  to  which  the  glass  bulb  adheres,  and 
rolling  it  backwards  and  forwards  with  the  fingers  of  his  left 
hand  fashions  the  glass  between  the  blades  of  his  sugar-tongs 
tool,  grasped  in  his  right  hand.  The  hollow  bulb  is  worked  into 
the  shape  it  is  intended  to  assume,  partly  by  blowing,  partly  by 
gravitation,  and  partly  by  the  workman's  tool.  If  the  blowing 
iron  is  held  vertically  with  the  bulb  uppermost  the  bulb  becomes 
flattened  and  shallow,  if  the  bulb  is  allowed  to  hang  downwards 
it  becomes  elongated  and  reduced  in  diameter,  and  if  the  end  of 
the  bulb  is  pierced  and  the  iron  is  held  horizontally  and  sharply 
trundled,  as  a  mop  is  trundled,  the  bulb  opens  out  into  a  flattened 
disk. 

During  the  process  of  manipulation,  whether  on  the  chair 


or  whilst  the  glass  is  being  reheated,  the  rod  must  be  constantly 
and  gently  trundled  to  prevent  the  collapse  of  the  bulb  or  vessel. 
Every  natural  development  of  the  spherical  form  can  be  obtained 
by  blowing  and  fashioning  by  hand.  A  non-spherical  form  can  only  • 
be  produced  by  blowing  the  hollow  bulb  into  a  mould  of  the 
required  shape.  Moulds  are  used  both  for  giving  shape  to  vessels 
and  also  for  impressing  patterns  on  their  suface.  Although 
spherical  forms  can  be  obtained  without  the  use  of  moulds, 
moulds  are  now  largely  used  for  even  the  simplest  kinds  of  table- 
ware in  order  to  economize  time  and  skilled  labour.  In  France, 
Germany  and  the  United  States  it  is  rare  to  find  a  piece  of  table- 
ware which  has  not  received  its  shape  in  a  mould.  The  old  and 
the  new  systems  of  making  a  wine-glass  illustrate  almost  all  the 
ordinary  processes  of  glass  working.  Sufficient  glass  is  first 
"  gathered  "  on  the  end  of  a  blowing  iron  to  form  the  bowl  of 
the  wine-glass.  The  mere  act  of  coiling  an  exact  weight  of 
molten  glass  round  the  end  of  a  rod  4  ft.  in  length  requires 
considerable  skill.  The  mass  of  glass  is  rolled  on  a  polished 
slab  of  iron,  the  "  marvor,"  to  solidify  it,  and  it  is  then  slightly 
hollowed  by  blowing.  Under  the  old  system  the  form  of  the  bowl 
is  gradually  developed  by  blowing  and  by  shaping  the  bulb  with 
the  sugar-tongs  tool.  The  leg  is  either  pulled  out  from  the 
substance  of  the  base  of  the  bowl,  or  from  a  small  lump  of  glass 
added  to  the  base.  The  foot  starts  as  a  small  independent  bulb 
on  a  separate  blowing  iron.  One  extremity  of  this  bulb  is  made 
to  adhere  to  the  end  of  the  leg,  and  the  other  extremity  is  broken 
away  from  its  blowing  iron.  The  fractured  end  is  heated,  and  by 
the  combined  action  of  heat  and  centrifugal  force  opens  out 
into  a  flat  foot.  The  bowl  is  now  severed  from  its  blowing  iron 
and  the  unfinished  wine-glass  is  supported  by  its  foot,  which  is 
attached  to  the  end  of  a  working  rod  by  a  metal  clip  or  by  a  seal 
of  glass.  The  fractured  edge  of  the  bowl  is  heated,  trimmed 
with  scissors  and  melted  so  as  to  be  perfectly  smooth  and  even, 
and  the  bowl  itself  receives  its  final  form  from  the  sugar-tongs 
tool. 

Under  the  new  system  the  bowl  is  fashioned  by  blowing  the 
slightly  hollowed  mass  of  glass  into  a  mould.  The  leg  is  formed 
and  a  small  lump  of  molten  glass  is  attached  to  its  extremity 
to  form  the  foot.  The  blowing  iron  is  constantly  trundkd,  and 
the  small  lump  of  glass  is  squeezed  and  flattened  into  the  shape 
of  a  foot,  either  between  two  slabs  of  wood  hinged  together, 
or  by  pressure  against  an  upright  board.  The  bowl  is  severed 
from  the  blowing  iron,  and  the  wine-glass  is  sent  to  the  an- 
nealing oven  with  a  bowl,  longer  than  that  of  the  finished  glass, 
and  with  a  rough  fractured  edge.  When  the  glass  is  cold  the 
surplus  is  removed  either  by  grinding,  or  by  applying  heat  to  a 
line  scratched  with  a  diamond  round  the  bowl.  The  fractured 
edge  is  smoothed  by  the  impact  of  a  gas  flame. 

In  the  manufacture  of  a  wine-glass  the  ductility  of  glass  is 
illustrated  on  a  small  scale  by  the  process  of  pulling  out  the  leg. 
It  is  more  strikingly  illustrated  in  the  manufacture  of  glass  cane 
and  tube.  Cane  is  produced  from  a  solid  mass  of  molten  glass, 
tube  from  a  mass  hollowed  by  blowing.  One  workman  holds 
the  blowing  iron  with  the  mass  of  glass  attached  to  it,  and 
another  fixes  an  iron  rod  by  means  of  a  seal  of  glass  to  the 
extremity  of  the  mass.  The  two  workmen  face  each  other 
and  walk  backwards.  The  diameter  of  the  cane  or  tube  is 
regulated  by  the  weight  of  glass  carried,  and  by  the  distance 
covered  by  the  two  workmen.  It  is  a  curious  property  of  viscous 
glass  that  whatever  form  is  given  to  the  mass  of  glass  before  it 
is  drawn  out  is  retained  by  the  finished  cane  or  tube,  however 
small  its  section  may  be.  Owing  to  this  property,  tubes  or 
canes  can  be  produced  with  a  square,  oblong,  oval  or  triangular 
section.  Exceedingly  fine  canes  of  milk-white  glass  play  an 
important  part  in  the  masterpieces  produced  by  the  Venetian 
glass-makers  of  the  i6th  century.  Vases  and  drinking  cups 
were  produced  of  extreme  lightness,  in  the  walls  of  which  were 
embedded  patterns  rivalling  lace-work  in  fineness  and  intricacy. 
The  canes  from  which  the  patterns  are  formed  are  either  simple 
or  complex.  The  latter  are  made  by  dipping  a  small  mass  of 
molten  colourless  glass  into  an  iron  cup  around  the  inner  wall 
of  which  short  lengths  of  white  cane  have  been  arranged  at 


GLASS 


regular  intervals.  The  canes  adhere  to  the  molten  glass,  and 
the  mass  is  first  twisted  and  then  drawn  out  into  fine  cane, 
which  contains  white  threads  arranged  in  endless  spirals.  The 
process  can  be  almost  indefinitely  repeated  and  canes  formed 
of  extreme  complexity.  A  vase  decorated  with  these  simple 
or  complex  canes  is  produced  by  embedding  short  lengths  of 
the  cane  on  the  surface  of  a  mass  of  molten  glass  and  blowing 
and  fashioning  the  mass  into  the  required  shape. 

Table-ware  and  Vases  .may  be  wholly  coloured  or  merely 
decorated  with  colour.  Touches  of  colour  may  be  added  to 
vessels  in  course  of  manufacture  by  means  of  seals  of  molten 
glass,  applied  like  sealing-wax;  or  by  causing  vessels  to  wrap 
themselves  round  with  threads  or  coils  of  coloured  glass.  By 
the  application  of  a  pointed  iron  hook,  while  the  glass  is  still 
ductile,  the  parallel  coils  can  be  distorted  into  bends,  loops  or 
zigzags.  The  surface  of  vessels  may  be  spangled  with  gold  or 
platinum  by  rolling  the  hot  glass  on  metallic  leaf,  or  iridescent, 
by  the  deposition  of  metallic  tin,  or  by  the  corrosion  caused 
by  the  chemical  action  of  acid  fumes.  Gilding  and  enamel 
decoration  are  applied  to  vessels  when  cold,  and  fixed  by 
heat. 

Cutting  and  engraving  are  mechanical  processes  for  producing 
decorative  effects  by  abrading  the  surface  of  the  glass  when  cold. 
The  abrasion  is  effected  by  pressing  the  glass  against  the  edge 
of  wheels,  or  disks,  of  hard  material  revolving  on  horizontal 
spindles.  The  spindles  of  cutting  wheels  are  driven  by  steam 
or  electric  power.  The  wheels  for  making  deep  cuts  are  made 
of  iron,  and  are  fed  with  sand  and  water.  The  wheels  range 
in  diameter  from  18  in.  to  3  in.  Wheels  of  carborundum  are 
also  used.  Wheels  of  fine  sandstone  fed  with  water  are  used 
for  making  slighter  cuts  and  for  smoothing  the  rough  surface 
left  by  the  iron  wheels.  Polishing  is  effected  by  wooden  wheels 
fed  with  wet  pumice-powder  and  rottenstone  and  by  brushes 
fed  with  moistened  putty-powder.  Patterns  are  produced  by 
combining  straight  and  curved  cuts.  Cutting  brings  out  the 
brilliancy  of  glass,  which  is  one  of  its  intrinsic  qualities.  At 
the  end  of  the  i8th  century  English  cut  glass  was  unrivalled 
for  design  and  beauty.  Gradually,  however,  the  process  was 
applied  without  restraint  and  the  products  lost  all  artistic 
quality.  At  the  present  time  cut  glass  is  steadily  regaining 
favour. 

Engraving  is  a  process  of  drawing  on  glass  by  means  of  small . 
copper  wheels.  The  wheels  range  from  £  in.  to  2  in.  in  diameter, 
and  are  fed  with  a  mixture  of  fine  emery  and  oil.  The  spindles 
to  which  the  wheels  are  attached  revolve  in  a  lathe  worked  by 
a  foot  treadle.  The  true  use  of  engraving  is  to  add  interest  to 
vessels  by  means  of  coats  of  arms,  crests,  monograms,  inscriptions 
and  graceful  outlines.  The  improper  use  of  engraving  is  to 
hide  defective  material.  There  are  two  other  processes  of 
marking  patterns  on  glass,  but  they  possess  no  artistic  value. 
In  the  "  sandblast  "  process  the  surface  of  the  glass  is  exposed 
to  a  stream  of  sharp  sand  driven  by  compressed  air.  The  parts 
of  the  surface  which  are  not  to  be  blasted  are  covered  by  adhesive 
paper.  In  the  "  etching  "  process  the  surface  of  the  glass  is 
etched  by  the  chemical  action  of  hydrofluoric  acid,  the  parts 
which  are  not  to  be  attacked  being  covered  with  a  resinous  paint. 
The  glass  is  first  dipped  in  this  protective  liquid,  and  when  the 
paint  has  set  the  pattern  is  scratched  through  it  with  a  sharp 
point.  The  glass  is  then  exposed  to  the  acid. 

Glass  stoppers  are  fitted  to  bottles  by  grinding.  The  mouth 
of  the  bottle  is  ground  by  a  revolving  iron  cone,  or  mandrel, 
fed  with  sand  and  water  and  driven  by  steam.  The  head  of  the 
stopper  is  fastened  in  a  chuck  and  the  peg  is  ground  to  the  size 
of  the  mouth  of  the  bottle  by  means  of  sand  and  water  pressed 
against  the  glass  by  bent  strips  of  thin  sheet  iron.  The  mouth 
of  the  bottle  is  then  pressed  by  hand  on  the  peg  of  the  stopper, 
and  the  mouth  and  peg  are  ground  together  with  a  medium  of 
very  fine  emery  and  water  until  an  air-tight  joint  is  secured. 

The  revival  in  recent  years  of  the  craft  of  glass-blowing  in 
England  must  be  attributed  to  William  Morris  and  T.G.  Jacksen, 
R.A.  (PI.  II.  figs,  ii  and  12).  They,  at  any  rate,  seem  to  have 
been  the  first  to  grasp  the  idea  that  a  wine-glass  is  not  merely 


a  bowl,  a  stem  and  a  foot,  but  that,  whilst  retaining  simplicity 
of  form,  it  may  nevertheless  possess  decorative  effect.  They, 
moreover,  suggested  the  introduction  for  the  manufacture  of 
table-glass  of  a  material  similar  in  texture  to  that  used  by  the 
Venetians,  both  colourless  and  tinted. 

The  colours  previously  available  for  English  table-glass  were 
ruby,  canary-yellow,  emerald-green,  dark  peacock-green,  light 
peacock-blue,  dark  purple-blue  and  a  dark  purple.  About 
1870  the  "  Jackson  "  table-glass  was  made  in  a  light,  dull  green 
glass.  The  dull  green  was  followed  successively  by  amber,  white 
opal,  blue  opal,  straw  opal,  sea-green,  horn  colour  and  various 
pale  tints  of  soda-lime  glass,  ranging  from  yellow  to  blue.  Ex- 
periments were  also  tried  with  a  violet-coloured  glass,  a  violet 
opal,  a  transparent  black  and  with  glasses  shading  from  red 
to  blue,  red  to  amber  and  blue  to  green. 

In  the  Paris  Exhibition  of  1900  surface  decoration  was  the 
prominent  feature  of  all  the  exhibits  of  table-glass.  The  carved 
or  "  cameo  "  glass,  introduced  by  Thomas  Webb  of  Stourbridge 
in  1878,  had  been  copied  with  varying  success  by  glass-makers 
of  all  nations.  In  many  specimens  there  were  three  or  more 
layers  of  differently  coloured  glass,  and  curious  effects  of  blended 
colour  were  obtained  by  cutting  through,  or  partly  through, 
the  different  layers.  The  surface  of  the  glass  had  usually  been 
treated  with  hydrofluoric  acid  so  as  to  have  a  satin-like  gloss. 
Some  vases  of  this  character,  shown  by  Emile  Galle  and  Daum 
Freres  of  Nancy,  possessed  considerable  beauty.  The  "  Favrile  " 
glass  of  Louis  C.  Tiffany  of  New  York  (PI.  II.  fig.  13)  owes  its 
effect  entirely  to  surface  colour  and  lustre.  The  happiest  speci- 
mens of  this  glass  almost  rival  the  wings  of  butterflies  in  the 
brilliancy  of  their  iridescent  colours.  The  vases  of  Karl  Koepping 
of  Berlin  are  so  fantastic  and  so  fragile  that  they  appear  to  be 
creations  of  the  lamp  rather  than  of  the  furnace.  An  illustration 
is  also  given  of  some  of  Powell's  "  Whitefriars"  glass,  shown  at 
the  St  Louis  Exhibition,  1904  (PI.  II.  fig.  14).  The  specimens 
of  "  pate  de  verre  "  exhibited  by  A.  L.  Dammouse,  of  Sevres, 
in  the  Musee  des  Arts  decoratifs  in  Paris,  and  at  the  London 
Franco-British  Exhibition  in  1908,  deserve  attention.  They 
have  a  semi-opaque  body  with  an  "egg-shell"  surface  and  are 
delicately  tinted  with  colour.  The  shapes  are  exceedingly 
simple,  but  some  of  the  pieces  possess  great  beauty.  The  material 
and  technique  suggest  a  close  relationship  to  porcelain. 

(B)  Tube. — The  process  of  making  tube  has  already  been 
described.  Although  the  bore  of  the  thermometer-tube  is 
exceedingly  small,  it  is  made  in  the  same  way  as  ordinary 
tube.  The  white  line  of  enamel,  which  is  seen  in  some  thermo- 
meters behind  the  bore,  is  introduced  before  the  mass  of  glass 
is  pulled  out.  A  flattened  cake  of  viscous  glass-enamel  is  welded 
on  to  one  side  of  the  mass  of  glass  after  it  has  been  hollowed  by 
blowing.  The  mass,  with  the  enamel  attached,  is  dipped  into 
the  crucible  and  covered  with  a  layer  of  transparent  glass; 
the  whole  mass  is  then  pulled  out  into  tube.  If  the  section  of 
the  finished  tube  is  to  be  a  triangle,  with  the  enamel  and  bore 
at  the  base,  the  molten  mass  is  pressed  into  a  V-shaped  mould 
before  it  is  pulled  out. 

In  modern  thermometry  instruments  of  extreme  accuracy 
are  required,  and  researches  have  been  made,  especially  in 
Germany  and  France,  to  ascertain  the  causes  of  variability 
in  mercurial  thermometers,  and  how  such  variability  is  to  be 
removed  or  reduced.  In  all  mercurial  thermometers  there 
is  a  slight  depression  of  the  ice-point  after  exposure  to  high 
temperatures;  it  is  also  not  .uncommon  to  find  that  the  readings 
of  two  thermometers  between  the  ice-  and  boiling-points 
fail  to  agree  at  any  intermediate  temperature,  although  the 
ice-  and  boiling-points  of  both  have  been  determined  together 
with  perfect  accuracy,  and  the  intervening  spaces  have  been 
equally  divided.  It  has  been  proved  that  these  variations 
depend  to  a  great  extent  on  the  chemical  nature  of  the  glass  of 
which  the  thermometer  is  made.  Special  glasses  have  therefore 
been  produced  by  Tonnelot  in  France  and  at  the  Jena  glass- 
works in  Germany  expressly  for  the  manufacture  of  thermometers 
for  accurate  physical  measurements;  the  analyses  of  these  are 
shown  in  Table  III. 


Depression 

SiO,. 

Na,O. 

K,O. 

CaO. 

Al2Os- 

MgO. 

BjOs. 

ZnO. 

of 
Ice-point. 

Tonnelot's  "  Verre  dur  " 

70-96 

12-02 

0-56 

14-40 

1-44 

0-40 

0-07 

Jena  glass  — 
XV  I.  -in 

67-5 

I4-O 

7-0 

2-5 

2-O 

7-0 

0-05 

59-1" 

72-0 

II-O 

5-° 

5-o 

I2-O 

O-02 

Since  the  discovery  of  the  Rontgen  rays,  experiments  have 
been  made  to  ascertain  the  effects  of  the  different  constituents 
of  glass  on  the  transparency  of  glass  to  X-rays.  The  oxides 
of  lead,  barium,  zinc  and  antimony  are  found  perceptibly  to 
retard  the  rays.  The  glass  tubes,  therefore,  from  which  the 
X-ray  bulbs  are  to  be  fashioned,  must  not  contain  any  of  these 
oxides,  whereas  the  glass  used  for  making  the  funnel-shaped 
shields,  which  direct  the  rays  upon  the  patient  and  at  the  same 
time  protect  the  hands  of  the  operator  from  the  action  of  the 
rays,  must  contain  a  large  proportion  of  lead. 

Among  the  many  developments  of  the  Jena  Works,  not  the 
least  important  are  the  glasses  made  in  the  form  of  a  tube, 
from  which  gas-chimneys,  gauge-glasses  and  chemical  apparatus 
are  fashioned,  specially  adapted  to  resist  sudden  changes  of 
temperature.  One  method  is  to  form  the  tube  of  two  layers 
of  glass,  one  being  considerably  more  expansible  than  the  other. 

(C)  Sheet  and  Crown-glass. — Sheet-glass  is  almost  wholly 
a  soda-lime-silicate  glass,  containing  only  small  quantities  of 
iron,  alumina  and  other  impurities.  The  raw  materials  used 
in  this  manufacture  are  chosen  with  considerable  care,  since  the 
requirements  as  to  the  colour  of  the  product  are  somewhat 
stringent.  The  materials  ordinarily  employed  are  the  following: 
sand,  of  good  quality,  uniform  in  grain  and  free  from  any 
notable  quantity  of  iron  oxide;  carbonate  of  lime,  generally 
in  the  form  of  a  pure  variety  of  powdered  limestone;  and 
sulphate  of  soda.  A  certain  proportion  of  soda  ash  (carbonate 
of  soda)  is  also  used  in  some  works  in  sheet-glass  mixtures,  while 
"  decolorizers  "  (substances  intended  to  remove  or  reduce  the 
colour  of  the  glass)  are  also  sometimes  added,  those  most  generally 
used  being  manganese  dioxide  and  arsenic.  Another  essential 
ingredient  of  all  glass  mixtures  containing  sulphate  of  soda 
is  some  form  of  carbon,  which  is  added  either  as  coke,  charcoal 
or  anthracite  coal;  the  carbon  so  introduced  aids  the  reducing 
substances  contained  in  the  atmosphere  of  the  furnace  in  bringing 
about  the  reduction  of  the  sulphate  of  soda  to  a  condition  in 
which  it  combines  more  readily  with  the  silicic  acid  of  the  sand. 
The  proportions  in  which  these  ingredients  are  mixed  vary 
according  to  the  exact  quality  of  glass  required  and  with  the 
form  and  temperature  of  the  melting  furnace  employed.  A 
good  quality  of  sheet-glass  should  show,  on  analysis,  a  composi- 
tion approximating  to  the  following:  silica  (SiOj),  72%; 
lime  (CaO),  13%;  soda  (Na2O),  14%;  and  iron  and  alumina 
(Fe2O3,Al2O3),  i%.  The  actual  composition,  however,  of  a 
mixture  that  will  give  a  glass  of  this  composition  cannot  be 
directly  calculated  from  these  figures  and  the  known  composition 
of  the  raw  materials,  owing  to  the  fact  that  considerable  losses, 
particularly  of  alkali,  occur  during  melting. 

The  fusion  of  sheet-glass  is  now  generally  carried  out  in 
gas-fired  regenerative  tank  furnaces.  The  glass  in  process 
of  fusion  is  contained  in  a  basin  or  tank  built  up  of  large  blocks 
of  fire-clay  and  is  heated  by  one  or  more  powerful  gas  flames 
which  enter  the  upper  part  of  the  furnace  chamber  through 
suitable  apertures  or  "  ports."  In  Europe  the  gas  burnt  in 
these  furnaces  is  derived  from  special  gas-producers,  while  in 
some  parts  of  America  natural  gas  is  utilized.  With  producer 
gas  it  is  necessary  to  pre-heat  both  the  gas  and  the  air  which 
is  supplied  for  its  combustion  by  passing  both  through  heated 
regenerators  (for  an  account  of  the  principles  of  the  regenerative 
furnace  see  article  FURNACE).  In  many  respects  the  glass- 
melting  tank  resembles  the  open-hearth  steel  furnace,  but  there 
are  certain  interesting  differences.  Thus  the  dimensions  of  the 
largest  glass  tanks  greatly  exceed  those  of  the  largest  steel 
furnaces;  glass  furnaces  containing  up  to  250  tons  of  molten 


GLASS  93 

TABLE  III.  glass  have  been  successfully  oper- 

ated, and  owing  to  the  relatively 
low  density  of  glass  this  involves 
very  large  dimensions.  The  tem- 
perature required  in  the  fusion  of 
sheet-glass  and  of  other  glasses 
produced  in  tank  furnaces  is  much 
lower  than  that  attained  in  steel 
furnaces,  and  it  is  consequently  pos- 
sible to  work  glass-tanks  continuously  for  many  months  together; 
on  the  other  hand,  glass  is  not  readily  freed  from  foreign  bodies 
that  may  become  admixed  with  it,  so  that  the  absence  of  detach- 
able particles  is  much  more  essential  in  glass  than  in  steel  melting. 
Finally,  fluid  steel  can  be  run  or  poured  off,  since  it  is  perfectly 
fluid,  while  glass  cannot  be  thus  treated,  but  is  withdrawn  from 
the  furnace  by  means  of  either  a  ladle  or  a  gatherer's  pipe, 
and  the  temperature  required  for  this  purpose  is  much  lower  than 
that  at  which  the  glass  is  melted.  In  a  sheet-glass  tank  there 
is  therefore  a  gradient  of  temperature  and  a  continuous  passage 
of  material  from  the  hotter  end  of  the  furnace  where  the  raw 
materials  are  introduced  to  the  cooler  end  where  the  glass, 
free  from  bubbles  and  raw  material,  is  withdrawn  by  the 
gatherers.  For  the  purpose  of  the  removal  of  the  glass,  the 
cooler  end  of  the  furnace  is  provided  with  a  number  of  suitable 
openings,  provided  with  movable  covers  or  shades.  The 
"  gatherer  "  approaches  one  of  these  openings,  removes  the 
shade  and  introduces  his  previously  heated  "  pipe."  This 
instrument  is  an  iron  tube,  some  5  ft.  long,  provided  at  one  end 
with  an  enlarged  butt  and  at  the  other  with  a  wooden  covering 
acting  as  handle  and  mouthpiece.  The  gatherer  dips  the  butt 
of  the  pipe  into  the  molten  "  metal  "  and  withdraws  upon  it  a 
small  ball  of  viscous  glass,  which  he  allows  to  cool  in  the  air 
while  constantly  rotating  it  so  as  to  keep  the  mass  as  nearly 
spherical  in  shape  as  he  can.  When  the  first  ball  or  "  gathering  " 
has  cooled  sufficiently,  the  whole  is  again  dipped  into  the  molten 
glass  and  a  further  layer  adheres  to  the  pipe-end,  thus  forming 
a  larger  ball.  This  process  is  repeated,  with  slight  modifications, 
until  the  gathering  is  of  the  proper  size  and  weight  to  yield  the 
sheet  which  is  to  be  blown.  When  this  is  the  case  the  gathering 
is  carried  to  a  block  or  half-open  mould  in  which  it  is  rolled 
and  blown  until  it  acquires,  roughly,  the  shape  of  a  hemisphere, 
the  flat  side  being  towards  the  pipe  and  the  convexity  away 
from  it;  the  diameter  of  this  hemisphere  is  so  regulated  as  to 
be  approximately  that  of  the  cylinder  which  is  next  to  be  formed 
of  the  viscous  mass.  From  the  hemispherical  shape  the  mass 
of  glass  is  now  gradually  blown  into  the  form  of  a  short  cylinder, 
and  then  the  pipe  with  the  adherent  mass  of  glass  is  handed 
over  to  the  blower  proper.  This  workman  stands  upon  a  platform 
in  front  of  special  furnaces  which,  from  their  shape  and  purpose, 
are  called  "  blowing  holes."  The  blower  repeatedly  heats 
the  lower  part  of  the  mass  of  glass  and  keeps  it  distended  by 
blowing  while  he  swings  it  over  a  deep  trench  which  is  provided 
next  to  his  working  platform.  In  this  way  the  glass  is  extended 
into  the  form  of  a  long  cylinder  closed  at  the  lower  end.  The 
size  of  cylinder  which  can  be  produced  in  this  way  depends 
chiefly  upon  the  dimensions  of  the  working  platform  and  the 
weight  which  a  man  is  able  to  handle  freely.  The  lower  end  of 
the  cylinder  is  opened,  in  the  case  of  small  and  thin  cylinders, 
by  the  blower  holding  his  thumb  over  the  mouthpiece  of  the 
pipe  and  simultaneously  warming  the  end  of  the  cylinder  in  the 
furnace,  the  expansion  of  the  imprisoned  air  and  the  softening 
of  the  glass  causing  the  end  of  the  cylinder  to  burst  open.  The 
blower  then  heats  the  end  of  the  cylinder  again  and  rapidly 
spins  the  pipe  about  its  axis;  the  centrifugal  effect  is  sufficient 
to  spread  the  soft  glass  at  the  end  to  a  radius  equal  to  that  of  the 
rest  of  the  cylinder.  In  the  case  of  large  and  thick  cylinders, 
however,  another  process  of  opening  the  ends  is  generally 
employed:  an  assistant  attaches  a  small  lump  of  hot  glass  to  the 
domed  end,  and  the  heat  of  this  added  glass  softens  the  cylinder 
sufficiently  to  enable  the  assistant  to  cut  the  end  open  with  a 
pair  of  shears;  subsequently  the  open  end  is  spun  out  to  the 
diameter  of  the  whole  as  described  above.  The  finished  cylinder 


94 


GLASS 


is  next  carried  to  a  rack  and  the  pipe  detached  from  it  by  applying 
a  cold  iron  to  the  neck  of  thick  hot  glass  which  connects  pipe-butt 
and  cylinder,  the  neck  cracking  at  the  touch.  Next,  the  rest 
of  the  connecting  neck  is  detached  from  the  cylinder  by  the 
application  of  a  heated  iron  to  the  chilled  glass.  This  leaves  a 
cylinder  with  roughly  parallel  ends;  these  ends  are  cut  by  the 
use  of  a  diamond  applied  internally  and  then  the  cylinder  is 
split  longitudinally  by  the  same  means.  The  split  cylinder  is 
passed  to  the  flattening  furnace,  where  it  is  exposed  to  a  red  heat, 
sufficient  to  soften  the  glass;  when  soft  the  cylinder  is  laid  upon 
a  smooth  flat  slab  and  flattened  down  upon  it  by  the  careful 
application  of  pressure  with  some  form  of  rubbing  implement, 
which  frequently  takes  the  form  of  a  block  of  charred  wood. 
When  flattened,  the  sheet  is  moved  away  from  the  working 
opening  of  the  furnace,  and  pushed  to  a  system  of  movable 
grids,  by  means  of  which  it  is  slowly  moved  along  a  tunnel, 
away  from  a  source  of  heat  nearly  equal  in  temperature  to  that 
of  the  flattening  chamber.  The  glass  thus  cools  gradually  as  it 
passes  down  the  tunnel  and  is  thereby  adequately  annealed. 

The  process  of  sheet-glass  manufacture  described  above  is 
typical  of  that  in  use  in  a  large  number  of  works,  but  many 
modifications  are  to  be  found,  particularly  in  the  furnaces  in 
which  the  glass  is  melted.  In  some  works,  the  older  method 
of  melting  the  glass  in  large  pots  or  crucibles  is  still  adhered  to, 
although  the  old-fashioned  coal-fired  furnaces  have  nearly 
everywhere  given  place  to  the  use  of  producer  gas  and  re- 
generators. For  the  production  of  coloured  sheet-glass,  however, 
the  employment  of  pot  furnaces  is  still  almost  universal,  prob- 
ably because  the  quantities  of  glass  required  of  any  one  tint 
are  insufficient  to  employ  even  a  small  tank  furnace  continuously; 
the  exact  control  of  the  colour  is  also  more  readily  attained  with 
the  smaller  bulk  of  glass  which  has  to  be  dealt  with  in  pots.  The 
general  nature  of  the  colouring  ingredients  employed,  and  the 
colour  effects  produced  by  them,  have  already  been  mentioned. 
In  coloured  sheet-glass,  two  distinct  kinds  are  to  be  recognized; 
in  one  kind  the  colouring  matter  is  contained  in  the  body  of  the 
glass  itself,  while  in  the  other  the  coloured  sheet  consists  of 
ordinary  white  glass  covered  upon  one  side  with  a  thin  coating  of 
intensely  coloured  glass.  The  latter  kind  is  known  as  "  flashed," 
and  is  universally  employed  in  the  case  of  colouring  matters 
whose  effect  is  so  intense  that  in  any  usual  thickness  of  glass 
they  would  cause  almost  entire  opacity.  Flashed  glass  is 
produced  by  taking  either  the  first  or  the  last  gathering  in  the 
production  of  a  cylinder  out  of  a  crucible  containing  the  coloured 
"  metal,"  the  other  gatherings  being  taken  out  of  ordinary 
white  sheet-glass.  It  is  important  that  the  thermal  expansion 
of  the  two  materials  which  are  thus  incorporated  should  be 
nearly  alike,  as  otherwise  warping  of  the  finished  sheet  is  liable 
to  result. 

Mechanical  Processes  for  the  Production  of  Sheet-glass. — The 
complicated  and  indirect  process  of  sheet-glass  manufacture 
has  led  to  numerous  inventions  aiming  at  a  direct  method  of 
production  by  more  or  less  mechanical  means.  All  the  earlier 
attempts  in  this  direction  failed  on  account  of  the  difficulty  of 
bringing  the  glass  to  the  machines  without  introducing  air-bells, 
which  are  always  formed  in  molten  glass  when  it  is  ladled  or 
poured  from  one  vessel  into  another.  More  modern  inventors 
have  therefore  adopted  the  plan  of  drawing  the  glass  direct  from 
the  furnace.  In  an  American  process  the  glass  is  drawn  direct 
from  the  molten  mass  in  the  tank  hi  a  cylindrical  form  by  means 
of  an  iron  ring  previously  immersed  in  the  glass,  and  is  kept 
in  shape  by  means  of  special  devices  for  cooling  it  rapidly  as  it 
leaves  the  molten  bath.  In  this  process,  however,  the  entire 
operations  of  splitting  and  flattening  are  retained,  and  although 
the  mechanical  process  is  said  to  be  in  successful  commercial 
operation,  it  has  not  as  yet  made  itself  felt  as  a  formidable  rival 
to  hand-made  sheet-glass.  An  effort  at  a  more  direct  mechanical 
process  is  embodied  in  the  inventions  of  Foucault  which  are  at 
present  being  developed  in  Germany  and  Belgium;  in  this 
process  the  glass  is  drawn  from  the  molten  bath  in  the  shape  of 
flat  sheets,  by  the  aid  of  a  bar  of  iron,  previously  immersed  in  the 
glass,  the  glass  receiving  its  form  by  being  drawn  through  slots 


in  large  fire-bricks,  and  being  kept  in  shape  by  rapid  chilling 
produced  by  the  action  of  air-blasts.  The  mechanical  operation 
is  quite  successful  for  thick  sheets,  but  it  is  not  as  yet  available 
for  the  thinner  sheets  required  for  the  ordinary  purposes  of 
sheet-glass,  since  with  these  excessive  breakage  occurs,  while 
the  sheets  generally  show  grooves  or  lines  derived  from  small 
irregularities  of  the  drawing  orifice.  For  the  production  of  thick 
sheets  which  are  subsequently  to  be  polished  the  process  may 
thus  claim  considerable  success,  but  it  is  not  as  yet  possible 
to  produce  satisfactory  sheet-glass  by  such  means. 

Crown-glass  has  at  the  present  day  almost  disappeared  from 
the  market,  and  it  has  been  superseded  by  sheet-glass,  the  more 
modern  processes  described  above  being  capable  of  producing 
much  larger  sheets  of  glass,  free  from  the  knob  or  "  bullion  " 
which  may  still  be  seen  in  old  crown-glass  windows.  For  a 
few  isolated  purposes,  however,  it  is  desirable  to  use  a  glass 
which  has  not  been  touched  upon  either  surface  and  thus  pre- 
serves the  lustre  of  its  "  fire  polish  "  undiminished;  this  can 
be  attained  in  crown-glass  but  not  in  sheet,  since  one  side  of 
the  latter  is  always  more  or  less  marked  by  the  rubber  used 
in  the  process  of  flattening.  One  of  the  few  uses  of  crown-glass 
of  this  kind  is  the  glass  slides  upon  which  microscopic  specimens 
are  mounted,  as  well  as  the  thin  glass  slips  with  which  such 
preparations  are  covered.  A  full  account  of  the  process  of 
blowing  crown-glass  will  be  found  in  all  older  books  and  articles 
on  the  subject,  so  that  it  need  only  be  mentioned  here  that  the 
glass,  instead  of  being  blown  into  a  cylinder,  is  blown  into  a 
flattened  sphere,  which  is  caused  to  burst  at  the  point  opposite 
the  pipe  and  is  then,  by  the  rapid  spinning  of  the  glass  in  front 
of  a  very  hot  furnace-opening,  caused  to  expand  into  a  flat  disk 
of  large  diameter.  This  only  requires  to  be  annealed  and  is  then 
ready  for  cutting  up,  but  the  lump  of  glass  by  which  the  original 
globe  was  attached  to  the  pipe  remains  as  the  bullion  in  the  centre 
of  the  disk  of  glass. 

Coloured  Glass forM osaic  Windows. — The  production  of  coloured 
glass  for  "  mosaic  "  windows  has  become  a  separate  branch 
of  glass-making.  Charles  Winston,  after  prolonged  study 
of  the  coloured  windows  of  the  I3th,  I4th  and  isth  centuries, 
convinced  himself  that  no  approach  to  the  colour  effect  of  these 
windows  could  be  made  with  glass  which  is  thin  and  even  in 
section,  homogeneous  in  texture,  and  made  and  coloured  with 
highly  refined  materials.  To  obtain  the  effect  it  was  necessary 
to  reproduce  as  far  as  possible  the  conditions  under  which  the 
early  craftsmen  worked,  and  to  create  scientifically  glass  which 
is  impure  in  colour,  irregular  in  section,  and  non-homogeneous 
in  texture.  The  glass  is  made  in  cylinders  and  in  "  crowns  "  or 
circles.  The  cylinders  measure  about  14  in.  in  length  by  8  in. 
in  diameter,  and  vary  in  thickness  from  5  to  f  in.  The  crowns 
are  about  15  in.  in  diameter,  and  vary  in  thickness  from  5  to  J  in., 
the  centre  being  the  thickest.  These  cylinders  and  crowns 
may- be  either  solid  colour  or  flashed.  Great  variety  of  colour 
may  be  obtained  by  flashing  one  colour  upon  another,  such  as 
blue  on  green,  and  ruby  on  blue,  green  or  yellow. 

E.  J.  Prior  has  introduced  an  ingenious  method  of  making 
small  oblong  and  square  sheets  of  coloured  glass,  which  are  thick 
in  the  centre  and  taper  towards  the  edges,  and  which  have  one 
surface  slightly  roughened  and  one  brilliantly  polished.  Glass  is 
blown  into  an  oblong  box-shaped  iron  mould,  about  1 2  in.  in  depth 
and  6  in.  across.  A  hollow  rectangular  bottle  is  formed,  the  base 
and  sides  of  which  are  converted  into  sheets.  The  outer  surface 
of  these  sheets  is  slightly  roughened  by  contact  with  the  iron 
mould. 

(D)  Bottles  and  mechanically  blown  Glass. — The  manufacture 
of  bottles  has  become  an  industry  of  vast  proportions.  The 
demand  constantly  increases,  and,  owing  to  constant  improve- 
ments in  material  in  the  moulds  and  in  the  methods  of  working, 
the  supply  fully  keeps  pace  with  the  demand.  Except  for 
making  bottles  of  special  colours,  gas-heated  tank  furnaces  are 
in  general  use.  Melting  and  working  are  carried  on  continuously. 
The  essential  qualities  of  a  bottle  are  strength  and  power  to  resist 
chemical  corrosion.  The  materials  are  selected  with  a  view  to 
secure  these  qualities.  For  the  highest  quality  of  bottles,  which 


GLASS 


95 


are  practically  colourless,  sand,  limestone  and  sulphate  and 
carbonate  of  soda  are  used.  The  following  is  a  typical  analysis 
of  high  quality  bottle-glass:  Si02,  69-15%;  Na2O,  13-00%; 
CaO,  15-00%;  Al2Oj,  2-20%;  and  Fe2O3,  0-65%.  For  the 
commoner  grades  of  dark-coloured  bottles  the  glass  mixture 
is  cheapened  by  substituting  common  salt  for  part  of  the  sulphate 
of  soda,  and  by  the  addition  of  felspar,  granite,  granulite, 
furnace  slag  and  other  substances  fusible  at  a  high  temperature. 
Bottle  moulds  are  made  of  cast  iron,  either  in  two  pieces,  hinged 
together  at  the  base  or  at  one  side,  or  in  three  pieces,  one 
forming  the  body  and  two  pieces  forming  the  neck. 

A  bottle  gang  or  "  shop  "  consists  of  five  persons.  The 
"  gatherer  "  gathers  the  glass  from  the  tank  furnace  on  the  end 
of  the  blowing-iron,  rolls  it  on  a  slab  of  iron  or  stone,  slightly 
expands  the  glass  by  blowing,  and  hands  the  blowing  iron  and 
glass  to  the  "  blower."  The  blower  places  the  glass  in  the  mould, 
closes  the  mould  by  pressing  a  lever  with  his  foot,  and  either 
blows  down  the  blowing  iron  or  attaches  it  to  a  tube  connected 
with  a  supply  of  compressed  air.  When  the  air  has  forced  the 
glass  to  take  the  form  of  the  mould,  the 
mould  is  opened  and  the  blower  gives  the 
blowing  iron  with  the  bottle  attached  to 
it  to  the  "wetter  off."  The  wetter  off 
touches  the  top  of  the  neck  of  the  bottle 
with  a  moistened  piece  of  iron  and  by 
tapping  the  blowing  iron  detaches  the 
bottle  and  drops  it  into  a  wooden  trough. 
He  then  grips  the  body  of  the  bottle  with 
a  four-pronged  clip,  attached  to  an  iron 
rod,  and  passes  it  to  the  "  bottle  maker." 
The  bottle  maker  heats  the  fractured  neck 
of  the  bottle,  binds  a  band  of  molten  glass 
round  the  end  of  it  and  simultaneously 
shapes  the  inside  and  the  outside  of  the 

FIG.  1 8.— Tool  for  neck  bv  Usin8  the  to()1  shown  in  fig.  18. 
moulding  the  inside  The  finished  bottle  is  taken  by  the  "  taker 
and  outside  of  the  in  "  to  the  annealing  furnace.  The  bottles 
neck  of  a  bottle.  are  stacked  in  iron  trucks,  which,  when 
A"  Co nical  piece  of  ^u^>  are  move(i  slowly  away  from  a  constant 
iron  to  form  the  source  of  heat. 

inside      of      the      The  processes  of  manipulation  which  have 
R    pec,?jl       ,     .         been  described,  although  in  practice  they 
'  of'irona,ThicPhTaen  afe  very  raPidly  Performed,   are  destined 
be  pressed  upon  to  be  replaced  by  the  automatic  working 
the    outside     of  of   a   machine.     Bottle-making    machines, 
the  neck  by  the  based    on    Ashley's    original    patent,    are 
H-  already  being  largely  used.     They  ensure 
absolute  regularity  in  form  and  save  both 
time   and   labour.      A    bottle-making   machine   combines   the 
process  of  pressing  with  a  plunger  with  that  of  blowing  by 
compressed  air.    The  neck  of  the  bottle  is  first  formed  by  the 
plunger,  and  the  body  is  subsequently  blown  by  compressed  air 
admitted  through  the  plunger.    A  sufficient  weight  of  molten 
glass  to  form  a  bottle  is  gathered  and  placed  in  a  funnel-shaped 
vessel  which  serves  as  a  measure,  and  gives  access  to  the  mould 
which  shapes  the  outside  of  the  neck.     A  plunger  is  forced 
upwards  into  the  glass  in  the  neck-mould  and  forms  the  neck. 
The  funnel  is  removed,  and  the  plunger,  neck-mould  and  the 
mass  of  molten  glass  attached  to  the  neck  are  inverted.    A  bottle 
mould  rises  and  envelops  the  mass  of  molten  glass.     Com- 
pressed air  admitted  through  the  plunger  forces  the  molten  glass 
to  take  the  form  of  the  bottle  mould  and  completes  the  bottle. 

In  the  case  of  the  machine  patented  by  Michael  Owens  of 
Toledo,  U.S.A.,  for  making  tumblers,  lamp-chimneys,  and  other 
goods  of  similar  character,  the  manual  operations  required  are 

(1)  gathering  the  molten  glass  at  the  end  of  a  blowing  iron; 

(2)  placing  the  blowing  iron  with  the  glass  attached  to  it  in  the 
machine;  (3)  removing  the  blowing  iron  with  the  blown  vessel 
attached.    Each  machine  (fig.  19)  consists  of  a  revolving  table 
carrying  five  or  six  moulds.    The  moulds  are  opened  and  closed 
by  cams  actuated  by  compressed  air.     As  soon  as  a  blowing 
iron  is  in  connexion  with  an  air  jet,  the  sections  of  the  mould 


close  upon  the  molten  glass,  and  the  compressed  air  forces  the 
glass  to  take  the  form  of  the  mould.  After  removal  from  the 
machine,  the  tumbler  is  severed  from  the  blowing  iron,  and 
its  fractured  edge  is  trimmed. 

Compressed  air  or  steam  is  also  used  for  fashioning  very  large 
vessels,  baths,  dishes  and  reservoirs  by  the  "  Sievert  "  process. 
Molten  glass  is  spread  upon  a  large  iron  plate  of  the  required 
shape  and  dimensions.  The  flattened  mass  of  glass  is  held  by 
a  rim,  connected  to  the  edge  of  the  plate.  The  plate  with  the  glass 
attached  to  it  is  inverted,  and  compressed  air  or  steam  is  intro- 
duced through  openings  in  the  plate.  The  mass  of  glass,  yielding 
to  its  own  weight  and  the  pressure  of  air  or  steam,  sinks  down- 
wards and  adapts  itself  to  any  mould  or  receptacle  beneath  it. 

The  processes  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  the  glass 
bulbs  for  incandescent  electric  lamps,  are  similar  to  the  old- 


FIG.  19. — Owens's  Glass-blowing  Machine.    g,g,g,  Blowing-irons. 

fashioned  processes  of  bottle  making.  The  mould  is  in  two 
pieces  hinged  together;  it  is  heated  and  the  inner  surface  is 
rubbed  over  with  finely  powdered  plumbago.  When  the  glass 
is  being  blown  in  the  mould  the  blowing  iron  is  twisted  round  and 
round  so  that  the  finished  bulb  may  not  be  marked  by  the  joint 
of  the  mould. 

III.  MECHANICALLY  PRESSED  GLASS.  (A)  Plate-glass. — The 
glass  popularly  known  as  "  plate-glass  "  is  made  by  casting  and 
rolling.  The  following  are  typical  analyses: 


SiO2. 

CaO. 

Na2O. 

A12OS. 

Fe,0,. 

French    . 
English  . 

71-80 
70-64 

I.V70 
16-27 

II-IO 

11-47 

1-26 
0-70 

0-14% 
0-49% 

The  raw  materials  for  the  production  of  plate-glass  are  chosen 
with  great  care  so  as  to  secure  a  product  as  free  from  colour 
as  possible,  since  the  relatively  great  thickness  of  the  sheets' 


96 


GLASS 


would  render  even  a  faint  tint  conspicuous.  The  substances 
employed  are  the  same  as  those  used  for  the  manufacture 
of  sheet-glass,  viz.  pure  sand,  a  pure  form  of  carbonate  of  lime, 
and  sulphate  of  soda,  with  the  addition  of  a  suitable  proportion 
of  carbon  in  the  form  of  coke,  charcoal  or  anthracite  coal. 

The  glass  to  be  used  for  the  production  of  plate  is  universally 
melted  in  pots  or  crucibles  and  not  in  open  tank  furnaces. 
When  the  glass  is  completely  melted  and  "  fine,"  i.e.  free  from 
bubbles,  it  is  allowed  to  cool  down  to  a  certain  extent  so  as 
to  become  viscous  or  pasty.  The  whole  pot,  with  its  contents 
of  viscous  glass,  is  then  removed  bodily  from  the  furnace  by 
means  of  huge  tongs  and  is  transported  to  a  crane,  which  grips 
the  pot,  raises  it,  and  ultimately  tips  it  over  so  as  to  pour  the 
glass  upon  the  slab  of  the  rolling-table.  In  most  modern  works 
the  greater  part  of  these  operations,  as  well  as  the  actual  rolling 
of  the  glass,  is  carried  out  by  mechanical  means,  steam  power 
and  subsequently  electrical  power  having  been  successfully 
applied  to  this  purpose;  the  handling  of  the  great  weights  of 
glass  required  for  the  largest  sheets  of  plate-glass  which  are 
produced  at  the  present  time  would,  indeed,  be  impossible 
without  the  aid  of  machinery.  The  casting-table  usually  con- 
sists of  a  perfectly  smooth  cast-iron  slab,  frequently  built  up 
of  a  number  of  pieces  carefully  fitted  together,  mounted  upon 
a  low,  massive  truck  running  upon  rails,  so  that  it  can  be  readily 
moved  to  any  desired  position  in  the  casting-room.  The  viscous 
mass  having  been  thrown  on  the  casting-table,  a  large  and 
heavy  roller  passes  over  it  and  spreads  it  out  into  a  sheet. 
Rollers  up  to  5  tons  in  weight  are  employed  and  are  now 
generally  driven  by  power.  The  width  of  the  sheet  or  plate 
is  regulated  by  moving  guides  which  are  placed  in  front  of 
the  roller  and  are  pushed  along  by  it,  while  its  thickness 
is  regulated  by  raising  or  lowering  the  roller  relatively  to 
the  surface  of  the  table.  Since  the  surfaces  produced  by 
rolling  have  subsequently  to  be  ground  and  polished,  it  is 
essential  that  the  glass  should  leave  the  rolling-table  with  as 
smooth  a  surface  as  possible,  so  that  great  care  is  required  in 
this  part  of  the  process.  It  is,  however,  equally  important 
that  the  glass  as  a  whole  should  be  flat  and  remains  flat  during 
the  process  of  gradual  cooling  (annealing),  otherwise  great 
thicknesses  of  glass  would  have  to  be  ground  away  at  the  pro- 
jecting parts  of  the  sheet.  The  annealing  process  is  therefore 
carried  out  in  a  manner  differing  essentially  from  that  in  use 
for  any  other  variety  of  flat  glass  and  nearly  resembling  that 
used  for  optical  glass.  The  rolled  sheet  is  left  on  the  casting- 
table  until  it  has  set  sufficiently  to  be  pushed  over  a  flat  iron 
plate  without  risk  of  distortion;  meanwhile  the  table  has  been 
placed  in  front  of  the  opening  of  one  of  the  large  annealing 
kilns  and  the  slab  of  glass  is  carefully  pushed  into  the  kiln.  The 
annealing  kilns  are  large  fire-brick  chambers  of  small  height 
but  with  sufficient  floor  area  to  accommodate  four  or  six  large 
slabs,  and  the  slabs  are  placed  directly  upon  the  floor  of  the 
kiln,  which  is  built  up  of  carefully  dressed  blocks  of  burnt  fire- 
clay resting  upon  a  bed  of  sand;  in  order  to  avoid  any  risk  of 
working  or  buckling  in  this  floor  these  blocks  are  set  slightly 
apart  and  thus  have  room  to  expand  freely  when  heated.  Before 
the  glass  is  introduced,  the  annealing  kiln  is  heated  to  dull  red 
by  means  of  coal  fires  in  grates  which  are  provided  at  the  ends 
or  sides  of  the  kiln  for  that  purpose.  When  the  floor  of  the  kiln 
has  been  covered  with  slabs  of  glass  the  opening  is  carefully 
built  up  and  luted  with  fire-bricks  and  fire-clay,  and  the  whole 
is  then  allowed  to  cool.  In  the  walls  and  floor  of  the  kiln  special 
cooling  channels  or  air  passages  are  provided  and  by  gradually 
opening  these  to  atmospheric  circulation  the  cooling  is  con- 
siderably accelerated  while  a  very  even  distribution  of  tempera- 
ture is  obtained;  by  these  means  even  the  largest  slabs  can  now 
be  cooled  in  three  or  four  days  and  are  nevertheless  sufficiently 
well  annealed  to  be  free  from  any  serious  internal  stress.  From 
the  annealing  kiln  the  slabs  of  glass  are  transported  to  the 
cutting  room,  where  they  are  cut  square,  defective  slabs  being 
rejected  or  cut  down  to  smaller  sizes.  The  glass  at  this  stage 
has  a  comparatively  dull  surface  and  this  must  now  be  replaced 
by  that  brilliant  and  perfectly  polished  surface  which  is  the  chief 


beauty  of  this  variety  of  glass.  The  first  step  in  this  process  is 
that  of  grinding  the  surface  down  until  all  projections  are 
removed  and  a  close  approximation  to  a  perfect  plane  is  obtained. 
This  operation,  like  all  the  subsequent  steps  in  the  polishing 
of  the  glass,  is  carried  out  by  powerful  machinery.  By  means 
of  a  rotating  table  either  two  surfaces  of  glass,  or  one  surface 
of  glass  and  one  of  cast  iron,  are  rubbed  together  with  the  inter- 
position of  a  powerful  abrasive  such  as  sand,  emery  or  carbor- 
undum. The  machinery  by  which  this  is  done  has  undergone 
numerous  modifications  and  improvements,  all  tending  to  pro- 
duce more  perfectly  plane  glass,  to  reduce  the  risk  of  breakage, 
and  to  lessen  the  expenditure  of  time  and  power  required  per 
sq.  yd.  of  glass  to  be  worked.  It  is  impossible  to  describe 
this  machinery  within  the  limits  of  this  article,  but  it  is  notable 
that  the  principal  difficulties  to  be  overcome  arise  from  the 
necessity  of  providing  the  glass  with  a  perfectly  continuous 
and  unyielding  support  to  which  it  can  be  firmly  attached  but 
from  which  it  can  be  detached  without  undue  difficulty. 

When  the  surface  of  the  glass  has  been  ground  down  to  a  plane, 
the  surface  itself  is  still  "  grey,"  i.e.  deeply  pitted  with  the  marks 
of  the  abrasive  used  in  grinding  it  down;  these  marks  are  re- 
moved by  the  process  of  smoothing,  in  which  the  surface  is 
successively  ground  with  abrasives  of  gradually  increasing  fine- 
ness, leaving  ultimately  a  very  smooth  and  very  minutely  pitted 
"  grey  "  surface.  This  smooth  surface  is  then  brilliantly  polished 
by  the  aid  of  friction  with  a  rubbing  tool  covered  with  a  soft 
substance  like  leather  or  felt  and  fed  with  a  polishing  material, 
such  as  rouge.  A  few  strokes  of  such  a  rubber  are  sufficient  to 
produce  a  decidedly  "  polished "  appearance,  but  prolonged 
rubbing  under  considerable  pressure  and  the  use  of  a  polishing 
paste  of  a  proper  consistency  are  required  in  order  to  remove  the 
last  trace  of  pitting  from  the  surface.  This  entire  process  must, 
obviously,  be  applied  in  turn  to  each  of  the  two  surfaces  of  the 
slab  of  glass.  Plate-glass  is  manufactured  in  this  manner  in 
thicknesses  varying  from  &  in.  to  i  in.  or  even  more,  while 
single  sheets  are  produced  measuring  more  than  27  ft.  by  13  ft. 

"  Rolled  Plate  "  and  figured  "  Rolled  Plate."— Glass  for  this 
purpose,  with  perhaps  the  exception  of  the  best  white  and 
tinted  varieties,  is  now  universally  produced  in  tank-furnaces, 
similar  in  a  general  way  to  those  used  for  sheet-glass,  except  that 
the  furnaces  used  for  "  rolled  plate  "  glass  of  the  roughest  kinds 
do  not  need  such  minutely  careful  attention  and  do  not  work  at 
so  high  a  temperature.  The  composition  of  these  glasses  is  very 
similar  to  that  of  sheet-glass,  but  for  the  ordinary  kinds  of  rolled 
plate  much  less  scrupulous  selection  need  be  made  in  the  choice 
of  raw  materials,  especially  of  the  sand. 

The  glass  is  taken  from  the  furnace  in  large  iron  ladles,  which 
are  carried  upon  slings  running  on  overhead  rails;  from  the 
ladle  the  glass  is  thrown  upon  the  cast-iron  bed  of  a  rolling-table, 
and  is  rolled  into  sheet  by  an  iron  roller,  the  process  being 
similar  to  that  employed  in  making  plate-glass,  but  on  a  smaller 
scale.  The  sheet  thus  rolled  is  roughly  trimmed  while  hot  and 
soft,  so  as  to  remove  those  portions  of  glass  which  have  been 
spoilt  by  immediate  contact  with  the  ladle,  and  the  sheet,  still 
soft,  is  pushed  into  the  open  mouth  of  an  annealing  tunnel  or 
"  lear,"  down  which  it  is  carried  by  a  system  of  moving  grids. 

The  surface  of  the  glass  produced  in  this  way  may  be  modified 
by  altering  the  surface  of  the  rolling-table;  if  the  table  has  a 
smooth  surface,  the  glass  will  also  be  more  or  less  smooth,  but 
much  dented  and  buckled  on  the  surface  and  far  from  having  the 
smooth  face  of  blown  sheet.  If  the  table  has  a  pattern  engraved 
upon  it  the  glass  will  show  the  same  pattern  in  relief,  the  most 
frequent  pattern  of  the  kind  being  either  small  parallel  ridges  or 
larger  ribs  crossing  to  form  a  lozenge  pattern. 

The  more  elaborate  patterns  found  on  what  is  known  as 
"  figure  rolled  plate  "  are  produced  in  a  somewhat  different 
manner;  the  glass  used  for  this  purpose  is  considerably  whiter 
in  colour  and  much  softer  than  ordinary  rolled  plate,  and  instead 
of  being  rolled  out  on  a  table  it  is  produced  by  rolling  between 
two  moving  rollers  from  which  the  sheet  issues.  The  pattern  is 
impressed  upon  the  soft  sheet  by  a  printing  roller  which  is 
brought  down  upon  the  glass  as  it  leaves  the  main  rolls.  This 


GLASS 


97 


glass  shows  a  pattern  in  high  relief  and  gives  a  very  brilliant 
effect. 

The  various  varieties  of  rolled  plate-glass  are  now  produced 
for  some  purposes  with  a  reinforcement  of  wire  netting  which  is 
embedded  in  the  mass  of  the  glass.  The  wire  gives  the  glass 
great  advantages  in  the  event  of  fracture  from  a  blow  or  from 
fire,  but  owing  to  the  difference  in  thermal  expansion  between 
wire  and  glass,  there  is  a  strong  tendency  for  such  "  wired  glass  " 
to  crack  spontaneously. 

Patent  Plate-glass. — This  term  is  applied  to  blown  sheet-glass, 
whose  surface  has  been  rendered  plane  and  brilliant  by  a  process 
of  grinding  and  polishing.  The  name  "  patent  plate  "  arose  from 
the  fact  that  certain  patented  devices  originated  by  James 
Chance  of  Birmingham  first  made  it  possible  to  polish  com- 
paratively thin  glass  in  this  way. 

(B)  Pressed  Glass. — The  technical  difference  between  pressed 
and  moulded  glass  is  that  moulded  glass-ware  has  taken  its  form 
from  a  mould  under  the  pressure  of  a  workman's  breath,  or  of  com- 
pressed air,  whereas  pressed  glass-ware  has  taken  its  form  from  a 
mould  under  the  pressure  of  a  plunger.  Moulded  glass  receives 

the  form  of  the 
mould  on  its  in- 
terior as  well  as  on 
its  exterior  surface. 
In  pressed  glass  the 
exterior  surface  is 
modelled  by  the 
mould,  whilst  the 
interior  surface  is 
modelled  by  the 
plunger  (fig.  20). 

The  process  of 
pressing  glass  was 
introduced  to  meet 
the  demand  for 
cheap  table-ware. 
Pressed  glass, 
which  isnecessarily 
thick  and  service- 
able, has  well  met 
this  legitimate  de- 
mand, but  it  also 
caters  for  the  less 
legitimate  taste  for 
cheap  imitations  of 
hand-cut  glass.  An 
American  writer 
has  expressed  his 
satisfaction  that 
the  day-labourer  can  now  have  on  his  table  at  a  nominal  price 
glass  dishes  of  elaborate  design,  which  only  an  expert  can  dis- 
tinguish from  hand-cut  crystal.  The  deceptive  effect  is  in  some 
cases  heightened  by  cutting  over  and  polishing  by  hand  the 
pressed  surface. 

The  glass  for  pressed  ware  must  be  colourless,  and,  when 
molten,  must  be  sufficiently  fluid  to  adapt  itself  readily  to  the 
intricacies  of  the  moulds,  which  are  often  exceedingly  complex. 
The  materials  employed  are  sand,  sulphate  of  soda,  nitrate  of 
soda,  calcspar  and  in  some  works  carbonate  of  barium.  The 
following  is  an  analysis  of  a  specimen  of  English  pressed  glass ; 
Si02,  70-68%;  Na20,  18-38%;  CaO,  5-45%;  BaO,  4-17%; 
A12O3,  0-33%;  and  Fe2O3,o-2o%.  Tanks  and  pots  are  both  used 
for  melting  the  glass.  The  moulds  are  made  of  cast  iron.  They 
are  usually  in  two  main  pieces,  a  base  and  an  upper  part  or  collar 
of  hinged  sections.  The  plunger1  is  generally  worked  by  a  hand 
lever.  The  operator  knows  by  touch  when  the  plunger  has 
pressed  the  glass  far  enough  to  exactly  fill  the  mould.  Although 
the  moulds  are  heated,  the  surface  of  the  glass  is  always  slightly 
ruffled  by  contact  with  the  mould.  For  this  reason  every  piece 
of  pressed  glass-ware,  as  soon  as  it  is  liberated  from  the  mould, 
is  exposed  to  a  sharp  heat  in  a  small  subsidiary  furnace  in  order 
that  the  ruffled  surface  may  be  removed  by  melting.  These 
xii.  4 


FIG.  20. — Modern  American  Glass-Press. 


small  furnaces  are  usually  heated  by  an  oil  spray  under  the 
pressure  of  steam  or  compressed  air. 

See  Antonio  Neri,  Ars  vilraria,  cum  Merritti  observationibus 
(Amsterdam,  1668)  (Neri's  work  was  translated  into  English  by  C. 
Merritt  in  1662,  and  the  translation,  The  Art  of  making  Glass,  was 
privately  reprinted  by  Sir  T.  Phillipps,  Bart.,  in  1826);  Johann 
Kunkel,  Vollsldndige  Glasmacher-Kunst  (Nuremberg,  1785);  Apsley 
Pellatt,  Curiosities  of  Glass-making  (London,  1840);  A.  Sauzay, 
Marvels  of  Glass-making  (from  the  French)  (London,  1869);  G. 
Bontempis,  Guide  du  verrier  (Paris,  1868);  E.  Peligot,  Le  Verre, 
son  histoire,  sa  fabrication  (Paris,  1878);  W.  Stein,  "  Die  Glasfabri- 
kation,"  in  Bolley's  Technologie,  vol.  iii.  (Brunswick,  1862);  H.  E. 
Benrath,  Die  Glasfabrikation  (Brunswick,  1875);  J.  Falck  and  L. 
Lobmeyr,  Die  Glasindustrie  (Vienna,  1875);  D.  H.  Hovestadt, 
Jenaer  Glas  (Jena,  1900;  Eng.  trans,  by  J.  D.  and  A.  Everett, 
Macmillan,  1907);  J.  Henrivaux,  Le  Verre  et  le  cristal  (Paris,  1887), 
and  La  Verrerie  au  XX'  siecle  (1903);  Chance,  Harris  and  Powell, 
Principles  of  Glass-making  (London,  1883);  Moritz  V.  Rohr,  Theorie 
und  Geschichte  der  photographischen  Objektive  (Berlin,  1899);  C.  E. 
Guillaume,  TraM  pratique  de  la  thermomttrie  de  precision  (Paris, 
1889);  Louis  Coffignal,  Verres  et  £maux  (Paris,  1900);  R.  Gerner, 
Die  Glasfabrikation  (Vienna,  1897) ;  C.  Wetzel,  Herstellung  grosser 
Glaskorper  (Vienna,  lopo) ;  C.  Wetzel,  Bearbeitung  von  Glaskorpern 
(Vienna,  1901);  E.  Tscheuschner,  Handbuch  der  Glasfabrikation 
(Weimar,  1885);  R.  Dralle,  Anlage  und  Betrieb  der  Glasfabriken 
(Leipzig,  1886);  G.  Tammann,  Kristallisieren  und  Schmelzen 
(Leipzig,  1903);  W.  Rosenhain,  "  Some  Properties  of  Glass,"  Trans. 
Optical  Society  (London,  1903),  "  Possible  Directions  of  Progress  in 
Optical  Glass,"  Proc.  Optical  Convention  (London,  1905)  and  Glass 
Manufacture  (London,  1908);  Introduction  to  section  I,  Catalogue 
of  the  Optical  Convention  (London,  1905).  '  (H.  J.  P.;  W.  RN.). 

History  of  Glass  Manufacture. 

The  great  similarity  in  form,  technique  and  decoration  of 
the  earliest  known  specimens  of  glass-ware  suggests  that  the 
craft  of  glass-making  originated  from  a  single  centre.  It  has 
been  generally  assumed  that  Egypt  was  the  birthplace  of  the 
glass  industry.  It  is  true  that  many  conditions  existed  in  Egypt 
favourable  to  the  development  of  the  craft.  The  Nile  supplied  a 
waterway  for  the  conveyance  of  fuel  and  for  the  distribution 
of  the  finished  wares.  Materials  were  available  providing  the 
essential  ingredients  of  glass.  The  Egyptian  potteries  afforded 
experience  in  dealing  with  vitreous  glazes  and  vitreous  colours, 
and  from  Egyptian  alabaster-quarries  veined  vessels  were 
wrought,  which  may  well  have  suggested  the  decorative  arrange- 
ment of  zigzag  lines  (see  Plate  I.  figs,  i,  2,  4  d)  so  frequently 
found  on  early  specimens  of  glass-ware.  In  Egypt,  however, 
no  traces  have  at  present  been  found  of  the  industry  in  a  rudi- 
mentary condition,  and  the  vases  which  have  been  classified 
as  "  primitive  "  bear  witness  to  an  elaboration  of  technique 
far  in  advance  of  the  experimental  period.  The  earliest  specimens 
of  glass-ware  which  can  be  definitely  claimed  as  Egyptian 
productions,  and  the  glass  manufactory  discovered  by  Dr 
Flinders-  Petrie  at  Tell  el  Amarna,  belong  to  the  period  of  the 
XVIIIth  dynasty.  The  comparative  lateness  of  this  period 
makes  it  difficult  to  account  for  the  wall  painting  at  Beni  Hasan, 
which  accurately  represents  the  process  of  glass-blowing,  and 
which  is  attributed  to  the  period  of  the  Xlth  dynasty.  Dr 
Petrie  surmounts  the  difficulty  by  saying  that  the  process 
depicted  is  not  glass-blowing,  but  some  metallurgical  process 
in  which  reeds  were  used  tipped  with  lumps  of  clay.  It  is  possible 
that  the  picture  does  not  represent  Egyptian  glass-blowers,  but 
is  a  traveller's  record  of  the  process  of  glass-blowing  seen  in  some 
foreign  or  subject  country.  The  scarcity  of  specimens  of  early 
glass-ware  actually  found  in  Egypt,  and  the  advanced  technique 
of  those  which  have  been  found,  lead  to  the  supposition  that 
glass- making  was  exotic  and  not  a  native  industry.  The 
tradition,  recorded  by  Pliny  (Nat.  Hist,  xxxvi.  65),  assigns  the 
discovery  of  glass  to  Syria,  and  the  geographical  position  of  that 
country,  its  forests  as  a  source  of  fuel,  and  its  deposits  of  sand 
add  probability  to  the  tradition.  The  story  that  Phoenician 
merchants  found  a  glass-like  substance  under  their  cooking  pots, 
which  had  been  supported  on'  blocks  of  natron,  need  not  be 
discarded  as  pure  fiction.  The  fire  may  well  have  caused  the 
natron,  an  impure  form  of  carbonate  of  soda,  to  combine  with 
the  surrounding  sand  to  form  silicate  of  soda,  which,  although 
not  a  permanent  glass,  is  sufficiently  glass-like  to  suggest  the 


98 


GLASS 


possibility  of  creating  a  permanent  transparent  material.  More- 
over, Pliny  (xxxvi.  66)  actually  records  the  discovery  which 
effected  the  conversion  of  deliquescent  silicate  of  soda  into 
permanent  glass.  The  words  are  "  Coeptus  addi  magnes  lapis." 
There  have  been  many  conjectures  as  to  the  meaning  of  the 
words  "  magnes  lapis."  The  material  has  been  considered  by 
some  to  be  magnetic  iron  ore  and  by  others  oxide  of  manganese. 
Oxides  of  iron  and  manganese  can  only  be  used  in  glass  manu- 
facture in  comparatively  small  quantities  for  the  purpose  of 
colouring  or  neutralizing  colour  in  glass,  and  their  introduction 
would  not  be  a  matter  of  sufficient  importance  to  be  specially 
recorded.  In  chapter  25  of  the  same  book  Pliny  describes  five 
varieties  of  "  magnes  lapis."  One  of  these  he  says  is  found  in 
magnesia,  is  white  in  colour,  does  not  attract  iron  and  is  like 
pumice  stone.  This  variety  must  certainly  be  magnesian 
limestone.  Magnesian  limestone  mixed  and  fused  with  sand  and 
an  alkaline  carbonate  produces  a  permanent  glass.  The  scene 
of  the  discovery  of  glass  is  placed  by  Pliny  on  the  banks  of  the 
little  river  Belus,  under  the  heights  of  Mount  Carmel,  where 
sand  suitable  for  glass-making  exists  and  wood  for  fuel  is 
abundant.  In  this  neighbourhood  fragments  and  lumps  of  glass 
are  still  constantly  being  dug  up,  and  analysis  proves  that  the 
glass  contains  a  considerable  proportion  of  magnesia.  The 
district  was  a  glass-making  centre  in  Roman  times,  and  it  is 
probable  that  the  Romans  inherited  and  perfected  an  indigenous 
industry  of  remote  antiquity.  Pliny  has  so  accurately  recorded 
the  stages  by  which  a  permanent  glass  was  developed  that  it 
may  be  assumed  that  he  had  good  reason  for  claiming  for  Syria 
the  discovery  of  glass.  Between  Egypt  and  Syria  there  was 
frequent  intercourse  both  of  conquest  and  commerce.  It  was 
customary  for  the  victor  after  a  successful  raid  to  carry  off 
skilled  artisans  as  captives.  It  is  recorded  that  Tahutmes  III. 
sent  Syrian  artisans  to  Egypt.  Glass-blowers  may  have  been 
amongst  their  captive  craftsmen,  and  may  have  started  the 
industry  in  Egypt.  The  claims  of  Syria  and  Egypt  are  at  the 
present  time  so  equally  balanced  that  it  is  advisable  to  regard 
the  question  of  the  birthplace  of  the  glass  industry  as  one  that 
has  still  to  be  settled. 

The  "primitive"  vessels  which  have  been  found  in  Egypt  are 
small  in  size  and  consist  of  columnar  stibium  jars,  flattened 
bottles  and  amphorae,  all  decorated  with  zigzag  lines,  tiny 
wide-mouthed  vases  on  feet  and  minute  jugs.  The  vessels 
of  later  date  which  have  been  found  in  considerable  quantities, 
principally  in  the  coast  towns  and  islands  of  the  Mediterranean, 
are  amphorae  and  alabastra,  also  decorated  with  zigzag  lines. 
The  amphorae  (Plate  I.  figs,  i  and  2)  terminate  with  a  point, 
or  with  an  unfinished  extension  from  the  terminal  point,  or  with 
a  knob.  The  alabastra  have  short  necks,  are  slightly  wider  at 
the  base  than  at  the  shoulder  and  have  rounded  bases.  Dr 
Petrie  has  called  attention  to  two  technical  peculiarities  to  be 
found  in  almost  every  specimen  of  early  glass-ware.  The 
inner  surface  is  roughened  (Plate  I.  fig.  4  c),  and  has  particles 
of  sand  adhering  to  it,  as  if  the  vessel  had  been  filled  with  sand 
and  subjected  to  heat,  and  the  inside  of  the  neck  has  the  impres- 
sion of  a  metal  rod  (Plate  I.  fig.  4  a),  which  appears  to  have 
been  extracted  from  the  neck  with  difficulty.  From  this  evidence 
Dr  Petrie  has  assumed  that  the  vessels  were  not  blown,  but 
formed  upon  a  core  of  sandy  paste,  modelled  upon  a  copper  rod, 
the  rod  being  the  core  of  the  neck  (see  EGYPT:  Art  and 
Archaeology).  The  evidence,  however,  hardly  warrants  the 
abandonment  of  the  simple  process  of  blowing  in  favour  of  a 
process  which  is  so  difficult  that  it  may  almost  be  said  to  be 
impossible,  and  of  which  there  is  no  record  or  tradition  except 
in  connexion  with  the  manufacture  of  small  beads.  The  technical 
difficulties  to  which  Dr  Petrie  has  called  attention  seem  to 
admit  of  a  somewhat  less  heroic  explanation.  A  modern  glass- 
blower,  when  making  an  amphora-shaped  vase,  finishes  the  base 
first,  fixes  an  iron  rod  to  the  finished  base  with  a  seal  of  glass, 
severs  the  vase  from  the  blowing  iron,  and  finishes  the  mouth, 
whilst  he  holds  the  vase  by  the  iron  attached  to  its  base.  The 
"  primitive  "  glass-worker  reversed  this  process.  Having  blown 
the  body  of  the  vase,  he  finished  the  mouth  and  neck  part,  and 


fixed  a  small,  probably  hollow,  copper  rod  inside  the  finished 
neck  by  pressing  the  neck  upon  the  rod  (Plate  I.  fig.  4  b).  Having 
severed  the  body  of  the  vase  from  the  blowing  iron,  he  heated 
and  closed  the  fractured  base,  whilst  holding  the  vase  by  means 
of  the  rod  fixed  in  the  neck.  Nearly  every  specimen  shows 
traces  of  the  pressure  of  a  tool  on  the  outside  of  the  neck,  as 
well  as  signs  of  the  base  having  been  closed  by  melting.  Occasion- 
ally a  knob  or  excrescence,  formed  by  the  residue  of  the  glass 
beyond  the  point  at  which  the  base  has  been  pinched  together, 
remains  as  a  silent  witness  of  the  process. 

If  glass-blowing  had  been  a  perfectly  new  invention  of  Graeco- 
Egyptian  or  Roman  times,  some  specimens  illustrating  the 
transition  from  core-moulding  to  blowing  must  have  been 
discovered.  The  absence  of  traces  of  the  transition  strengthens 
the  supposition  that  the  revolution  in  technique  merely  consisted 
in  the  discovery  that  it  was  more  convenient  to  finish  the  base 
of  a  vessel  before  its  mouth,  and  such  a  revolution  would  leave 
no  trace  behind.  The  roughened  inner  surface  and  the  adhering 
particles  of  sand  may  also  be  accounted  for.  The  vessels, 
especially  those  in  which  many  differently  coloured  glasses  were 
incorporated,  required  prolonged  annealing.  It  is  probable  that 
when  the  metal  rod  was  withdrawn  the  vessel  was  filled  with 
sand,  to  prevent  collapse,  and  buried  in  heated  ashes  to  anneal. 
The  greater  the  heat  of  the  ashes  the  more  would  the  sand 
adhere  to  and  impress  the  inner  surface  of  the  vessels.  The 
decoration  of  zigzag  lines  was  probably  applied  directly  after 
the  body  of  the  vase  had  been  blown.  Threads  of  coloured 
molten  glass  were  spirally  coiled  round  the  body,  and,  whilst 
still  viscid,  were  dragged  into  zigzags  with  a  metal  hook. 

Egypt. — The  glass  industry  flourished  in  Egypt  in  Graeco- 
Egyptian  and  Roman  times.  All  kinds  of  vessels  were  blown, 
both  with  and  without  moulds,  and  both  moulding  and  cutting 
were  used  as  methods  of  decoration.  The  great  variety  of  these 
vessels  is  well  shown  in  the  illustrated  catalogue  of  Graeco- 
Egyptian  glass  in  the  Cairo  museum,  edited  by  C.  C.  Edgar. 

Another  species  of  glass  manufacture  in  which  the  Egyptians 
would  appear  to  have  been  peculiarly  skilled  is  the  so-called 
mosaic  glass,  formed  by  the  union  of  rods  of  various  colours 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  form  a  pattern;  the  rod  so  formed  was 
then  reheated  and  drawn  out  until  reduced  to  a  very  small  size, 
i  sq.  in.  or  less,  and  divided  into  tablets  by  being  cut  trans- 
versely, each  of  these  tablets  presenting  the  pattern  traversing 
its  substance  and  visible  on  each  face.  This  process  was  no 
doubt  first  practised  in  Egypt,  and  is  never  seen  in  such  per- 
fection as  in  objects  of  a  decidedly  Egyptian  character.  Very 
beautiful  pieces  of  ornament  of  an  architectural  character  are 
met  with,  which  probably  once  served  as  decorations  of  caskets 
or  other  small  pieces  of  furniture  or  of  trinkets;  also  tragic 
masks,  human  faces  and  birds.  Some  of  the  last-named  are 
represented  with  such  truth  of  colouring  and  delicacy  of  detail 
that  even  the  separate  feathers  of  the  wings  and  tail  are  well 
distinguished,  although,  as  in  an  example  in  the  British  Museum, 
a  human-headed  hawk,  the  piece  which  contains  the  figure 
may  not  exceed  f  in.  in  its  largest  dimension.  Works  of  this 
description  probably  belong  to  the  period  when  Egypt  passed 
under  Roman  domination,  as  similar  objects,  though  of  inferior 
delicacy,  appear  to  have  been  made  in  Rome. 

Assyria. — Early  Assyrian  glass  is  represented  in  the  British 
Museum  by  a  vase  of  transparent  greenish  glass  found  in  the 
north-west  palace  of  Nineveh.  On  one  side  of  this  a  lion  is 
engraved,  and  also  a  line  of  cuneiform  characters,  in  which 
is  the  name  of  Sargon,  king  of  Assyria,  722  B.C.  Fragments  of 
coloured  glasses  were  also  found  there,  but  our  materials  are 
too  scanty  to  enable  us  to  form  any  decided  opinion  as  to  the 
degree  of  perfection  to  which  the  art  was  carried  in  Assyria.  Many 
of  the  specimens  discovered  by  Layard  at  Nineveh  have  all  the 
appearance  of  being  Roman,  and  were  no  doubt  derived  from 
the  Roman  colony,  Niniva  Claudiopolis,  which  occupied  the  same 
site. 

Roman  Glass. — In  the  first  centuries  of  our  era  the  art  of  glass- 
making  was  developed  at  Rome  and  other  cities  under  Roman 
rule  in  a  most  remarkable  manner,  and  it  reached  a  point  of 


GLASS 


PLATE  I. 


XII.  98. 


FIG.  7 


FIG.  9. 


PLATE  II. 

r 


GLASS 


I 


" 

I 


FIG.    ii.— TABLE  GLASS. 
DESIGNED  BY  T.  G.  JACKSON  IN  1870. 


FIG.   12.— TABLE  GLASS 
DESIGNED  FOR  WM.  MORRIS  ABOUT  1872  BY  PHILIP  WEBB. 


FIG.    13— TIFFANY  GLASS. 


FIG.    14.— WHITEFRIARS  GLASS,   1906. 


GLASS 


99 


excellence  which  in  some  respects  has  never  been  excelled  or 
even  perhaps  equalled.  It  may  appear  a  somewhat  exaggerated 
assertion  that  glass  was  used  for  more  purposes,  and  in  one  sense 
more  extensively,  by  the  Romans  of  the  imperial  period  than 
by  ourselves  in  the  present  day;  but  it  is  one  which  can  be 
borne  out  by  evidence.  It  is  true  that  the  use  of  glass  for  windows 
was  only  gradually  extending  itself  at  the  time  when  Roman 
civilization  sank  under  the  torrent  of  German  and  Hunnish 
barbarism,  and  that  its  employment  for  optical  instruments 
was  only  known  in  a  rudimentary  stage;  but  for  domestic 
purposes,  for  architectural  decoration  and  for  personal  orna- 
ments glass  was  unquestionably  much  more  used  than  at  the 
present  day.  It  must  be  remembered  that  the  Romans  possessed 
no  fine  procelain  decorated  with  lively  colours  and  a  beautiful 
glaze;  Samian  ware  was  the  most  decorative  kind  of  pottery 
which  was  then  made.  Coloured  and  ornamental  glass  held 
among  them  much  the  same  place  for  table  services,  vessels  for 
toilet  use  and  the  like,  as  that  held  among  us  by  porcelain. 
Pliny  (Nat.  Hist,  xxxvi.  26,  67)  tells  us  that  for  drinking  vessels 
it  was  even  preferred  to  gold  and  silver. 

Glass  was  largely  used  in  pavements,  and  in  thin  plates  as  a 
coating  for  walls.  It  was  used  in  windows,  though  by  no  means 
exclusively,  mica,  alabaster  and  shells  having  been  also  em- 
ployed. Glass,  in  flat  pieces,  such  as  might  be  employed  for 
windows,  has  been  found  in  the  ruins  of  Roman  houses,  both  in 
England  and  in  Italy,  and  in  the  house  of  the  faun  at  Pompeii 
a  small  pane  in  a  bronze  frame  remains.  Most  of  the  pieces 
have  evidently  been  made  by  casting,  but  the  discovery  of 
fragments  of  sheet-glass  at  Silchester  proves  that  the  process 
of  making  sheet-glass  was  known  to  the  Romans.  When  the 
window  openings  were  large,  as  was  the  ease  in  basilicas  and 
other  public  buildings,  and  even  in  houses,  the  pieces  of  glass 
were,  doubtless,  fixed  in  pierced  slabs  of  marble  or  in  frames 
of  wood  or  bronze.  The  Roman  glass-blowers  were  masters 
of  all  the  ordinary  methods  of  manipulation  and  decoration. 
Their  craftsmanship  is  proved  by  the  large  cinerary  urns,  by 
the  jugs  with  wide,  deeply  ribbed,  scientifically  fixed  handles, 
and  by  vessels  and  vases  as  elegant  in  form  and  light  in  weight 
as  any  that  have  been  since  produced  at  Murano.  Their  moulds, 
both  for  blowing  hollow  vessels  and  for  pressing  ornaments,  were 
as  perfect  for  the  purposes  for  which  they  were  intended  as  those 
of  the  present  time.  Their  decorative  cutting  (Plate  I.  figs.  5 
and  6),  which  took  the  form  of  simple,  incised  lines,  or  bands  of 
shallow  oval  or  hexagonal  hollows,  was  more  suited  to  the 
material  than  the  deep  prismatic  cutting  of  comparatively 
recent  times. 

The  Romans  had  at  their  command,  of  transparent  colours, 
blue,  green,  purple  or  amethystine,  amber,  brown  and  rose; 
of  opaque  colours,  white,  black,  red,  blue,  yellow,  green  and 
orange.  There  are  many  shades  of  transparent  blue  and  of 
opaque  blue,  yellow  and  green.  In  any  large  collection  of 
fragments  it  would  be  easy  to  find  eight  or  ten  varieties  of  opaque 
blue,  ranging  from  lapis  lazuli  to  turquoise  or  to  lavender  and 
six  or  seven  of  opaque  green.  Of  red  the  varieties  are  fewer; 
the  finest  is  a  crimson  red  of  very  beautiful  tint,  and  there  are 
various  gradations  from  this  to  a  dull  brick  red.  One  variety 
forms  the  ground  of  a  very  good  imitation  of  porphyry;  and 
there  is  a  dull  semi-transparent  red  which,  when  light  is  passed 
through  it,  appears  to  be  of  a  dull  green  hue.  With  these 
colours  the  Roman  vitrarius  worked,  either  using  them  singly 
or  blending  them  in  almost  every  conceivable  combination, 
sometimes,  it  must  be  owned,  with  a  rather  gaudy  and  inharmo- 
nious effect. 

The  glasses  to  which  the  Venetians  gave  the  name  "  mille 
fiori  "  were  formed  by  arranging  side  by  side  sections  of  glass 
cane,  the  canes  themselves  being  built  up  of  differently  coloured 
rods  of  glass,  and  binding  them  together  by  heat.  A  vast 
quantity  of  small  cups  and  paterae  were  made  by  this  means  in 
patterns  which  bear  considerable  resemblance  to  the  surfaces  of 
madrepores.  In  these  every  colour  and  every  shade  of  colour 
seem  to  have  been  tried  in  great  variety  of  combination  with 
effects  more  or  less  pleasing,  but  transparent  violet  or  purple 


appears  to  have  been  the  most  common  ground  colour.  Although 
most  of  the  vessels  of  this  mille  fiori  glass  were  small,  some  were 
made  as  large  as  20  in.  in  diameter.  Imitations  of  natural 
stones  were  made  by  stirring  together  in  a  crucible  glasses  of 
different  colours,  or  by  incorporating  fragments  of  differently 
coloured  glasses  into  a  mass  of  molten  glass  by  rolling.  One 
variety  is  that  in  which  transparent  brown  glass  is  so  mixed 
with  opaque  white  and  blue  as  to  resemble  onyx.  This  was 
sometimes  done  with  great  success,  and  very  perfect  imitations 
of  the  natural  stone  were  produced.  Sometimes  purple  glass 
is  used  in  place  of  brown,  probably  with  the  design  of  imitating 
the  precious  murrhine.  Imitations  of  porphyry,  of  serpentine, 
and  of  granite  are  also  met  with,  but  these  were  used  chiefly 
in  pavements,  and  for  the  decoration  of  walls,  for  which  pur- 
poses the  onyx-glass  was  likewise  employed. 

The  famous  cameo  glass  was  formed  by  covering  a  mass  of 
molten  glass  with  one  or  more  coatings  of  a  differently  coloured 
glass.  The  usual  process  was  to  gather,  first,  a  small  quantity 
of  opaque  white  glass;  to  coat  this  with  a  thick  layer  of  trans- 
lucent blue  glass;  and,  finally,  to  cover  the  blue  glass  with  a 
coating  of  the  white  glass.  The  outer  coat  was  then  removed 
from  that  portion  which  was  to  constitute  the  ground,  leaving 
the  white  for  the  figures,  foliage  or  other  ornamentation;  these 
were  then  sculptured  by  means  of  the  gem-engraver's  tools. 
Pliny  no  doubt  means  to  refer  to  this  when  he  says  (Nat.  Hist. 
xxxvi.  26.  66),  "  aliud  argenti  modo  caelatur,"  contrasting  it 
with  the  process  of  cutting  glass  by  the  help  of  a  wheel,  to  which 
he  refers  in  the  words  immediately  preceding,  "  aliud  torno 
teritur." 

The  Portland  or  Barberini  vase  in  the  British  Museum  is  the 
finest  example  of  this  kind  of  work  which  has  come  down  to  us, 
and  was  entire  until  it  was  broken  into  some  hundred  pieces  by  a 
madman.  The  pieces,  however,  were  joined  together  by  Mr 
Doubleday  with  extraordinary  skill,  and  the  beauty  of  design 
and  execution  may  still  be  appreciated.  The  two  other  most 
remarkable  examples  of  this  cameo  glass  are  an  amphora  at 
Naples  and  the  Auldjo  vase.  The  amphora  measures  i  ft.  J  in. 
in  height,  i  ft.  75  in.  in  circumference;  it  is  shaped  like  the 
earthern  amphoras  with  a  foot  far  too  small  to  support  it,  and 
must  no  doubt  have  had  a  stand,  probably  of  gold;  the  greater 
part  is  covered  with  a  most  exquisite  design  of  garlands  and 
vines,  and  two  groups  of  boys  gathering  and  treading  grapes 
and  playing  on  various  instruments  of  music;  below  these 
is  a  line  of  sheep  and  goats  in  varied  attitudes.  The  ground 
is  blue  and  the  figures  white.  It  was  found  in  a  house  in  the 
Street  of  Tombs  at  Pompeii  in  the  year  1839,  and  is  now  in  the 
Royal  Museum  at  Naples.  It  is  well  engraved  in  Richardson's 
Studies  of  Ornamental  Design.  The  Auldjo  vase,  in  the  British 
Museum,  is  an  oenochoe  about  9  in.  high;  the  ornament  consists 
mainly  of  a  most  beautiful  band  of  foliage,  chiefly  of  the  vine, 
with  bunches  of  grapes;  the  ground  is  blue  and  the  ornaments 
white;  it  was  found  at  Pompeii  in  the  house  of  the  faun.  It  also 
has  been  engraved  by  Richardson.  The  same  process  was  used 
in  producing  large  tablets,  employed,  no  doubt,  for  various 
decorative  purposes.  In  the  South  Kensington  Museum  is  a 
fragment  of  such  a  tablet  or  slab;  the  figure,  a  portion  of  which 
remains,  could  not  have  been  less  than  about  14  in.  high.  The 
ground  of  these  cameo  glasses  is  most  commonly  transparent 
blue,  but  sometimes  opaque  blue,  purple  or  dark  brown.  The 
superimposed  layer,  which  is  sculptured,  is  generally  opaque 
white.  A  very  few  specimens  have  been  met  with  in  which 
several  colours  are  employed. 

At  a  long  interval  after  these  beautiful  objects  come  those 
vessels  which  were  ornamented  either  by  means  of  coarse  threads 
trailed  over  their  surfaces  and  forming  rude  patterns,  or  by 
coloured  enamels  merely  placed  on  them  in  lumps;  and  these, 
doubtless,  were  cheap  and  common  wares.  But  a  modification 
of  the  first-named  process  was  in  use  in  the  4th  and  succeeding 
centuries,  showing  great  ingenuity  and  manual  dexterity, — that, 
namely,  in  which  the  added  portions  of  glass  are  united  to  the 
body  of  the  cup,  not  throughout,  but  only  at  points,  and  then 
shaped  either  by  the  wheel  or  by  the  hand  (Plate  I.  fig.  3).  The 


100 


GLASS 


attached  portions  form  in  some  instances  inscriptions,  as  on  a 
cup  found  at  Strassburg,  which  bears  the  name  of  the  emperor 
Maximian  (A.D.  286-310),  on  another  in  the  Vereinigte  Samm- 
lungen  at  Munich,  and  on  a  third  in  the  Trivulzi  collection  at 
Milan,  where  the  cup  is  white,  the  inscription  green  and  the 
network  blue.  Probably,  however,  the  finest  example  is  a 
situla,  loj  in.  high  by  8  in.  wide  at  the  top  and  4  in.  at  the 
bottom,  preserved  in  the  treasury  of  St  Mark  at  Venice.  This 
is  of  glass  of  a  greenish  hue;  on  the  upper  part  is  represented, 
in  relief,  the  chase  of  a  lion  by  two  men  on  horseback  accompanied 
by  dogs;  the  costume  appears  to  be  Byzantine  rather  than 
Roman,  and  the  style  is  very  bad.  The  figures  are  very  much 
undercut.  The  lower  part  has  four  rows  of  circles  united  to  the 
vessel  at  those  points  alone  where  the  circles  touch  each  other. 
All  the  other  examples  have  the  lower  portion  covered  in  like 
manner  by  a  network  of  circles  standing  nearly  a  quarter  of  an 
inch  from  the  body  of  the  cup.  An  example  connected  with  the 
specimens  just  described  is  the  cup  belonging  to  Baron  Lionel 
de  Rothschild;  though  externally  of  an  opaque  greenish  colour, 
it  is  by  transmitted  light  of  a  deep  red.  On  the  outside,  in  very 
high  relief,  are  figures  of  Bacchus  with  vines  and  panthers, 
some  portions  being  hollow  from  within,  others  fixed  on  the 
exterior.  The  changeability  of  colour  may  remind  us  of  the 
"  calices  versicolores  "  which  Hadrian  sent  to  Servianus. 

So  few  examples  of  glass  vessels  of  this  period  which  have 
been  painted  in  enamel  have  come  down  to  us  that  it  has  been 
questioned  whether  that  art  was  then  practised;  but  several 
specimens  have  been  described  which  can  leave  no  doubt  on  the 
point;  decisive  examples  are  afforded  by  two  cups  found  at 
Vaspelev,  in  Denmark,  engravings  of  which  are  published  in 
the  Annaler  for  Nordisk  Oldkyndeghed  for  1861,  p.  305.  These 
are  small  cups,  3  in.  and  2$  in.  high,  3!  in.  and  3  in.  wide,  with 
feet  and  straight  sides;  on  the  larger  are  a  lion  and  a  bull,  on 
the  smaller  two  birds  with  grapes,  and  on  each  some  smaller 
ornaments.  On  the  latter  are  the  letters  DVB.  R.  The  colours 
are  vitrified  and  slightly  in  relief;  green,  blue  and  brown  may 
be  distinguished.  They  are  found  with  Roman  bronze  vessels 
and  other  articles. 

The  art  of  glass-making  no  doubt,  like  all  other  art,  deteriorated 
during  the  decline  of  the  Roman  empire,  but  it  is  probable  that 
it  continued  to  be  practised,  though  with  constantly  decreasing 
skill,  not  only  in  Rome  but  in  the  provinces.  Roman  technique 
was  to  be  found  in  Byzantium  and  Alexandria,  in  Syria,  in  Spain, 
in  Germany,  France  and  Britain. 

Early  Christian  and  Byzantine  Glass. — The  process  of  embed- 
ding gold  and  silver  leaf  between  two  layers  of  glass  originated 
as  early  as  the  ist  century,  probably  in  Alexandria.  The  process 
consisted  in  spreading  the  leaf  on  a  thin  film  of  blown  glass  and 
pressing  molten  glass  on  to  the  leaf  so  that  the  molten  glass 
cohered  with  the  film  of  glass  through  the  pores  of  the  metallic 
leaf.  If  before  this  application  of  the  molten  glass  the  metallic 
leaf,  whilst  resting  on  the  thin  film  of  blown  glass,  was  etched 
with  a  sharp  point,  patterns,  emblems,  inscriptions  and  pictures 
could  be  embedded  and  rendered  permanent  by  the  double 
coating  of  glass.  The  plaques  thus  formed  could  be  reheated 
and  fashioned  into  the  bases  of  bowls  and  drinking  vessels. 
In  this  way  the  so-called  "  fondi  d'oro  "  of  the  catacombs  in  Rome 
were  made.  They  are  the  broken  bases  of  drinking  vessels 
containing  inscriptions,  emblems,  domestic  scenes  and  portraits 
etched  in  gold  leaf.  Very  few  have  any  reference  to  Christianity, 
but  they  served  as  indestructible  marks  for  indicating  the  position 
of  interments  in  the  catacombs.  The  fondi  d'oro  suggested  the 
manufacture  of  plaques  of  gold  which  could  be  broken  up  into 
tesserae  for  use  in  mosaics. 

Some  of  the  Roman  artificers  in  glass  no  doubt  migrated 
to  Constantinople,  and  it  is  certain  that  the  art  was  practised 
there  to  a  very  great  extent  during  the  middle  ages.  One 
of  the  gates  near  the  port  took  its  name  from  the  adjacent 
glass  houses.  St  Sofia  when  erected  by  Justinian  had  vaults 
covered  with  mosaics  and  immense  windows  filled  with  plates 
of  glass  fitted  into  pierced  marble  frames;  some  of  the  plates, 
7  to  8  in.  wide  and  9  to  10  in.  high,  not  blown  but  cast,  which 


are  in  the  windows  may  possibly  date  from  the  building  of  the 
church.  It  is  also  recorded  that  pierced  silver  disks  were  sus- 
pended by  chains  and  supported  glass  lamps  "  wrought  by  fire." 
Glass  for  mosaics  was  also  largely  made  and  exported.  In  the 
8th  century,  when  peace  was  made  between  the  caliph  Walid 
and  the  emperor  Justinian  II.,  the  former  stipulated  for  a 
quantity  of  mosaic  for  the  decoration  of  the  new  mosque  at 
Damascus,  and  in  the  loth  century  the  materials  for  the  decora- 
tion of  the  niche  of  the  kibla  at  Cordova  were  furnished  by 
Romanus  II.  In  the  nth  century  Desiderius,  abbot  of  Monte 
Casino,  sent  to  Constantinople  for  workers  in  mosaic. 

We  have  in  the  work  of  the  monk  Theophilus,  Diversarum 
arlium  schedida,  and  in  the  probably  earlier  work  of  Eraclius, 
about  the  nth  century,  instructions  as  to  the  art  of  glass-making 
in  general,  and  also  as  to  the  production  of  coloured  and  enamelled 
vessels,  which  these  writers  speak  of  as  being  practised  by  the 
Greeks.  The  only  entire  enamelled  vessel  which  we  can  con- 
fidently attribute  to  Byzantine  art  is  a  small  vase  preserved  in 
the  treasury  of  St  Mark's  at  Venice.  This  is  decorated  with 
circles  of  rosettes  of  blue,  green  and  red  enamel,  each  surrounded 
by  lines  of  gold;  within  the  circles  are  little  figures  evidently 
suggested  by  antique  originals,  and  precisely  like  similar  figures 
found  on  carved  ivory  boxes  of  Byzantine  origin  dating  from 
the  nth  or  I2th  century.  Two  inscriptions  in  Cufic  characters 
surround  the  vase,  but  they,  it  would  seem,  are  merely  ornamental 
and  destitute  of  meaning.  The  presence  of  these  inscriptions 
may  perhaps  lead  to  the  inference  that  the  vase  was  made 
in  Sicily,  but  by  Byzantine  workmen.  The  double-handled 
blue-glass  vase  in  the  British  Museum,dating  from  the  sth  century, 
is  probably  a  chalice,  as  it  closely  resembles  the  chalices  re- 
presented on  early  Christian  monuments. 

Of  uncoloured  glass  brought  from  Constantinople  several 
examples  exist  in  the  treasury  of  St  Mark's  at  Venice,  part  of 
the  plunder  of  the  imperial  city  when  taken  by  the  crusaders 
in  1204.  The  glass  in  all  is  greenish,  very  thick,  with  many 
bubbles,  and  has  been  cut  with  the  wheel;  in  some  instances 
circles  and  cones,  and  in  one  the  outlines  of  the  figure  of  a 
leopard,  have  been  left  standing  up,  the  rest  of  the  surface  having 
been  laboriously  cut  away.  The  intention  would  seem  to  have 
been  to  imitate  vessels  of  rock  crystal.  The  so-called  "  Hedwig  " 
glasses  may  also  have  originated  in  Constantinople.  These  are 
small  cups  deeply  and  rudely  cut  with  conventional  representa- 
tions of  eagles,  lions  and  griffins.  Only  nine  specimens  are  known. 
The  specimen  in  the  Rijks  Museum  at  Amsterdam  has  an  eagle 
and  two  lions.  The  specimen  in  the  Germanic  Museum  at 
Nuremberg  has  two  lions  and  a  griffin. 

Saracenic  Glass. — The  Saracenic  invasion  of  Syria  and  Egypt 
did  not  destroy  the  industry  of  glass-making.  The  craft  survived 
and  flourished  under  the  Saracenic  regime  in  Alexandria,  Cairo, 
Tripoli,  Tyre,  Aleppo  and  Damascus.  In  inventories  of  the  I4th 
century  both  in  England  and  in  France  mention  may  frequently 
be  found  of  glass  vessels  of  the  manufacture  of  Damascus.  A 
writer  in  the  early  part  of  the  isth  century  states  that  "  glass- 
making  is  an  important  industry  at  Haleb  (Aleppo)."  Edward 
Dillon  (Glass,  1902)  has  very  properly  laid  stress  on  the  import- 
ance of  the  enamelled  Saracenic  glass  of  the  i3th,  I4th  and 
1 5th  centuries,  pointing  out  that,  whereas  the  Romans  and 
Byzantine  Greeks  made  some  crude  and  ineffectual  experiments 
in  enamelling,  it  was  under  Saracenic  influence  that  the  processes 
of  enamelling  and  gilding  on  glass  vessels  were  perfected.  An 
analysis  of  the  glass  of  a  Cairene  mosque  lamp  shows  that  it  is  a 
soda-lime  glass  and  contains  as  much  as  4  %  of  magnesia.  This 
large  proportion  of  magnesia  undoubtedly  supplied  the  stability 
required  to  withstand  the  process  of  enamelling.  The  enamelled 
Saracenic  glasses  take  the  form  of  flasks,  vases,  goblets,  beakers 
and  mosque  lamps.  The  enamelled  decoration  on  the  lamps  is 
restricted  to  lettering,  scrolls  and  conventional  foliage;  on  other 
objects  figure-subjects  of  all  descriptions  are  freely  used.  C.  H. 
Read  has  pointed  out  a  curious  feature  in  the  construction  of  the 
enamelled  beakers.  The  base  is  double  but  the  inner  lining  has 
an  opening  in  the  centre.  Dillon  has  suggested  that  this  central 
recess  may  have  served  to  support  a  wick.  It  is  possible,  however, 


GLASS 


101 


that  it  served  no  useful  purpose,  but  that  the  construction 
is  a  survival  from  the  manufacture  of  vessels  with  fondi  d'oro. 
The  bases  containing  the  embedded  gold  leaf  must  have  been 
welded  to  the  vessels  to  which  they  belonged,  in  the  same  way 
as  the  bases  are  welded  to  the  Saracenic  beakers.  The  enamelling 
process  was  probably  introduced  in  the  early  part  of  the  ijth 
century;  most  of  the  enamelled  mosque  lamps  belong  to  the 
I4th  century. 

Venetian  Glass. — Whether  refugees  from  Padua,  Aquileia 
or  other  Italian  cities  carried  the  art  to  the  lagoons  of  Venice 
in  the  sth  century,  or  whether  it  was  learnt  from  the  Greeks 
of  Constantinople  at  a  much  later  date,  has  been  a  disputed 
question.  It  would  appear  not  improbable  that  the  former 
was  the  case,  for  it  must  be  remembered  that  articles  formed 
of  glass  were  in  the  later  days  of  Roman  civilization  in  constant 
daily  use,  and  that  the  making  of  glass  was  carried  on,  not  as 
now  in  large  establishments,  but  by  artisans  working  on  a  small 
scale.  It  seems  certain  that  some  knowledge  of  the  art  was 
preserved  in  France,  in  Germany  and  in  Spain,  and  it  seems 
improbable  that  it  should  have  been  lost  in  that  archipelago, 
where  the  traditions  of  ancient  civilization  must  have  been 
better  preserved  than  in  almost  any  other  place.  In  523 
Cassiodorus  writes  of  the  "  innumerosa  navigia "  belonging 
to  Venice,  and  where  trade  is  active  there  is  always  a  probability 
that  manufactures  will  flourish.  However  this  may  be,  the 
earliest  positive  evidence  of  the  existence  at  Venice  of  a  worker 
in  glass  would  seem  to  be  the  mention  of  Petrus  Flavianus, 
phiolarius,  in  the  ducale  of  Vitale  Falier  in  the  year  1090.  In 
1224  twenty-nine  persons  are  mentioned  as  friolari  (i.e.  phiolari), 
and  in  the  same  century  "  mariegole,"  or  codes  of  trade  regula- 
tions, were  drawn  up  (Monografia  della  vetraria  Veneziana  e 
Muranese,  p.  219).  The  manufacture  had  then  no  doubt  attained 
considerable  proportions:  in  1268  the  glass- workers  became 
an  incorporated  body;  in  their  processions  they  exhibited 
decanters,  scent-bottles  and  the  like;  in  1279  they  made,  among 
other  things,  weights  and  measures.  In  the  latter  partcOf  this 
century  the  glass-houses  were  almost  entirely  transferred  to 
Murano.  Thenceforward  the  manufacture  continued  to  grow 
in  importance;  glass  vessels  were  made  in  large  quantities, 
as  well  as  glass  for  windows.  The  earliest  example  which  has 
as  yet  been  described — a  cup  of  blue  glass,  enamelled  and  gilt — 
is,  however,  not  earlier  than  about  1440.  A  good  many  other 
examples  have  been  preserved  which  may  be  assigned  to  the 
same  century:  the  earlier  of  these  bear  a  resemblance  in  form 
to  the  vessels  of  silver  made  in  the  west  of  Europe;  in  the  later 
an  imitation  of  classical  forms  becomes  apparent.  Enamel 
and  gilding  were  freely  used,  in  imitation  no  doubt  of  the  much- 
admired  vessels  brought  from  Damascus.  Dillon  has  pointed 
out  that  the  process  of  enamelling  had  probably  been  derived 
from  Syria,  with  which  country  Venice  had  considerable  com- 
mercial intercourse.  Many  of  the  ornamental  processes  which 
we  admire  in  Venetian  glass  were  already  in  use  in  this  century, 
as  that  of  mille  fiori,  and  the  beautiful  kind  of  glass  known  as 
"  vitro  di  trina  "  or  lace  glass.  An  elaborate  account  of  the 
processes  of  making  the  vitro  di  trina  and  the  vasi  a  reticelli 
(Plate  I.,  fig.  7)  is  given  in  Bontemps's  Guide  du  verrier,  pp. 
602-612.  Many  of  the  examples  of  these  processes  exhibit 
surprising  skill  and  taste,  and  are  among  the  most  beautiful 
objects  produced  at  the  Venetian  furnaces.  That  peculiar 
kind  of  glass  usually  called  schmelz,  an  imperfect  imitation  of 
calcedony,  was  also  made  at  Venice  in  the  isth  century.  Avan- 
turine  glass,  that  in  which  numerous  small  particles  of  copper 
are  diffused  through  a  transparent  yellowish  or  brownish  mass, 
was  not  invented  until  about  1600. 

The  peculiar  merits  of  the  Venetian  manufacture  are  the 
elegance  of  form  and  the  surprising  lightness  and  thinness  of 
the  substance  of  the  vessels  produced.  The  highest  perfection 
with  regard  both  to  form  and  decoration  was  reached  in  the 
1 6th  century;  subsequently  the  Venetian  workmen  somewhat 
abused  their  skill  by  giving  extravagant  forms  to  vessels,  making 
drinking  glasses  in  the  forms  of  ships,  lions,  birds,  whales  and 
the  like. 


Besides  the  making  of  vessels  of  all  kinds  the  factories  of 
Murano  had  for  a  long  period  almost  an  entire  monopoly  of 
two  other  branches  of  the  art — the  making  of  mirrors  and  of 
beads.  Attempts  to  make  mirrors  of  glass  were  made  as  early 
as  A.D.  1317,  but  even  in  the  i6th  century  mirrors  of  steel  were 
still  in  use.  To  make  a  really  good  mirror  of  glass  two  things 
are  required — a  plate  free  from  bubbles  and  striae,  and  a  method 
of  applying  a  film  of  metal  with  a  uniform  bright  surface  free 
from  defects.  The  principle  of  applying  metallic  films  to  glass 
seems  to  have  been  known  to  the  Romans  and  even  to  the 
Egyptians,  and  is  mentioned  by  Alexander  Neckam  in  the  1 2th 
century,  but  it  would  appear  that  it  was  not  until  the  i6th 
century  that  the  process  of  "  silvering  "  mirrors  by  the  use  of  an 
amalgam  of  tin  and  mercury  had  been  perfected.  During  the 
i6th  and  I7th  centuries  Venice  exported  a  prodigious  quantity  of 
mirrors,  but  France  and  England  gradually  acquired  knowledge 
and  skill  in  the  art,  and  in  1772  only  one  glass-house  at  Murano 
continued  to  make  mirrors. 

The  making  of  beads  was  probably  practised  at  Venice  from 
a  very  early  period,  but  the  earliest  documentary  evidence 
bearing  on  the  subject  does  not  appear  to  be  of  earlier  date  than 
the  I4th  century,  when  prohibitions  were  directed  against  those 
who  made  of  glass  such  objects  as  were  usually  made  of  crystal 
or  other  hard  stones.  In  the  i6th  century  it  had  become  a  trade 
of  great  importance,  and  about  1764  twenty-two  furnaces  were 
employed  in  the  production  of  beads.  Towards  the  end  of  the 
same  century  from  600  to  1000  workmen  were,  it  is  stated, 
employed  on  one  branch  of  the  art,  that  of  ornamenting  beads 
by  the  help  of  the  blow-pipe.  A  very  great  variety  of  patterns 
was  produced;  a  tariff  of  the  year  1800  contains  an  enumeration 
of  562  species  and  a  vast  number  of  sub-species. 

The  efforts  made  in  France,  Germany  and  England,  in  the 
I7th  and  i8th  centuries,  to  improve  the  manufacture  of  glass 
in  those  countries  had  a  very  injurious  effect  on  the  industry 
of  Murano.  The  invention  of  colourless  Bohemian  glass  brought 
in  its  train  the  practice  of  cutting  glass,  a  method  of  ornamenta- 
tion for  which  Venetian  glass,  from  its  thinness,  was  ill  adapted. 
One  remarkable  man,  Giuseppe  Briati,  exerted  himself,  with 
much  success,  both  in  working  in  the  old  Venetian  method  and 
also  in  imitating  the  new  fashions  invented  in  Bohemia.  He 
was  especially  successful  in  making  vases  and  circular  dishes  of 
vitro  di  trina;  one  of  the  latter  in  the  Correr  collection  at  Venice, 
believed  to  have  been  made  in  his  glass-house,  measures  55 
centimetres  (nearly  23  in.)  in  diameter.  The  vases  made  by 
him  are  as  elegant  in  form  as  the  best  of  the  Cinquecento  period, 
but  may  perhaps  be  distinguished  by  the  superior  purity  and 
brilliancy  of  the  glass.  He  also  made  with  great  taste  and 
skill  large  lustres  and  mirrors  with  frames  of  glass  ornamented 
either  in  intaglio  or  with  foliage  of  various  colours.  He  obtained 
a  knowledge  of  the  methods  of  working  practised  in  Bohemia 
by  disguising  himself  as  a  porter,  and  thus  worked  for  three 
years  in  a  Bohemian  glass-house.  In  1 736  he  obtained  a  patent 
at  Venice  to  manufacture  glass  in  the  Bohemian  manner.  He  • 
died  in  1772. 

The  fall  of  the  republic  was  accompanied  by  interruption  of 
trade  and  decay  of  manufacture,  and  in  the  last  years  of  the 
i8th  and  beginning  of  the  igth  century  the  glass-making  of 
Murano  was  at  a  very  low  ebb.  In  the  year  1838  Signer  Bussolin 
revived  several  of  the  ancient  processes  of  glass-working,  and 
this  revival  was  carried  on  by  C.  Pietro  Biguglia  in  1845,  and 
by  others,  and  later  by  Salviati,  to  whose  successful  efforts  the 
modern  renaissance  of  Venetian  art  glass  is  principally  due. 

The  fame  of  Venice  in  glass-making  so  completely  eclipsed 
that  of  other  Italian  cities  that  it  is  difficult  to  learn  much 
respecting  their  progress  in  the  art.  Hartshorne  and  Dillon  have 
drawn  attention  to  the  important  part  played  by  the  little 
Ligurian  town,  Altare,  as  a  centre  from  which  glass-workers 
migrated  to  all  parts  of  Europe.  It  is  said  that  the  glass  industry 
was  established  at  Altare,  in  the  nth  century,  by  French 
craftsmen.  In  the  i4th  century  Muranese  glass-workers  settled 
there  and  developed  the  industry.  It  appears  that  as  early 
as  1295  furnaces  had  been  established  at  Treviso,  Vicenza, 


102 


GLASS 


Padua,  Mantua,  Ferrara,  Ravenna  and  Bologna.  In  1634 
there  were  two  glass-houses  in  Rome  and  one  in  Florence;  but 
whether  any  of  these  produced  ornamented  vessels,  or  only  articles 
of  common  use  and  window  glass,  would  not  appear  to  have  as 
yet  been  ascertained. 

Germany — Glass-making  in  Germany  during  the  Roman 
period  seems  to  have  been  carried  on  extensively  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Cologne.  The  Cologne  museum  cont  ains  many  specimens 
of  Roman  glass,  some  of  which  are  remarkable  for  their  cut 
decoration.  The  craft  survived  the  downfall  of  the  Roman 
power,  and  a  native  industry  was  developed.  This  industry 
must  have  won  some  reputation,  for  in  758  the  abbot  of  Jarrow 
appealed  to  the  bishop  of  Mainz  to  send  him  a  worker  in  glass. 
There  are  few  records  of  glass  manufacture  in  Germany  before 
the  beginning  of  the  i6th  century.  The  positions  of  the  factories 
were  determined  by  the  supply  of  wood  for  fuel,  and  subse- 
quently, when  the  craft  of  glass-cutting  was  introduced,  by  the 
accessibility  of  water-power.  The  vessels  produced  by  the 
16th-century  glass-workers  in  Germany,  Holland  and  the  Low 
Countries  are  closely  allied  in  form  and  decoration.  The  glass 
is  coloured  (generally  green)  and  the  decoration  consists  of  glass 
threads  and  glass  studs,  or  prunts  ("  Nuppen  ").  The  use  of 
threads  and  prunts  is  illustrated  by  the  development  of  the 
"  Roemer,"  so  popular  as  a  drinking-glass,  and  as  a  feature 
in  Dutch  studies  of  still  life.  The  "  Igel,"  a  squat  tumbler 
covered  with  prunts,  gave  rise  to  the  "  Krautsrunk,"  which  is 
like  the  "  Igel,"  but  longer  and  narrow- waisted.  The  "  Roemer" 
itself  consists  of  a  cup,  a  short  waist  studded  with  prunts  and 
a  foot.  The  foot  at  first  was  formed  by  coiling  a  thread  of 
glass  round  the  base  of  the  waist;  but,  subsequently,  an  open 
glass  cone  was  joined  to  the  base  of  the  waist,  and  a  glass  thread 
was  coiled  upon  the  surface  of  the  cone.  The  "  Passglas," 
another  popular  drinking-glass,  is  cylindrical  in  form  and  marked 
with  horizontal  rings  of  glass,  placed  at  regular  intervals,  to 
indicate  the  quantity  of  liquor  to  be  taken  at  a  draught. 

In  the  edition  of  1581  of  the  De  re  melallica  by  Georg  Agricola, 
there  is  a  woodcut  showing  the  interior  of  a  German  glass 
factory,  and  glass  vessels  both  finished  and  unfinished. 

In  1428  a  Muranese  glass- worker  set  up  a  furnace  in  Vienna, 
and  another  furnace  was  built  in  the  same  town  by  an  Italian 
in  1486.  In  1531  the  town  council  of  Nuremberg  granted  a 
subsidy  to  attract  teachers  of  Venetian  technique.  Many 
specimens  exist  of  German  winged  and  enamelled  glasses  of 
Venetian  character.  The  Venetian  influence,  however,  was 
indirect  rather  than  direct.  The  native  glass-workers  adopted 
the  process  of  enamelling,  but  applied  it  to  a  form  of  decoration 
characteristically  German.  On  tall,  roomy,  cylindrical  glasses 
they  painted  portraits  of  the  emperor  and  electors  of  Germany, 
or  the  imperial  eagle  bearing  on  its  wings  the  arms  of  the  states 
composing  the  empire.  The  earliest-known  example  of  these 
enamelled  glasses  bears  the  date  1553.  They  were  immensely 
popular  and  the  fashion  for  them  lasted  into  the  i8th  century. 
Some  of  the  later  specimens  have  views  of  cities,  battle  scenes 
and  processions  painted  in  grisaille. 

A  more  important  outcome,  however,  of  Italian  influence  was 
the  production,  in  emulation  of  Venetian  glass,  of  a  glass  made 
of  refined  potash,  lime  and  sand,  which  was  more  colourless 
than  the  material  it  was  intended  to  imitate.  This  colourless 
potash-lime  glass  has  always  been  known  as  Bohemian  glass. 
It  was  well  adapted  for  receiving  cut  and  engraved  decoration, 
and  in  these  processes  the  German  craftsmen  proved  themselves 
to  be  exceptionally  skilful.  At  the  end  of  the  i6th  century 
Rudolph  II.  brought  Italian  rock-crystal  cutters  from  Milan 
to  take  control  of  the  crystal  and  glass-cutting  works  he  had 
established  at  Prague.  It  was  at  Prague  that  Caspar  Lehmann 
and  Zachary  Belzer  learnt  the  craft  of  cutting  glass.  George 
Schwanhart,  a  pupil  of  Caspar  Lehmann,  started  glass-cutting 
at  Ratisbon,  and  about  1690  Stephen  Schmidt  and  Hermann 
Schwinger  introduced  the  crafts  of  cutting  and  engraving 
glass  in  Nuremberg.  To  the  Germans  must  be  credited  the 
discovery,  or  development,  of  colourless  potash-lime  glass, 
the  reintroduction  of  the  crafts  of  cutting  and  engraving  on 


glass,  the  invention  by  H.  Schwanhart  of  the  process  of  etching 
on  glass  by  means  of  hydrofluoric  acid,  and  the  rediscovery  by 
J.  Kunkel,  who  was  director  of  the  glass-houses  at  Potsdam  in 
1679,  of  the  method  of  making  copper-ruby  glass. 

Low  Countries  and  the  United  Provinces. — The  glass  industry 
of  the  Low  Countries  was  chiefly  influenced  by  Italy  and  Spain, 
whereas  German  influence  and  technique  predominated  in  the 
United  Provinces.  The  history  of  glass-making  in  the  provinces 
is  almost  identical  with  that  of  Germany.  In  the  i7th  and 
1 8th  centuries  the  processes  of  scratching,  engraving  and  etching 
were  brought  to  great  perfection. 

The  earliest  record  of  glass-making  in  the  Low  Countries 
consists  in  an  account  of  payments  made  in  1453-1454  on  behalf 
of  Philip  the  Good  of  Burgundy  to  "  Gossiun  de  Vieuglise, 
Maitre  Vorrier  de  Lille  "  for  a  glass  fountain  and  four  glass 
plateaus.  Schuermans  has  traced  Italian  glass-workers  to 
Antwerp,  Liege,  Brussels  and  Namur.  Antwerp  appears  to 
have  been  the  headquarters  of  the  Muranese,  and  Li6ge  the 
headquarters  of  the  Altarists.  Guicciardini  in  his  description 
of  the  Netherlands,  in  1563,  mentions  glass  as  among  the  chief 
articles  of  export  to  England. 

In  1599  the  privilege  of  making  "  Voires  de  cristal  a  la  faschon 
Venise,"  was  granted  to  Philippe  de  Gridolphi  of  Antwerp. 
In  1623  Anthony  Miotti,  a  Muranese,  addressed  a  petition  to 
Philip  IV.  of  Spain  for  permission  to  make  glasses,  vases  and 
cups  of  fine  crystal,  equal  to  those  of  Venice,  but  to  be  sold  at 
one- third  less  than  Venetian  glasses.  In  1642  Jean  Savonetti 
"  gentilhomme  Verrier  de  Murano  "  obtained  a  patent  for 
making  glass  in  Brussels.  The  Low  Country  glasses  are  closely 
copied  from  Venetian  models,  but  generally  are  heavier  and 
less  elegant.  Owing  to  the  fashion  of  Dutch  and  Flemish  painters 
introducing  glass  vases  and  drinking-glasses  into  their  paintings 
of  still  life,  interiors  and  scenes  of  conviviality,  Holland  and 
Belgium  at  the  present  day  possess  more  accurate  records  of 
the  products  of  their  ancient  glass  factories  than  any  other 
countries. 

Spain.— During  the  Roman  occupation  Pliny  states  that  glass 
was  made  "  per  Hispanias  "  (Nat.  Hist,  xxxvi.  26.  66).  Traces 
of  Roman  glass  manufactories  have  been  found  in  Valencia 
and  Murcia,  in  the  valleys  which  run  down  to  the  coast  of  Cata- 
lonia, and  near  the  mouth  of  the  Ebro.  Little  is  known  about 
the  condition  of  glass-making  in  Spain  between  the  Roman 
period  and  the  I3th  century.  In  the  i3th  century  the  craft  of 
glass-making  was  practised  by  the  Moors  in  Almeria,  and  was 
probably  a  survival  from  Roman  times.  The  system  of  decorat- 
ing vases  and  vessels  by  means  of  strands  of  glass  trailed  upon 
the  surface  in  knots,  zigzags  and  trellis  work,  was  adopted  by 
the  Moors  and  is  characteristic  of  Roman  craftsmanship.  Glass- 
making  was  continued  at  Pinar  de  la  Vidriera  and  at  Al  Castril 
de  la  Pena  into  the  i7th  century.  The  objects  produced  show 
no  sign  of  Venetian  influence,  but  are  distinctly  Oriental  in  form. 
Many  of  the  vessels  have  four  or  as  many  as  eight  handles,  and 
are  decorated  with  serrated  ornamentation,  and  with  the  trailed 
strands  of  glass  already  referred  to.  The  glass  is  generally  of  a 
dark-green  colour. 

Barcelona  has  a  long  record  as  a  centre  of  the  glass  industry. 
In  1324  a  municipal  edict  was  issued  forbidding  the  erection 
of  glass-furnaces  within  the  city.  In  1455  the  glass-makers  of 
Barcelona  were  permitted  to  form  a  gild.  Jeronimo  Paulo,  writing 
in  1491,  says  that  glass  vessels  of  various  sorts  were  sent  thence 
to  many  places,  and  even  to  Rome.  Marineus  Siculus,  writing 
early  in  the  i6th  century,  says  that  the  best  glass  was  made  at 
Barcelona;  and  Caspar  Baneiros,  in  his  Chronographia,  published 
in  1562,  states  that  the  glass  made  at  Barcelona  was  almost 
equal  to  that  of  Venice  and  that  large  quantities  were  exported. 

The  author  of  the  Atlante  espanol,  writing  at  the  end  of  the 
i8th  century,  says  that  excellent  glass  was  still  made  at  Barcelona 
on  Venetian  models.  The  Italian  influence  was  strongly  felt 
in  Spain,  but  Spanish  writers  have  given  no  precise  information 
as  to  when  it  was  introduced  or  whence  it  came.  Schuermans 
has,  however,  discovered  the  names  of  more  than  twenty  Italians 
who  found  their  way  into  Spain,  in  some  cases  by  way  of  Flanders, 


GLASS 


103 


either  from  Altare  or  from  Venice.  The  Spanish  glass-makers 
were  very  successful  in  imitating  the  Venetian  style,  and  many 
specimens  supposed  to  have  originated  from  Murano  are  really 
Spanish.  In  addition  to  the  works  at  Barcelona,  the  works 
which  chiefly  affected  Venetian  methods  were  those  of  Cadalso 
in  the  province  of  Toledo,  founded  in  the  i6th  century,  and  the 
works  established  in  1680  at  San  Martin  de  Valdeiglesias  in 
Avila.  There  were  also  works  at  Valdemaqueda  and  at  Villa- 
franca.  In  1680  the  works  in  Barcelona,  Valdemaqueda  and 
Villafranca  are  named  in  a  royal  schedule  giving  the  prices  at 
which  glass  was  to  be  sold  in  Madrid.  In  1772  important  glass 
works  were  established  at  Recuenco  in  the  province  of  Cuenca, 
mainly  to  supply  Madrid.  The  royal  glass  manufactory  of  La 
Granja  de  San  Ildefonso  was  founded  about  1725;  in  the  first 
instance  for  the  manufacture  of  mirror  plates,  but  subsequently 
for  the  production  of  vases  and  table-ware  in  the  French  style. 
The  objects  produced  are  mostly  of  white  clear  glass,  cut, 
engraved  and  gilded.  Engraved  flowers,  views  and  devices 
are  often  combined  with  decorative  cutting.  Don  Sigismundo 
Brun  is  credited  with  the  invention  of  permanent  gilding  fixed 
by  heat.  Spanish  glass  is  well  represented  in  the  Victoria  and 
Albert  Museum. 

France. — Pliny  states  that  glass  was  made  in  Gaul,  and  there 
is  reason  to  believe  that  it  was  made  in  many  parts  of  the  country 
and  on  a  considerable  scale.  There  were  glass-making  districts 
both  in  Normandy  and  in  Poitou. 

Little  information  can  be  gathered  concerning  the  glass 
industry  between  the  Roman  period  and  the  I4th  century. 
It  is  recorded  that  in  the  7th  century  the  abbot  of  Wearmouth 
in  England  obtained  artificers  in  glass  from  France;  and  there 
is  a  tradition  that  in  the  nth  century  glass- workers  migrated 
from  Normandy  and  Brittany  and  set  up  works  at  Altare  near 
Genoa. 

In  1302  window  glass,  probably  crown-glass,  was  made  at 
Beza  le  For€t  in  the  department  of  the  Eure.  In  1416  these 
works  were  in  the  hands  of  Robin  and  Leban  Guichard,  but 
passed  subsequently  to  the  Le  Vaillants. 

In  1338  Humbert,  the  dauphin,  granted  a  part  of  the  forest 
of  Chamborant  to  a  glass-worker  named  Guionet  on  the  condition 
that  Guionet  should  supply  him  with  vessels  of  glass. 

In  1466  the  abbess  of  St  Croix  of  Poitiers  received  a  gross 
of  glasses  from  the  glass-works  of  La  Ferriere,  for  the  privilege 
of  gathering  fern  for  the  manufacture  of  potash. 

In  France,  as  in  other  countries,  efforts  were  made  to  intro- 
duce Italian  methods  of  glass-working.  Schuermans  in  his 
researches  discovered  that  during  the  isth  and  i6th  centuries 
many  glass-workers  left  Altare  and  settled  in  France, — the 
Saroldi  migrated  to  Poitou,  the  Ferri  to  Provence,  the  Massari  to 
Lorraine  and  the  Bormioli  to  Normandy.  In  1551  Henry  II. 
of  France  established  at  St  Germain  en  Laye  an  Italian  named 
Mutio;  he  was  a  native  of  Bologna,  but  of  Altare  origin.  In 
1598  Henry  IV.  permitted  two  "  gentil  hommes  verriers  "  from 
Mantua  to  settle  at  Rouen  in  order  to  make  "  verres  de  cristal, 
verres  doree  emaul  et  autres  ouvrages  qui  se  font  en  Venise." 

France  assimilated  the  craft  of  glass-making,  and  her  crafts- 
men acquired  a  wide  reputation.  Lorraine  and  Normandy 
appear  to  have  been  the  most  important  centres.  To  Lorraine 
belong  the  well-known  names  Hennezel,  de  Thietry,  du  Thisac, 
de  Houx;  and  to  Normandy  the  names  de  Bongar,  de  Cacqueray 
le  Vaillant  and  de  Brossard. 

In  the  1 7th  century  the  manufacture  of  mirror  glass  became 
an  important  branch  of  the  industry.  In  1663  a  manufactory 
was  established  in  the  Faubourg  St  Antoine  in  Paris,  and  another 
at  Tour-la-Ville  near  Cherbourg. 

Louis  Lucas  de  Nehou,  who  succeeded  de  Cacqueray  at  the 
works  at  Tour-la-Ville,  moved  in  1675  to  the  works  in  Paris. 
Here,  in  1688,  in  conjunction  with  A.  Thevart,  he  succeeded 
in  perfecting  the  process  of  casting  plate-glass.  Mirror  plates 
previous  to  the  invention  had  been  made  from  blown  "  sheet  " 
glass,  and  were  consequently  very  limited  in  size.  De  Nehou's 
process  of  rolling  molten  glass  poured  on  an  iron  table  rendered 
the  manufacture  of  very  large  plates  possible. 


The  Manufactoire  Royale  des  Glaces  was  removed  in  1693  to 
the  Chateau  de  St  Gobain. 

In  the  1 8th  century  the  manufacture  of  vases  de  verre  had 
become  so  neglected  that  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1759 
offered  a  prize  for  an  essay  on  the  means  by  which  the  industry 
might  be  revived  (Labarte,  Histoire  des  arts  ind ustriels) . 

The  famous  Baccarat  works,  for  making  crystal  glass,  were 
founded  in  1818  by  d'Artigues. 

English  Glass. — The  records  of  glass-making  in  England  are 
exceedingly  meagre.  There  is  reason  to  believe  that  during  the 
Roman  occupation  the  craft  was  carried  on  in  several  parts  of 
the  country.  Remains  of  a  Roman  glass  manufactory  of  con- 
siderable extent  were  discovered  near  the  Manchester  Ship 
Canal  at  Warrington.  Wherever  the  Romans  settled  glass 
vessels  and  fragments  of  glass  have  been  found.  There  is  no 
evidence  to  prove  that  the  industry  survived  the  withdrawal 
of  the  Roman  garrison. 

It  is  probable  that  the  glass  drinking- vessels,  which  have  been 
found  in  pre-Christian  Anglo-Saxon  tombs,  were  introduced 
from  Germany.  Some  are  elaborate  in  design  and  bear  witness 
to  advanced  technique  of  Roman  character.  In  675  Benedict 
Biscop,  abbot  of  Wearmouth,  was  obliged  to  obtain  glass-workers 
from  France,  and  in  758  Cuthbert,  abbot  of  Jarrow,  appealed 
to  the  bishop  of  Mainz  to  send  him  artisans  to  manufacture 
"  windows  and  vessels  of  glass,  because  the  English  were  ignorant 
and  helpless."  Except  for  the  statement  in  Bede  that  the  French 
artisans,  sent  by  Benedict  Biscop,  taught  their  craft  to  the 
English,  there  is  at  present  no  evidence  of  glass  having  been  made 
in  England  between  the  Roman  period  and  the  I3th  century. 
In  some  deeds  relating  to  the  parish  of  Chiddingfold,  in  Surrey, 
of  a  date  not  later  than  1230,  a  grant  is  recorded  of  twenty 
acres  of  land  to  Lawrence  "  vitrearius,"  and  in  another  deed, 
of  about  1 280,  the  "  ovenhusveld  "  is  mentioned  as  a  boundary. 
This  field  has  been  identified,  and  pieces  of  crucible  and  fragments 
of  glass  have  been  dug  up.  There  is  another  deed,  dated  1300, 
which  mentions  one  William  "  le  verir  "  of  Chiddingfold. 

About  1350  considerable  quantities  of  colourless  flat  glass 
were  supplied  by  John  Alemayn  of  Chiddingfold  for  glazing 
the  windows  in  St  George's  chapel,  Windsor,  and  in  the  chapel 
of  St  Stephen,  Westminster.  The  name  Alemayn  (Aleman) 
suggests  a  foreign  origin.  In  1380  John  Glasewryth,  a  Stafford- 
shire glass-worker,  came  to  work  at  Shuerewode,  Kirdford, 
and  there  made  brode-glas  and  vessels  for  Joan,  widow  of 
John  Shertere. 

There  were  two  kinds  of  flat  glass,  known  respectively  as 
"  brode-glas  "  and  "  Normandy  "  glass.  The  former  was  made, 
as  described  by  Theophilus,  from  cylinders,  which  were  split, 
reheated  and  flattened  into  square  sheets.  It  was  known  as 
Lorraine  glass,  and  subsequently  as  "  German  sheet  "  or  sheet- 
glass.  Normandy  glass  was  made  from  glass  circles  or  disks. 
When,  in  after  years,  the  process  was  perfected,  the  glass  was 
known  as  "  crown "  glass.  In  1447  English  flat  glass  is 
mentioned  in  the  contract  for  the  windows  of  the  Beauchamp 
chapel  at  Warwick,  but  disparagingly,  as  the  contractor  binds 
himself  not  to  use  it.  In  1486,  however,  it  is  referred  to  in  such 
a  way  as  to  suggest  that  it  was  superior  to  "  Dutch,  Venice  or 
Normandy  glass."  The  industry  does  not  seem  to  have  prospered, 
for  when  in  1567  an  inquiry  was  made  as  to  its  condition,  it  was 
ascertained  that  only  small  rough  goods  were  being  made. 

In  the  1 6th  century  the  fashion  for  using  glass  vessels  of 
ornamental  character  spread  from  Italy  into  France  and  England. 
Henry  VIII.  had  a  large  collection  of  glass  drinking-vessels 
chiefly  of  Venetian  manufacture.  The  increasing  demand  for 
Venetian  drinking-glasses  suggested  the  possibility  of  making 
similar  glass  in  England,  and  various  attempts  were  made  to 
introduce  Venetian  workmen  and  Venetian  methods  of  manu- 
facture. In  1550  eight  Muranese  glass-blowers  were  working  in 
or  near  the  Tower  of  London.  They  had  left  Murano  owing  to 
slackness  of  trade,  but  had  been  recalled,  and  appealed  to  the 
Council  of  Ten  in  Venice  to  be  allowed  to  complete  their  contract 
in  London.  Seven  of  these  glass-workers  left  London  in  the 
following  year,  but  one,  Josepho  Casselari,  remained  and  joined 


GLASS 


Thomas  Cavato,  a  Dutchman.  In  1574  Jacob  Verzellini,  a 
fugitive  Venetian,  residing  in  Antwerp,  obtained  a  patent  for 
making  drinking-glasses  in  London  "  such  as  are  made  in 
Murano."  He  established  works  in  Crutched  Friars,  and  to  him 
is  probably  due  the  introduction  of  the  use  of  soda-ash,  made 
from  seaweed  and  seaside  plants,  in  place  of  the  crude  potash 
made  from  fern  and  wood  ashes.  His  manufactory  was  burnt 
down  in  1575,  but  was  rebuilt.  He  afterwards  moved  his  works 
to  Winchester  House,  Broad  Street.  There  is  a  small  goblet 
(PI.  I.,  fig.  8)  in  the  British  Museum  which  is  attributed  to 
Verzellini.  It  is  Venetian  in  character,  of  a  brownish  tint,  with 
two  white  enamel  rings  round  the  body.  It  is  decorated  with 
diamond  or  steel-point  etching,  and  bears  on  one  side  the  date 
1586,  and  on  the  opposite  side  the  words  "  In  God  is  al  mi  trust." 
Verzellini  died  in  1606  and  was  buried  at  Down  in  Kent.  In 
1592  the  Broad  Street  works  had  been  taken  over  by  Jerome 
Bowes.  They  afterwards  passed  into  the  hands  of  Sir  R.  Mansel, 
and  in  1618  James  Howell,  author  of  Epistolae  Ho-elianae,  was 
acting  as  steward.  The  works  continued  in  operation  until  1641. 
During  excavations  in  Broad  Street  in  1874  many  fragments 
of  glass  were  found^  amongst  them  were  part  of  a  wine-glass, 
a  square  scent-bottle  and  a  wine-glass  stem  containing  a  spiral 
thread  of  white  enamel. 

A  greater  and  more  lasting  influence  on  English  glass-making 
came  from  France  and  the  Low  Countries.  In  1567  James 
Carre  of  Antwerp  stated  that  he  had  erected  two  glass-houses 
at  "  Fernefol  "  (Fernfold  Wood  in  Sussex)  for  Normandy  and 
Lorraine  glass  for  windows,  and  had  brought  over  workmen. 
From  this  period  began  the  records  in  England  of  the  great 
glass-making  families  of  Hennezel,  de  Thietry,  du  Thisac  and  du 
Houx  from  Lorraine,  and  of  de  Bongar  and  de  Cacqueray  from 
Normandy.  About  this  time  glass-works  were  established  at 
Ewhurst  and  Alford  in  Surrey,  Loxwood,  Kirdford,  Wisborough 
and  Petworth  in  Sussex,  and  Sevenoaks  and  Penshurst  in  Kent. 
Beginning  in  Sussex,  Surrey  and  Kent,  where  wood  for  fuel 
was  plentiful,  the  foreign  glass-workers  and  their  descendants 
migrated  from  place  to  place,  always  driven  by  the  fuel-hunger 
of  their  furnaces.  They  gradually  made  their  way  into  Hamp- 
shire, Wiltshire,  Gloucestershire,  Staffordshire,  Northumberland, 
Scotland  and  Ireland.  They  can  be  traced  by  cullet  heaps  and 
broken-down  furnaces,  and  by  their  names,  often  mutilated, 
recorded  in  parish  registers. 

In  1610  a  patent  was  granted  to  Sir  W.  Slingsby  for  burning 
coal  in  furnaces,  and  coal  appears  to  have  been  used  in  the 
Broad  Street  works.  In  1615  all  patents  for  glass^making 
were  revoked  and  a  new  patent  issued  for  making  glass  with 
coal  as  fuel,  in  the  names  of  Mansel,  Zouch,  Thelwall,  Kellaway 
and  Percival.  To  the  last  is  credited  the  first  introduction  of 
covered  crucibles  to  protect  the  molten  glass  from  the  products 
of  burning  coal. 

Simultaneously  with  the  issue  of  this  patent  the  use  of  wood 
for  melting  glass  was  prohibited,  and  it  was  made  illegal  to  import 
glass  from  abroad.  About  1617  Sir  R.  Mansel,  vice-admiral 
and  treasurer  of  the  navy,  acquired  the  sole  rights  of  making 
glass  in  England.  These  rights  he  retained  for  over  thirty  years. 

During  the  protectorate  all  patent  rights  virtually  lapsed, 
and  mirrors  and  drinking-glasses  were  once  more  imported  from 
Venice.  In  1663  the  duke  of  Buckingham,  although  unable  to 
obtain  a  renewal  of  the  monopoly  of  glass-making,  secured  the 
prohibition  of  the  importation  of  glass  for  mirrors,  coach  plates, 
spectacles,  tubes  and  lenses,  and  contributed  to  the  revival  of 
the  glass  industry  in  all  its  branches.  Evelyn  notes  in  his 
Diary  a  visit  in  1673  to  the  Italian  glass-house  at  Greenwich, 
"  where  glass  was  blown  of  finer  metal  than  that  of  Murano,"  and 
a  visit  in  1677  to  the  duke  of  Buckingham's  glass-works,  where 
they  made  huge  "  vases  of  mettal  as  cleare,  ponderous  and 
thick  as  chrystal;  also  looking-glasses  far  larger  and  better 
than  any  that  came  from  Venice." 

Some  light  is  thrown  on  the  condition  of  the  industry  at  the 
end  of  the  I7th  century  by  the  Hough  ton  letters  on  the  improve- 
ment of  trade  and  commerce,  which  appeared  in  1696.  A  few 
of  these  letters  deal  with  the  glass  trade,  and  in  one  a  list  is 


given  of  the  glass-works  then  in  operation.    There  were  88  glass 
factories  in  England  which  are  thus  classified : 

Bottles 39 


Looking-glass  plates 
Crown  and  plate-glass  . 
Window  glass 
Flint  and  ordinary  glass 


2 

5 
15 
27 

88 


It  is  probable  that  the  flint-glass  of  that  date  was  very  different 
from  the  flint-glass  of  to-day.  The  term  flint-glass  is  now 
understood  to  mean  a  glass  composed  of  the  silicates  of  potash 
and  lead.  It  is  the  most  brilliant  and  the  most  colourless 
of  all  glasses,  and  was  undoubtedly  first  perfected  in  England. 
Hartshorne  has  attributed  its  discovery  to  a  London  merchant 
named  Tilson,  who  in  1663  obtained  a  patent  for  making 
"  crystal  glass."  E.  W.  Hulme,  however,  who  has  carefully 
investigated  the  subject,  is  of  opinion  that  flint-glass  in  its 
present  form  was  introduced  about  1730.  The  use  of  oxide  of 
lead  in  glass-making  was  no  new  thing;  it  had  been  used, 
mainly  as  a  flux,  both  by  Romans  and  Venetians.  The  invention, 
if  it  may  be  regarded  as  one,  consisted  in  eliminating  lime  from 
the  glass  mixture,  substituting  refined  potash  for  soda,  and  using 
a  very  large  proportion  of  lead  oxide.  It  is  probable  that  flint- 
glass  was  not  invented,  but  gradually  evolved,  that  potash-lead 
glasses  were  in  use  during  the  latter  part  of  the  i7th  century, 
but  that  the  mixture  was  not  perfected  until  the  middle  of  the 
following  century. 

The  i8th  century  saw  a  great  development  in  all  branches  of 
glass-making.  Collectors  of  glass  are  chiefly  concerned  with  the 
drinking-glasses  which  were  produced  in  great  profusion  and 
adapted  for  every  description  of  beverage.  The  most  noted 
are  the  glasses  with  stout  cylindrical  legs  (Plate  I.  fig.  9),  con- 
taining spiral  threads 'of  air,  or  of  white  or  coloured  enamel. 
To  this  type  of  glass  belong  many  of  the  Jacobite  glasses  which 
commemorate  the  old  or  the  young  Pretender. 

In  1746  the  industry  was  in  a  sufficiently  prosperous  condition 
to  tempt  the  government  to  impose  an  excise  duty.  The  report 
of  the  commission  of  excise,  dealing  with  glass,  published  in  1835 
is  curious  and  interesting  reading.  So  burdensome  was  the  duty 
and  so  vexatious  were  the  restrictions  that  it  is  a  matter  for 
wonder  that  the  industry  survived.  In  this  respect  England 
was  more  fortunate  than  Ireland.  Before  1825,  when  the  excise 
duty  was  introduced  into  Ireland,  there  were  flourishing  glass- 
works in  Belfast,  Cork,  Dublin  and  Waterford.  By  1850  the 
Irish  glass  industry  had  been  practically  destroyed.  Injurious 
as  the  excise  duty  undoubtedly  was  to  the  glass  trade  generally, 
and  especially  to  the  flint-glass  industry,  it  is  possible  that  it 
may  have  helped  to  develop  the  art  of  decorative  glass-cutting. 
The  duty  on  flint-glass  was  imposed  on  the  molten  glass  in  the 
crucibles  and  on  the  unfinished  goods.  The  manufacturer  had, 
therefore,  a  strong  inducement  to  enhance  by  every  means  in  his 
power  the  selling  value  of  his  glass  after  it  had  escaped  the 
exciseman's  clutches.  He  therefore  employed  the  best  available 
art  and  skill  in  improving  the  craft  of  glass-cutting.  It  is 
the  development  of  this  craft  in  connexion  with  the  perfecting 
of  flint-glass  that  makes  the  i8th  century  the  most  important 
period  in  the  history  of  English  glass-making.  Glass-cutting 
was  a  craft  imported  from  Germany,  but  the  English  material 
so  greatly  surpassed  Bohemian  glass  in  brilliance  that  the 
Bohemian  cut-glass  was  eclipsed.  Glass-cutting  was  carried  on 
at  works  in  Birmingham,  Bristol,  Belfast,  Cork,  Dublin,  Glas- 
gow, London,  Newcastle,  Stourbridge,  Whittington  and  Water- 
ford.  The  most  important  centres  of  the  craft  were  London, 
Bristol,  Birmingham  and  Waterford  (see  Plate  I.,  fig.  10,  for 
oval  cut-glass  Waterford  bowl).  The  finest  specimens  of  cut- 
glass  belong  to  the  period  between  1780  and  1810.  Owing, 
to  the  sacrifice  of  form  to  prismatic  brilliance,  cut-glass  gradually 
lost  its  artistic  value.  Towards  the  middle  of  the  igth  century 
it  became  the  fashion  to  regard  all  cut-glass  as  barbarous,  and 
services  of  even  the  best  period  were  neglected  and  dispersed. 
At  the  present  time  scarcely  anything  is  known  about  the 
origin  of  the  few  specimens  of  iSth-century  English  cut-glass 


GLASS,  STAINED 


which  have  been  preserved  in  public  collections.  It  is  strange 
that  so  little  interest  has  been  taken  in  a  craft  in  which  for 
some  thirty  years  England  surpassed  all  competitors,  creating 
a  wave  of  fashion  which  influenced  the  glass  industry  throughout 
the  whole  of  Europe. 

In  the  report  of  the  Excise  Commission  a  list  is  given  of  the 
glass  manufactories  which  paid  the  excise  duty  in  1833.  There 
were  105  factories  in  England,  10  in  Scotland  and  10  in  Ireland. 
In  England  the  chief  centres  of  the  industry  were  Bristol, 
Birmingham,  London,  Manchester,  Newcastle,  Stourbridge 
and  York.  Plate-glass  was  made  by  Messrs  Cookson  of  New- 
castle, and  by  the  British  Plate  Glass  Company  of  Ravenhead. 
Crown  and  German  sheet-glass  were  made  by  Messrs  Chance  & 
Hartley  of  Birmingham.  The  London  glass-works  were  those 
of  Apsley  Pellatt  of  Blackfriars,  Christie  of  Stangate,  and  William 
Holmes  of  Whitefriars.  In  Scotland  there  were  works  in  Glasgow, 
Leith  and  Portobello.  In  Ireland  there  were  works  in  Belfast, 
Cork,  Dublin  and  Waterford.  The  famous  Waterford  works 
were  in  the  hands  of  Gatchell  &  Co. 

India. — Pliny  states  (Nat.  Hist,  xxxvi.  26.  66)  that  no  glass 
was  to  be  compared  to  the  Indian,  and  gives  as  a  reason  that  it 
was  made  from  broken  crystal;  and  in  another  passage  (xii. 
19,  42)  he  says  that  the  Troglodytes  brought  to  Ocelis  (Ghella 
near  Bab-el- Mandeb)  objects  of  glass.  We  have,  however, 
very  little  knowledge  of  Indian  glass  of  any  considerable  antiquity. 
A  few  small  vessels  have  been  found  in  the  "  topes,"  as  in  that 
at  Manikiala  in  the  Punjab,  which  probably  dates  from  about 
the  Christian  era;  but  they  exhibit  no  remarkable  character, 
and  fragments  found  at  Brahmanabad  are  hardly  distinguishable 
from  Roman  glass  of  the  imperial  period.  The  chronicle  of  the 
Sinhalese  kings,  the  Mahavamsa,  however,  asserts  that  mirrors 
of  glittering  glass  were  carried  in  procession  in  306  B.C.,  and  beads 
like  gems,  and  windows  with  ornaments  like  jewels,  are  also 
mentioned  at  about  the  same  date.  If  there  really  was  an 
important  manufacture  of  glass  in  Ceylon  at  this  early  time, 
that  island  perhaps  furnished  the  Indian  glass  of  Pliny.  In  the 
later  part  of  the  iyth  century  some  glass  decorated  with  enamel 
was  made  at  Delhi.  A  specimen  is  in  the  Indian  section  of  the 
South  Kensington  Museum.  Glass  is  made  in  several  parts  of 
India — as  Patna  and  Mysore — by  very  simple  and  primitive 
methods,  and  the  results  are  correspondingly  defective.  Black, 
green,  red,  blue  and  yellow  glasses  are  made,  which  contain  a 
large  proportion  of  alkali  and  are  readily  fusible.  The  greater 
part  is  worked  into  bangles,  but  some  small  bottles  are  blown 
(Buchanan,  Journey  through  Mysore,  i.  147,  iii.  369). 

Persia. — No  very  remarkable  specimens  of  Persian  glass  are 
known  in  Europe,  with  the  exception  of  some  vessels  of  blue 
glass  richly  decorated  with  gold.  These  probably  date  from 
the  1 7th  century,  for  Chardin  tells  us  that  the  windows  of  the 
tomb  of  Shah  Abbas  II.  (ob.  1666),  at  Kum,  were  "  de  cristal 
peint  d'or  et  d'azur."  At  the  present  day  bottles  and  drinking- 
vessels  are  made  in  Persia  which  in  texture  and  quality  differ 
little  from  ordinary  Venetian  glass  of  the  i6th  or  i7th  centuries, 
while  in  form  they  exactly  resemble  those  which  may  be  seen 
in  the  engravings  in  Chardin's  Travels. 

China. — The  history  of  the  manufacture  of  glass  in  China  is 
obscure,  but  the  common  opinion  that  it  was  learnt  from 
the  Europeans  in  the  i7th  century  seems  to  be  erroneous.  A 
writer  in  the  Memoires  concernant  les  Chinois  (ii.  46)  states 
on  the  authority  of  the  annals  of  the  Han  dynasty  that  the 
emperor  Wu-ti  (140  B.C.)  had  a  manufactory  of  the  kind  of  glass 
called  "  lieou-li  "  (probably  a  form  of  opaque  glass),  that  in  the 
beginning  of  the  3rd  century  of  our  era  the  emperor  Tsaou-tsaou 
received  from  the  West  a  considerable  present  of  glasses  of  all 
colours,  and  that  soon  after  a  glass-maker  came  into  the  country 
who  taught  the  art  to  the  natives. 

The  Wei  dynasty,  to  which  Tsaou-tsaou  belonged,  reigned  in 
northern  China,  and  at  this  day  a  considerable  manufacture 
of  glass  is  carried  on  at  Po-shan-hien  in  Shantung,  which  it 
would  seem  has  existed  for  a  long  period.  The  Rev.  A.  William- 
son (Journeys  in  North  China,  i.  131)  says  that  the  glass  is 
extremely  pure,  and  is  made  from  the  rocks  in  the  neighbourhood. 


The  rocks  are  probably  of  quartz,  i.e.  rock  crystal,  a  correspond- 
ence with  Pliny's  statement  respecting  Indian  glass  which  seems 
deserving  of  attention. 

Whether  the  making  of  glass  in  China  was  an  original  dis- 
covery of  that  ingenious  people,  or  was  derived  via  Ceylon  from 
Egypt,  cannot  perhaps  be  now  ascertained;  the  manufacture 
has,  however,  never  greatly  extended  itself  in  China.  The  case 
has  been  the  converse  of  that  of  the  Romans;  the  latter  had  no 
fine  pottery,  and  therefore  employed  glass  as  the  material  for 
vessels  of  an  ornamental  kind,  for  table  services  and  the  like. 
The  Chinese,  on  the  contrary,  having  from  an  early  period  had 
excellent  porcelain,  have  been  careless  about  the  manufacture  of 
glass.  A  Chinese  writer,  however,  mentions  the  manufacture 
of  a  huge  vase  in  A.D.  627,  and  in  1154  Edrisi  (first  climate,  tenth 
section)  mentions  Chinese  glass.  A  glass  vase  about  a  foot  high 
is  preserved  at  Nara  in  Japan,  and  is  alleged  to  have  been  placed 
there  in  the  8th  century.  It  seems  probable  that  this  is  of 
Chinese  manufacture.  A  writer  in  the  Memoires  concernant 
les  Chinois  (ii.  463  and  477),  writing  about  1770,  says  that 
there  was  then  a  glass-house  at  Peking,  where  every  year  a 
good  number  of  vases  were  made,  some  requiring  great  labour 
because  nothing  was  blown  (rien  n'est  souffle),  meaning  no  doubt 
that  the  ornamentation  was  produced  not  by  blowing  and  mould- 
ing, but  by  cutting.  This  factory  was,  however,  merely  an 
appendage  to  the  imperial  magnificence.  The  earliest  articles 
of  Chinese  glass  the  date  of  which  has  been  ascertained,  which 
have  been  noticed,  are  some  bearing  the  name  of  the  emperor 
Kienlung  (1735-1795),  one  of  which  is  in  the  Victoria  and  Albert 
Museum. 

In  the  manufacture  of  ornamental  glass  the  leading  idea 
in  China  seems  to  be  the  imitation  of  natural  stones.  The 
coloured  glass  is  usually  not  of  one  bright  colour  throughout, 
but  semi-transparent  and  marbled;  the  colours  in  many  instances 
are  singularly  fine  and  harmonious.  As  in  1770,  carving  or  cut- 
ting is  the  chief  method  by  which  ornament  is  produced,  the 
vessels  being  blown  very  solid. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Georg  Agricola,  De  re  metattica  (Basel,  1556); 
Percy  Bate,  English  Table  Glass  (n.d.) ;  G.  Bontemps,  Guide  du  verrier 
(Pans,  1868);  Edward  Dillon,  Glass  (London,  1907);  C.  C.  Edgar, 
"  Graeco-Egyptian  Glass,"  Catalogue  du  Musee  du  Caire  (1905); 
Sir  A.  W.  Franks,  Guide  to  Glass  Room  in  British  Museum  (1888) ; 
Rev.  A.  Hallen,  "  Glass-making  in  Sussex,"  Scottish  Antiquary, 
No.  28  (1893);  Albert  Hartshorne,  Old  English  Glasses  (London); 
E.  W.  Hulme,  "  English  Glass-making  in  XVI.  andXVII.  Centuries," 
The  Antiquary,  Nos.  59,  60,  63,  64,  65;  Alexander  Nesbitt,  "  Glass," 
Art  Handbook,  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum;  E.  Peligot,  Le  Verre, 
son  histoire,  sa  fabrication  (Paris,  1878);  Apsley  Pellatt,  Curiosities 
of  Glass-making  (London,  184.9);  F.  Petrie,  Tell-el-Amarna,  Egypt 
Exploration  Fund  (1894);  "Egypt,"  sect.  Art;  H.  J.  Powell, 
"  Cut  Glass,"  Journal  Society  of  Arts,  No.  2795;  C.  H.  Read,  "  Sara- 
cenic Glass,"  Archaeologia,  vol.  58,  part  i.;  Juan  F.  Riano, 
"Spanish  Arts,"  Art  Handbook,  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum; 
H.  Schuermans,  "  Muranese  and  Altarist  Glass  Workers,"  eleven 
letters:  Bulletins  des  commissions  royales  (Brussels,  1883,  1891). 
For  the  United  States,  see  vol.  x.  of  Reports  of  the  12th  Census,  pp. 
949-1000,  and  Special  Report  of  Census  of  Manufactures  (1905),  Part 
III.,  pp.  837-935.  (A.  NE.;H.J.  P.) 

GLASS,  STAINED.  All  coloured  glass  is,  strictly  speaking, 
"  stained  "  by  some  metallic  oxide  added  to  it  in  the  process 
of  manufacture.  But  the  term  "  stained  glass  "  is  popularly, 
as  well  as  technically,  used  in  a  more  limit ed  sense,  and  is  under- 
stood to  refer  to  stained  glass  windows.  Still  the  words  "  stained 
glass  "  do  not  fully  describe  what  is  meant;  for  the  glass  in 
coloured  windows  is  for  the  most  part  not  only  stained  but 
painted.  Such  painting  was,  however,  until  comparatively 
modern  times,  used  only  to  give  details  of  drawing  and  to  define 
form.  The  colour  in  a  stained  glass  window  was  not  painted 
on  the  glass  but  incorporated  in  it,  mixed  with  it  in  the  making — 
whence  the  term  "  pot-metal  "  by  which  self-coloured  glass  is 
known,  i.e.  glass  coloured  in  the  melting  pot. 

A  medieval  window  was  consequently  a  patchwork  of  variously 
coloured  pieces.  And  the  earlier  its  date  the  more  surely  was 
it  a  mosaic,  not  in  the  form  of  tesserae,  but  in  the  manner 
known  as  "  opus  sectile."  Shaped  pieces  of  coloured  glass  were, 
that  is  to  say,  put  together  like  the  parts  of  a  puzzle.  The 


io6 


GLASS,  STAINED 


nearest  approach  to  an  exception  to  this  rule  is  a  fragment  at 
the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum,  in  which  actual  tesserae  are 
fused  together  into  a  solid  slab  of  many-coloured  glass,  in  effect 
a  window  panel,  through  which  the  light  shines  with  all  the 
brilliancy  of  an  Early  Gothic  window.  But  apart  from  the  fact 
that  the  design  proves  in  this  case  to  be  even  more  effective 
with  the  light  upon  it,  the  use  of  gold  leaf  in  the  tesserae  con- 
firms the  presumption  that  this  work,  which  (supposing  it  to 
be  genuine)  would  be  Byzantine,  centuries  earlier  than  any 
coloured  windows  that  we  know  of,  and  entirely  different  from 
them  in  technique,  is  rather  a  specimen  of  fused  mosaic  that 
happens  to  be  translucent  than  part  of  a  window  designedly 
executed  in  tesserae. 

The  Eastern  (and  possibly  the  earlier)  practice  was  to  set 
chips  of  coloured  glass  in  a  heavy  fretwork  of  stone  or  to  imbed 
them  in  plaster.  In  a  medieval  window  they  were  held  together 
by  strips  of  lead,  in  section  something  like  the  letter  H ,  the 
upright  strokes  of  which  represent  the  "  tapes  "  extending  on 
either  side  well  over  the  edges  of  the  glass,  and  the  crossbar  the 
connecting  "  core  "  between  them.  The  leading  was  soldered 
together  at  the  points  of  junction,  cement  or  putty  was  rubbed 
into  the  crevices  between  glass  and  lead,  and  the  window  was 
attached  (by  means  of  copper  wires  soldered  on  to  the  leads) 
to  iron  saddle-bars  let  into  the  masonry. 

Stained  glass  was  primarily  the  art  of  the  glazier;  but  the 
painter,  called  in  to  help,  asserted  himself  more  and  more,  and 
eventually  took  it  almost  entirely  into  his  own  hands.  Between 
the  period  when  it  was  glazier's  work  eked  out  by  painting 
and  when  it  was  painter's  work  with  the  aid  of  the  glazier  lies 
the  entire  development  of  stained  and  painted  window-making. 
With  the  eventual  endeavour  of  the  glass  painter  to  do  without 
the  glazier,  and  to  get  the  colour  by  painting  in  translucent 
enamel  upon  colourless  glass,  we  have  the  beginning  of  a  form  of 
art  no  longer  monumental  and  comparatively  trivial. 

This  evolution  of  the  painted  window  from  a  patchwork  of 
little  pieces  of  coloured  glass  explains  itself  when  it  is  remembered 
that  coloured  glass  was  originally  not  made  in  the  big  sheets 
produced  nowadays,  but  at  first  in  jewels  to  look  as  much  as 
possible  like  rubies,  sapphires,  emeralds  and  other  precious 
stones,  and  afterwards  in  rounds  and  sheets  of  small  dimensions. 
Though  some  of  the  earliest  windows  were  in  the  form  of  pure 
glazing  ("  leaded-lights  "),  the  addition  of  painting  seems  to  have 
been  customary  from  the  very  first.  It  was  a  means  of  render- 
ing detail  not  to  be  got  in  lead.  Glazing  affords  by  itself  scope 
for  beautiful  pattern  work;  but  the  old  glaziers  never  carried  their 
art  as  far  as  they  might  have  done  in  the  direction  of  ornament; 
their  aim  was  always  in  the  direction  of  picture;  the  idea  was  to 
make  windows  serve  the  purpose  of  coloured  story  books.  That 
was  beyond  the  art  of  the  glazier.  It  was  easy  enough  to  repre- 
sent the  drapery  of  a  saint  by  red  glass,  the  ground  on  which  he 
stood  by  green,  the  sky  above  by  blue,  his  crown  by  yellow, 
the  scroll  in  his  hand  by  white,  and  his  flesh  by  brownish  pink; 
but  when  it  came  to  showing  the  folds  of  red  drapery,  blades  of 
green  grass,  details  of  goldsmith's  work,  lettering  on  the  scroll, 
the  features  of  the  face — the  only  possible  way  of  doing  it  was 
by  painting.  The  use  of  paint  was  confined  at  first  to  an  opaque 
brown,  used,  not  as  colour,  but  only  as  a  means  of  stopping  out 
light,  and  in  that  way  defining  comparatively  delicate  details 
within  the  lead  lines.  These  themselves  outlined  and  defined 
the  main  forms  of  the  design.  The  pigment  used  by  the  glass 
painter  was  of  course  vitreous:  it  consisted  of  powdered  glass 
and  sundry  metallic  oxides  (copper,  iron,  manganese,  &c.), 
so  that,  when  the  pieces  of  painted  glass  were  made  red  hot  in 
the  kiln,  the  powdered  glass  became  fused  to  the  surface,  and 
with  it  the  dense  colouring  matter  also.  When  the  pieces  of 
painted  glass  were  afterwards  glazed  together  and  seen  against 
the  light,  the  design  appeared  in  the  brilliant  colour  of  the  glass, 
its  forms  drawn  in  the  uniform  black  into  which,  at  a  little 
distance,  leadwork  and  painting  lines  became  merged. 

It  needed  solid  painting  to  stop  out  the  light  entirely:  thin 
paint  only  obscured  it.  And,  even  in  early  glass,  thin  paint  was 
used,  whether  to  subdue  crude  colour  or  to  indicate  what  little 


shading  a  13th-century  draughtsman  might  desire.  In  the 
present  state  of  old  glass,  the  surface  often  quite  disintegrated, 
it  is  difficult  to  determine  to  what  extent  thin  paint  was  used  for 
either  purpose.  There  must  always  have  been  the  temptation  to 
make  tint  do  instead  of  solid  lines;  but  the  more  workmanlike 
practice,  and  the  usual  one,  was  to  get  difference  of  tint,  as  a 
pen-draughtsman  does,  by  lines  of  solid  opaque  colour.  In 
comparatively  colourless  glass  (grisaille)  the  pattern  was  often 
made  to  stand  out  by  cross-hatching  the  background;  and 
another  common  practice  was  to  coat  the  glass  with  paint  all 
over,  and  scrape  the  design  out  of  it.  The  effect  of  either 
proceeding  was'to  lower  the  tone  of  the  glass  without  dirtying 
the  colour,  as  a  smear  of  thin  paint  would  do. 

Towards  the  I4th  century,  when  Gothic  design  took  a  more 
naturalistic  direction,  the  desire  to  get  something  like  modelling 
made  it  necessary  to  carry  painting  farther,  and  they  got  rid 
to  some  extent  of  the  ill  effect  of  shading-colour  smeared  on  the 
glass  by  stippling  it.  This  not  only  softened  the  tint  and  allowed 
of  gradation  according  to  the  amount  of  stippling,  but  let  some 
light  through,  where  the  bristles  of  the  stippling-tool  took  up 
the  pigment.  Shading  of  this  kind  enforced  by  touches  of  strong 
brushwork,  cross-hatching  and  some  scratching  out  of  high 
lights  was  the  method  of  glass  painting  adopted  in  the  I4th 
century. 

Glass  was  never  at  the  best  a  pleasant  surface  to  paint  on; 
and  glass  painting,  following  the  line  of  least  resistance, 
developed  in  the  later  Gothic  and  early  Renaissance  periods 
into  something  unlike  any  other  form  of  painting.  The  outlines 
continued  to  be  traced  upon  the  glass  and  fixed  in  the  fire;  but, 
after  that,  the  process  of  painting  consisted  mainly  in  the 
removal  of  paint.  The  entire  surface  of  the  glass  was  coated  with 
an  even  "  matt  "  of  pale  brown;  this  was  allowed  to  dry;  and 
then  the  high  lights  were  rubbed  off,  and  the  modelling  was  got 
by  scrubbing  away  the  paint  with  a  dry  hog-hair  brush,  more 
or  less,  according  to  the  gradations  required.  Perfect  modelling 
was  got  by  repeating  the  operation — how  often  depended  upon 
the  dexterity  of  the  painter.  A  painter's  method  is  partly  the 
outcome  of  his  individuality.  One  man  would  float  on  his  colour 
and  manipulate  it  to  some  extent  in  the  moist  state;  another 
would  work  entirely  upon  the  dry  matt.  Great  use  was  made 
of  the  pointed  stick  with  which  sharp  lines  of  light  were  easily 
scraped  out;  and  in  the  i6th  century  Swiss  glass  painters, 
working  upon  a  relatively  small  scale,  got  their  modelling 
entirely  with  a  needle-point',  scraping  away  the  paint  just  as  an 
etcher  scratches  away  the  varnish  from  his  etching  plate.  The 
practice  of  the  two  craftsmen  is,  indeed,  identical,  though  the 
one  scratches  out  what  are  to  be  black  lines  and  the  other  lines 
of  light.  In  the  end,  then,  though  a  painter  would  always  use 
touches  of  the  brush  to  get  crisp  lines  of  dark,  the  manipulation 
of  glass  painting  consisted  more  in  erasing  lights  than  in  painting 
shadows,  more  in  rubbing  out  or  scraping  off  paint  than  in  putting 
it  on  in  brush  strokes. 

So  far  there  was  no  thought  of  getting  colour  by  means  of 
paint.  The  colour  was  in  the  glass  itself,  permeating  the  mass 
("  pot-metal  ").  There  was  only  one  exception  to  this — ruby 
glass,  the  colour  of  which  was  so  dense  that  red  glass  thick 
enough  for  its  purpose  would  have  been  practically  obscure; 
and  so  they  made  a  colourless  pot-metal  coated  on  one  side 
only  with  red  glass.  This  led  to  a  practice  which  forms  an  ex- 
ception to  the  rule  that  in  "pot-metal"  glass  every  change  of 
colour,  or  from  colour  to  white,  is  got  by  the  use  of  a  separate 
piece  of  glass.  It  was  possible  in  the  case  of  this  "  flashed  " 
ruby  to  grind  away  portions  of  the  surface  and  thus  obtain 
white  on  red  or  red  on  white.  Eventually  they  made  coated 
glass  of  blue  and  other  colours,  with  a  view  to  producing  similar 
effects  by  abrasion.  (The  same  result  is  arrived  at  nowadays 
by  means  of  etching.  The  skin  of  coloured  glass,  in  old  days 
laboriously  ground  or  cut  away,  is  now  easily  eaten  off  by  fluoric 
acid.)  One  other  exceptional  expedient  in  colouring  had  very 
considerable  effect  upon  the  development  of  glass  design  from 
about  the  beginning  of  the  i4th  century.  The  discovery  that 
a  solution  of  silver  applied  to  glass  would  under  the  action  of  the 


GLASS,  STAINED 


107 


__re  stain  it  yellow  enabled  the  glass  painter  to  get  yellow  upon 
colourless  glass,  green  upon  grey-blue,  and  (by  staining  only 
the  abraded  portions)  yellow  upon  blue  or  ruby.  This  yellow  was 
neither  enamel  nor  pot-metal  colour,  but  stain — the  only  staining 
actually  done  by  the  glass  painter  as  distinct  from  the  glass 
maker.  It  varied  in  colour  from  pale  lemon  to  deep  orange,  and 
was  singularly  pure  in  quality.  As  what  is  called  "  white  " 
glass  became  purer  and  was  employed  in  greater  quantities  it 
was  lavishly  used;  so  much  so  that  a  brilliant  effect  of  silvery 
white  and  golden  yellow  is  characteristic  of  later  Gothic 
windows. 

The  last  stage  of  glass  painting  was  the  employment  of  enamel 
not  for  stopping  out  light  but  to  get  colour.  It  began  to  be  used 
in  the  early  part  of  the  i6th  century — at  first  only  in  the  form  of  a 
flesh  tint ;  but  it  was  not  long  before  other  colours  were  introduced. 
This  use  of  colour  no  longer  in  the  glass  but  upon  it  marks  quite 
a  new  departure  in  technique.  Enamel  colour  was  finely  powdered 
coloured  glass  mixed  with  gum  or  some  such  substance  into  a 
pigment  which  could  be  applied  with  a  brush.  When  the  glass 
painted  with  it  was  brought  to  a  red  heat  in  the  oven,  the  powdered 
glass  melted  and  was  fused  to  it,  just  like  the  opaque  brown 
employed  from  the  very  beginning  of  glass-painting. 

This  process  of  enamelling  was  hardly  called  for  in  the  interests 
of  art.  Even  the  red  flesh-colour  (borrowed  from  the  Limoges 
enamellers  upon  copper)  did  not  in  the  least  give  the  quality  of 
flesh,  though  it  enabled  the  painter  to  suggest  by  contrast  the 
whiteness  of  a  man's  beard.  As  for  the  brighter  enamel  colours, 
they  had  nothing  like  the.  depth  or  richness  of  "stained  "  glass. 
What  enamel  really  did  was  to  make  easy  much  that  had  been 
impossible  in  mosaic,  as,  for  example,  to  represent  upon  the 
very  smallest  shield  of  arms  any  number  of  "  charges  "  all  in 
the  correct  tinctures.  It  encouraged  the  minute  workmanship 
characteristic  of  Swiss  glass  painting;  and,  though  this  was  not 
altogether  inappropriate  to  domestic  window  panes,  the  painter 
was  tempted  by  it  to  depart  from  the  simplicity  and  breadth  of 
design  inseparable  from  the  earlier  mosaic  practice.  In  the  end 
he  introduced  coloured  glass  only  where  he  could  hardly  help  it, 
and  glazed  the  great  part  of  his  window  in  rectangular  panes  of 
clear  glass,  upon  which  he  preferred  to  paint  his  picture  in  opaque 
brown  and  translucent  enamel  colours. 

Enamel  upon  glass  has  not  stood  the  test  of  time.  Its  presence 
is  usually  to  be  detected  in  old  windows  by  specks  of  light  shining 
through  the  colour.  This  is  where  the  enamel  has  crumbled  off. 
There  is  a  very  good  reason  for  that.  Enamel  must  melt  at  a 
temperature  at  which  the  glass  it  is  painted  on  keeps  its  shape. 
The  lower  the  melting  point  of  the  powdered  glass  the  more  easily 
it  is  fused.  The  painter  is  consequently  inclined  to  use  enamel  of 
which  the  contraction  and  expansion  is  much  greater  than  that  of 
his  glass — with  the  result  that,  under  the  action  of  the  weather, 
the  colour  is  apt  to  work  itself  free  and  expose  the  bare  white 
glass  beneath.  The  only  enamel  which  has  held  its  own  is  that  of 
the  Swiss  glass-painters  of  the  i6th  and  I7th  centuries.  The 
domestic  window  panes  they  painted  may  not  in  all  cases  have 
been  tried  by  the  sudden  changes  of  atmosphere  to  which  church 
windows  are  subject;  but  credit  must  be  given  them  for  ex- 
ceptionally skilful  and  conscientious  workmanship. 

The  story  of  stained  glass  is  bound  up  with  the  history  of 
architecture,  to  which  it  was  subsidiary,  and  of  the  church, 
which  was  its  patron.  Its  only  possible  course  of  development 
was  in  the  wake  of  church  building.  From  its  very  inception  it 
was  Gothic  and  ecclesiastical.  And,  though  it  survived  the 
upheaval  of  the  Renaissance  and  was  turned  to  civil  and  domestic 
use,  it  is  to  church  windows  that  we  must  go  to  see  what  stained 
glass  really  was — or  is;  for  time  has  been  kind  to  it.  The  charm 
of  medieval  glass  lies  to  a  great  extent  in  the  material,  and  especi- 
ally in  the  inequality  of  it.  Chemically  impure  and  mechanic- 
ally imperfect,  it  was  rarely  crude  in  tint  or  even  in  texture.  It 
shaded  off  from  light  to  dark  according  to  its  thickness;  it  was 
speckled  with  air  bubbles;  it  was  streaked  and  clouded;  and  all 
these  imperfections  of  manufacture  went  to  perfection  of  colour. 
And  age  has  improved  it:  the  want  of  homogeneousness  in  the 
material  has  led  to  the  disintegration  of  its  surface;  soft  particles 


in  it  have  been  dissolved  away  by  the  action  of  the  weather,  and 
the  surface,  pitted  like  an  oyster-shell,  refracts  the  light  in  a  way 
which  adds  greatly  to  the  effect;  at  the  same  time  there  is 
roothold  for  the  lichen  which  (like  the  curtains  of  black  cobwebs) 
veils  and  gives  mystery  to  the  colour.  An  appreciable  part  of  the 
beauty  of  old  glass  is  the  result  of  age  and  accident.  In  that 
respect  no  new  glass  can  compare  with  it.  There  is,  however,  no 
such  thing  as  "  the  lost  secret  "  of  glass-making.  It  is  no  secret 
that  age  mellows. 

Stained  and  painted  glass  is  commonly  apportioned  to  its 
"  period,"  Gothic  or  Renaissance,  and  further  to  the  particular 
phase  of  the  style  to  which  it  belongs.  C.  Winston,  who  was  the 
first  to  inquire  thoroughly  into  English  glass,  adopting  T. 
Rickman's  classification,  divided  Gothic  windows  into  Early 
English  (to  c.  1280),  Decorated  (to  c.  1380)  and  Perpendicular 
(to  c.  1530).  These  dates  will  do.  But  the  transition  from  one 
phase  of  design  to  another  is  never  so  sudden,  nor  so  easily 
defined,  as  any  table  of  dates  would  lead  us  to  suppose.  The  old 
style  lingered  in  one  district  long  after  the  new  fashion  was 
flourishing  in  another.  Besides,  the  English  periods  do  not  quite 
coincide  with  those  of  other  countries.  France,  Germany  and 
the  Low  Countries  count  for  much  in  the  history  of  stained  glass; 
and  in  no  two  places  was  the  pace  of  progress  quite  the  same. 
There  was,  for  example,  scarcely  any  13th-century  Gothic  in 
Germany,  where  the  "  geometric "  style,  equivalent  to  our 
Decorated,  was  preceded  by  the  Romanesque  period;  in  France 
the  Flamboyant  took  the  place  of  our  Perpendicular;  and  in 
Italy  Gothic  never  properly  took  root  at  all.  All  these  con- 
sidered, a  rather  rough  and  ready  division  presents  the  least 
difficulty  to  the  student  of  old  glass;  and  it  will  be  found  con- 
venient to  think  of  Gothic  glass  as  (i)  Early,  (2)  Middle  and  (3) 
Late,  and  of  the  subsequent  windows  as  (i)  Renaissance  and  (2) 
Late  Renaissance.  The  three  periods  of  Gothic  correspond 
approximately  to  the  i3th,  i4th  and  isth  centuries.  The 
limits  of  the  two  periods  of  the  Renaissance  are  not  so  easily 
defined.  In  the  first  part  of  the  i6th  century  (in  Italy  long 
before  that)  the  Renaissance  and  Gothic  periods  overlapped;  in 
the  latter  part  of  it,  glass  painting  was  already  on  the  decline; 
and  in  the  iyth  and  i8th  centuries  it  sank  to  deeper  depths  of 
degradation. 

The  likeness  of  early  windows  to  translucent  enamel  (which  is 
also  glass)  is  obvious.  The  lines  of  lead  glazing  correspond 
absolutely  to  the  "  cloisons  "  of  Byzantine  goldsmith's  work. 
Moreover,  the  extreme  minuteness  of  the  leading  (not  always 
either  mechanically  necessary  or  architecturally  desirable) 
suggests  that  the  starting  point  of  all  this  gorgeous  illumination 
was  the  idea  of  reproducing  on  a  grandiose  scale  the  jewelled 
effect  produced  in  small  by  cloisonne  enamellers.  In  other 
respects  the  earliest  glass  shows  the  influence  of  Byzantine 
tradition.  It  is  mainly  according  to  the  more  or  less  Byzantine 
character  of  its  design  and  draughtsmanship  that  archaeologists 
ascribe  certain  remains  of  old  glass  to  the  1 2th  or  the  nth  century. 
Apart  from  documentary  or  direct  historic  evidence,  it  is  not 
possible  to  determine  the  precise  date  of  any  particular  fragment. 
In  the  "  restored  "  windows  at  St  Denis  there  are  remnants  of 
glass  belonging  to  the  year  1108.  Elsewhere  in  France  (Reims, 
Anger,  Le  Mans,  Chartres,  &c.)  there  is  to  be  found  very  early 
glass,  some  of  it  probably  not  much  later  than  the  end  of  the  loth 
century,  which  is  the  date  confidently  ascribed  to  certain 
windows  at  St  Remi  (Reims)  and  at  Tegernsee.  The  rarer  the 
specimen  the  greater  may  be  its  technical  and  antiquarian 
interest.  But,  even  if  we  could  be  quite  sure  of  its  date,  there  is 
not  enough  of  this  very  early  work,  and  it  does  not  sufficiently 
distinguish  itself  from  what  followed,  to  count  artistically  for 
much.  The  glory  of  early  glass  belongs  to  the  i3th  century. 

The  design  of  windows  was  influenced,  of  course,  by  the  con- 
ditions of  the  workshop,  by  the  nature  of  glass,  the  difficulty 
of  shaping  it,  the  way  it  could  be  painted,  and  the  necessity 
of  lead  glazing.  The  place  of  glass  in  the  scheme  of  church 
decoration  led  to  a  certain  severity  in  the  treatment  of  it.  The 
growing  desire  to  get  more  and  more  light  into  the  churches, 
and  the  consequent  manufacture  of  purer  and  more  transparent 


io8 


GLASS,  STAINED 


glass,  affected  the  glazier's  colour  scheme.  For  all  that,  the 
fashion  of  a  window  was,  mutatis  mutandis,  that  of  the  painting, 
carving,  embroidery,  goldsmith's  work,  enamel  and  other  crafts- 
manship of  the  period.  The  design  of  an  ivory  triptych  is  very 
much  that  of  a  three-light  window.  There  is  a  little  enamelled 
shrine  of  German  workmanship  in  the  Victoria  and  Albert 
Museum  which  might  almost  have  been  designed  for  glass; 
and  the  famous  painted  ceiling  at  Hildesheim  is  planned  precisely 
on  the  lines  of  a  medallion  window  of  the  I3th  century.  By  that 
time  glass  had  fallen  into  ways  of  its  own,  and  there  were  already 
various  types  of  design  which  we  now  recognize  as  characteristic 
of  the  first  great  period,  in  some  respects  the  greatest  of  all. 

Pre-eminently  typical  of  the  first  period  is  the  "  medallion 
window."  Glaziers  began  by  naively  accepting  the  iron  bars 
across  the  light  as  the  basis  of  their  composition,  and  planned 
a  window  as  a  series  of  panels,  one  above  the  other,  between  the 
horizontal  crossbars  and  the  upright  lines  of  the  border  round  it. 
The  next  step  was  to  mitigate  the  extreme  severity  of  this  com- 
position by  the  introduction  of  a  circular  or  other  medallion 
within  the  square  boundary  lines.  Eventually  these  were 
abandoned  altogether,  the  iron  bars  were  shaped  according  to 
the  pattern,  and  there  was  evolved  the  "  medallion  window," 
in  which  the  main  divisions  of  the  design  are  emphasized  by  the 
strong  bands  of  iron  round  them.  Medallions  were  invariably 
devoted  to  picturing  scenes  from  Bible  history  or  from  the  lives 
of  the  saints,  set  forth  in  the  simplest  and  most  straightforward 
manner,  the  figures  all  on  one  plane,  and  as  far  as  possible  clear-cut 
against  a  sapphire-blue  or  ruby-red  ground.  Scenery  was  not  so 
much  depicted  as  suggested.  An  arch  or  two  did  duty  for  archi- 
tecture, any  scrap  of  foliated  ornament  for  landscape.  Simplicity 
of  silhouette  was  absolutely  essential  to  the  readableness  of 
pictures  on  the  small  scale  allowed  by  the  medallion.  As  it  is, 
they  are  so  difficult  to  decipher,  so  confused  and  broken  in  effect, 
as  to  give  rise  (the  radiating  shape  of  "  rose  windows  "  aiding) 
to  the  misconception  that  the  design  of  early  glass  is  kaleido- 
scopic— which  it  is  not.  The  intervals  between  subject  medallions 
were  filled  in  England  (Canterbury)  with  scrollwork,  in  France 
(Chartres)  more  often  with  geometric  diaper,  in  which  last 
sometimes  the  red  and  blue  merge  into  an  unpleasant  purple. 
Design  on  this  small  scale  was  obviously  unsuited  to  distant 
windows.  Clerestory  lights  were  occupied  by  figures,  sometimes 
on  a  gigantic  scale,  entirely  occupying  the  window,  except  for 
the  border  and  perhaps  the  slightest  pretence  of  a  niche.  This 
arrangement  lent  itself  to  broad  effects  of  colour.  The  drawing 
may  be  rude;  at  times  the  figures  are  grotesque;  but  the  general 
impression  is  one  of  mysterious  grandeur  and  solemnity. 

The  depth  and  intensity  of  colour  in  the  windows  so  far  described 
comes  chiefly  from  the  quality  of  the  glass,  but  partly  also  from 
the  fact  that  very  little  white  or  pale-coloured  glass  was  used. 
It  was  not  the  custom  at  this  period  to  dilute  the  colour  of  a 
rich  window  with  white.  If  light  was  wanted  they  worked  in 
white,  enlivened,  it  might  be,  by  colour.  Strictly  speaking, 
13th-century  glass  was  never  colourless,  but  of  a  greenish  tint, 
due  to  impurities  in  the  sand,  potash  or  other  ingredients;  it 
was  of  a  horny  consistency,  too;  but  it  is  convenient  to  speak 
of  all  would-be-clear  glass  as  "  white."  The  greyish  windows  in 
which  it  prevails  are  technically  described  as  "  in  grisaille." 
There  are  examples  (Salisbury,  Chalons,  Bonlieu,  Angers)  of 
"  plain  glazing  "  in  grisaille,  in  which  the  lead  lines  make  very 
ingenious  and  beautiful  pattern.  In  the  more  usual  case  of 
painted  grisaille  the  lead  lines  still  formed  the  groundwork  of 
the  design,  though  supplemented  by  foliated  or  other  detail, 
boldly  outlined  in  strong  brown  and  emphasized  by  a  background 
of  cross-hatching.  French  grisaille  was  frequently  all  in  white 
(Reims,  St  Jean-aux-Bois,  Sens),  English  work  was  usually 
enlivened  by  bands  and  bosses  of  colour  (Salisbury);  but  the 
general  effect  of  the  window  was  still  grey  and  silvery,  even 
though  there  might  be  distributed  about  it  (the  "  five  sisters," 
York  minster)  a  fair  amount  of  coloured  glass.  The  use  of  grisaille 
is  sufficiently  accounted  for  by  considerations  of  economy 
and  the  des.ire  to  get  light;  but  it  was  also  in  some  sort  a  protest 
(witness  the  Cistercian  interdict  of  1 134)  against  undue  indulgence 


in  the  luxury  of  colour.  At  this  stage  of  its  development  it  was 
confined  strictly  to  patternwork;  figure  subjects  were  always 
in  colour.  For  all  that,  some  of  the  most  restful  and  entirely 
satisfying  work  of  the  I3th  century  was  in  grisaille  (Salisbury, 
Chartres,  Reims,  &c.). 

The  second  or  Middle  period  of  Gothic  glass  marks  a  stage 
between  the  work  of  the  Early  Gothic  artist  who  thought  out  his 
design  as  glazing,  and  that  of  the  later  draughtsman  who  con- 
ceived it  as  something  to  be  painted.  It  represents  to  many  the 
period  of  greatest  interest — probably  because  of  its  departure 
from  the  severity  of  Early  work.  It  was  the  period  of  more 
naturalistic  design;  and  a  touch  of  nature  is  more  easily 
appreciated  than  architectural  fitness.  Middle  Gothic  glass, 
halting  as  it  does  between  the  relatively  rude  mosaic  of  early 
times  and  the  painter-like  accomplishment  of  fully-developed 
glass  painting,  has  not  the  salient  merits  of  either.  In  the  matter 
of  tone  also  it  is  intermediate  between  the  deep,  rich,  sober 
harmonies  of  Early  windows  and  the  lighter,  brighter,  gayer 
colouring  of  later  glass.  Now  for  the  first  time  grisaille  ornament 
and  coloured  figurework  were  introduced  into  the  same  window. 
And  this  was  done  in  a  very  judicious  way,  in  alternate  bands 
'of  white  and  deep  rich  colour,  binding  together  the  long  lights 
into  which  windows  were  by  this  time  divided  (chapter-house, 
York  minster) .  A  similar  horizontal  tendency  of  design  is  notice- 
able in  windows  in  which  the  figures  are  enshrined  under  canopies, 
henceforth  a  feature  in  glass  design.  The  pinnaclework  falls 
into  pronounced  bands  of  brassy  yellow  between  the  tiers  of 
figures  (nave,  York  minster)  and  serves  to  correct  the  vertical 
lines  of  the  masonry.  Canopywork  grew  sometimes  to  such 
dimensions  as  quite  to  overpower  the  figure  it  was  supposed 
to  frame;  but,  then,  the  sense  of  scale  was  never  a  directing 
factor  in  Decorated  design.  A  more  interesting  form  of  ornament 
is  to  be  found  in  Germany,  where  it  was  a  pleasing  custom 
(Regensburg)  to  fill  windows  with  conventional  foliage  without 
figurework.  There  is  abundance  of  Middle  Gothic  glass  in 
England  (York,  Wells,  Ely,  Oxford),  but  the  best  of  it,  such  as 
the  great  East  window  at  Gloucester  cathedral,  has  features 
more  characteristic  of  the  isth  than  of  the  i4th  century. 

The  keynote  of  Late  Gothic  glass  is  brilliancy.  It  had  a  silvery 
quality.  The  isth  century  was  the  period  of  white  glass,  which 
approached  at  last  to  colourlessness,  and  was  employed  in  great 
profusion.  Canopywork,  more  universal  than  ever,  was  repre- 
sented almost  entirely  in  white  touched  with  yellow  stain,  but 
not  in  sufficient  quantities  to  impair  its  silveriness.  Whatever 
the  banality  of  the  idea  of  imitation  stonework  in  glass,  the 
effect  of  thus  framing  coloured  pictures  in  delicate  white  is 
admirable:  at  last  we  have  white  and  colour  in  perfect  combina- 
tion. Fifteenth-century  figurework  contains  usually  a  large 
proportion  of  white  glass;  flesh  tint  is  represented  by  white; 
there  is  white  in  the  drapery;  in  short,  there  is  always  white 
enough  in  the  figures  to  connect  them  with  the  canopywork  and 
make  the  whole  effect  one.  The  preponderance  of  white  will  be 
better  appreciated  when  it  is  stated  that  very  often  not  a  fifth 
or  sixth  part  of  the  glass  is  coloured.  It  is  no  uncommon  thing 
to  find  figures  draped  entirely  in  white  with  only  a  little  colour 
in  the  background;  and  figurework  all  in  grisaille  upon  a  ground 
of  white  latticework  is  quite  characteristic  of  Perpendicular 
glass. 

One  of  the  most  typical  forms  of  Late  English  Gothic  canopy 
is  where  (York  minster)  its  slender  pinnacles  fill  the  upper  part 
of  the  window,  and  its  solid  base  frames  a  picture  in  small  of 
some  episode  in  the  history  of  the  personage  depicted  as  large  as 
life  above.  A  much  less  satisfactory  continental  practice  was 
to  enrich  only  the  lower  half  of  the  window  with  stained  glass  and 
to  make  shift  above  (Munich)  with  "  roundels  "  of  plain  white 
glass,  the  German  equivalent  for  diamond  latticework. 

A  sign  of  later  times  is  the  way  pictures  spread  beyond  the 
confines  of  a  single  light.  This  happened  by  degrees.  At  first 
the  connexion  between  the  figures  in  separate  window  openings 
was  only  in  idea,  as  when  a  central  figure  of  the  crucified  Christ 
was  flanked  by  the  Virgin  and  St  John  in  the  side  lights.  Then 
the  arms  of  the  cross  would  be  carried  through,  or  as  it  were 


GLASS,  STAINED 

ii. 


PLATE  I. 


n. 
in. 


EARLY   GLAZING.     From  S.  Serge,  Angers,  Grisaille,  with 

colour  introduced  in  the  small  circles. 
AN    EARLY    BORDER.     From  S.  Kunibert,  Cologne. 
PORTION    OF    AN    EARLY    MEDALLION    WINDOW. 

From  Canterbury,  showing  the  plan  of  the  design  and  the 

ornamental  details. 


VI. 


IV.  AN  EARLY  FIGURE  FROM  LYONS.  Showing  the  leading 
of  the  eyes,  hair,  nimbus,  and  drapery. 

V.  DECORATED  LIGHTS.  From  S.  Urbain,  Troyes,  showing 
both  the  influence  of  the  early  period  in  the  figures,  and 
the  beginning  of  the  architectural  canopy. 

VI.  TYPICAL    DECORATED   CANOPY.     From  Exeter. 


XII.  108. 


Nos.  I.,  II.,  III.,  IV.,  VI.  are  taken  from  illustrations  in  Lewis  F.  Day,  Windows,  by  permission  of  B.  T.  Batsford. 


PLATE  II. 


GLASS,    STAINED 


I.  A  TYPICAL  PERPENDICULAR  CANOPY  (from  Lewis  F.  Day,  Windows,  by  permission  of  B.  T.  Batsford). 
II.  A  WINDOW  FROM  AUCH.     Illustrating  the  transition  from  Perpendicular  to  Renaissance. 

III.  A  SIXTEENTH-CENTURY  JESSE  WINDOW.     From  Beauvais  (source  as  in  Fig.  I.). 

IV.  PORTION  OF  A  RENAISSANCE  WINDOW:    From  Montmorency,  showing  the  perfection  of  glass  painting. 

From  Lucien  Magne,  Oeuvre  des  Peintres  Verricrs  Francais,  by  permission  of  Firmm-Didot  et  O«. 


GLASS,  STAINED 


behind,  the  mullions.  The  expansion  to  a  picture  right  across 
the  window  was  only  a  question  of  time.  Not  that  the  artist 
ventured  as  yet  to  disregard  the  architectural  setting  of  his 
picture — that  happened  later  on — but  that  he  often  composed 
it  with  such  cunning  reference  to  intervening  stonework  that  it 
did  not  interfere  with  it.  It  has  been  argued  that  each  separate 
light  of  a  window  ought  to  be  complete  in  itself.  On  the  other 
hand  it  has  proved  possible  to  make  due  acknowledgment  of 
architectural  conditions  without  cramping  design  in  that  way. 
There  can  be  no  doubt  as  to  the  variety  and  breadth  of  treatment 
gained  by  accepting  the  whole  window  as  field  for  a  design.  And, 
when  a  number  of  lights  go  to  make  a  window,  it  is  the  window, 
and  no  separate  part  of  it,  which  is  the  main  consideration. 

By  the  end  of  the  Gothic  period,  glass  painters  proceeded  on 
an  entirely  different  method  from  that  of  the  I3th  century. 
The  designer  of  early  days  began  with  glazing:  he  thought  in 
mosaic  and  leadwork;  the  lines  he  first  drew  were  the  lines  of 
glazing;  painting  was  only  a  supplementary  process,  enabling 
him  to  get  what  lead  lines  would  not  give.  The  Late  Gothic 
draughtsman  began  with  the  idea  of  painting;  glazing  was  to  him 
of  secondary  importance;  he  reached  a  stage  (Creation  window, 
Great  Malvern)  where  it  is  clear  that  he  first  sketched  out  his 
design,  and  then  bethought  him  how  to  glaze  it  in  such  wise  that 
the  leadwork  (which  once  boldly  outlined  everything)  should  not 
interfere  with  the  picture.  The  artful  way  in  which  he  would 
introduce  little  bits  of  colour  into  a  window  almost  entirely 
white,  makes  it  certain  that  he  had  always  at  the  back  of  his 
mind  the  consideration  of  the  glazing  to  come.  So  long  as  he 
thought  of  that,  and  did  not  resent  it,  all  was  fairly  well  with 
glass  painting,  but  there  came  a  point  where  he  found  it  difficult, 
if  not  impossible,  to  reconcile  the  extreme  delicacy  of  his  painting 
upon  white  glass  with  the  comparatively  brutal  strength  of 
his  lead  lines.  It  is  here  that  the  conditions  of  painting  and 
glazing  clash  at  last. 

It  must  not  be  supposed  that  Late  Gothic  windows  were  never 
by  any  chance  rich  in  colour.  Local  conservatism  and  personal 
predilection  prevented  anything  like  monotonous  progress  in 
a  single  direction.  There  is  (St  Sebald,  Nuremberg)  Middle 
Gothic  glass  as  dense  in  colour  as  any  13th-century  work,  and 
Late  Gothic  (Troyes  cathedral)  which,  from  its  colour,  one  might 
take  at  first  to  be  a  century  earlier  than  it  is.  In  Italy  (Florence) 
and  to  some  extent  in  Spain  (Seville)  it  was  the  custom  to  make 
canopywork  so  rich  in  colour  that  it  was  more  like  part  of  the 
picture  than  a  frame  to  it.  But  that  was  by  exception.  The 
tendency  was  towards  lighter  windows.  Glass  itself  was  less 
deeply  stained  when  painters  depended  more  upon  their  power 
of  deepening  it  by  paint.  It  was  the  seeking  after  delicate 
effects  of  painting,  quite  as  much  as  the  desire  to  let  light  into 
the  church,  which  determined  the  tone  of  later  windows.  The 
clearer  the  glass  the  more  scope  it  gave  for  painting. 

It  is  convenient  to  draw  a  line  between  Gothic  art  and  Renais- 
sance. Nothing  is  easier  than  to  say  that  windows  in  which 
crocketed  canopywork  occurs  are  Gothic,  and  that  those  with 
arabesque  are  Renaissance.  But  that  is  an  arbitrary  distinction, 
which  does  not  really  distinguish.  Some  of  the  most  beautiful 
work  in  glass,  such  for  example  as  that  at  Auch,  is  so  plainly 
intermediate  between  two  styles  that  it  is  impossible  to  describe 
it  as  anything  but  "  transitional."  And,  apart  from  particular 
instances,  we  have  only  to  look  at  the  best  Late  Gothic  work  to 
see  that  it  is  informed  by  the  new  spirit,  and  at  fine  Renaissance 
glass  to  observe  how  it  conforms  to  Gothic  traditions  of  workman- 
ship. The  new  idea  gave  a  spurt  to  Gothic  art;  and  it  was 
Gothic  impetus  which  carried  Renaissance  glass  painting  to  the 
summit  of  accomplishment  reached  in  the  first  half  of  the  i6th 
century.  When  that  subsided,  and  the  pictorial  spirit  of  the  age 
at  last  prevailed,  the  bright  days  of  glass  were  at  an  end.  If  we 
have  to  refer  to  the  early  Renaissance  as  the  culminating  period 
of  glass  painting,  it  is  because  the  technique  of  an  earlier  period 
found  in  it  freer  and  fuller  expression.  With  the  Renaissance, 
design  broke  free  from  the  restraints  of  tradition. 

An  interesting  development  of  Renaissance  design  was  the 
framing  of  pictures  in  golden-yellow  arabesque  ornament, 


scarcely  architectural  enough  to  be  called  canopywork,  and 
reminiscent  rather. of  beaten  goldsmith's  work  than  of  stone 
carving.  This  did  for  the  glass  picture  what  a  gilt  frame  does  for 
a  painting  in  oil.  Very  often  framework  of  any  kind  was  dispensed 
with.  The  primitive  idea  of  accepting  bars  and  mullions  as 
boundaries  of  design,  and  filling  the  compartments  formed  by 
them  with  a  medley  of  little  subjects,  lingered  on.  The  result 
was  delightfully  broken  colour,  but  inevitable  confusion;  for 
iron  and  masonry  do  not  effectively  separate  glass  pictures. 
There  was  no  longer  in  late  glass  any  pretence  of  preserving  the 
plane  of  the  window.  It  was  commonly  designed  to  suggest  that 
one  saw  out  of  it.  Throughout  the  period  of  the  Renaissance, 
architectural  and  landscape  backgrounds  play  an  important 
part  in  design.  An  extremely  beautiful  feature  in  early  16th- 
century  French  glass  pictures  (Rouen,  &c.)  is  the  little  peep  of 
distant  country  delicately  painted  upon  the  pale-blue  glass  which 
represents  the  sky.  In  larger  work  landscape  and  architecture 
were  commonly  painted  upon  white  (King's  College,  Cambridge). 
The  landscape  effect  was  always  happiest  when  one  or  other  of 
these  conventions  was  adopted.  Canopywork  never  went  quite 
out  of  fashion.  For  a  long  while  the  plan  was  still  to  frame 
coloured  pictures  in  white.  Theoretically  this  is  no  less  effectually 
to  be  done  by  Italian  than  by  Gothic  shrinework.  Practically  the 
architectural  setting  assumed  in  the  i6th  century  more  and  more 
the  aspect  of  background  to  the  figures,  and,  in  order  that  it 
should  take  its  place  in  the  picture,  they  painted  it  so  heavily  that 
it  no  longer  told  as  white.  Already  in  van  Orley's  magnificent 
transept  windows  at  St  Gudule,  Brussels,  the  great  triumphal  arch 
behind  the  kneeling  donors  and  their  patron  saints  (in  late  glass 
donors  take  more  and  more  the  place  of  holy  personages)  tells 
dark  against  the  clear  ground.  There  came  a  time,  towards  the 
end  of  the  century,  when,  as  in  the  wonderful  windows  at  Gouda, 
the  very  quality  of  white  glass  is  lost  in  heavily  painted  shadow. 

The  pictorial  ambition  of  the  glass  painter,  active  from  the 
first,  was  kept  for  centuries  within  the  bounds  of  decoration. 
Medallion  subjects  were  framed  in  ornament,  standing  figures  in 
canopywork,  and  pictures  were  conceived  with  regard  to  the 
window  and  its  place  in  architecture.  Severity  of  treatment  in 
design  may  have  been  due  more  to  the  limitations  of  technique 
than  to  restraint  on  the  part  of  the  painter.  The  point  is  that  it 
led  to  unsurpassed  results.  It  was  by  absolute  reliance  upon  the 
depth  and  brilliancy  of  self-coloured  glass  that  all  the  beautiful 
effects  of  early  glass  were  obtained.  We  need  not  compare  early 
mosaic  with  later  painted  glass;  each  was  in  its  way  admirable; 
but  the  early  manner  is  the  more  peculiar  to  glass,  if  not  the  more 
proper  to  it.  The  ruder  and  more  archaic  design  gives  in  fullest 
measure  the  glory  of  glass — for  the  loss  of  which  no  quality  of 
painting  ever  got  in  glass  quite  makes  amends.  The  pictorial 
effects  compatible  with  glass  design  are  those  which  go  with  pure, 
brilliant  and  translucent  colour.  The  ideal  of  a  "primitive" 
Italian  painter  was  more  or  less  to  be  realized  in  glass:  that  of  a 
Dutch  realist  was  not.  It  is  astonishing  what  glass  painters  did 
in  the  way  of  light  and  shade.  But  the  fact  remains  that  heavy 
painting  obscured  the  glass,  that  shadows  rendered  in  opaque 
surface-colour  lacked  translucency,  and  that  in  seeking  before  all 
things  the  effects  of  shadow  and  relief,  glass  painters  of  the  lyth 
century  fell  short  of  the  qualities  on  the  one  hand  of  glass  and  on 
the  other  of  painting. 

The  course  of  glass  painting  was  not  so  even  as  this  general 
survey  of  its  progress  might  seem  to  imply.  It  was  quickened 
here,  impeded  there,  by  historic  events.  The  art  made  a  splendid 
start  in  France;  but  its  development  was  stayed  by  the  disasters 
of  war,  just  when  in  England  it  was  thriving  under  the  Planta- 
genets.  It  revived  again  under  Francis  I.  In  Germany  it  was 
with  the  prosperity  of  the  free  cities  of  the  Empire  that  glass 
painting  prospered.  In  the  Netherlands  it  blossomed  out  under 
the  favour  of  Charles  V.  In  the  Swiss  Confederacy  its  direction 
was  determined  by  civil  and  domestic  instead  of  church  patron- 
age. In  most  countries  there  were  in  different  districts  local 
schools  of  glass  painting,  each  with  some  character  of  its  own.  To 
what  extent  design  was  affected  by  national  temperament  it  is  not 
easy  to  say.  The  marked  divergence  of  the  Flemish  from  the 


no 


GLASS,  STAINED 


French  treatment  of  glass  in  the  i6th  century  is  not  entirely  due 
to  a  preference  on  the  one  part  for  colour  and  on  the  other  for 
light  and  shade,  but  is  partly  owing  to  the  circumstance  that, 
whilst  in  France  design  remained  in  the  hands  of  craftsmen, 
whose  trade  was  glass  painting,  in  the  Netherlands  it  was 
entrusted  by  the  emperor  to  his  court  painter,  who  concerned 
himself  as  little  as  possible  with  a  technique  of  which  he  knew 
nothing.  If  in  France  we  come  also  upon  the  names  of  well- 
known  artists,  they  seem,  like  Jean  Cousin,  to  have  been  closely 
connected  with  glass  painting:  they  designed  so  like  glass 
painters  that  they  might  have  begun  their  artistic  career  in  the 
workshop. 

The  attribution  of  fine  windows  to  famous  artists  should  not 
be  too  readily  accepted;  for,  though  it  is  a  foible  of  modern 
times  to  father  whatever  is  noteworthy  upon  some  great  name, 
the  masterpieces  of  medieval  art  are  due  to  unknown  craftsmen. 
In  Italy,  where  glass  painting  was  not  much  practised,  and  it 
seems  to  have  been  the  custom  either  to  import  glass  painters  as 
they  were  wanted  or  to  get  work  done  abroad,  it  may  well  be 
that  designs  were  supplied  by  artists  more  or  less  distinguished. 
Ghiberti  and  Donatello  may  have  had  a  hand  in  the  cartoons  for 
the  windows  of  the  Duomo  at  Florence;  but  it  is  not  to  any 
sculptor  that  we  can  give  the  entire  credit  of  design  so  absolutely 
in  the  spirit  of  colour  decoration.  The  employment  of  artists  not 
connected  with  glass  design  would  go  far  to  explain  the  great 
difference  of  Italian  glass  from  that  of  other  countries.  The  14th- 
century  work  at  Assisi  is  more  correctly  described  as  "  Trecento  " 
than  as  Gothic,  and  the  "  Quattrocento  "  windows  at  Florence 
are  as  different  as  could  be  from  Perpendicular  work.  One 
compares  them  instinctively  with  Italian  paintings,  not  with 
glass  elsewhere.  And  so  with  the  isth-century  Italian  glass. 
The  superb  16th-century  windows  of  William  of  Marseilles  at 
Arezzo,  in  which  painting  is  carried  to  the  furthest  point  possible 
short  of  sacrificing  the  pure  quality  of  glass,  are  more  according 
to  contemporary  French  technique.  Both  French  and  Italian 
influence  may  be  traced  in  Spanish  glass  (Avila,  Barcelona, 
Burgos,  Granada,  Leon,  Seville,  Toledo).  Some  of  it  is  said  to 
have  been  executed  in  France.  If  so  it  must  have  been  done  to 
Spanish  order.  The  coarse  effectiveness  of  the  design,  the 
strength  of  the  colour,  the  general  robustness  of  the  art,  are 
characteristically  Spanish;  and  nowhere  this  side  of  the  Pyrenees 
do  we  find  detail  on  a  scale  so  enormous. 

We  have  passed  by,  in  following  the  progressive  course  of 
craftsmanship,  some  forms  of  design,  peculiar  to  no  one  period 
but  very  characteristic  of  glass.  The  "  quarry  window,"  barely 
referred  to,  its  diamond-shaped  or  oblong  panes  painted,  richly 
bordered,  relieved  by  bosses  of  coloured  ornament  often  heraldic, 
is  of  constant  occurrence.  Entire  windows,  too,  were  from 
first  to  last  given  up  to  heraldry.  The  "  Jesse  window  "  occurs 
in  every  style.  According  to  the  fashion  of  the  time  the  "  Stem 
of  Jesse  "  burst  out  into  conventional  foliage,  vine  branches 
or  arbitrary  scrollwork.  It  appealed  to  the  designer  by  the 
scope  it  gave  for  freedom  of  design.  He  found  vent,  again, 
for  fantastic  imagination  in  the  representation  of  the  "Last 
Judgment,"  to  which  the  west  window  was  commonly  devoted. 
And  there  are  other  schemes  in  which  he  delighted;  but  this 
is  not  the  place  to  dwell  upon  them. 

The  glass  of  the  lyth  century  does  not  count  for  much.  Some 
of  the  best  in  England  is  the  work  of  the  Dutch  van  Linge  family 
(Wadham  and  Balliol  Colleges,  Oxford).  What  glass  painting 
came  to  in  the  i8th  century  is  nowhere  better  to  be  seen  than  in 
the  great  west  window  of  the  ante-chapel  at  New  College,  Oxford. 
That  is  all  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  and  the  best  china  painter  of 
his  day  could  do  between  them.  The  very  idea  of  employing  a 
china  painter  shows  how  entirely  the  art  of  the  glass  painter 
had  died  out. 

It  re-awoke  in  England  with  the  Gothic  revival  of  the  ipth 
century;  and  the  Gothic  revival  determined  the  direction 
modern  glass  should  take.  Early  Victorian  doings  are  interesting 
only  as  marking  the  steps  of  recovery  (cf .  the  work  of  T.Willement 
in  the  choir  of  the  Temple  church;  of  Ward  and  Nixon,  lately 
removed  from  the  south  transept  of  Westminster  Abbey;  of 


Wailes).  Better  things  begin  with  the  windows  at  Westminster 
inspired  by  A.  C.  Pugin,  who  exercised  considerable  influence 
over  his  contemporaries.  John  Powell  (Hardman  &  Co.)  was 
an  able  artist  content  to  walk,  even  after  that  master's  death, 
reverently  in  his  footsteps.  Charles  Winston,  whose  Hints 
on  Glass  Painting  was  the  first  real  contribution  towards  the 
understanding  of  Gothic  glass,  and  who,  by  the  aid  of  the  Powells 
(of  Whitefriars)  succeeded  in  getting  something  very  like  the 
texture  and  colour  of  old  glass,  was  more  learned  in  ancient 
ways  of  workmanship  than  appreciative  of  the  art  resulting 
from  them.  (He  is  responsible  for  the  Munich  glass  in  Glasgow 
cathedral.)  So  it  was  that,  except  for  here  and  there  a  window 
entrusted  by  exception  to  W.  Dyce,  E.  Poynter,  D.  G.  Rossetti, 
Ford  Madox  Brow,n  or  E.  Burne- Jones,  glass,  from  the  beginning 
of  its  recovery,  fell  into  the  hands  of  men  with  a  strong  bias 
towards  archaeology.  The  architects  foremost  in  the  Gothic 
revival  (W.  Butterfield,  Sir  G.  Scott,  G.  E.  Street,  &c.)  were  all 
inclined  that  way;  and,  as  they  had  the  placing  of  commissions 
for  windows,  they  controlled  the  policy  of  glass  painters. 
Designers  were  constrained  to  work  in  the  pedantically  archaeo- 
logical manner  prescribed  by  architectural  fashion.  Unwillingly 
as  it  may  have  been,  they  made  mock-medieval  windows,  the 
interest  in  which  died  with  the  popular  illusion  about  a  Gothic 
revival.  But  they  knew  their  trade;  and  when  an  artist  like 
John  Clayton  (master  of  a  whole  school  of  later  glass  painters) 
took  a  window  in  hand  (St  Augustine's,  Kilburn ;  Truro  cathedral ; 
King's  College  Chapel,  Cambridge)  the  result  was  a  work  of  art 
from  which,  tradework  as  it  may  in  a  sense  be,  we  may  gather 
what  such  men  might  have  done  had  they  been  left  free  to  follow 
their  own  artistic  impulse.  It  is  necessary  to  refer  to  this  because 
it  is  generally  supposed  that  whatever  is  best  in  recent  glass  is 
due  to  the  romantic  movement.  The  charms  of  Burne-Jones's 
design  and  of  William  Morris's  colour,  place  the  windows  done 
by  them  among  the  triumphs  of  modern  decorative  art;  but 
Morris  was  neither  foremost  in  the  reaction,  nor  quite  such  a 
master  of  the  material  he  was  working  in  as  he  showed  himself 
in  less  exacting  crafts.  Other  artists  to  be  mentioned  in  con- 
nexion with  glass  design  are:  Clement  Heaton,  Bayne,  N.  H.  J. 
Westlake  and  Henry  Holiday,  not  to  speak  of  a  younger  genera- 
tion of  able  men. 

Foreign  work  shows,  as  compared  with  English,  a  less  just 
appreciation  of  glass,  though  the  foremost  draughtsmen  of 
their  day  were  enlisted  for  its  design.  In  Germany,  King  Louis 
of  Bavaria  employed  P.  von  Cornelius  and  W.  von  Kaulbach 
(Aix-la-Chapelle,  Cologne,  Glasgow);  in  France  the  Bourbons 
employed  J.  A.  D.  Ingres,  F.  V.  E.  Delacroix,  Vernet  and  J.  H. 
Flandrin  (Dreux);  and  the  execution  of  their  designs  was 
entrusted  to  the  most  expert  painters  to  be  procured  at  Munich 
and  Sevres;  but  all  to  little  effect.  They  either  used  potmetal 
glass  of  poor  quality,  or  relied  upon  enamel — with  the  result 
that  their  colour  lacks  the  qualities  of  glass.  Where  it  is  not 
heavy  with  paint  it  is  thin  and  crude.  In  Belgium  happier 
results  were  obtained.  In  the  chapel  of  the  Holy  Sacrament  at 
Brussels  there  is  one  window  by  J.  B.  Capronnier  not  unworthy 
of  the  fine  series  by  B.  van  Orley  which  it  supplements.  At  the 
best,  however,  foreign  artists  failed  to  appreciate  the  quality 
of  glass;  they  put  better  draughtsmanship  into  their  windows 
than  English  designers  of  the  mid- Victorian  era,  and  painted 
them  better;  but  they  missed  the  glory  of  translucent  colour. 

Modern  facilities  of  manufacture  make  possible  many  things 
which  were  hitherto  out  of  the  question.  Enamel  colours  are 
richer;  their  range  is  extended;  and  it  may  be  possible,  with 
the  improved  kilns  and  greater  chemical  knowledge  we  possess, 
to  make  them  hold  permanently  fast.  It  was  years  ago  demon- 
strated at  Sevres  how  a  picture  may  be  painted  in  colours  upon 
a  sheet  of  plate-glass  measuring  4  ft.  by  2\  ft.  We  are  now  no 
doubt  in  a  position  to  produce  windows  painted  on  much  larger 
sheets.  But  the  results  achieved,  technically  wonderful  as  they 
are,  hardly  warrant  the  waste  of  time  and  labour  upon  work  so 
costly,  so  fragile,  so  lacking  in  the  qualities  of  a  picture  on  the 
one  hand  and  of  glass  on  the  other. 

In  America,  John  la  Farge,  finding  European  material  not 


GLASS,  STAINED 


in 


dense  enough,  produced  potmetal  more  heavily  charged  with 
colour.  This  was  wilfully  streaked,  mottled  and  quasi- 
accidentally  varied;  some  of  it  was  opalescent;  much  of  it  was 
more  like  agate  or  onyx  than  jewels.  Other  forms  of  American 
enterprise  were :  the  making  of  glass  in  lumps,  to  be  chipped 


-  cathedrals. 


France. 
Chartres  -\ 
Le  Mans 
Bourges 
Reims 
Auxerre   J 
Ste  Chapelle,  Paris. 
Church  of  St  Jean-aux-Bois. 

England. 
York  minster. 
Ely  cathedral. 
Wells  cathedral. 
Tewkesbury  abbey. 


Church  of  St  Francis,  Assisi. 
Church     of     Or     San     Michele, 

Florence. 
Church  of  S.  Petronio,  Bologna. 


into  flakes;  the  ruckling  it; 
the  shaping  it  in  a  molten 
state,  or  the  pulling  it  out  of 
shape.  It  takes  an  artist  of 
some  reserve  to  make  judicious 
use  of  glass  like  this.  La  Farge 
and  L.  C.  Tiffany  have  turned  it 
to  beautiful  account;  but  even 
they  have  put  it  to  purposes 
more  pictorial  than  it  can 
properly  fulfil.  The  design  it 
calls  for  is  a  severely  abstract 
form  of  ornament  verging  upon 
the  barbaric. 

Of  late  years  each  country 
has  been  learning  so  much 
from  the  others  that  the 
newest  effort  is  very  much  in 
one  direction.  It  seems  to  be 
agreed  that  the  art  of  the 
window-maker  begins  with 
glazing,  that  the  all-needful 
thing  is  beautiful  glass,  that 
painting  may  be  reduced  to  a 
minimum,  and  on  occasion 
(thanks  to  new  developments 
in  the  making  of  glass)  dis- 
pensed with  altogether.  A 
tendency  has  developed  itself 
in  the  direction  not  merely  of 
mosaic,  but  of  carrying  the 
glazier's  art  farther  than  has 
been  done  before  and  render- 
ing landscapes  and  even  figure 
subjects  in  unpainted  glass. 
When,  however,  it  comes  to 
the  representation  of  the 
human  face,  the  limitations 
of  simple  lead-glazing  are  at 
once  apparent.  A  possible 
way  out  of  the  difficulty  was 
shown  at  the  Paris  Exhibition 
of  1900  by  M.  Tournel,  who, 
by  fusing  together  coloured 
tesserae  on  to  larger  pieces  of 
colourless  glass,  anticipated  the 
discovery  of  the  already  men- 
tioned fragment  of  Byzantine 
mosaic  now  in  the  Victoria 
and  Albert  Museum.  He  may 
have  seen  or  heard  of  some- 
thing of  the  sort.  There  would 
be  no  advantage  in  building 
up  whole  windows  in  this 
way;  but  for  the  rendering  of 
the  flesh  and  sundry  minute 
details  in  a  window  for  the 
most  part  heavily  leaded,  this 
fusing  together  of  tesserae, 
and  even  of  .  little  pieces  of 

glass  cut  carefully  to  shape,  seems  to  supply  the  want  of  some- 
thing more  in  keeping  with  severe  mosaic  glazing  than  painted 
flesh  proves  to  be. 

Glass  painters  are  allowed  to-day  a  freer  hand  than  formerly. 
They  are  no  longer  exclusively  engaged  upon  ecclesiastical  work ; 
domestic  glass  is  an  important  industry;  and  a  workman  once 
comparatively  exempt  from  pedantic  control  is  not  so  easily 


restrained  from  self-expression.  Moreover,  the  recognition  of 
the  artistic  position  of  craftsmen  in  general  makes  it  possible 
for  a  man  to  devote  himself  to  glass  without  sinking  to  the  rank 
of  a  mechanic;  and  artists  begin  to  realize  the  scope  glass  offers 
them.  What  they  lack  as  yet  is  experience  in  their  craft,  and 


Examples  of  Important  Historical  Stained  Glass. 

There  are  remains  of  the  earliest  known  glass:  in  France — at  Le  Mans,  Chartres,  ChSlons-sur-Marne, 
Angers  and  Poitiers  cathedrals,  the  abbey  church  of  St  Denis  and  at  St  Remi,  Reims :  in  England — at 
York  minster  (fragments):  in  Germany — at  Augsburg  and  Strassburg  cathedrals:  in  Austria — in  the 
cloisters  of  Heiligen  Kreuz. 

The  following  is  a  classified  list  of  some  of  the  most  characteristic  and  important  windows,  omitting 
for  the  most  part  isolated  examples,  and  giving  by  preference  the  names  of  churches  where  there  is  a  fair 
amount  of  glass  remaining;  the  country  in  which  at  each  period  the  art  throve  best  is  put  first. 

EARLY  GOTHIC 

England. 
Canterbury  ) 
Salisbury      £  cathedrals. 
Lincoln         ) 
York  minster. 


Germany. 
Church  of  St  Kunibert,  Cologne 

(Romanesque). 
Cologne  cathedral. 


MIDDLE  GOTHIC 

Germany. 

Church  of  St  Sebald,  Nuremberg. 
Strassburg  -\ 
Regensburg 

Augsburg     L  cathedrals. 
Erfurt 

Freiburg      J 
Church  of  Nieder  Haslach. 


LATE  GOTHIC 

France. 
Bourges  .  cathedrals> 


England. 

New  College,  Oxford. 

Gloucester  cathedral.  XT 

York,  minster  and  other  churches.  Church  of  Notre  Dame,  Alencon. 
Great  Malvern  abbey. 


Church  of  St  Mary,  Shrewsbury. 

Fairford  church.  The  Duomo,  Florence. 

TRANSITION  PERIOD 
The  choir  of  the  cathedral  at  Auch. 


France. 
St  Vincent  ) 
St  Patrice  y  Rouen. 
St  Godard  J 

Church  of  St  Foy,  Conches. 
Church  of  St  Gervais,  Paris. 
Church  of  St  Etienne-du-Mont, 

Paris. 
Church    of   St    Martin, 

morency. 

Church  of  Ecouen. 
Church  of  St  Etienne,  Beauvais. 
Church  of  St  Nizier,  Troyes. 
Church     of     Brou,     Bourg-en- 

Bresse. 
The  Chateau  de  Chantilly. 


RENAISSANCE 
Netherlands. 
Brussels  cathedral. 
Church  of  St  Jacques 
Church  of  St  Martin 
Cathedral 


Liege. 


France. 

Evreux  cathedral. 
Church  of  St  Pierre,  Chartres. 
Cathedral    and    church    of     St 

Urbain,  Troyes. 

Church  of  Ste  Radegonde, Poitiers. 
Cathedral  and  church  of  St  Ouen, 

Rouen. 

Spain. 
Toledo  cathedral. 


Germany. 
Cologne  ) 

Ulm        C  cathedrals.. 
Munich  ) 
Church  of  St  Lorenz,  Nuremberg. 

Spain. 
Toledo  cathedral. 


Switzerland. 

Lucerne  and  most  of  the.  other 
principal  museums. 


Arezzo 


Italy. 
I  cathedrals. 


Granada 
Seville 


Spain. 
cathedrals. 


Netherlands. 
Groote  Kirk,  Gouda. 
Choir  of  Brussels  cathedral. 
Antwerp  cathedral. 


Mont-  Milan 

Certosa  di  Pavia. 
Church  of  S.  Petronio,  Bologna. 
Church   of    Sta  Maria   Novella, 
Florence. 

Germany. 
Freiburg  cathedral., 

LATE  RENAISSANCE 

France. 
Church  of  St  Martin-es-Vignes, 

Troyes. 

Nave    and    transepts    of    Auch 
cathedral. 


Cam- 


England. 

King's     College     chapel, 
bridge. 

Lichfield  cathedral. 

St    George's    church,     Hanover 
Square,  London. 

St     Margaret's    church,     West- 
minster. 

England. 
Wadham  ) 

Balliol      f  colleges,  Oxford. 
New         ) 


Switzerland. 
Most  museums. 

perhaps  due  workmanlike  respect  for  traditional  ways  of  work- 
manship. When  the  old  methods  come  to  be  superseded 
it  will  be  only  by  new  ones  evolved  out  of  them.  At  present  the 
conditions  of  glass  painting  remain  very  much  what  they  were. 
The  supreme  beauty  of  glass  is  still  in  the  purity,  the  brilliancy, 
the  translucency  of  its  colour.  To  make  the  most  of  this  the 
designer  must  be  master  of  his  trade.  The  test  of  window  design 


112 


GLASSBRENNER— GLASTONBURY 


is,  now  as  ever,  that  it  should  have  nothing  to  lose  and  everything 
to  gain  by  execution  in  stained  glass. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Theophilus,  Arts  of  the  Middle  Ages  (London, 
1847);  Charles  Winston,  An  Inquiry  into  the  Difference  of  Style 
observable  in  Ancient  Glass  Painting,  especially  in  England  (Oxford, 
1847),  and  Memoirs  illustrative  of  the  Art  of  Glass  Painting  (London, 
1865);  N.  H.  J.  Westlake,  A  History  of  Design  in  Painted  Glass 
(4  vols.,  London,  1881-1894);  L.  F.  Day,  Windows,  A  Book  about 
Stained  and  Painted  Glass  (London,  1909),  and  Stained  Glass  (London, 
1903);  A.  W.  Franks,  A  Book  of  Ornamental  Glazing  Quarries 
(London,  1849) ;  A  Booke  of  Sundry  Draughtes,  principaly  serving 
for  Glasiers  (London,  1615,  reproduced  1900);  F.  G.  Joyce,  The 
Fairford  Windows  (coloured  plates)  (London,  1870);  Divers  Works 
of  Early  Masters  in  Ecclesiastical  Decoration,  edited  by  John  Weale 
(2  vols.,  London,  1846);  Ferdinand  de  Lasteyrie,  Histoire  de  la 
peinture  sur  verre  d'apres  ses  monuments  en  France  (2  vols.,  Paris, 
1852),  and  Quelques  mots  sur  la  theorie  de  la  peinture  sur  verre  (Paris, 
1853);  L.  Magne,  (Euvre  des  peintres  verriers  franc, ais  (2  vols.,  Paris, 
1885) ;  Viollet  le  Due,  "  Vitrail,"  vol.  ix.  of  the  Dictionnaire  raisonne 
de  V architecture  (Paris,  1868) ;  O.  Merson,  "  Les  Vitraux,"  Biblio- 
theoue  de  V  enseignement  des  beaux-arts  (Paris,  1895);  E.  Levy  and 
J.  B.  Caproftnier,  Histoire  de  la  peinture  sur  verre  (coloured  plates) 
(Brussels,  1860);  Ottin,  Le  Vitrail,  son  histoire  a  trovers  les  dges 
(Paris) ;  Pierre  le  Vieil,  L'Art  de  la  peinture  sur  verre  et  de  la  vitrerie 
(Paris,  1774);  C.  Cahier  and  A.  Martin,  Vitraux  peints  de  Bourges 
du  XIII'  siecle  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1841-1844);  S.  Clement  and  A. 
Guitard,  Vitraux  du  XIII'  siecle  de  la  cathedrale  de  Bourges  (Bourges, 
1900);  M.  A.  Gessert,  Geschichte  der  Glasmalerei  in  Deutschland 
and  den  Niederlanden,  Frankreich,  England,  &c.,  von  ihrem  Vr sprung 
bis  auf  die  neueste  Zeit  (Tubingen  and  Stuttgart,  1839;  also  an 
English  translation,  London,  1851);  F.  Geiges,  Der  alte  Fenster- 
schmuck  des  Freiburger  Munsters,  5  parts  (Freiburg  im  Breisgau, 
1902,  &c.) ;  A.  Hafner,  Chefs-d'csuvre  de  la  peinture  suisse  sur  verre 
(Berlin).  (L.  F.  D.) 

GLASSBRENNER,  ADOLF  (1810-1876),  German  humorist 
and  satirist,  was  born  at  Berlin  on  the  27th  of  March  1810. 
After  being  for  a  short  time  in  a  merchant's  office,  he  took  to 
journalism,  and  in  1831  edited  Don  Quixote,  a  periodical  which 
was  suppressed  in  1833  owing  to  its  revolutionary  tendencies. 
He  next,  under  the  pseudonym  Adolf  Brennglas,  published  a 
series  of  pictures  of  Berlin  life,  under  the  titles  Berlin  ivie  es 
ist  und — trinkl  (30  parts,  with  illustrations,  1833-1849),  and 
Buntes  Berlin  (14  parts,  with  illustrations,  Berlin,  1837-1858), 
and  thus  became  the  founder  of  a  popular  satirical  literature 
associated  with  modern  Berlin.  In  1840  he  married  the  actress 
Adele  Peroni  (1813-1895),  and  removed  in  the  following  year 
to  Neustrelitz,  where  his  wife  had  obtained  an  engagement  at 
the  Grand  ducal  theatre.  In  1848  Glassbrenner  entered  the 
political  arena  and  became  the  leader  of  the  democratic  party 
in  Mecklenburg-Strelitz.  Expelled  from  that  country  in  1850, 
he  settled  in  Hamburg,  where  he  remained  until  1858;  and  then 
he  became  editor  of  the  Montagszeitung  in  Berlin,  where  he  died 
on  the  25th  of  September  1876. 

Among  Glassbrenner's  other  humorous  and  satirical  writings  may 
be  mentioned:  Leben  und  Treiben  der  feinen  Welt  (1834);  Bilder 
•und  Traume  aus  Wien  (2  vols.,  1836);  Gedichte  (1851,  5th  ed.  1870); 
the  comic  epics,  Neuer  Reineke  Fuchs  (1846,  Ath  ed.  1870)  and 
Die  verkehrte  Welt  (1857,  6th  ed.  1873);  also  Berliner  Volksleben 
(3  vols.,  illustrated;  Leipzig,  1847-1851).  Glassbrenner  has 
published  some  charming  books  for  children,  notably  Lachende  Kinder 
(idth  ed.,  1884),  and  Sprechende  Tiere  (2Oth  ed.,  Hamburg,  1899). 

See  R.  Schmidt-Cabanis,  "  Adolf  Glassbrenner,"  in  unsere  Zeit 
(1881). 

GLASS  CLOTH,  a  textile  material,  the  name  of  which  indicates 
the  use  for  which  it  was  originally  intended.  The  cloths  are  in 
general  woven  with  the  plain  weave,  and  the  fabric  may  be  all 
white,  striped  or  checked  with  red,  blue  or  other  coloured 
threads;  the  checked  cloths  are  the  most  common.  The  real 
article  should  be  all  linen,  but  a  large  quantity  is  made  with 
cotton  warp  and  tow  weft,  and  in  some  cases  they  are  composed 
entirely  of  cotton.  The  short  fibres  of  the  cheaper  kind  are 
easily  detached  from  the  cloth,  and  hence  they  are  not  so  satis- 
factory for  the  purpose  for  which  they  are  intended. 

GLASSIUS,  SALOMO  (1593-1656),  theologian  and  biblical 
critic,  was  born  at  Sondershausen,  in  the  principality  of  Schwarz- 
burg-Sondershausen,  on  the  20th  of  May  1593.  In  1612  he 
entered  the  university  of  Jena.  In  1 6 1 5 ,  with  the  idea  of  studying 
law,  he  moved  to  Wittenberg.  In  consequence  of  an  illness, 
however,  he  returned  to  Jena  after  a  year.  Here,  as  a  student 
of  theology  under  Johann  Gerhard,  he  directed  his  attention 


especially  to  Hebrew  and  the  cognate  dialects;  in  1619  he  was 
made  an  "  adjunctus  "  of  the  philosophical  faculty,  and  some 
time  afterwards  he  received  an  appointment  to  the  chair  of 
Hebrew.  From  1625  to  1638  he  was  superintendent  in  Sonders- 
hausen; but  shortly  after  the  death  of  Gerhard  (1637)  he  was, 
in  accordance  with  Gerhard's  last  wish,  appointed  to  succeed 
him  at  Jena.  In  1640,  however,  at  the  earnest  invitation  of 
Duke  Ernest  the  Pious,  he  removed  to  Gotha  as  court  preacher 
and  general  superintendent  in  the  execution  of  important  reforms 
which  had  been  initiated  in  the  ecclesiastical  and  educational 
establishments  of  the  duchy.  The  delicate  duties  attached  to 
this  office  he  discharged  with  tact  and  energy;  and  in  the 
"  syncretistic  "  controversy,  by  which  Protestant  Germany 
was  so  long  vexed,  he  showed  an  unusual  combination  of  firmness 
with  liberality,  of  loyalty  to  the  past  with  a  just  regard  to  the 
demands  of  the  present  and  the  future.  He  died  on  the  27th  of 
July  1656. 

His  principal  work,  Philologia  sacra  (1623),  marks  the  transition 
from  the  earlier  views  on  questions  of  biblical  criticism  to  those  of 
the  school  of  Spener.  It  was  more  than  once  reprinted  during  his 
lifetime,  and  appeared  in  a  new  and  revised  form,  edited  by  J.  A. 
Dathe  (1731—1791)  and  G.  L.  Bauer  at  Leipzig.  Glassius  succeeded 
Gerhard  as  editor  of  the  Weimar  Bibelwerk,  and  wrote  the  commentary 
on  the  poetical  books  of  the  Old  Testament  for  that  publication.  A 
volume  of  his  Opuscula  was  printed  at  Leiden  in  1700. 

See  the  article  in  Herzog-Hauck,  Realencyklopadie, 

GLASS  WORT,  a  name  given  to  Salicornia  herbacea  (also 
known  as  marsh  samphire),  a  salt-marsh  herb  with  succulent, 
jointed,  leafless  stems,  in  reference  to  its  former  use  in  glass- 
making,  when  it  was  burnt  for  barilla.  Salsola  Kali,  an  allied 
plant  with  rigid,  fleshy,  spinous-pointed  leaves,  which  was  used 
for  the  same  purpose,  was  known  as  prickly  glasswort.  Both 
plants  are  members  of  the  natural  order  Chenopodiaceae. 

GLASTONBURY,  a  market  town  and  municipal  borough  in 
the  Eastern  parliamentary  division  of  Somersetshire,  England, 
on  the  main  road  from  London  to  Exeter,  37  m.  S.W.  of  Bath  by 
the  Somerset  &  Dorset  railway.  Pop.  (1901)  4016.  The  town 
lies  in  the  midst  of  orchards  and  water-meadows,  reclaimed  from 
the  fens  which  encircled  Glastonbury  Tor,  a  conical  height  once 
an  island,  but  now,  with  the  surrounding  flats,  a  peninsula  washed 
on  three  sides  by  the  river  Brue. 

The  town  is  famous  for  its  abbey,  the  ruins  of  which  are  frag- 
mentary, and  as  the  work  of  destruction  has  in  many  places 
descended  to  the  very  foundations  it  is  impossible  to  make  out 
the  details  of  the  plan.  Of  the  vast  range  of  buildings  for  the 
accommodation  of  the  monks  hardly  any  part  remains  except  the 
abbot's  kitchen,  noteworthy  for  its  octagonal  interior  (the  ex- 
terior plan  being  square,  with  the  four  corners  filled  in  with  fire- 
places and  chimneys),  the  porter's  lodge  and  the  abbey  barn. 
Considerable  portions  are  standing  of  the  so-called  chapel  of  St 
Joseph  at  the  west  end,  which  has  been  identified  with  the  Lady 
chapel,  occupying  the  site  of  the  earliest  church.  This  chapel, 
which  is  the  finest  part  of  the  ruins,  is  Transitional  work  of  the 
1 2th  century.  It  measures  about  66  ft.  from  east  to  west  and 
about  36  from  north  to  south.  Below  the  chapel  is  a  crypt  of  the 
i  sth  century  inserted  beneath  a  building  which  had  no  previous 
crypt.  Between  the  chapel  and  the  great  church  is  an  Early 
English  building  which  appears  to  have  served  as  a  Galilee  porch. 
The  church  itself  was  a  cruciform  structure  with  a  choir,  nave 
and  transepts,  and  a  tower  surmounting  the  centre  of  intersection. 
From  east  to  west  the  length  was  410  ft.  and  the  breadth  of  the 
nave  was  about  80  ft.  The  nave  had  ten  bays  and  the  choir  six. 
Of  the  nave  three  bays  of  the  south  side  are  still  standing,  and  the 
windows  have  pointed  arches  externally  and  semicircular  arches 
internally.  Two  of  the  tower  piers  and  a  part  of  one  arch  give 
some  indication  of  the  grandeur  of  the  building.  The  foundations 
of  the  Edgar  chapel,  discovered  in  1908,  make  the  whole  church 
the  longest  of  cathedral  or  monastic  churches  in  the  country.  The 
old  clock,  presented  to  the  abbey  by  Adam  de  Sodbury  (1322- 
1335),  and  noteworthy  as  an  early  example  of  a  clock  striking  the 
hours  automatically  with  a  count-wheel,  was  once  in  Wells 
cathedral,  but  is  now  preserved  in  the  Victoria  and  Albert 
Museum. 


rl-il  /•>! 


GLASTONBURY 


The  Glastonbury  thorn,  planted,  according  to  the  legend,  by 
Joseph  of  Arimathea,  has  been  the  object  of  considerable  com- 
ment. It  is  said  to  be  a  distinct  variety,  flowering  twice  a  year. 
The  actual  thorn  visited  by  the  pilgrims  was  destroyed  about  the 
Reformation  time,  but  specimens  of  the  same  variety  are  still 
extant  in  various  parts  of  the  country. 

The  chief  buildings,  apart  from  the  abbey,  are  the  church  of  St 
John  Baptist,  Perpendicular  in  style,  with  a  fine  tower  and  some 
15th-century  monuments;  St  Benedict's,  dating  from  1493-1524; 
St  John's  hospital,  founded  1246;  and  the  George  Inn,  built  in 
the  time  of  Henry  VII.  or  VIII.  The  present  stone  cross  replaced 
a  far  finer  one  of  great  age,  which  had  fallen  into  decay.  The 
Antiquarian  Museum  contains  an  excellent  collection,  including 
remains  from  a  prehistoric  village  of  the  marshes,  discovered  in 
1892,  and  consisting  of  sixty  mounds  within  a  space  of  five  acres. 
There  is  a  Roman  Catholic  missionaries'  college.  In  the  i6th 
century  the  woollen  industry  was  introduced  by  the  duke  of 
Somerset;  and  silk  manufacture  was  carried  on  in  the  i8th 
century.  Tanning  and  tile-making,  and  the  manufacture  of 
boots  and  sheep-skin  rugs  are  practised.  The  town  is  governed 
by  a  mayor,  4  aldermen  and  12  councillors.  Area,  5000  acres. 

The  lake- village  discovered  in  1892  proves  that  there  was  a 
Celtic  settlement  about  300-200  B.C.  on  an  island  in  the  midst  of 
swamps,  and  therefore  easily  defensible.  British  earthworks 
and  Roman  roads  and  relics  prove  later  occupation.  The  name 
of  Glastonbury,  however,  is  of  much  later  origin,  being  a  corrup- 
tion of  the  Saxon  Glcestyngabyrig.  By  the  Britons  the  spot 
seems  to  have  been  called  Ynys  yr  Afalon  (latinized  as  Avallonia) 
or  Ynysvitrin  (see  AVALON),  and  it  became  the  local  habitation  of 
various  fragments  of  Celtic  romance.  According  to  the  legends 
which  grew  up  under  the  care  of  the  monks,  the  first  church  of 
Glastonbury  was  a  little  wattled  building  erected  by  Joseph  of 
Arimathea  as  the  leader  of  the  twelve  apostles  sent  over  to 
Britain  from  Gaul  by  St  Philip.  About  a  hundred  years  later, 
according  to  the  same  authorities,  the  two  missionaries,  Phaganus 
and  Deruvianus,  who  came  to  king  Lucius  from  Pope  Eleutherius, 
established  a  fraternity  of  anchorites  on  the  spot,  and  after  three 
hundred  years  more  St  Patrick  introduced  among  them  a  regular 
monastic  life.  The  British  monastery  founded  about  601  was 
succeeded  by  a  Saxon  abbey  built  by  Ine  in  708.  From  the 
decadent  state  into  which  Glastonbury  was  brought  by  the 
Danish  invasions  it  was  recovered  by  Dunstan,  who  had  been 
educated  within  its  walls  and  was  appointed  its  abbot  about  946. 
The  church  and  other  buildings  of  his  erection  remained  till  the 
installation,  in  1082,  of  the  first  Norman  abbot,  who  inaugurated 
the  new  epoch  by  commencing  a  new  church.  His  successor 
Herlewin  (1101-1120),  however,  pulled  it  down  to  make  way  for 
a  finer  structure.  Henry  of  Blois  (1126-1172)  added  greatly  to 
the  extent  of  the  monastery.  In  1 184  (on  25th  May)  the  whole  of 
the  buildings  were  laid  in  ruins  by  fire;  but  Henry  II.  of  England, 
in  whose  hands  the  monastery  then  was,  entrusted  his  chamberlain 
Rudolphus  with  the  work  of  restoration,  and  caused  it  to  be 
carried  out  with  much  magnificence.  The  great  church  of  which 
the  ruins  still  remain  was  then  erected.  In  the  end  of  the  i2th 
century,  and  on  into  the  following,  Glastonbury  was  distracted 
by  a  strange  dispute,  caused  by  the  attempt  of  Savaric,  the 
ambitious  bishop  of  Bath,  to  make  himself  master  of  the  abbey. 
The  conflict  was  closed  by  the  decision  of  Innocent  III.,  that  the 
abbacy  should  be  merged  in  the  new  see  of  Bath  and  Glastonbury, 
and  that  Savaric  should  have  a  fourth  of  the  property.  On 
Savaric's  death  his  successor  gave  up  the  joint  bishopric  and 
allowed  the  monks  to  elect  their  own  abbot.  From  this  date  to  the 
Reformation  the  monastery,  one  of  the  chief  Benedictine  abbeys 
in  England,  continued  to  flourish,  the  chief  events  in  its  history 
being  connected  with  the  maintenance  of  its  claims  to  the 
possession  of  the  bodies  or  tombs  of  King  Arthur  and  St  Dunstan. 
From  early  times  through  the  middle  ages  it  was  a  place  of 
pilgrimage.  As  early  at  least  as  the  beginning  of  the  nth 
century  the  tradition  that  Arthur  was  buried  at  Glastonbury 
appears  to  have  taken  shape;  and  in  the  reign  of  Henry  II., 
according  to  Giraldus  Cambrensis  and  others,  the  abbot  Henry  de 
Blois,  causing  search  to  be  made,  discovered  at  the  depth  of  16 


ft.  a  massive  oak  trunk  with  an  inscription  "  Hie  jacet  sepultus 
inclitus  rex  Arthurus  in  insula  Avalonia."  After  the  fire  of  1 184 
the  monks  asserted  that  they  were  in  possession  of  the  remains  of 
St  Dunstan,  which  had  been  abstracted  from  Canterbury  after  the 
Danish  sack  of  ion  and  kept  in  concealment  ever  since.  The 
Canterbury  monks  naturally  denied  the  assertion,  and  the  contest 
continued  for  centuries.  In  1508  Warham  and  Goldston  having 
examined  the  Canterbury  shrine  reported  that  it  contained  all  the 
principal  bones  of  the  saint,  but  the  abbot  of  Glastonbury  in 
reply  as  stoutly  maintained  that  this  was  impossible.  The  day 
of  such  disputes  was,  however,  drawing  to  a  close.  In  1539  the 
last  and  6oth  abbot  of  Glastonbury,  Robert  Whyting,  was 
lodged  in  the  Tower  on  account  of  "  divers  and  sundry  treasons." 
"  The  '  account '  or '  book '  of  his  treasons  ....  seems  to  be  lost, 
and  the  nature  of  the  charges  ....  can  only  be  a  matter  of  specu- 
lation "  (Gairdner,  Col.  Pap.  on  Hen.  VIII.,  xiv.  ii.  pref.  xxxii). 
He  was  removed  to  Wells,  where  he  was  "  arraigned  and  next 
day  put  to  execution  for  robbing  of  Glastonbury  church."  The 
execution  took  place  on  Glastonbury  Tor.  His  body  was 
quartered  and  his  head  fixed  on  the  abbey  gate.  A  darker 
passage  does  not  occur  in  the  annals  of  the  English  Reformation 
than  this  murder  of  an  able  and  high-spirited  man,  whose  worst 
offence  was  that  he  defended  as  best  he  could  from  the  hand  of  the 
spoiler  the  property  in  his  charge. 

In  1907,  the  site  of  the  abbey  with  the  remains  of  the  buildings, 
which  had  been  in  private  hands  since  the  granting  of  the  estate 
to  Sir  Peter  Carew  by  Elizabeth  in  1559,  was  bought  by  Mr 
Ernest  Jardine  for  the  purpose  of  transferring  it  to  the  Church 
of  England.  Bishop  Kennion  of  Bath  and  Wells  entered  into 
an  agreement  to  raise  a  sum  of  £31,000,  the  cost  of  the  purchase; 
this  was  completed,  and  the  site  and  buildings  were  formally 
transferred  at  a  dedicatory  service  in  1909  to  the  Diocesan 
Trustees  of  Bath  and  Wells,  who  are  to  hold  and  manage  the 
property  according  to  a  deed  of  trust.  This  deed  provided  for 
the  appointment  of  an  advisory  council,  consisting  of  the  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  the  bishop  of  Bath  and  Wells  and  four 
other  bishops,  each  with  power  to  nominate  one  clerical  and 
one  lay  member.  The  council  has  the  duty  of  deciding  the 
purpose  for  which  the  property  is  to  be  used  "  in  connexion  with 
and  for  the  benefit  of  the  Church  of  England."  To  give  time  for 
further  collection  of  funds  and  deliberation,  the  property  was 
re-let  for  five  years  to  the  original  purchaser. 

In  the  8th  century  Glastonbury  was  already  a  borough  owned 
by  the  abbey,  which  continued  to  be  overlord  till  the  Dissolution. 
The  abbey  obtained  charters  in  the  7th  century,  but  the  town 
received  its  first  charter  from  Henry  II.,  who  exempted  the  men 
of  Glastonbury  from  the  jurisdiction  of  royal  officials  and  freed 
them  from  certain  tolls.  This  was  confirmed  by  Henry  III.  in 
1227,  by  Edward  I.  in  1278,  by  Edward  II.  in  1313  and  by 
Henry  VI.  in  1447.  The  borough  was  incorporated  by  Anne  in 
1706,  and  the  corporation  was  reformed  by  the  act  of  1835. 
In  1319  Glastonbury  received  a  writ  of  summons  to  parliament, 
but  made  no  return,  and  has  not  since  been  represented.  A 
fair  on  the  8th  of  September  was  granted  in  1127;  another  on 
the  2pth  of  May  was  held  under  a  charter  of  1282.  Fairs  known 
as  Torr  fair  and  Michaelmas  fair  are  now  held  on  the  second 
Mondays  in  September  and  October  and  are  chiefly  important 
for  the  sale  of  horses  and  cattle.  The  market  day  every  other 
Monday  is  noted  for  the  sale  of  cheese.  Glastonbury  owed  its 
medieval  importance  to  its  connexion  with  the  abbey.  At  the 
Dissolution  the  introduction  of  woollen  manufacture  checked 
the  decay  of  the  town.  The  cloth  trade  flourished  for  a  century 
and  was  replaced  by  silk-weaving,  stocking-knitting  and  glove- 
making,  all  of  which  have  died  out. 

See  Abbot  Gasquet,  Henry  VI 1 1.  and  the  English  Monasteries  (1906), 
and  The  Last  Abbot  of  Glastonbury  (1895  and  1908);  William  of 
Malmesbury,  "  De  antiq.  Glastoniensis  ecclesiae,"  in  Rerum  Angli- 
carum  script,  vet.  torn.  i.  (1684)  (also  printed  by  Hearne  and  Miene) ; 
John  of  Glastonbury,  Chronica  sive  de  hist,  de  rebus  Glast.,  ed.  by 
Hearne  (2  vols.,  Oxford,  1726);  Adam  of  Domerham,  De  rebus 
geslis  Glast.,  ed.  by  Hearne  (2  vols.,  Oxford,  1727);  Hist,  and  Antiq. 
of  Glast.  (London,  1807);  Avalonian  Guide  to  the  Town  of  Glastonbury 
(8th  ed.,  1839);  Warner,  Hist,  of  the  Abbey  and  Town  (Bath,  1826); 
Rev.  F.  Warre,  "  Glastonbury  Abbey,"  in  Proc.  of  Somersetshire 


GLATIGNY— GLAUCHAU 


Archaeol.  and  Nat.  Hist.  Soc.,  1849;  Rev.  F.  Warre,  "  Notice  of 
Ruins  of  Glastonbury  Abbey,"  ib.  1859;  Rev.  W.  A.  Jones, 
"  On  the  Reputed  Discovery  of  King  Arthur's  Remains  at  Glaston- 
bury," ib.  1859;  Rev.  T.  R.  Green,  "  Dunstan  at  Glastonbury" 
and  "  Giso  and  Savaric,  ib.  1863;  Rev.  Canon  Jackson,  "  Savaric, 
Bishop  of  Bath  and  Glastonbury,"  ib.  1862,  1863;  E.  A.  Free- 
man, "  King  Ine,"  ib.  1872  and  1874;  Dr  W.  Beattie,  in  Journ. 
of  Brit.  Archaeol.  Ass.  vol.  xii.,  1856;  Rev.  R.  Willis,  Architectural 
History  of  Glastonbury  Abbey  (1866);  W.  H.  P.  Greswell,  Chapters 
on  the  Early  History  of  Glastonbury  Abbey  (1900).  Views  and  plans 
of  the  abbey  building  will  be  found  in  Dugdale  s  Monasticon  (1655) ; 
Stevens's  Monasticon  (1720) ;  Stukeley,  Itinerarium  curiosum  (1724) ; 
Grose,  Antiquities  (1754) ;  Carter,  Ancient  Architecture  (1800) ;  Storer, 
Antiq.  and  Topogr.  Cabinet,  ii.,  iv.,  v.  (1807),  &c.;  Britton's  Archi- 
tectural Antiquities,  iv.  (1813);  Vetusta  monumenta,  iv.  (1815);  and 
New  Monasticon,  i.  (1817). 

GLATIGNY,  JOSEPH  ALBERT  ALEXANDRE  (1839-1873), 
French  poet,  was  born  at  Lillebonne  (Seine  Inferieure)  on  the 
2ist  of  May  1839.  His  father,  who  was  a  carpenter  and  after- 
wards a  gendarme,  removed  in  1844  to  Bernay,  where  Albert 
received  an  elementary  education.  Soon  after  leaving  school 
he  was  apprenticed  to  a  printer  at  Pont  Audemer,  where  he  pro- 
duced a  three-act  play  at  the  local  theatre.  He  then  joined  a 
travelling  company  of  actors  to  whom  he  acted  as  prompter. 
Inspired  primarily  by  the  study  of  Theodore  de  Banville,  he 
published  his  Vignes  folles  in  1857;  his  best  collection  of  lyrics, 
Les  Fleches  d'or,  appeared  in  1864;  and  a  third  volume,  Gilles 
etpasquins,in  1872.  After  Glatigny  settled  in  Paris  he  improvised 
at  cafe  concerts  and  wrote  several  one-act  plays.  On  an 
expedition  to  Corsica  with  a  travelling  company  he  was  on  one 
occasion  arrested  and  put  in  irons  for  a  week  through  being 
mistaken  by  the  police  for  a  notorious  criminal.  His  marriage 
with  Emma  Dennie  brought  him  great  happiness,  but  the  hard- 
ships of  his  life  weakened  his  health  and  he  died  at  Sevres  on 
the  i6th  of  April  1873. 

See  Catulle  Mendes,  Legende  du  Parnasse  contemporain  (1884),  and 
Glatigny,  drame  funambulesque  (1906). 

GLATZ  (Slav.  Kladsko),  a  fortified  town  of  Germany,  in  the 
Prussian  province  of  Silesia,  in  a  narrow  valley  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Neisse,  not  far  from  the  Austrian  frontier,  58  m.  S.W. 
from  Breslau  by  rail.  Pop.  (1905)  16,051.  The  town  with  its 
narrow  streets  winds  up  the  fortified  hill  which  is  crowned  by 
the  old  citadel.  Across  the  river,  on  the  Schaferberg,  lies  a 
more  modern  fortress  built  by  the  Prussians  about  1750.  Before 
the  town  on  both  banks  of  the  river  there  is  a  fortified  camp  by 
which  bombardment  from  the  neighbouring  heights  can  be 
hindered  and  which  affords  accommodation  for  10,000  men. 
The  inner  ceinture  of  walls  was  razed  in  1891  and  their  site  is 
now  occupied  by  new  streets.  There  are  a  Lutheran  and  two 
Roman  Catholic  churches,  one  of  which,  the  parish  church, 
contains  the  monuments  of  seven  Silesian  dukes.  Among  the 
other  buildings  the  principal  are  the  Royal  Catholic  gymnasium 
and  the  military  hospital.  The  industries  include  machine 
shops,  breweries,  and  the  manufacture  of  spirits,  linen,  damask, 
cloth,  hosiery,  beads  and  leather. 

Glatz  existed  as  early  as  the  loth  century,  and  received 
German  settlers  about  1250.  It  was  besieged  several  times 
during  the  Thirty  Years'  War  and  during  the  Seven  Years' 
War  and  came  into  the  possession  of  Prussia  in  1742.  In  1821 
and  1883  great  devastation  was  caused  here  by  floods.  The 
co  unty  of  Glatz  was  long  contended  for  by  the  kingdoms  of  Poland 
and  of  Bohemia.  Eventually  it  became  part  of  the  latter  country, 
and  in  1 534  was  sold  to  the  house  of  Habsburg,  from  whom  it 
was  taken  by  Frederick  the  Great  during  his  attack  on  Silesia. 

See  Ludwig,  Die  Grafschaft  Glatz  in  Wort  und  Bild  (Breslau,  1897) ; 
Kutzen,  Die  Grafschaft  Glatz  (Glogau,  1873);  and  Geschichlsquellen 
der  Grafschaft  Glatz,  edited  by  F.  Volkmer  and  Hohaus  (1883-1891). 

GLAUBER,  JOHANN  RUDOLF  (1604-1668),  German  chemist, 
was  born  at  Karlstadt,  Bavaria,  in  1604  and  died  at  Amsterdam 
in  1668.  Little  more  is  known  of  his  life  than  that  he  resided 
successively  in  Vienna,  Salzburg,  Frankfurt  and  Cologne  before 
settling  in  Holland,  where  he  made  his  living  chiefly  by  the  sale 
of  secret  chemical  and  medicinal  preparations.  Though  his 
writings  abound  in  universal  solvents  and  other  devices  of  the 
alchemists,  he  made  some  real  contributions  to  chemical  know- 
ledge. Thus  he  clearly  described  the  preparation  of  hydrochloric 


acid  by  the  action  of  oil  of  vitriol  on  common  salt,  the  manifold 
virtues  of  sodium  sulphate — sal  mirabile,  Glauber's  salt — formed 
in  the  process  being  one  of  the  chief  themes  of  his  Miraculum 
mundi;  and  he  noticed  that  nitric  acid  was  formed  when 
nitre  was  substituted  for  the  common  salt.  Further  he  prepared 
a  large  number  of  substances,  including  the  chlorides  and  other 
salts  of  lead,  tin,  iron,  zinc,  copper,  antimony  and  arsenic,  and 
he  even  noted  some  of  the  phenomena  of  double  decomposition. 
He  was  always  anxious  to  turn  his  knowledge  to  practical  account, 
whether  in  preparing  medicines,  or  in  furthering  industrial  arts 
such  as  dyeing,  or  in  increasing  the  fertility  of  the  soil  by  artificial 
manures.  One  of  his  most  notable  works  was  his  Teutschlands 
Wohlfarth  in  which  he  urged  that  the  natural  resources  of 
Germany  should  be  developed  for  the  profit  of  the  country  and 
gave  various  instances  of  how  this  might  be  done. 

His  treatises,  about  30  in  number,  were  collected  and  published 
at  Frankfort  in  1658-1659,  at  Amsterdam  in  1661,  and,  in  an  English 
translation  by  Packe,  at  London  in  1689. 

GLAUBER'S  SALT,  decahydrated  sodium  sulphate, 
Na2SO4,10H2O.  It  is  said  by  J.  Kunkel  to  have  been  known 
as  an  arcanum  or  secret  medicine  to  the  electoral  house  of 
Saxony  in  the  middle  of  the  i6th  century,  but  it  was  first  described 
by  J.  R.  Glauber  (De  natura  salium,  1658),  who  prepared  it 
by  the  action  of  oil  of  vitriol  or  sulphuric  acid  on  common  salt, 
and,  ascribing  to  it  many  medicinal  virtues,  termed  it  sal  mirabile 
Glauberi.  As  the  mineral  thenardite  or  mirabilite,  which 
crystallizes  in  the  rhombic  system,  it  occurs  in  many  parts  of 
the  world,  as  in  Spain,  the  western  states  of  North  America 
and  the  Russian  Caucasus;  in  the  last-named  region,  about 
25  m.  E.  of  Tiflis,  there  is  a  thick  bed  of  the  pure  salt  about  5  ft. 
below  the  surface,  and  at  Balalpashinsk  there  are  lakes  or  ponds 
the  waters  of  which  are  an  almost  pure  solution.  The  substance 
is  the  active  principle  of  many  mineral  waters,  e.g.  Fredericks- 
hall;  it  occurs  in  sea- water  and  it  is  a  constant  constituent 
of  the  blood.  In  combination  with  calcium  sulphate,  it  con- 
stitutes the  mineral  glauberite  or  brongniartite,  Na2SO4-CaSO4, 
which  assumes  forms  belonging  to  the  monoclinic  system  and 
occurs  in  Spain  and  Austria.  It  has  a  bitter,  saline,  but  not 
acrid  taste.  At  ordinary  temperatures  it  crystallizes  from 
aqueous  solutions  in  large  colourless  monoclinic  prisms,  which 
effloresce  in  dry  air,  and  at  3  5°  C.  melt  in  their  water  of  crystalliza- 
tion. At  100°  they  lose  all  their  water,  and  on  further  heating 
fuse  at  843°.  Its  maximum  solubility  in  water  is  at  34°;  above 
that  temperature  it  ceases  to  exist  in  the  solution  as  a  deca- 
hydrate,  but  changes  to  the  anhydrous  salt,  the  solubility  of  which 
decreases  with  rise  of  temperature.  Glauber's  salt  readily  forms 
supersaturated  solutions,  in  which  crystallization  takes  place 
suddenly  when  a  crystal  of  the  salt  is  thrown  in;  the  same  effect 
is  obtained  by  exposure  to  the  air  or  by  touching  the  solution 
with  a  glass  rod.  In  medicine  it  is  employed  as  an  aperient, 
and  is  one  of  the  safest  and  most  innocuous  known.  For  children 
it  may  be  mixed  with  common  salt  and  the  two  be  used  with  the 
food  without  the  child  being  conscious  of  any  difference.  Its 
simulation  of  the  taste  of  common  salt  also  renders  it  suitable 
for  administration  to  insane  patients  and  others  who  refuse  to 
take  any  drug.  If,  however,  its  presence  is  recognized  sodium 
phosphate  may  be  substituted. 

GLAUCHAU,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  kingdom  of  Saxony, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Mulde,  7  m.  N.  of  Zwickau  and  17  W.  of 
Chemnitz  by  rail.  Pop.  (1875)  21,743;  (i9°S)  24,556.  It  has 
important  manufactures  of  woollen  and  half-woollen  goods, 
in  regard  to  which  it  occupies  a  high  position  in  Germany. 
There  are  also  dye-works,  print-works,  and  manufactories 
of  paper,  linen,  thread  and  machinery.  Glauchau  possesses  a 
high  grade  school,  elementary  schools,  a  weaving  school,  an 
orphanage  and  an  infirmary.  Some  portions  of  the  extensive 
old  castle  date  from  the  1 2th  century,  and  the  Gottesacker  church 
contains  interesting  antiquarian  relics.  Glauchau  was  founded 
by  a  colony  of  Sorbs  and  Wends,  and  belonged  to  the  lords  of 
Schonburg  as  early  as  the  i2th  century. 

See  R.  Hofmann,  Riickblick  iiber  die  Geschichte  der  Stadt  Glauchau 
(1897)- 


GLAUCONITE— GLAUCUS 


GLAUCONITE,  a  mineral,  green  in  colour,  and  chemically  a 
hydrous  silicate  of  iron  and  potassium.  It  especially  occurs  in  the 
green  sands  and  muds  which  are  gathering  at  the  present  time  on 
the  sea  bottom  at  many  different  places.  The  wide  extension  of 
these  sands  and  muds  was  first  made  known  by  the  naturalists  of 
the  "  Challenger,"  and  it  is  now  found  that  they  occur  in  the 

•  Mediterranean  as  well  as  in  the  open  ocean,  but  they  have  not 
been  found  in  the  Black  Sea  or  in  any  fresh-water  lakes.  These 
deposits  are  not  in  a  true  sense  abyssal,  but  are  of  terrigenous 
origin,  the  mud  and  sand  being  derived  from  the  wear  of  the  con- 

»tinents,  transported  by  marine  currents.  The  greater  part  of  the 
mass  consists  in  all  cases  of  minerals  such  as  quartz,  felspar 
(often  labradorite),  mica,  chlorite,  with  more  or  less  calcite  which 
is  probably  always  derived  from  shtlls  or  other  organic  sources. 
Many  accessory  minerals  such  as  tourmaline  and  zircon  have 
been  identified  also,  while  augite,  hornblende  and  other  volcanic 
minerals  occur  in  varying  proportion  as  in  all  the  sediments  of  the 
open  sea.  The  depth  in  which  they  accumulate  varies  a  good 
deal,  viz.  from  200  up  to  2000  fathoms,  but  as  a  rule  is  less  than 
looo  fathoms,  and  it  is  believed  that  the  most  common  situations 
are  where  the  continental  shores  slope  rather  steeply  into  moderate 
depths  of  water.  Many  of  the  blue  muds,  which  owe  their  colour 
to  fine  particles  of  sulphide  of  iron,  contain  also  a  small  quantity 
of  glauconite;  in  Globigerina  oozes  this  substance  has  also  been 
found,  and  in  fact  there  exists  every  gradation  between  the 
glauconitic  deposits  and  the  other  types  of  sands  and  muds  which 
are  found  at  similar  depths. 

The  colouring  matter  is  believed  in  every  case  to  be  glauconite. 
Other  ingredients,  such  as  lime,  alumina  and  magnesia  are 
usually  shown  to  be  present  by  the  analyses,  but  may  perhaps  be 
regarded  as  non-essential :  it  is  impossible  to  isolate  this  substance 
in  a  pure  state  as  it  occurs  only  in  fine  aggregates,  mixed  with 
other  minerals.  The  glauconite,  though  crystalline,  never  occurs 
well  crystallized  but  only  as  dense  clusters  of  very  minute 
particles  which  react  feebly  on  polarized  light.  They  have  one 
well-marked  characteristic  inasmuch  as  they  often  form  rounded 
lumps.  In  many  cases  it  is  certain  that  these  are  casts,  which 
fill  up  the  interior  of  empty  shells  of  Foraminifera.  They  may  be 
seen  occupying  these  shells,  and  when  the  shell  is  dissolved  away 
perfect  casts  of  glauconite  are  set  free.  Apparently  in  some 
manner  not  understood,  the  decaying  organic  matter  in  the  shell 
of  the  dead  organism  initiated  or  favoured  the  chemical  reactions 
by  which  the  glauconite  was  formed.  That  the  mineral  originated 
on  the  sea  bottom  among  the  sand  and  mud  is  quite  certainly 
established  by  these  facts;  moreover,  since  it  is  so  soft  and 
friable  that  it  is  easily  powdered  up  by  pressure  with  the  fingers, 
it  cannot  have  been  transported  from  any  great  distance  by 
currents.  Small  rounded  glauconite  lumps,  which  are  common 
on  the  sands  but  show  no  trace  of  having  filled  the  chambers  of 
Foraminifera,  may  have  arisen  by  a  re-deposit  of  broken-down 
casts  such  as  have  been  described;  probably  slight  movement  of 
the  deposits,  occasioned  by  currents,  may  have  broken  up  the 
glauconite  casts  and  scattered  the  soft  material  through  the 
water.  Films  or  stains  of  glauconite  on  shells,  sand  grains  and 
phosphate  nodules  are  explained  by  a  similar  deposit  of  frag- 
mental  glauconite. 

In  a  small  number  of  Tertiary  and  older  rocks  glauconite  occurs 
as  an  essential  component.  It  is  found  in  the  Pliocene  sands  of 
Holland,  the  Eocene  sands  of  Paris  and  the  "  Molasse  "  of 
Switzerland,  but  is  much  more  abundant  in  the  Lower  Cret- 
aceous rocks  of  N.  Europe,  especially  in  the  subdivision  known 
as  the  Greensand.  Rounded  lumps  and  casts  like  those  of  the 
green  sands  of  the  present  day  are  plentiful  in  these  rocks,  and  it 
is  obvious  that  the  mode  of  formation  was  in  all  respects  the 
same.  The  green  sand  when  weathered  is  brown  or  rusty 
coloured,  the  glauconite  being  oxidized  to  limonite.  Calcareous 
sands  or  impure  limestones  with  glauconite  are  also  by  no 
means  rare,  an  example  being  the  well-known  Kentish  Rag. 
In  the  Chalk-rock  and  Chalk-marl  of  some  parts  of  England 
glauconite  is  rather  frequent,  and  glauconitic  chalk  is  known  also 
in  the  north  of  France.  Among  the  oldest  rocks  which  contain 
this  mineral  are  the  Lower  Silurian  of  the  St  Petersburg  district, 


but  it  is  very  rare  in  the  Palaeozoic  formations,  possibly  because  it 
undergoes  crystalline  change  and  is  also  liable  to  be  oxidized 
and  converted  into  other  ferruginous  minerals.  It  has  been 
suggested  that  certain  deposits  of  iron  ores  may  owe  their  origin 
to  deposits  of  glauconite,  as  for  example  those  of  the  Mesabi 
range,  Minnesota,  U.S.A.  (J.  S.  F.) 

GLAUCOUS  (Gr.  yXavubs,  bright,  gleaming),  a  word  meaning  of 
a  sea-green  colour,  in  botany  covered  with  bloom,  like  a  plum  or  a 
cabbage-leaf. 

GLAUCUS  ("  bright  "),  the  name  of  several  figures  in  Greek 
mythology,  the  most  important  of  which  are  the  following: 

1.  GLAUCUS,  surnamed  Pontius,  a  sea  divinity.     Originally  a 
fisherman  and  diver  of  Anthedon  in  Boeotia,  having  eaten  of  a 
certain  magical  herb  sown  by  Cronus,  he  leapt  into  the  sea,  where 
he  was  changed  into  a  god,  and  endowed  with  the  gift  of  unerring 
prophecy.     According  to  others  he  sprang  into  the  sea  for  love 
of  the  sea-god  Melicertes,  with  whom  he  was  often  identified 
(Athenaeus  vii.  296).     He  was  worshipped  not  only  at  Anthedon, 
but  on  the  coasts  of  Greece,  Sicily  and  Spain,  where  fishermen 
and  sailors  at  certain  seasons  watched  for  his  arrival  during  the 
night  in  order  to  consult  him  (Pausanias  ix.  22).     In  art  he  is 
depicted  as  a  vigorous  old  man  with  long  hair  and  beard,  his  body 
terminating  in  a  scaly  tail,  his  breast  covered  with  shells  and  sea- 
weed.    He  was  said  to  have  been  the  builder  and  pilot  of  the 
Argo,  and  to  have  been  changed  into  a  god  after  the  fight  between 
the  Argonauts  and  Tyrrhenians.     He  assisted  the  expedition  in 
various  ways  (Athenaeus,  loc.  til.;  see  also  Ovid,  Metam.  xiii.  904). 
Glaucus  was  the  subject  of  a  satyric  drama  by  Aeschylus.     He 
was  famous  for  his  amours,  especially  those  with  Scylla  and  Circe. 

See  the  exhaustive  monograph  by  R.  Gaedechens,  Glaukos  der 
Meergott  (1860),  and  article  by  the  same  in  Roscher's  Lexikon  der 
Mythologie;  and  for  Glaucus  and  Scylla,  E.  Vinet  in  Annali  del- 
l'  Institute  di  Correspondent  archeologica,  xv.  (1843). 

2.  GLAUCUS,  usually  surnamed  Potnieus,  from  Potniae  near 
Thebes,  son  of  Sisyphus  by  Merope  and  father  of  Bellerophon. 
According  to  the  legend  he  was  torn  to  pieces  by  his  own  mares 
(Virgil,  Georgics,  iii.   267;  Hyginus,  Fab.   250,   273).     On  the 
isthmus  of  Corinth,  and  also  at  Olympia  and  Nemea,  he  was 
worshipped  as  Taraxippus  ("  terrifier  of  horses  "),  his  ghost  being 
said  to  appear  and  frighten  the  horses  at  the  games  (Pausanias 
vi.  20).     He  is  closely  akin  to  Glaucus  Pontius,  the  frantic  horses 
of  the  one  probably  representing  the  stormy  waves,  the  other 
the  sea  in  its  calmer  mood.     He  also  was  the  subject  of  a  lost 
drama  of  Aeschylus. 

3.  GLAUCUS,  the  son  of  Minos  and  Pasiphae.    When  a  child, 
while  playing  at  baU  or  pursuing  a  mouse,  he  fell  into  a  jar  of 
honey  and  was  smothered.     His  father,  after  a  vain  search  for 
him,  consulted  the  oracle,  and  was  referred  to  the  person  who 
should  suggest  the  aptest  comparison  for  one  of  the  cows  of 
Minos  which  had  the  power  of  assuming  three  different  colours. 
Polyidus  of  Argos,  who  had  likened  it  to  a  mulberry  (or  bramble), 
which  changes  from  white  to  red  and  then  to  black,  soon  after- 
wards discovered  the  child;  but  on  his  confessing  his  inability 
to  restore  him  to  life,  he  was  shut  up  in  a  vault  with  the  corpse. 
Here  he  killed  a  serpent  which  was  revived  by  a  companion, 
which  laid  a  certain  herb  upon  it.     With  the  same  herb  Polyidus 
brought  the  dead  Glaucus  back  to  life.     According  to  others, 
he  owed  his  recovery  to  Aesculapius.     The  story  was  the  subject 
of  plays  by  the  three  great  Greek  tragedians,  and  was  often 
represented  in  mimic  dances. 

See  Hyeinus,  Fab.  136;  Apollodorus  iii.  3.  10;  C.  Hock,  Kreta, 
iii.  1829;  C.  Eckermann,  Melampus,  1840. 

4.  GLAUCUS,  son  of  Hippolochus,  and  grandson  of  Bellerophon, 
mythical  progenitor  of  the  kings  of  Ionia.     He  was  a  Lycian 
prince  who,  along  with  his  cousin  Sarpedon,  assisted  Priam  in 
the  Trojan  War.    When  he  found  himself  opposed  to  Diomedes, 
with  whom  he  was  connected  by  ties  of  hospitality,  they  ceased 
fighting  and  exchanged  armour.    Since  the  equipment  of  Glaucus 
was  golden  and  that  of  Diomedes  brazen,  the  expression  "  golden 
for  brazen  "  (Iliad,  vi.  236)  came  to  be  used  proverbially  for  a 
bad  exchange.    Glaucus  was  afterwards  slain  by  Ajax. 

All  the  above  are  exhaustively  treated  by  R.  Gaedechens  in  Ersch 
and  Gruber's  Attgemeine  Encyclopddie. 


n6 


GLAZING 


GLAZING. — The  business  of  the  glazier  may  be  confined  to 
the  mere  fitting  and  setting  of  glass  (?.».),  even  the  cutting  up 
of  the  plates  into  squares  being  generally  an  independent  art, 
requiring  a  degree  of  tact  and  judgment  not  necessarily  possessed 
by  the  building  artificer.  The  tools  generally  used  by  the  glazier 
are  the  diamond  for  cutting,  laths  or  straight  edges,  tee  square, 
measuring  rule,  glazing  knife,  hacking  knife  and  hammer,  duster, 
sash  tool,  two-foot  rule  and  a  glazier's  cradle  for  carrying  the 
glass.  Glaziers'  materials  are  glass,  putty,  priming  or  paint, 
springs,  wash-leather  or  india-rubber  for  door  panels,  size,  black. 
The  glass  is  supplied  by  the  manufacturer  and  cut  to  the  sizes 
required  for  the  particular  work  to  be  executed.  Putty  is  made 
of  whiting  and  linseed  oil,  and  is  generally  bought  in  iron  kegs 
of  5  or  i  cwt.;  the  putty  should  always  be  kept  covered  over, 
and  when  found  to  be  getting  hard  in  the  keg  a  little  oil 
should  be  put  on  it  to  keep  it  moist.  Priming  is  a  thin  coat  of 
paint  with  a  small  amount  of  red  lead  in  it.  In  the  majority 
of  cases  after  the  sashes  for  the  windows  are  fitted  they  are 
sent  to  the  glazier's  and  primed  and  glazed,  and  then  returned 
to  the  job  and  hung  in  their  proper  positions.  When  priming 
sashes  it  is  important  that  the  rebates  be  thoroughly  primed, 
else  the  putty  will  not  adhere.  All  wood  that  is  to  be  painted 
requires  before  being  primed  to  have  the  knots  coated  with 
knotting.  When  the  priming  is  dry,  the  glass  is  cut  and  fitted 
into  its  place;  each  pane  should  fit  easily  with  about  iVth  in. 
play  all  round.  The  glazier  runs  the  putty  round  the  rebates 
with  his  hands,  and  then  beds  the  glass  in  it,  pushing  it  down 
tight,  and  then  further  secures  it  by  knocking  in  small  nails, 
called  glaziers'  sprigs,  on  the  rebate  side.  He  then  trims  up 
the  edges  of  the  protruding  putty  and  bevels  off  the  putty  on 
the  rebate  or  outside  of  the  sash  with  a  putty  knife.  The  sash 
is  then  ready  for  painting.  Large  squares  and  plate  glass  are 
usually  inserted  when  the  sashes  are  hung  to  avoid  risks  of 
breakage.  For  inside  work  the  panes  of  glass  are  generally 
secured  with  beads  (not  with  putty),  and  in  the  best  work 
these  beads  are  fixed  with  brass  screws  and  caps  to  allow  of  easy 
removal  without  breaking  the  beads  and  damaging  the  paint, 
&c.  In  the  case  of  glass  in  door  panels  where  there  is  much 
vibration  and  slamming,  the  glass  is  bedded  in  wash-leather 
or  india-rubber  and  secured  with  beads  as  before  mentioned. 

The  most  common  glass  and  that  generally  used  is  clear  sheet 
in  varying  thicknesses,  ranging  in  weight  from  15  to  30  oz.  per  sq. 
ft.  This  can  be  had  in  several  qualities  of  English 
or  f°reign  manufacture.  But  there  are  many  other 
varieties— obscured,  fluted,  enamelled,  coloured  and 
ornamental,  rolled  and  rough  plate,  British  polished  plate, 
patent  plate,  fluted  rolled,  quarry  rolled,  chequered  rough,  and 
a  variety  of  figured  rolled,  and  stained  glass,  and  crown-glass 
with  buUs'-eyes  in  the  centre. 

Lead  light  glazing  is  the  glazing  of  frames  with  small  squares 
of  glass,  which  are  held  together  by  reticulations  of  lead;  these 
are  secured  by  means  of  copper  wire  to  iron  saddle  bars,  which 
are  let  into  mortices  in  the  wood  frames  or  stone  jambs.  This 
is  formed  with  strips  of  lead,  soldered  at  the  angles;  the  glass 
is  placed  between  the  strips  and  the  lead  flattened  over  the 
edges  of  glass  to  secure  it.  This  is  much  used  in  public  build- 
ings and  private  residences.  In  Weldon's  method  the  saddle 
bars  are  bedded  in  the  centre  of  the  strips  of  lead,  thus 
strengthening  the  frame  of  lead  strips  and  giving  a  better 
appearance. 

Wired  rolled  plate  or  wired  cast  plate,  usually  \  in.  thick,  has 
wire  netting  embedded  in  it  to  prevent  the  glass  from  falling 
in  the  case  of  fire;  its  use  is  obligatory  in  London  for  all  lantern 
and  skylights,  screens  and  doors  on  the  staircases  of  public 
and  warehouse  buildings,  in  accordance  with  the  London  Building 
Act.  It  is  also  used  for  the  decks  of  ships  and  for  port  and  cabin 
lights,  as  it  is  much  stronger  than  plain  glass,  and  if  fractured  is 
held  together  by  the  wire. 

Patent  prismatic  rolled  glass,  or  "  refrax  "  (fig.  i),  consists  of  an 
effectual  application  of  the  well-known  properties  of  the  prism; 
it  absorbs  all  the  light  that  strikes  the  window  opening,  and 
diffuses  it  in  the  most  efficient  manner  possible  in  the  darkest 


portions  of  the  apartment.     It  can  be  fixed  in  the  ordinary 
way  or  placed  over  the  existing  glass. 

Pavement  lights  (fig.  2)  and  stallboard  lights  are  constructed 
with  iron  frames  in  small  squares  and  glazed  with  thick  prismatic 
glass,  and  are  used  to  light  basements.  They 
are  placed  on  the  pavement  and  under  shop 
fronts  in  the  portion  called  the  stallboard,  and 
are  also  inserted  in  iron  coal  plates. 

Great  skill  has  of  late  years  been  displayed  in 
the  ornamentation  of  glass  such  as  is  seen  in 
public  saloons,  restaurants,  &c.,  as,  for  instance, 
in  bevelling  the  edges,  silvering,  brilliant  cutting, 
embossing,  bending,  cutting  shelving  to  fancy 
shapes  and  polishing,  and  in'glass  ventilators. 

There  are  several  patent  methods  of  roof  glazing, 
such  as  are  applied  to  railway  stations,  studios 
and  printing  and  other  factories  requir-        „ 
ing  light.    Some  of  the  first  patents  of          °&  ia 
this  kind  were  erected  with  wood  glazing 
bars;  these  were  unsightly,  since  they  required  to 
be  of  large  sectional  area  when  spanning  a  distance 
of  7  or  8  ft.,  and  also  required  to  be  constantly 
painted.     This  was  a  source  of  trouble;  the  roof 
was  constantly  leaking  and,  moreover,  it  was  not 
fire-resisting. 

Of  subsequent  patents  one  includes  the  use  of 
steel  T-bars,    in  which  the  glass  is  bedded  and  FIG.  I. — Prism 
covered  with  a  capping  of  copper  or  zinc  secured  Window  Glass, 
with  bolts  and  nuts.    Another  employs  steel  bars 
covered  with  lead ;  and  this  is  a  very  good  method,  as  the  bars  are 
of  small  section,  require  no  painting,  and  are  also  fire-resisting. 
There  is  one  reason  for  preferring  wood  to  steel,  namely,  that  wood 
does  not  expand  and  contract  like  steel  does.    After  the  sun  has  been 
on  steel  bars,  especially  those  in  long  lengths,  they  tend  to  buckle 
and  then  when  cold  contract,  thus  getting  out  of  shape ;  there  is  also 
the  possibility  that  when  expanding  they  may  break  the  glass. 
This  is  more  noticeable  in  the  case  of  iron  ventilating  frames  in  this 
glazing,  which  after  having  weathered  for  a  year  or  two  will  begin 
to  get  out  of  shape  and  so  give  trouble  in  opening  and  closing. 

Care  should  be  taken  not  to  fit  the  glass  in  iron  bars  tightly,  but 

Water 


FIG.  2. — Section  through  Prism  Pavement  Light,  the  direction  of 
light  rays  being  indicated  by  arrows. 

a  good  Jth  in.  play  all  round  should  be  allowed.  A  few  of  the 
systems  of  patent  roof  glazing  will  be  described  in  the  following 
pages,  together  with  illustrations. 

The  system  of  glazing  known  as  the  "  British  Challenge  "  (fig.  3), 
with  steel  bars  encased  with  a  sheeting  of  4-lb  lead,  is  very  simple 
and  durable,  needs  no  painting,  and  can  be  fixed  at  as  much  as  8  ft. 
clear  bearings,  with  the  bars  spaced  2  ft.  apart.  The  ends  of  the 
bars  rest  on  the  woodpr  steel  purlins  or  plates,  and  are  either  notched 
and  screwed  down,  or  simply  fitted  with  a  bracket  which  is  screwed. 
The  bar  is  of  T  section  with  condensation  grooves,  and  the  lead 
wings  on  top  are  turned  down  on  to  the  glass  after  fitting.  This 
lead-covered  steel  bar 
is  a  great  improve- 
ment on  the  plain  steel 
bar  as  it  is  entirely 
unaffected  by  smoke, 
acids  or  exhaust  fumes 
from  steam  engines; 
this  is  important  in 
the  case  of  a  railway 
station,  where  the 

fumes  would  otherwise   Challenge  "  Glazing, 
eat  the  steel  away  and 


FIG.  3.—"  British 


FIG.  £ — Mellowes' 
Glazing. 


so  weaken  the  bars  that  in  time  they  would  snap.  Another  somewhat 
similar  system  is  known  as  "  Mellowes'  Eclipse  Roof  Glazing  "  (fig.  4). 
It  consists  of  steel  T-bars  having  lead  wings  on  top  to  turn  on  to  the 
glass  in  a  similar  manner  to  the  last,  the  top  wings  being  double  and 
the  underside  of  the  bar  having  an  additional  wing  to  catch  the  con- 
densation. The  Heywood  combination  system  (fig.  5)  is  composed 
of  galvanized  steel  T-bars,  sometimes  encased  in  lead  and  sometimes 
partly  encased.  It  has  a  capping  and  condensation  gutters  of  lead, 


GLAZUNOV— GLEE 


117 


and  the  glass  is  bedded  on  asbestos  packing  to  get  a  better  bearing 
edge,  so  as  to  be  held  more  securely.    Hope  s  glazing  is  very  similar, 
but  the  bars  are  either  T  or  cross  according  to  the  span.     The 
"  Perfection  "  glazing  used  by  Messrs  Helliwell  &  Co.  (fig.  6)  is  com- 
posed of  steel  shaped  T  bars  with  copper  capping,  secured  with  bolts 
and  nuts  and  having  asbestos  packing  on 
top   of  the   glass   under  the   edges  of  the 
f^,^,  1,?™^        capping.     Penny-cook's  glazing  is  composed 
of  steel  shaped  T  bars  encased  with  lead 
VZ—lJ^  and    lead    wings.      Rendle's    "  Invincible  " 

FIG    s  — Heywood's    glazing  (fig.  7)  is  composed  of  steel  T  bars 
Glazine  wit'1  specially  shaped  copper  water  and  con- 

densation channels,  all  formed  in  the  one 
*^>  piece  and   resting  on   top  of  the  T  steel; 

5iR    \  the  glass  rests  on  the  zinc  channel,  and  a 

JH  ><V-»  copper  rapping  is  fixed  over  the  edges  of 
^<^lM}ij»^-3  the  glass  and  secured  with  bolts  and  nuts. 
C^Trfrj  Deard's  glazing  is  very  similar,  and  is  com- 

&i^^!$*^        posed    of    T    steel    encased    with    lead;    it 
"ex  claims  to  save  all  drilling  for  fixing  to  iron 

FIG.  6. — Helliwell's  roofs.  There  are  also  other  systems  com- 
"  Perfection  "  Glazing,  posed  of  wood  bars  with  condensation  gutter 
and  capping  of  copper  secured  with  bolts 
and  nuts,  and  asbestos  packing  with  slight 
differences  in  some  minor  matters,  but  these 
systems  are  but  little  used. 

Cloisonne^  glass  is  a  patent  ornamental 
glass  formed  by  placing  two  pieces  flat 
against  each  other  enclosing  a  species  of 
glass  mosaic.  Designs  are  worked  and 
shaped  in  gilt  wire  and  placed  on  one  sheet 
of  glass;  the  space  between  the  wire  is 
then  filled  in  with  coloured  beads,  and 

pIG  -j Rendle's      another  sheet  of  glass  is  placed  on  top  of 

"Invincible"  Glazine  il  to  keeP  them  in  position,  and  the  edges 
of   the   glass   are   bound    with   linen,    &c., 
to  keep  them  firmly  together. 

Glass  is  now  used  for  decorative  purposes,  such  as  wall  tiling 
and  ceilings;  it  is  coloured  and  decorated  in  almost  any  shade 
and  presents  a  very  effective  appearance.   An  invention 
has  ^een  Patented  for  building  houses  entirely  of 
glass;  the  walls  are  constructed  of  blocks  or  bricks 
of  opaque  glass,  the  several  walls  being  varied  in  thickness 
according  to  the  constructional  requirements. 

It  is  certainly  true  that  daylight  has  much  to  do  with  the 
sanitary  condition  of  all  buildings,  and  this  being  so  the  proper 
distribution  of  daylight  to  a  building  is  of  the  greatest  possible 
importance,  and  must  be  effected  by  an  ample  provision  of 
windows  judiciously  arranged.  The  heads  of  all  windows  should 
be  kept  as  near  the  ceiling  as  possible,  as  well  to  obtain  easy 
ventilation  as  to  ensure  good  lighting.  As  far  as  is  practicable 
a  building  should  be  planned  so  that  each  room  receives  the 
sun's  rays  for  some  part  of  the  day.  This  is  rarely  an  easy 
matter,  especially  in  towns  where  the  aspect  of  the  building 
is  out  of  the  architect's  hands.  The  best  sites  for  light  are 
found  in  streets  running  north  and  south  and  east  and  west, 
and  lighting  areas  or  courts  in  buildings  should  always  if  possible 
be  arranged  on  these  lines.  The  task  of  adequately  lighting 
lofty  city  buildings  has  been  greatly  minimized  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  many  forms  of  reflecting  and  intensifying  contrivances, 
which  are  used  to  deflect  light  into  those  apartments  into  which 
daylight  does  not  directly  penetrate,  and  which  would  otherwise 
require  the  use  of  artificial  light  to  render  them  of  any  use; 
the  most  useful  of  these  inventions  are  the  various  forms  of 
prism  glass  already  referred  to  and  illustrated  in  this  article. 

See  L.  F.  Day,  Stained  and  Painted  Glass;  and  W.  Eckstein, 
Interior  Lighting.  (J.  BT.) 

GLAZUNOV,  ALEXANDER  CONSTANTINOVICH  (1865-  ), 
Russian  musical  composer,  was  born  in  St  Petersburg  on  the 
loth  of  August  1865,  his  father  being  a  publisher  and  bookseller. 
He  showed  an  early  talent  for  music,  and  studied  for  a  year  or 
so  with  Rimsky-Korsakov.  At  the  age  of  sixteen  he  composed 
a  symphony  (afterwards  elaborated  and  published  as  op.  5), 
but  his  opus  i  was  a  quartet  in  D,  followed  by  a  pianoforte 
suite  on  S-a-c-h-a,  the  diminutive  of  his  name  Alexander.  In 
1884  he  was  taken  up  by  Liszt,  and  soon  became  known  as  a 
composer.  His  first  symphony  was  played  that  year  at  Weimar, 
and  he  appeared  as  a  conductor  at  the  Paris  exhibition  in  1889. 
In  1897  his  fourth  and  fifth  symphonies  were  performed  in  London 


under  his  own  conducting.  In  1900  he  became  professor  at  the 
St  Petersburg  conservatoire.  His  separate  works,  including' 
orchestral  symphonies,  dance  music  and  songs,  make  a  long 
list.  Glazunov  is  a  leading  representative  of  the  modern  Russian 
school,  and  a  master  of  orchestration;  his  tendency  as  compared 
with  contemporary  Russian  composers  is  towards  classical  form, 
and  he  was  much  influenced  by  Brahms,  though  in  "  programme 
music  "  he  is  represented  by  such  works  as  his  symphonic  poems 
The  Forest,  Stenka  Razin,  The  Kremlin  and  his  suite  Aus  dem 
Miltelalter.  His  ballet  music,  as  in  Raymonda,  achieved  much 
popularity. 

GLEBE  (Lat.  glaeba,  gleba,  clod  or  lump  of  earth,  hence  soil, 
land),  in  ecclesiastical  law  the  land  devoted  to  the  maintenance 
of  the  incumbent  of  a  church.  Burn  (Ecclesiastical  Law,  s.v. 
"  Glebe  Lands  ")  says:  "  Every  church  of  common  right  is 
entitled  to  house  and  glebe,  and  the  assigning  of  them  at  the 
first  was  of  such  absolute  necessity  that  without  them  no  church 
could  be  regularly  consecrated.  The  house  and  glebe  are  both 
comprehended  under  the  word  manse,  of  which  the  rule  of  the 
canon  law  is,  sancitum  est  ut  unicuique  ecclesiae  unus  mansus 
integer  absque  ullo  servitio  tribuatur."  In  the  technical  language 
of  English  law  the  fee-simple  of  the  glebe  is  said  to  be  in  abeyance, 
that  is,  it  exists  "  only  in  the  remembrance,  expectation  and 
intendment  of  the  law."  But  the  freehold  is  in  the  parson, 
although  at  common  law  he  could  alienate  the  same  only  with 
proper  consent, — that  is,  in  his  case,  with  the  consent  of  the  bishop. 
The  disabling  statutes  of  Elizabeth  (Alienation  by  Bishops, 
1559,  and  Dilapidations,  &c.,  1571)  made  void  all  alienations 
by  ecclesiastical  persons,  except  leases  for  the  term  of  twenty- 
one  years  or  three  lives.  By  an  act  of  1842  (5  &  6  Viet.  c.  27, 
Ecclesiastical  Leases)  glebe  land  and  buildings  may  be  let  on 
lease  for  farming  purposes  for  fourteen  years  or  on  an  improving 
lease  for  twenty  years.  But  the  parsonage  house  and  ten  acres 
of  glebe  situate  most  conveniently  for  occupation  must  not  be 
leased.  By  the  Ecclesiastical  Leasing  Acts  of  1842  1(s  &  6 
Viet.  c.  108)  and  1858  glebe  lands  may  be  let  on  building  leases 
for  not  more  than  ninety-nine  years  and  on  mining  leases  for 
not  more  than  sixty  years.  The  Tithe  Act  1842,  the  Glebe 
Lands  Act  1888  and  various  other  acts  make  provision  for  the 
sale,  purchase,  exchange  and  gift  of  glebe  lands.  In  Scots 
ecclesiastical  law,  the  manse  now  signifies  the  minister's  dwelling- 
house,  the  glebe  being  the  land  to  which  he  is  entitled  in  addition 
to  his  stipend.  All  parish  ministers  appear  to  be  entitled  to  a 
glebe,  except  the  ministers  in  royal  burghs  proper,  who  cannot 
claim  a  glebe  unless  there  be  a  landowner's  district  annexed; 
and  even  in  that  case,  when  there  are  two  ministers,  it  is  only 
the  first  who  has  a  claim. 

See  Phillimore,  Ecclesiastical  Law  (2nd  ed.);  Cripps,  Law  of 
Church  and  Clergy;  Leach,  Tithe  Acts  (6th  ed.);  Dart,  Vendors  and 
Purchasers  (7th  ed.). 

GLEE,  a  musical  term  for  a  part-song  of  a  particular  kind. 
The  word,  as  well  as  the  thing,  is  essentially  confined  to  England. 
The  technical  meaning  has  been  explained  in  different  ways; 
but  there  is  little  doubt  of  its  derivation  through  the  ordinary 
sense  of  the  word  (i.e.  merriment,  entertainment)  from  the  A.S. 
gleov,  gleo,  corresponding  to  Lat.  gaudium,  delectamentum,  hence 
ludus  musicus;  on  the  other  hand,  a  musical  "  glee  "  is  by  no 
means  necessarily  a  merry  composition.  Gleeman  (A.S.  "  gleo- 
man  ")  is  translated  simply  as  "  musicus  "  or  "  cantor,"  to  which 
the  less  distinguished  titles  of  "  mimus,  jocista,  scurra,"  are 
frequently  added  in  old  dictionaries.  The  accomplishments 
and  social  position  of  the  gleeman  seem  to  have  been  as  varied 
as  those  of  the  Provencal  "  joglar."  There  are  early  examples  of 
the  word  "  glee  "  being  used  as  synonymous  with  harmony  or 
concerted  music.  The  former  explanation,  for  instance,  is 
given  in  the  Promptorium  parvulorum,  a  work  of  the  1 5th  century. 
Glee  in  its  present  meaning  signifies,  broadly  speaking,  a  piece 
of  concerted  vocal  music,  generally  unaccompanied,  and  for 
male  voices,  though  exceptions  are  found  to  the  last  two  restric- 
tions. The  number  of  voices  ought  not  to  be  less  than  three. 
As  regards  musical  form,  the  glee  is  little  distinguished  from  the 
catch, — the  two  terms  being  often  used  indiscriminately  for  the 


n8 


GLEICHEN— GLEIM 


same  song;  but  there  is  a  distinct  difference  between  it  and  the 
madrigal — one  of  the  earliest  forms  of  concerted  music  known 
in  England.  While  the  madrigal  does  not  show  a  distinction  of 
contrasted  movements,  this  feature  is  absolutely  necessary  in 
the  glee.  In  the  madrigal  the  movement  of  the  voices  is  strictly 
contrapuntal,  while  the  more  modern  form  allows  of  freer  treat- 
ment and  more  compact  harmonies.  Differences  of  tonality  are 
fully  explained  by  the  development  of  the  art,  for  while  the 
madrigal  reached  its  acme  in  Queen  Elizabeth's  time,  the  glee 
proper  was  little  known  before  the  Commonwealth;  and  its 
most  famous  representatives  belong  to  the  i8th  century  and  the 
first  quarter  of  the  igth.  Among  the  numerous  collections  of 
the  innumerable  pieces  of  this  kind,  only  one  of  the  earliest 
and  most  famous  may  be  mentioned,  Catch  that  Catch  can,  a 
Choice  Collection  of  Catches,  Rounds  and  Canons,  for  three  and 
four  voices,  published  by  John  Hilton  in  1652.  The  name 
"  glee,"  however,  appears  for  the  first  time  in  John  Playford's 
Musical  Companion,  published  twenty-one  years  afterwards, 
and  reprinted  again  and  again,  with  additions  by  later  composers 
— Henry  Purcell,  William  Croft  and  John  Blow  among  the 
number.  The  originator  of  the  glee  in  its  modern  form  was 
Dr  Arne,  born  in  1710.  Among  later  English  musicians  famous 
for  their  glees,  catches  and  part-songs,  the  following  may  be 
mentioned: — Attwood,  Boyce,  Bishop,  Crotch,  Callcott,  Shield, 
Stevens,  Horsley,  Webb  and  Knyvett.  The  convivial  character 
of  the  glee  led,  in  the  i8th  century,  to  the  formation  of  various 
societies,  which  offered  prizes  and  medals  for  the  best  composi- 
tions of  the  kind  and  assembled  for  social  and  artistic  purposes. 
The  most  famous  amongst  these — The  Glee  Club — was  founded 
in  1787,  and  at  first  used  to  meet  at  the  house  of  Mr  Robert 
Smith,  in  St  Paul's  churchyard.  This  club  was  dissolved  in 
1857.  A  similar  society — The  Catch  Club — was  formed  in  1761 
and  is  still  in  existence. 

GLEICHEN,  two  groups  of  castles  in  Germany,  thus  named 
from  their  resemblance  to  each  other  (Ger.  gleich  =  \ik.e,  or 
resembling).  The  first  is  a  group  of  three,  each  situated  on  a 
hill  in  Thuringia  between  Gotha  and  Erfurt.  One  of  these 
called  Gleichen,  the  Wanderslebener  Gleiche  (1221  ft.  above 
the  sea),  was  besieged  unsuccessfully  by  the  emperor  Henry  IV. 
in  1088.  It  was  the  seat  of  a  line  of  counts,  one  of  whom,  Ernest 
III.,  a  crusader,  is  the  subject  of  a  romantic  legend.  Having 
been  captured,  he  was  released  from  his  imprisonment  by  a 
Turkish  woman,  who  returned  with  him  to  Germany  and  became 
his  wife,  a  papal  dispensation  allowing  him  to  live  with  two 
wives  at  the  same  time  (see  Reineck,  Die  Sage  von  der  Doppelehe 
eines  Graf  en  von  Gleichen,  1891).  After  belonging  to  the  elector 
of  Mainz  the  castle  became  the  property  of  Prussia  in  1803. 
The  second  castle  is  called  Miihlburg  (1309  ft.  above  the  sea). 
This  existed  as  early  as  704  and  was  besieged  by  Henry  IV. 
in  1087.  It  came  into  the  hands  of  Prussia  in  1803.  The  third 
castle,  Wachsenburg  (1358  ft.),  is  still  inhabited  and  contains 
a  collection  of  weapons  and  pictures  belonging  to  its  owner,  the 
duke  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,  whose  family  obtained  possession 
of  it  in  1368.  It  was  built  about  935  (see  Beyer,  Die  drei  Gleichen, 
Erfurt,  1898).  The  other  group  consists  of  two  castles,  Neuen- 
Gleichen  and  Alten-Gleichen.  Both  are  in  ruins  and  crown 
two  hills  about  2  m.  S.E.  from  Gottingen. 

The  name  of  Gleichen  is  taken  by  the  family  descended  from 
Prince  Victor  of  Hohenlohe-Langenburg  through  his  marriage 
with  Miss  Laura  Seymour,  daughter  of  Admiral  Sir  George 
Francis  Seymour,  a  branch  of  the  Hohenlohe  family  having  at 
one  time  owned  part  of  the  county  of  Gleichen. 

OLEIG,  GEORGE  (1753-1840),  Scottish  divine,  was  born  at 
Boghall,  Kincardineshire,  on  the  I2th  of  May  1753,  the  son  of  a 
farmer.  At  the  age  of  thirteen  he  entered  King's  College, 
Aberdeen,  where  the  first  prize  in  mathematics  and  physical  and 
moral  sciences  fell  to  him.  In  his  twenty-first  year  he  took 
orders  in  the  Scottish  Episcopal  Church,  and  was  ordained  to  the 
pastoral  charge  of  a  congregation  at  Pittenweem,  Fife,  whence 
he  removed  in  1 790  to  Stirling.  He  became  a  frequent  contributor 
to  the  Monthly  Review,  the  Gentleman's  Magazine,  the  Anti- 
Jacobin  Review  and  the  British  Critic.  He  also  wrote  several 


articles  for  the  third  edition  of  the  Encyclopaedia  Brilannica,  and 
on  the  death  of  the  editor,  Colin  Macfarquhar,  in  1793,  was 
engaged  to  edit  the  remaining  volumes.  Among  his  principal 
contributions  to  this  work  were  articles  on  "Instinct,"  "  Theology  " 
and  "  Metaphysics."  The  two  supplementary  volumes  were 
mainly  his  own  work.  He  was  twice  chosen  bishop  of  Dunkeld, 
but  the  opposition  of  Bishop  Skinner,  afterwards  primus,  rendered 
the  election  on  both  occasions  ineffectual.  In  1808  he  was  con- 
secrated assistant  and  successor  to  the  bishop  of  Brechin,  in  1810 
was  preferred  to  the  sole  charge,  and  in  1816  was  elected  primus 
of  the  Episcopal  Church  of  Scotland,  in  which  capacity  he  greatly 
aided  in  the  introduction  of  many  useful  reforms,  in  fostering  a 
more  catholic  and  tolerant  spirit,  and  in  cementing  a  firm 
alliance  with  the  sister  church  of  England.  He  died  at  Stirling 
on  the  gth  of  March  1840. 

Besides  various  sermons,  Gleig  was  the  author  of  Directions  for  the 
Study  of  Theology,  in  a  series  of  letters  from  a  bishop  to  his  son  on 
his  admission  to  holy  orders  (1827);  an  edition  of  Stackhouse's 
History  of  the  Bible  (1817);  and  a  life  of  Robertson  the  historian, 
prefixed  to  an  edition  of  his  works.  See  Life  of  Bishop  Gleig,  by 
the  Rev.  W.  Walker  (1879).  Letters  to  Henderson  of  Edinburgh 
and  John  Douglas,  bishop  of  Salisbury,  are  in  the  British  Museum. 

His  third  and  only  surviving  son,  GEORGE  ROBERT  GLEIG  ( 1 796- 
1888),  was  educated  at  Glasgow  University,  whence  he  passed  with 
a  Snell  exhibition  to  Balliol  College,  Oxford.  He  abandoned  his 
scholastic  studies  to  enter  the  army,  and  served  with  distinction 
in  the  Peninsular  War  (1813-14),  and- in  the  American  War,  in 
which  he  was  thrice  wounded.  Resuming  his  work  at  Oxford,  he 
proceeded  B.A.  in  1818,  M.A.  in  1821,  and,  having  been  ordained 
in  1820,  held  successively  curacies  at  Westwell  in  Kent  and  Ash 
(to  the  latter  the  rectory  of  Ivy  Church  was  added  in  1822).  He 
was  subsequently  appointed  chaplain  of  Chelsea  hospital  (1824), 
chaplain-general  of  the  forces  (1844-1875)  and  inspector-general 
of  military  schools  (1846-1857).  From  1848  till  his  death  on  the 
9th  of  July  1888  he  was  prebend  of  Willesden  in  St  Paul's 
cathedral.  During  the  last  sixty  years  of  his  life  he  was  a  prolific, 
if  not  very  scientific,  writer;  he  wrote  for  Black-wood's  Magazine 
and  Fraser's  Magazine,  and  produced  a  large  number  of  historical 
works. 

Among  the  latter  were  (besides  histories  of  the  campaigns  in  which 
he  served),  Life  of  Sir  Thomas  Munro  (3  vols.,  1830);  History  of 
India  (4  vols.,  1830-1835);  The  Leipsic  Campaign  and  Lives  of 
Military  Commanders  (1831);  Story  of  the  Battle  of  Waterloo  (1847); 
Sketch  of  the  Military  History  of  Great  Britain  (1845) ;  Sale's  Brigade 
in  Afghanistan  (1847);  biographies  of  Lord  Clive  (1848),  the  duke 
of  Wellington  (1862),  and  Warren  Hastings  (1848;  the  subject  of 
Macaulay's  essay,  in  which  it  is  described  as  "  -three  big  bad  volumes 
full  of  undigested  correspondence  and  undiscerning  panegyric  "). 

GLEIM,  JOHANN  WILHELM  LUDWIG  (1719-1803),  German 
poet,  was  born  on  the  2nd  of  April  1719  at  Ermsleben,  near 
Halberstadt.  Having  studied  law  at  the  university  of  Halle  he 
became  secretary  to  Prince  William  of  Brandenburg-Schwedt 
at  Berlin,  where  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Ewald  von  Kleist, 
whose  devoted  friend  he  became.  When  the  prince  fell  at  the 
battle  of  Prague,  Gleim  became  secretary  to  Prince  Leopold  of 
Dessau;  but  he  soon  gave  up  his  position,  not  being  able  to  bear 
the  roughness  of  the  "  Old  Dessauer."  After  residing  a  few 
years  in  Berlin  he  was  appointed,  in  1747,  secretary  of  the 
cathedral  chapter  at  Halberstadt.  "  Father  Gleim  "  was  the  title 
accorded  to  him  throughout  all  literary  Germany  on  account  of 
his  kind-hearted  though  inconsiderate  and  undiscriminating 
patronage  alike  of  the  poets  and  poetasters  of  the  period.  He 
wrote  a  large  number  of  feeble  imitations  of  Anacreon,  Horace  and 
the  minnesingers,  a  dull  didactic  poem  entitled  Halladat  oder  das 
rote  Buck  (1774),  and  collections  of  fables  and  romances.  Of  higher 
merit  are  his  Preussische  Kriegslieder  von  einem  Grenadier  (1758). 
These,  which  were  inspired  by  the  campaigns  of  Frederick  II., 
are  often  distinguished  by  genuine  feeling  and  vigorous  force  of 
expression.  They  are  also  noteworthy  as  being  the  first  of  that 
long  series  of  noble  political  songs  in  which  later  German  litera- 
ture is  so  rich.  With  this  exception,  Gleim's  writings  are  for  the 
most  part  tamely  commonplace  in  thought  and  expression.  He 
died  at  Halberstadt  on  the  i8th  of  February  1803. 

Gleim's  Sdmtliche  Werke  appeared  in  7  vols.  in  the  years  1811- 
1813;  a  reprint  of  the  Lieder  eines  Grenadiers  was  published  by 


GLEIWITZ— GLENCORSE 


119 


A.  Sauer  in  1882.  A  good  selection  of  Gleim's  poetry  will  be  found 
in  F.  Muncker,  Anakreontiker  und  preussisch-patriotische  Lyriker 
(1894).  See  VV.  Korte,  Gleims  Leben  aus  seinen  Briefen  und  Schriften 
(1811).  His  correspondence  with  Heinse  was  published  in  2  vols. 
(1894-1896),  with  Uz  (1889),  in  both  cases  edited  by  C.  Schiiddelcopf. 

GLEIWITZ,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  Prussian  province  of 
Silesia,  dh  the  Klodnitz,  and  the  railway  between  Oppeln  and 
Cracow,  40  m.  S.E.  of  the  former  town.  Pop.  (1875)  14,156; 
(1905)  61,324.  It  possesses  two  Protestant  and  four  Roman 
Catholic  churches,  a  synagogue,  a  mining  school,  a  convent,  a 
hospital,  two  orphanages,  and  barracks.  Gleiwitz  is  the  centre  of 
the  mining  industry  of  Upper  Silesia.  Besides  the  royal  foundry, 
with  which  are  connected  machine  manufactories  and  boiler- 
works,  there  are  other  foundries,  meal  mills  and  manufactories 
of  wire,  gas  pipes,  cement  and  paper. 

See  B.  Nietsche,  Geschichle  der  Stadt  Gleiwitz  (1886);  and  Seidel, 
Die  konigliche  Eisengiesserei  zu  Gleiwitz  (Berlin,  1896). 

GLENALMOND,  a  glen  of  Perthshire,  Scotland,  situated  to  the 
S.E.  of  Loch  Tay.  It  comprises  the  upper  two-thirds  of  the 
course  of  the  Almond,  or  a  distance  of  20  m.  For  the  greater 
part  it  follows  a  direction  east  by  south,  but  at  Newton  Bridge 
it  inclines  sharply  to  the  south-east  for  3  m.,  and  narrows  to  such 
a  degree  that  this  portion  is  known  as  the  Small  (or  Sma')  Glen. 
At  the  end  of  this  pass  the  glen  expands  and  runs  eastwards  as 
far  as  the  well-known  public  school  of  Trinity  College,  where  it 
may  be  considered  to  terminate.  The  most  interesting  spot  in 
the  glen  is  that  traditionally  known  as  the  grave  of  Ossian.  The 
district  east  of  Buchanty,  near  which  are  the  remains  of  a  Roman 
camp,  is  said  to  be  the  Drumtochty  of  Ian  Maclaren's  stories. 
The  mountainous  region  at  the  head  of  the  glen  is  dominated  by 
Ben  y  Hone  or  Ben  Chonzie  (3048  ft.  high). 

GLENCAIRN,  EARLS  OF.  The  ist  earl  of  Glencairn  in  the 
Scottish  peerage  was  ALEXANDER  CUNNINGHAM  (d.  1488),  a  son 
of  Sir  Robert  Cunningham  of  Kilmaurs  in  Ayrshire.  Made  a  lord 
of  the  Scottish  parliament  as  Lord  Kilmaurs  not  later  than  1469, 
Cunningham  was  created  earl  of  Glencairn  in  1488;  and  a  few 
weeks  later  he  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Sauchieburn  whilst 
fighting  for  King  James  III.  against  his  rebellious  son,  afterwards 
James  IV.  His  son  and  successor,  ROBERT  (d.  c.  1490),  was 
deprived  of  his  earldom  by  James  IV.,  but  before  1505  this  had 
been  revived  in  favour  of  Robert's  son,  CUTHBERT  (d.  c.  1540), 
who  became  3rd  earl  of  Glencairn,  and  whose  son  WILLIAM 
(c.  1490-1 547)  was  the  4th  earl.  This  noble,  an  early  adherent  of 
the  Reformation,  was  during  his  public  life  frequently  in  the 
pay  and  service  of  England,  although  he  fought  on  the  Scottish 
side  at  the  battle  of  Solway  Moss  (1542),  where  he  was  taken 
prisoner.  Upon  his  release  early  in  1543  he  promised  to  adhere 
to  Henry  VIII.,  who  was  anxious  to  bring  Scotland  under  his 
rule,  and  in  1 544  he  entered  into  other  engagements  with  Henry, 
undertaking  inter  alia  to  deliver  Mary  queen  of  Scots  to  the 
English  king.  However,  he  was  defeated  by  James  Hamilton, 
earl  of  Arran,  and  the  project  failed;  Glencairn  then  deserted 
his  fellow-conspirator,  Matthew  Stewart,  earl  of  Lennox,  and 
came  to  terms  with  the  queen-mother,  Mary  of  Guise,  and  her 
party. 

William's  son,  ALEXANDER,  the  5th  earl  (d.  1574),  was  a  more 
pronounced  reformer  than  his  father,  whose  English  sympathies 
he  shared,  and  was  among  the  intimate  friends  of  John  Knox. 
In  March  1557  he  signed  the  letter  asking  Knox  to  return  to 
Scotland;  in  the  following  December  he  subscribed  the  first 
"  band  "  of  the  Scottish  reformers;  and  he  anticipated  Lord 
James  Stewart,  afterwards  the  regent  Murray,  in  taking  up  arms 
against  the  regent,  Mary  of  Guise,  in  1558.  Then,  joined  by 
Stewart  and  the  lords  of  the  congregation,  he  fought  against 
the  regent,  and  took  part  in  the  attendant  negotiations  with 
Elizabeth  of  England,  whom  he  visited  in  London  in  December 
1560.  When  in  August  1561  Mary  queen  of  Scots  returned  to 
Scotland,  Glencairn  was  made  a  member  of  her  council;  he 
remained  loyal  to  her  after  she  had  been  deserted  by  Murray, 
but  in  a  few  weeks  rejoined  Murray  and  the  other  Protestant 
lords,  returning  to  Mary's  side  in  1566.  After  the  queen  had 
married  the  earl  of  Bothwell  she  was  again  forsaken  by  Glen- 
cairn, who  fought  against  her  at  Carberry  Hill  and  at  Langside. 


The  earl,  who  was  always  to  the  fore  in  destroying  churches, 
abbeys  and  other  "  monuments  of  idolatry,"  died  on  the  23rd  of 
November  1 574.  His  short  satirical  poem  against  the  Grey  Friars 
is  printed  by  Knox  in  his  History  of  the  Reformation. 

JAMES,  the  7th  earl  (d.  c.  1622),  took  part  in  the  seizure  of 
James  VI.,  called  the  raid  of  Ruthven  in  1582.  WILLIAM,  the 
9th  earl  (c.  1610-1664),  a  somewhat  lukewarm  Royalist  during 
the  Civil  War,  was  a  party  to  the  "  engagement  "  between  the 
king  and  the  Scots  in  1647;  for  this  proceeding  the  Scottish 
parliament  deprived  him  of  his  office  as  lord  justice-general, 
and  nominally  of  his  earldom.  In  March  1653  Charles  II. 
commissioned  the  earl  to  command  the  Royalist  forces  in  Scotland, 
pending  the  arrival  of  General  John  Middleton,  and  the  insurrec- 
tion of  this  year  is  generally  known  as  Glencairn's  rising.  After 
its  failure  he  was  betrayed  and  imprisoned,  but  although  excepted 
from  pardon  he  was  not  executed;  and  when  Charles  II.  was 
restored  he  became  lord  chancellor  of  Scotland.  After  a  dispute 
with  his  former  friend,  James  Sharp,  archbishop  of  St  Andrews, 
he  died  at  Belton  in  Haddingtonshire  on  the  3oth  of  May  1664. 
This  earl's  son  JOHN  (d.  1703),  who  followed  his  brother  Alexander 
as  nth  earl  in  1670,  was  a  supporter  of  the  Revolution  of  1688. 
His  descendant,  JAMES,  the  I4th  earl  (1749-1791),  is  known  as 
the  friend  and  patron  of  Robert  Burns.  He  performed  several 
useful  services  for  the  poet;  and  when  he  died  on  the  3oth  of 
January  1791  Burns  wrote  a  Lament  beginning,  "The  wind 
blew  hollow  frae  the  hills,"  and  ending  with  the  lines,  "  But 
I'll  remember  thee,  Glencairn,  and  a'  that  thou  hast  done  for  me." 
The  I4th  earl  was  never  married,  and  when  his  brother  and 
successor,  John,  died  childless  in  September  1796  the  earldom 
became  extinct,  although  it  was  claimed  by  Sir  Adam  Fergusson, 
Bart.,  a  descendant  of  the  loth  earl. 

GLENCOE,  a  glen  in  Scotland,  situated  in  the  north  of  Argyll- 
shire. Beginning  at  the  north-eastern  base  jf  Buchaille  Etive, 
it  takes  a  gentle  north-westerly  trend  for  10  m.  to  its  mouth 
on  Loch  Leven,  a  salt-water  arm  of  Loch  Linnhe.  On  both  sides 
it  is  shut  in  by  wild  and  precipitous  mountains  and  its  bed  is 
swept  by  the  Coe — Ossian's  "  dark  Cona," — which  rises  in  the 
hills  at  its  eastern  end.  About  half-way  down  the  glen  the 
stream  forms  the  tiny  Loch  Triochatan.  Towards  Invercoe 
the  landscape  acquires  a  softer  beauty.  Here  Lord  Strathcona, 
who,  in  1894,  purchased  the  heritage  of  the  Macdonalds  of 
Glencoe,  built  his  stately  mansion  of  Mount  Royal.  The  principal 
mountains  on  the  south  side  are  the  various  peaks  of  Buachaille 
Etive,  Stob  Dearg  (3345  ft.),  Bidean  nam  Bian  (3756  ft.)  and 
Meall  Mor  (2215  ft.),  and  on  the  northern  side  the  Pap  of  Glencoe 
(2430  ft.),  Sgor  nam  Fiannaidh  (3168  ft.)  and  Meall  Dearg 
(3118  ft.).  Points  of  interest  are  the  Devil's  Staircase,  a  steep, 
boulder-strewn  "  cut  "  (1754  ft.  high)  across  the  hills  to  Fort 
William;  the  Study;  the  cave  of  Ossian,  where  tradition  says 
that  he  was  born,  and  the  lona  cross  erected  in  1883  by  a 
Macdonald  in  memory  of  his  clansmen  who  perished  in  the 
massacre  of  1692.  About  i  m.  beyond  the  head  of  the  glen  is 
Kingshouse,  a  relic  of  the  old  coaching  days,  when  it  was 
customary  for  tourists  to  drive  from  Ballachulish  via  Tyndrum 
to  Loch  Lomond.  Now  the  Glencoe  excursion  is  usually  made 
from  Oban — by  rail  to  Achnacloich,  steamer  up  Loch  Etive, 
coach  up  Glen  Etive  and  down  Glencoe  and  steamer  at 
Ballachulish  to  Oban.  One  mile  to  the  west  of  the  Glen  lies  the 
village  of  BALLACHULISH  (pop.  1143).  It  is  celebrated  for  its 
slate  quarries,  which  have  been  worked  since  1 760.  The  industry 
provides  employment  for  600  men  and  the  annual  output 
averages  30,000  tons.  The  slate  is  of  excellent  quality  and  is 
used  throughout  the  United  Kingdom.  Ballachulish  is  a  station 
on  the  Callander  and  Oban  extension  line  to  Fort  William 
(Caledonian  railway).  The  pier  and  ferry  are  some  2  m.  W.  of 
the  village. 

GLENCORSE,  JOHN  INGLIS,  LORD  (xSio-iSpi),  Scottish 
judge,  son  of  a  minister,  was  born  at  Edinburgh  on  the  2ist  of 
August  1810.  From  Glasgow  University  he  went  to  Balliol 
College,  Oxford.  He  was  admitted  a  member  of  the  Faculty 
of  Advocates,  and  soon  became  known  as  an  eloquent  and 
successful  pleader.  In  1852  he  was  made  solicitor-general  for 


I2O 


GLENDALOUGH— GLENDOWER,  OWEN 


Scotland  in  Lord  Derby's  first  ministry,  three  months  later 
becoming  Lord  Advocate.  In  1858  he  resumed  this  office  in 
Lord  Derby's  second  administration,  being  returned  to  the 
House  of  Commons  as  member  for  Stamford.  He  was  responsible 
for  the  Universities  of  Scotland  Act  of  1858,  and  in  the  same 
year  he  was  elevated  to  the  bench  as  lord  justice  clerk.  In  1867 
he  was  made  lord  justice  general  of  Scotland  and  lord  president 
of  the  court  of  session,  taking  the  title  of  Lord  Glencorse. 
Outside  his  judicial  duties  he  was  responsible  for  much  useful 
public  work,  particularly  in  the  department  of  higher  education. 
In  1869  he  was  elected  chancellor  of  Edinburgh  University, 
having  already  been  rector  of  the  university  of  Glasgow.  He 
died  on  the  zoth  August  1891. 

GLENDALOUGH,  VALE  OF,  a  mountain  glen  of  Co. 
Wicklow,  Ireland,  celebrated  and  frequently  visited  both  on 
account  of  its  scenic  beauty  and,  more  especially,  because  of  the 
collection  of  ecclesiastical  remains  situated  in  it.  Fortunately 
for  its  appearance,  it  is  not  approached  by  any  railway,  but 
services  of  cars  are  maintained  to  several  points,  of  which 
Rathdrum,  8£  m.  S.E.,  is  the  nearest  railway  station,  on  the 
Dublin  &  South-Eastern.  The  glen  is  traversed  by  the  stream 
of  Glenealo,  a  tributary  of  the  Avonmore,  expanding  into  small 
loughs,  the  Upper  and  the  Lower.  The  former  of  these  is 
walled  by  the  abrupt  heights  of  Camaderry  (2296  ft.)  and 
Lugduff  (2176  ft.),  and  here  the  extreme  narrowness  of  the  valley 
adds  to  its  grandeur;  while  lower  down,  where  it  widens,  the 
romantic  character  of  the  scenery  is  enhanced  by  the  scattered 
ruins  of  the  former  monastic  settlement.  These  ruins  have 
the  collective  name  of  the  "  Seven  Churches."  The  settlement 
owed  its  foundation  to  the  hermit  St  Kevin,  who  is  reputed  to 
have  died  on  the  3rd  of  June  618;  and  it  rapidly  became  a  seat 
of  learning  of  wide  fame,  but  suffered  much  at  the  hands  of  the 
Danes  and  the  Anglo-Normans.  In  close  proximity  to  an  hotel, 
and  to  one  another,  in  an  enclosure,  are  a  round  tower,  one  of  the 
finest  in  Ireland,  no  ft.  high  and  52  in  circumference;  St  Kevin's 
kitchen  or  church  (closely  resembling  the  house  of  St  Columba  at 
Kells),  which  measures  25  ft.  by  15,  with  a  high-pitched  roof  and 
round  belfry — supposed  to  be  the  earliest  example  of  its  type; 
and  the  cathedral,  about  73  ft.  in  total  length  by  51  in  width. 
This  possesses  a  good  square-headed  doorway,  and  an  east 
window  of  ornate  character  (the  chancel  being  of  later  date 
than  the  nave),  and  there  are  also  some  early  tombs,  but  the 
whole  is  in  a  decayed  condition.  In  the  enclosure  are  also  a 
Lady  chapel,  chiefly  remarkable  for  its  doorway  of  wrought 
granite,  in  a  style  of  architecture  resembling  Greek;  a  priest's 
house  (restored),  and  slight  remains  of  St  Chiaran's  church. 
Here  is  also  St  Kevin's  cross,  a  granite  monolith  never  completed; 
and  the  enclosure  is  entered  by  a  fine  though  dilapidated  gateway. 
Other  neighbouring  remains  are  Trinity  or  the  Ivy  Church, 
towards  Laragh,  with  beautiful  detailed  work;  St  Saviour's 
monastery,  carefully  restored  under  the  direction  of  the  Board 
of  Works,  with  a  chancel  arch  of  three  orders  (re-erected); 
while  on  the  shores  of  the  upper  lough  are  Reefert  Church, 
the  burial-place  of  the  O'Toole  family,  and  Teampull-na-skellig, 
the  church  of  the  rock.  St  Kevin's  bed  is  a  cave  approachable 
with  difficulty,  above  the  lough,  probably  a  natural  cavity 
artificially  enlarged,  to  which  attaches  the  legend  of  St  Kevin's 
hermitage.  Along  the  valley  there  are  a  number  of  monuments 
and  stone  crosses  of  various  sizes  and  styles.  The  whole  collec- 
tion forms,  with  the  possible  exception  of  Clonmacnoise  in  King's 
county,  the  most  striking  monument  of  monasticism  in  Ireland. 

GLENDOWER,  OWEN  (c.  1350-1415),  the  last  to  claim  the 
title  of  an  independent  prince  of  Wales,  more  correctly  described 
as  Owain  ab  Gruffydd,  lord  of  Glyndyvrdwy  in  Merioneth,  was 
a  man  of  good  family,  with  two  great  houses,  Sycharth  and 
Glyndyvrdwy  in  the  north,  besides  smaller  estates  in  south 
Wales.  His  father  was  called  Gruffydd  Vychan,  and  his  mother 
Helen;  on  both  sides  he  had  pretensions  to  be  descended  from 
the  old  Welsh  princes.  Owen  was  probably  born  about  1359, 
studied  law  at  Westminster,  was  squire  to  the  earl  of  Arundel, 
and  a  witness  for  Grosvenor  in  the  famous  Scrope  and  Grosvenor 
lawsuit  in  1386.  Afterwards  he  was  in  the  service  of  Henry  of 


Bolingbroke,  the  future  king,  though  by  an  error  it  has  been 
commonly  stated  that  he  was  squire  to  Richard  II.  Welsh 
sympathies  were,  however,  on  Richard's  side,  and  combined 
with  a  personal  quarrel  to  make  Owen  the  leader  of  a  national 
revolt. 

The  lords  of  Glyndyvrdwy  had  an  ancient  feud  with  their 
English  neighbours,  the  Greys  of  Ruthin.  Reginald  Grey 
neglected  to  summon  Owen,  as  was  his  duty,  for  the  Scottish 
expedition  of  1400,  and  then  charged  him  with  treason  for 
failing  to  appear.  Owen  thereupon  took  up  arms,  and  when 
Henry  IV.  returned  from  Scotland  in  September  he  found  north 
Wales  ablaze.  A  hurried  campaign  under  the  king's  personal 
command  was  ineffectual.  Owen's  estates  were  declared  forfeit 
and  vigorous  measures  threatened  by  the  English  government. 
Still  the  revolt  gathered  strength.  In  the  spring  of  1401  Owen 
was  raiding  in  south  Wales,  and  credited  with  the  intention  of 
invading  England.  A  second  campaign  by  the  king  in  the 
autumn  was  defeated,  like  that  of  the  previous  year,  through 
bad  weather  and  the  Fabian  tactics  of  the  Welsh.  Owen  had 
already  been  intriguing  with  Henry  Percy  (Hotspur),  who 
during  1401  held  command  in  north  Wales,  and  with  Percy's 
brother-in-law,  Sir  Edmund  Mortimer.  During  the  winter  of 
1401-1402  his  plans  were  further  extended  to  negotiations  with 
the  rebel  Irish,  the  Scots  and  the  French.  In  the  spring  he  had 
grown  so  strong  that  he  attacked  Ruthin,  and  took  Grey  prisoner. 
In  the  summer  he  defeated  the  men  of  Hereford  under  Edmund 
Mortimer  at  Pilleth,  near  Brynglas,  in  Radnorshire.  Mortimer 
was  taken  prisoner  and  treated  with  such  friendliness  as  to 
make  the  English  doubt  his  loyalty;  within  a  few  months  he 
married  Owen's  daughter.  In  the  autumn  the  English  king 
was  for  the  third  time  driven  "  bootless  home  and  weather- 
beaten  back."  The  few  English  strongholds  left  in  Wales  were 
now  hard  pressed,  and  Owen  boasted  that  he  would  meet  his 
enemy  in  the  field.  Nevertheless,  in  May  1403  Henry  of  Mon- 
mouth  was  allowed  to  sack  Sycharth  and  Glyndyvrdwy  un- 
opposed. Owen  had  a  greater  plot  in  hand.  The  Percies  were 
to  rise  in  arms,  and  meeting  Owen  at  Shrewsbury,  overwhelm 
the  prince  before  help  could  arrive.  But  Owen's  share  in  the 
undertaking  miscarried  through  his  own  defeat  near  Carmarthen 
on  the  1 2th  of  July,  and  Percy  was  crushed  at  Shrewsbury  ten 
days  later.  Still  the  Welsh  revolt  was  never  so  formidable. 
Owen  styled  himself  openly  prince  of  Wales,  established  a  regular 
government,  and  called  a  parliament  at  Machynlleth.  As  a 
result  of  a  formal  alliance  the  French  sent  troops  to  his  aid,  and 
in  the  course  of  1404  the  great  castles  of  Harlech  and  Aberystwith 
fell  into  his  hands. 

In  the  spring  of  1405  Owen  was  at  the  height  of  his  power; 
but  the  tide  turned  suddenly.  Prince  Henry  defeated  the  Welsh 
at  Grosmont  in  March,  and  twice  again  in  May,  when  Owen's 
son  Griffith  and  his  chancellor  were  made  prisoners.  Scrope's 
rebellion  in  the  North  prevented  the  English  from  following 
up  their  success.  The  earl  of  Northumberland  took  refuge  in 
Wales,  and  the  tripartite  alliance  of  Owen  with  Percy  and 
Mortimer  (transferred  by  Shakespeare  to  an  earlier  occasion) 
threatened  a  renewal  of  danger.  But  Northumberland's  plots 
and  the  active  help  of  the  French  proved  ineffective.  The 
English  under  Prince  Henry  gained  ground  steadily,  and  the 
recovery  of  Aberystwith,  after  a  long  siege,  in  the  autumn  of 
1408  marked  the  end  of  serious  warfare.  In  February  1409 
Harlech  was  also  recaptured,  and  Owen's  wife,  daughter  and 
grandchildren  were  taken  prisoners.  Owen  himself  still  held 
out  and  even  continued  to  intrigue  with  the  French.  In  July 
1415  Gilbert  Talbot  had  power  to  treat  with  Owen  and  his 
supporters  and  admit  them  to  pardon.  Owen's  name  does  not 
occur  in  the  document  renewing  Talbot's  powers  in  February 
1416;  according  to  Adam  of  Usk  he  died  in  1415.  Later  English 
writers  allege  that  he  died  of  starvation  in  the  mountains;  but 
Welsh  legend  represents  him  as  spending  a  peaceful  old  age  with 
his  sons-in-law  at  Ewyas  and  Monington  in  Herefordshire,  till 
his  death  and  burial  at  the  latter  place.  The  dream  of  an 
independent  and  united  Wales  was  never  nearer  realization  than 
under  Owen's  leadership.  The  disturbed  state  of  England 


4iol 


GLENELG— GLEYRE 


121 


helped  him,  but  he  was  indeed  a  remarkable  personality,  and 
has  not  undeservedly  become  a  national  hero.  Sentiment  and 
tradition  have  magnified  his  achievements,  and  confused  his 
career  with  tales  of  portents  and  magical  powers.  Owen  left 
many  bastard  children;  his  legitimate  representative  in  1433 
was  his  daughter  Alice,  wife  of  Sir  John  Scudamore  of  Ewyas. 

The  facts  of  Owen's  life  must  be  pieced  together  from  scattered 
references  in  contemporary  chronicles  and  documents;  perhaps  the 
most  important  are  Adam  of  Usk's  Chronicle  and  Ellis  s  Ongtnal 
Letters.  On  the  Welsh  side  something  is  given  by  the  bards  lolo 
Goch  and  Lewis  Glyn  Cothi.  For  modern  accounts  consult  J.  H. 
Wy lie's  History  of  England  under  Henry  IV.  (4  vols.,  1884-1898); 
A.  C.  Bradley 's  popular  biography ;  and  Professor  Tout's  article  m  the 
Dictionary  of  National  Biography.  (<-.  L.  K..J 

GLENELG,  CHARLES  GRANT,  BARON  (1778-1866),  eldest 
son  of  Charles  Grant  (q.v.),  chairman  of  the  directors  of  the 
East  India  Company,  was  born  in  India  on  the  26th  of  October 
1778,  and  was  educated  at  Magdalene  College,  Cambridge,  of 
which  he  became  a  fellow  in  1802.  Called  to  the  bar  in  1807, 
he  was  elected  member  of  parliament  for  the  Inverness  burghs 
in  1807,  and  having  gained  some  reputation  as  a  speaker  in  the 
House  of  Commons,  he  was  made  a  lord  of  the  treasury  in 
December  1813,  an  office  which  he  held  until  August  1819,  when 
he  became  secretary  to  the  lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland  and  a 
privy  councillor.  In  1823  he  was  appointed  vice-president  of 
the  board  of  trade;  from  September  1827  to  June  1828  he  was 
president  of  the  board  and  treasurer  of  the  navy;  then  joining 
the  Whigs,  he  was  president  of  the  board  of  control  under  Earl 
Grey  and  Lord  Melbourne  from  November  1830  to  November 
1834.  At  the  board  of  control  Grant  was  primarily  responsible 
for  the  act  of  1833,  which  altered  the  constitution  of  the  govern- 
ment of  India.  In  April  1835  he  became  secretary  for  war  and 
the  colonies,  and  was  created  Baron  Glenelg.  His  term  of  office 
was  a  stormy  one.  "  His  differences  with  Sir  Benjamin  d'Urban 
{q.v.),  governor  of  Cape  Colony,  were  serious;  but  more  so  were 
those  with  King  William  IV.  and  others  over  the  administration 
of  Canada.  He  was  still  secretary  when  the  Canadian  rebellion 
broke  out  in  1837;  his  wavering  and  feeble  policy  was  fiercely 
attacked  in  parliament;  he  became  involved  in  disputes  with 
the  earl  of  Durham,  and  the  movement  for  his  supercession  found 
supporters  even  among  his  colleagues  in  the  cabinet.  In  February 
1839  he  resigned,  receiving  consolation  in  the  shape  of  a  pension 
of  £2000  a  year.  From  1818  until  he  was  made  a  peer  Grant 
represented  the  county  of  Inverness  in  parliament,  and  he  has 
been  called  "  the  last  of  the  Canningites."  Living  mainly 
abroad  during  the  concluding  years  of  his  life,  he  died  unmarried 
at  Cannes  on  the  23rd  of  April  1866  when  his  title  became 
extinct. 

Glenelg's  brother,  SIR  ROBERT  GRANT  (1770-1838),  who  was 
third  wrangler  in  1801 ,  was,  like  his  brother,  a  fellow  of  Magdalene 
College,  Cambridge,  and  a  barrister.  From  1818  to  1834  he 
represented  various  constituencies  in  parliament,  where  he  was 
chiefly  prominent  for  his  persistent  efforts  to  relieve  the  dis- 
abilities of  the  Jews.1  In  June  1834  he  was  appointed  governor 
of  Bombay,  and  he  died  in  India  on  the  gth  of  July  1838.  Grant 
wrote  a  Sketch  of  the  History  of  the  East  India  Co.  (1813),  and  is 
also  known  as  a  writer  of  hymns. 

GLENELG,  a  municipal  town  and  watering  place  of  Adelaide 
county,  South  Australia,  on  Holdfast  Bay,  6$  m.  by  rail  S.S.W. 
of  the  city  of  Adelaide.  Pop.  (1901)  3949.  It  is  a  popular 
summer  resort,  connected  with  Adelaide  by  two  lines  of  railway. 
In  the  vicinity  is  the  "  Old  Gum  Tree  "  under  which  South 
Australia  was  proclaimed  British  territory  by  Governor  Hind- 
marsh  in  1836. 

GLENGARRIFF,  or  GLENGARIFF  ("  Rough  Glen  "),  a  celebrated 
resort  of  tourists  in  summer  and  invalids  in  winter,  in  the  west 
riding  of  county  Cork,  Ireland,  on  Glengarriff  Harbour,  an  inlet 
on  the  northern  side  of  Bantry  Bay,  n  m.  by  coach  road  from 
Bantry  on  the  Cork,  Bandon  &  South  Coast  railway.  Beyond 
its  hotels,  Glengarriff  is  only  a  small  village,  but  the  island- 
studded  harbour,  the  narrow  glen  at  its  head  and  the  surrounding 

1  Sir  S.  Walpole  (History  of  England,  vol.  v.)  is  wrong  in  stating 
that  Charles  Grant  introduced  bills  to  remove  Jewish  disabilities  in 
1833  and  1834.  They  were  introduced  by  his  brother  Robert. 


of  mountains,  afford  most  attractive  views,  and  its  situation  on 
the  "  Prince  of  Wales'  "  route  travelled  by  King  Edward  VII. 
in  1848,  and  on  a  fine  mountain  coach  road  from  Macroom, 
brings  it  into  the  knowledge  of  many  travellers  to  Killarney. 
Thackeray  wrote  enthusiastically  of  the  harbour.  The  glaciated 
rocks  of  the  glen  are  clothed  with  vegetation  of  peculiar  luxuri- 
ance, flourishing  in  the  mild  climate  which  has  given  Glengarriff 
its  high  reputation  as  a  health  resort  for  those  suffering  from 
pulmonary  complaints. 

GLEN  GREY,  a  division  of  the  Cape  province  south  of  the 
Stormberg,  adjoining  on  the  east  the  Transkeian  Territories.  Pop. 
(1904)  55,107.  Chief  town  Lady  Frere,  32  m.  N.E.  of  Queens- 
town.  The  district  is  well  watered  and  fertile,  and  large  quantities 
of  cereals  are  grown.  Over  96%  of  the  inhabitants  are  of  the 
Zulu-Xosa  (Kaffir)  race,  and  a  considerable  part  of  the  district 
was  settled  during  the  Kaffir  wars  of  Cape  Colony  by  Tembu 
(Tambookies)  who  were  granted  a  location  by  the  colonial 
government  in  recognition  of  their  loyalty  to  the  British. 
Act  No.  25  of  1894  of  the  Cape  parliament,  passed  at  the  instance 
of  Cecil  Rhodes,  which  laid  down  the  basis  upon  which  is  effected 
the  change  of  land  tenure  by  natives  from  communal  to  individual 
holdings,  and  also  dealt  with  native  local  self-government  and 
the  labour  question,  applied  in  the  first  instance  to  this  division, 
and  is  known  as  the  Glen  Grey  Act  (see  CAPE  COLONY:  History). 
The  provisions  of  the  act  respecting  individual  land  tenure  and 
local  self-government  were  in  1898  applied,  with  certain  modifica- 
tions, to  the  Transkeian  Territories.  The  division  is  named 
after  Sir  George  Grey,  governor  of  Cape  Colony  1854-1861. 

GLENS  FALLS,  a  village  of  Warren  county,  New  York,  U.S.A., 
55  m.  N.  of  Troy,  on  the  Hudson  river.  Pop.  (1890)  9509; 
(1900)  12,613,  of  whom  1762  were  foreign-born;  (1910  census) 
15,243.  Glens  Falls  is  served  by  the  Delaware  &  Hudson  and 
the  Hudson  Valley  (electric)  railways.  The  village  contains  a 
state  armoury,  the  Crandall  free  public  library,  a  Y.M.C.A. 
building,  the  Park  hospital,  an  old  ladies'  home,  and  St  Mary's 
(Roman  Catholic)  and  Glens  Falls  (non-sectarian)  academies. 
There  are  two  private  parks,  open  to  the  public,  and  a  water- 
works system  is  maintained  by  the  village.  An  iron  bridge 
crosses  the  river  just  below  the  falls,  connecting  Glens  Falls  and 
South  Glens  Falls  (pop.  in  1910,  2247).  The  falls  of  the  Hudson 
here  furnish  a  fine  water-power,  which  is  utilized,  in  connexion 
with  steam  and  electricity,  in  the  manufacture  of  lumber,  paper 
and  wood  pulp,  women's  clothing,  shirts,  collars  and  cuffs,  &c. 
In  1905  the  village's  factory  products  were  valued  at  $4,780,331. 
About  1 2  m.  above  Glens  Falls,  on  the  Hudson,  a  massive  stone 
dam  has  been  erected;  here  electric  power,  distributed  to  a  large 
area,  is  generated.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  Glens  Falls  are 
valuable  quarries  of  black  marble  and  limestone,  and  lime, 
plaster  and  Portland  cement  works.  Glens  Falls  was  settled 
about  the  close  of  the  French  and  Indian  War  (1763),  and  was 
incorporated  as  a  village  in  1839. 

GLENTILT,  a  glen  in  the  extreme  north  of  Perthshire,  Scotland. 
Beginning  at  the  confines  of  Aberdeenshire,  it  follows  a  north- 
westerly direction  excepting  for  the  last  4  m.,  when  it  runs 
due  S.  to  Blair  Atholl.  It  is  watered  throughout  by  the  Tilt, 
which  enters  the  Garry  after  a  course  of  14  m.,  and  receives  on 
its  right  the  Tarff ,  which  forms  some  beautiful  falls  just  above 
the  confluence,  and  on  the  left  the  Fender,  which  has  some 
fine  falls  also.  The  attempt  of  the  6th  duke  of  Atholl  (1814- 
1864)  to  close  the  glen  to  the  public  was  successfully  contested 
by  the  Scottish  Rights  of  Way  Society.  The  group  of  mountains- 
Cam  nan  Gabhar  (3505  ft.),  Ben  y  Gloe  (3671)  and  Cam  Liath 
(3I03) — on  its  left  side  dominate  the  lower  half  of  the  glen. 
Marble  of  good  quality  is  occasionally  quarried  in  the  glen,  and 
the  rock  formation  has  attracted  the  attention  of  geologists 
from  the  time  of  James  Hutton. 

GLEYRE,  MARC  CHARLES  GABRIEL  (1806-1874),  French 
painter,  of  Swiss  origin,  was  born  at  Chevilly  in  the  canton  of 
Vaud  on  the  2nd  of  May  1806.  His  father  and  mother  died 
while  he  was  yet  a  boy  of  some  eight  or  nine  years  of  age;  and 
he  was  brought  up  by  an  uncle  at  Lyons,  who  sent  him  to  the 
industrial  school  of  that  city.  Going  up  to  Paris  a  lad  of 


122 


GLIDDON— GLINKA,  M.  I. 


seventeen  or  nineteen,  he  spent  four  years  in  close  artistic  study — 
in  Hersent's  studio,  in  Suisse's  academy,  in  the  galleries  of  the 
Louvre.  To  this  period  of  laborious  application  succeeded 
four  years  of  meditative  inactivity  in  Italy,  where  he  became 
acquainted  with  Horace  Vernet  and  Leopold  Robert;  and  six 
years  more  were  consumed  in  adventurous  wanderings  in  Greece, 
Egypt,  Nubia  and  Syria.  At  Cairo  he  was  attacked  with 
ophthalmia,  and  in  the  Lebanon  he  was  struck  down  by  fever; 
and  he  returned  to  Lyons  in  shattered  health.  On  his  recovery 
he  proceeded  to  Paris,  and,  fixing  his  modest  studio  in  the  rue 
de  Universite,  began  carefully  to  work  out  the  conceptions  which 
had  been  slowly  shaping  themselves  in  his  mind.  Mention  is 
made  of  two  decorative  panels — "  Diana  leaving  the  Bath,"  and 
a  "Young  Nubian" — as  almost  the  first  fruits  of  his  genius; 
but  these  did  not  attract  public  attention  till  long  after,  and  the 
painting  by  which  he  practically  opened  his  aitistic  career  was 
the  "  Apocalyptic  Vision  of  St  John,"  sent  to  the  Salon  of  1840. 
This  was  followed  in  1843  by  "  Evening,"  which  at  the  time 
received  a  medal  of  the  second  class,  and  afterwards  became 
widely  popular  under  the  title  of  the  Lost  Illusions.  It  represents 
a  poet  seated  on  the  bank  of  a  river,  with  drooping  head  and 
wearied  frame,  letting  his  lyre  slip  from  a  careless  hand,  and 
gazing  sadly  at  a  bright  company  of  maidens  whose  song  is 
slowly  dying  from  his  ear  as  their  boat  is  borne  slowly  from  his 
sight. 

In  spite  of  the  success  which  attended  these  first  ventures, 
Gleyre  retired  from  public  competition,  and  spent  the  rest  of 
his  life  in  quiet  devotion  to  his  own  artistic  ideals,  neither  seeking 
the  easy  applause  of  the  crowd,  nor  turning  his  art  into  a  means 
of  aggrandizement  and  wealth.  After  1845,  when  he  exhibited 
the  "  Separation  of  the  Apostles,"  he  contributed  nothing  to 
the  Salon  except  the  "  Dance  of  the  Bacchantes  "  in  1849.  Yet 
he  laboured  steadily  and  was  abundantly  productive.  He  had 
an  "  infinite  capacity  of  taking  pains,"  and  when  asked  by  what 
method  he  attained  to  such  marvellous  perfection  of  workman- 
ship, he  would  reply,  "  En  y  pensant  toujours."  A  long  series 
of  years  often  intervened  between  the  first  conception  of  a  piece 
and  its  embodiment,  and  years  not  unfrequently  between  the 
first  and  the  final  stage  of  the  embodiment  itself.  A  landscape 
was  apparently  finished;  even  his  fellow  artists  would  consider 
it  done;  Gleyre  alone  was  conscious  that  he  had  not  "  found 
his  sky."  Happily  for  French  art  this  high-toned  laboriousness 
became  influential  on  a  large  number  of  Gleyre's  younger 
contemporaries;  for  when  Delaroche  gave  up  his  studio  of 
instruction  he  recommended  his  pupils  to  apply  to  Gleyre,  who 
at  once  agreed  to  give  them  lessons  twice  a  week,  and  character- 
istically refused  to  take  any  fee  or  reward.  By  instinct  and 
principle  he  was  a  confirmed  celibate:  "  Fortune,  talent,  health, 
— he  had  everything;  but  he  was  married,"  was  his  lamentation 
over  a  friend.  Though  he  lived  in  almost  complete  retirement 
from  public  life,  he  took  a  keen  interest  in  politics,  and  was  a 
voracious  reader  of  political  journals.  For  a  time,  indeed,  under 
Louis  Philippe,  his  studio  had  been  the  rendezvous  of  a  sort 
of  liberal  club.  To  the  last — amid  all  the  disasters  that  befell 
his  country — he  was  hopeful  of  the  future,  "  la  raison  finira  bien 
par  avoir  raison."  It  was  while  on  a  visit  to  the  Retrospective 
Exhibition,  opened  on  behalf  of  the  exiles  from  Alsace  and 
Lorraine,  that  he  died  suddenly  on  the  5th  of  May  1874.  He 
left  unfinished  the  "  Earthly  Paradise,"  a  noble  picture,  which 
Taine  has  described  as  "  a  dream  of  innocence,  of  happiness 
and  of  beauty — Adam  and  Eve  standing  in  the  sublime  and 
joyous  landscape  of  a  paradise  enclosed  in  mountains," — a 
worthy  counterpart  to  the  "  Evening."  Among  the  other 
productions  of  his  genius  are  the  "  Deluge,"  which  represents 
two  angels  speeding  above  the  desolate  earth,  from  which  the 
destroying  waters  have  just  begun  to  retire,  leaving  visible 
behind  them  the  ruin  they  have  wrought;  the  "Battle  of  the 
Lemanus,"  a  piece  of  elaborate  design,  crowded  but  not  cumbered 
with  figures,  and  giving  fine  expression  to  the  movements  of 
the  various  bands  of  combatants  and  fugitives;  the  "  Prodigal 
Son,"  in  which  the  artist  has  ventured  to  add  to  the  parable 
the  new  element  of  mother's  love,  greeting  the  repentant  youth 


with  a  welcome  that  shows  that  the  mother's  heart  thinks  less 
of  the  repentance  than  of  the  return;  "Ruth  and  Boaz"; 
"  Ulysses  and  Nausicaa  ";  "  Hercules  at  the  feet  of  Omphale  "; 
the  "  Young  Athenian,"  or,  as  it  is  popularly  called,  "  Sappho  "; 
"Minerva  and  the  Nymphs";  " Venus  iravdr/nos ";  "  Daphnis 
and  Chloe";  and  "Love  and  the  Parcae."  Nor  must  it  be 
omitted  that  he  left  a  considerable  number  of  drawings  and  water- 
colours,  and  that  we  are  indebted  to  him  for  a  number  of  portraits, 
among  which  is  the  sad  face  of  Heine,  engraved  in  the  Revue  des 
deux  mondes  for  April  1852.  In  Clement's  catalogue  of  his 
works  there  are  683  entries,  including  sketches  and  studies. 

See  Fritz  Berthoud  in  Bibliothegue  universelle  de  Genkve  (1874); 
Albert  de  Montet,  Diet,  biographtque  des  Geneyois  et  des  Vaudois 
(1877);  and  Vie  de  Charles  Gleyre  (1877),  written  by  his  friend, 
Charles  Clement,  and  illustrated  by  30  plates  from  his  works. 

GLIDDON,  GEORGE  ROBINS  (1800-1857),  British  Egyptolo- 
gist,  was  born  in  Devonshire  in  1809.  His  father,  a  merchant, 
was  United  States  consul  at  Alexandria,  and  there  Gliddon 
was  taken  at  an  early  age.  He  became  United  States  vice- 
consul,  and  took  a  great  interest  in  Egyptian  antiquities.  Sub- 
sequently he  lectured  in  the  United  States  and  succeeded  in 
rousing  considerable  attention  to  the  subject  of  Egyptology 
generally.  He  died  at  Panama  in  1857.  His  chief  work  was 
Ancient  Egypt  (1850,  ed.  1853).  He  wrote  also  Memoir  on  the 
Cotton  of  Egypt  (1841);  Appeal  to  the  Antiquaries  of  Europe 
on  the  Destruction  of  the  Monuments  of  Egypt  (1841);  Discourses 
on  Egyptian  Archaeology  (1841);  Types  of  Mankind  (1854), 
in  conjunction  with  J.  C.  Nott  and  others;  Indigenous  Races 
of  the  Earth  (1857),  also  in  conjunction  with  Nott  and  others. 

GLINKA,  FEDOR  NIKOLAEVICH  (1788-1849),  Russian  poet 
and  author,  was  born  at  Smolensk  in  1788,  and  was  specially 
educated  for  the  army.  In  1803  he  obtained  a  commission 
as  an  officer,  and  two  years  later  took  part  in  the  Austrian  cam- 
paign. His  tastes  for  literary  pursuits,  however,  soon  induced 
him  to  leave  the  service,  whereupon  he  withdrew  to  his  estates 
in  the  government  of  Smolensk,  and  subsequently  devoted 
most  of  his  time  to  study  or  travelling  about  Russia.  Upon  the 
invasion  of  the  French  in  1812,  he  re-entered  the  Russian  army, 
and  remained  in  active  service  until  the  end  of  the  campaign 
in  1 8 14.  Upon  the  elevation  of  Count  Milarodovich  to  the  military 
governorship  of  St  Petersburg,  Glinka  was  appointed  colonel 
under  his  command.  On  account  of  his  suspected  revolutionary 
tendencies  he  was,  in  1826,  banished  to  Petrozavodsk,  but  he 
nevertheless  retained  his  honorary  post  of  president  of  the 
Society  of  the  Friends  of  Russian  Literature,  and  was  after  a 
time  allowed  to  return  to  St  Petersburg.  Soon  afterwards  he 
retired  completely  from  public  life,  and  died  on  his  estates  in 
1849. 

Glinka's  martial  songs  have  special  reference  to  the  Russian 
military  campaigns  of  his  time.  He  is  known  also  as  the  author  of 
the  descriptive  poem  Kareliya,  &c.  (Carelia,  or  the  Captivity  of 
Martha  Joanovna)  (1830),  and  of  a  metrical  paraphrase  of  the  book 
of  Job.  His  fame  as  a  military  author  is  chiefly  due  to  his  Pisma 
Russkago  Ofitsera  (Letters  of  a  Russian  Officer)  (8  vols.,  1815-1816). 

GLINKA,  MICHAEL  IVANOVICH  (1803-1857),  Russian 
musical  composer,  was  born  at  Novospassky,  a  village  in  the 
Smolensk  government,  on  the  2nd  of  June  1803.  His  early 
life  he  spent  at  home,  but  at  the  age  of  thirteen  we  find  him 
at  the  Blagorodrey  Pension,  St  Petersburg,  where  he  studied 
music  under  Carl  Maier  and  John  Field,  the  Irish  composer  and 
pianist,  who  had  settled  in  Russia.  We  are  told  that  in  his 
seventeenth  year  he  had  already  begun  to  compose  romances 
and  other  minor  vocal  pieces;  but  of  these  nothing  now  is  known. 
His  thorough  musical  training  did  not  begin  till  the  year  1830, 
when  he  went  abroad  and  stayed  for  three  years  in  Italy,  to  study 
the  works  of  old  and  modern  Italian  masters.  His  thorough 
knowledge  of  the  requirements  of  the  voice  may  be  connected 
with  this  course  of  study.  His  training  as  a  composer  was 
finished  under  the  contrapuntist  Dehn,  with  whom  Glinka 
stayed  for  several  months  at  Berlin.  In  1833  he  returned  to 
Russia,  and  devoted  himself  to  operatic  composition.  On  the 
27th  of  September  (gth  of  October)  1836,  took  place  the  first 
representation  of  his  opera  Life  for  the  Tsar  (the  libretto  by  Baron 


GLINKA,  S.  N.— GLOCKENSPIEL 


de  Rosen).  This  was  the  turning-point  in  Glinka's  life, — for 
the  work  was  not  only  a  great  success,  but  in  a  manner  became 
the  origin  and  basis  of  a  Russian  school  of  national  music. 
The  story  is  taken  from  the  invasion  of  Russia  by  the  Poles 
early  in  the  i7th  century,  and  the  hero  is  a  peasant  who  sacrifices 
his  life  for  the  tsar.  Glinka  has  wedded  this  patriotic  theme 
to  inspiring  music.  His  melodies,  moreover,  show  distinct 
affinity  to  the  popular  songs  of  the  Russians,  so  that  the  term 
"  national  "  may  justly  be  applied  to  them.  His  appointment 
as  imperial  chapelmaster  and  conductor  of  the  opera  of  St  Peters- 
burg was  the  reward  of  his  dramatic  successes.  His  second  opera 
Russian  and  Lyudmila,  founded  on  Pushkin's  poem,  did  not 
appear  till  1842;  it  was  an  advance  upon  Life  for  the  Tsar 
in  its  musical  aspect,  but  made  no  impression  upon  the  public. 
In  the  meantime  Glinka  wrote  an  overture  and  four  entre-actes 
to  Kukolnik's  drama  Prince  Kholmsky.  In  1844  he  went  to 
Paris,  and  his  Jota  Arragonesa  (1847),  and  the  symphonic  work 
on  Spanish  themes,  Une  Nuit  a  Madrid,  reflect  the  musical  results 
of  two  years'  sojourn  in  Spain.  On  his  return  to  St  Petersburg 
he  wrote  and  arranged  several  pieces  for  the  orchestra,  amongst 
which  the  so-called  Kamarinskaya  achieved  popularity  beyond 
the  limits  of  Russia.  He  also  composed  numerous  songs  and 
romances.  In  1857  he  went  abroad  for  the  third  time;  he  now 
wrote  his  autobiography,  orchestrated  Weber's  Invitation  d  la 
valse,  and  began  to  consider  a  plan  for  a  musical  version  of 
Gogol's  Tarass-Boulba.  Abandoning  the  idea  and  becoming 
absorbed  in  a  passion  for  ecclesiastical  music  he  went  to  Berlin 
to  study  the  ancient  church  modes.  Here  he  died  suddenly 
on  the  2nd  of  February  1857. 

GLINKA,  SERGY  NIKOLAEVICH  (1774-1847),  Russian 
author,  the  elder  brother  of  Fedor  N.  Glinka,  was  born  at 
Smolensk  in  1774.  In  1796  he  entered  the  Russian  army,  but 
after  three  years'  service  retired  with  the  rank  of  major.  He 
afterwards  employed  himself  in  the  education  of  youth  and  in 
literary  pursuits,  first  in  the  Ukraine,  and  subsequently  at 
Moscow,  where  he  died  in  1847.  His  poems  are  spirited  and 
patriotic;  he  wrote  also  several  dramatic  pieces,  and  translated 
Young's  Night  Thoughts. 

Among  his  numerous  prose  works  the  most  important  from  an 
historical  point  of  view  are:  Russkoe  Chtenie  (Russian  Reading: 
Historical  Memorials  of  Russia  in  the  i8th  and  igth  Centuries)  (2 
vols.,  1845);  Istoriya  Rossii,  &c.  (History  of  Russia  for  the  use  of 
Youth)  (10  vols.,  1817-1819,  2nd  ed.  1822,  3rd  ed.  1824);  Istoriya 
Armyan,  &c.  (History  of  the  Migration  of  the  Armenians  of  Azerbijar. 
from  Turkey  to  Russia)  (1831);  and  his  contributions  to  the  Russky 
Vyestnik  (Russian  Messenger),  a  monthly  periodical,  edited  by  him 
from  1808  to  1820. 

GLOBE-FISH,  or  SEA-HEDGEHOG,  the  names  by  which  some 
sea-fishes  are  known,  which  have  the  remarkable  faculty  of 
inflating  their  stomachs  with  air.  They  belong  to  the  families 
Diodontidae  and  Tetrodontidae.  Their  jaws  resemble  the  sharp 
beak  of  a  parrot,  the  bones  and  teeth  being  coalesced  into  one 
mass  with  a  sharp  edge.  In  the  Diodonts  there  is  no  mesial 
division  of  the  jaws,  whilst  in  the  Tetrodonts  such  a  division 
exists,  so  that  they  appear  to  have  two  teeth  above  and  two 


FIG.  i. — Diodon  maculatus. 

below.  By  means  of  these  jaws  they  are  able  to  break  off 
branches  of  corals,  and  to  masticate  other  hard  substances 
on  which  they  feed.  Usually  they  are  of  a  short,  thick,  cylindrical 
shape,  with  powerful  fins  (fig.  i).  Their  body  is  covered  with 
thick  skin,  without  scales,  but  provided  with  variously  formed 
spines,  the  size  and  extent  of  which  vary  in  the  different  species. 
When  they  inflate  their  capacious  stomachs  with  air,  they  assume 
a  globular  form,  and  the  spines  protrude,  forming  a  more  or  less 
formidable  defensive  armour  (fig.  2).  A  fish  thus  blown  out 


123 

turns  over  and  floats  belly  upwards,  driving  before  the  wind 
and  waves.  Many  of  these  fishes  are  highly  poisonous  when 
eaten,  and  fatal  accidents  have  occurred  from  this  cause.  It 
appears  that  they  acquire  poisonous  qualities  from  their  food, 
which  frequently  consists  of  decomposing  or  poisonous  animal 
matter,  such  as  would  impart,  and  often  does  impart,  similar 


FIG.  2. — Diodon  maculatus  (inflated). 


deleterious  qualities  to  other  fish.  They  are  most  numerous 
between  the  tropics  and  in  the  seas  contiguous  to  them,  but  a 
few  species  live  in  large  rivers,  as,  for  instance,  the  Tetrodon 
fahaka,  a  fish  well  known  to  all  travellers  on  the  Nile.  Nearly 
100  different  species  are  known. 

GLOBIGERINA,  A.  d'Orbigny,  a  genus  of  Perforate  Fora- 
minifera  (q.v.)  of  pelagic  habit,  and  formed  of  a  conical  spiral 
aggregate  of  spheroidal  chambers  with  a  crescentic  mouth.  The 
shells  accumulate  at  the  bottom  of  moderately  deep  seas  to  form 
"  Globigerina  ooze "  and  are  preserved  thus  in  the  chalk. 
Hastigerina  only  differs  in  the  "  flat  "  or  nautiloid  spiral. 

GLOCKENSPIEL,  or  ORCHESTRAL  BELLS  (Fr.  carillon;  Ger. 
Glockenspiel,  Stahlharmonika;  Ital.  campanelli;  Med.  Lat. 
tintinnabulum,  cymbalum,  bombulum),  an  instrument  of  percussion 
of  definite  musical  pitch,  used  in  the  orchestra,  and  made  in 
two  or  three  different  styles.  The  oldest  form  of  glockenspiel, 
seen  in  illuminated  MSS.  of  the  middle  ages,  consists  of  a  set 
of  bells  mounted  on  a  frame  and  played  by  one  performer  by 
means  of  steel  hammers.  The  name  "  bell "  is  now  generally 
a  misnomer,  other  forms  of  metal  or  wood  having  been  found 
more  convenient.  The  pyramid-shaped  glockenspiel,  formerly 
used  in  the  orchestra  for  simple  rhythmical  effects,  consists 
of  an  octave  of  semitone,  hemispherical  bells,  placed  one  above 
the  other  and  fastened  to  an  iron  rod  which  passes  through  the 
centre  of  each,  the  bells  being  of  graduated  sizes  and  diminishing 
in  diameter  as  the  pitch  rises.  The  lyre-shaped  glockenspiel, 
or  steel  harmonica  (Stahlharmonika),  is  a  newer  model,  which  has 
instead  of  bells  twelve  or  more  bars  of  steel,  graduating  in  size 
according  to  their  pitch.  These  bars  are  fastened  horizontally 
across  two  bars  of  steel  set  perpendicularly  in  a  steel  frame  in 
the  shape  of  a  lyre.  The  bars  are  struck  by  little  steel  hammers 
attached  to  whalebone  sticks. 

Wagner  has  used  the  glockenspiel  with  exquisite  judgment  in  the 
fire  scene  of  the  last  act  of  Die  Walkiire  and  in  the  peasants'  waltz 
in  the  last  scene  of  Die  Meister  singer.  When  chords  are  written  for 
the  glockenspiel,  as  in  Mozart's  Magic  Flute,  the  keyed  harmonica1 
is  used.  It  consists  of  a  keyboard  having  a  little  hammer  attached 
to  each  key,  which  strikes  a  bar  of  glass  or  steel  when  the  key  is 
depressed.  The  performer,  being  able  to  use  both  hands,  can  play 
a  melody  with  full  harmonies,  scale  and  arpeggio  passages  in  single 
and  double  notes.  A  peal  of  hemispherical  bells  was  specially 
constructed  for  Sir  Arthur  Sullivan's  Golden  Legend.  It  consists  of 
four  bells  constructed  of  bell-metal  about  I  in.  thick,  the  largest 
measuring  27  in.  in  diameter,  the  smallest  23.  They  are  fixed  on  a 
stand  one  above  the  other,  with  a  clearance  of  about  J  in.  between 
them;  the  rim  of  the  lowest  and  largest  bell  is  15  in.  from  the  foot 
of  the  stand.  The  bells  are  struck  by  mallets,  which  are  of  two 
kinds — a  pair  of  hard  wood  for  forte  passages,  and  a  pair  covered 

1  See  "  The  Keyed  Harmonica  improved  by  H.  Klein  of  Pressburg," 
article  in  the  Allg.  musik.  Ztg.,  Bd.  i.  pp.  675-699  (Leipzig,  1798): 
also  Becker,  p.  254,  Bartel. 


124 


GLOGAU— GLOSS,  GLOSSARY 


with  wash-leather  for  piano  effects.  The  peal  was  unique  at  the 
time  it  was  made  for  the  Golden  Legend,  but  a  smaller  bell  of  the  same 
shape,  1  in.  thick,  with  a  diameter  measuring  about  16  in.,  specially 
made  for  the  performance  of  Liszt's  St  Elizabeth,  when  conducted 
by  the  composer  in  London,  evidently  suggested  the  idea  for  the 
peal.  (K.  S.) 

GLOGAU,  a  fortified  town  of  Germany,  in  the  Prussian  province 
of  Silesia,  59  m.  N.W.  from  Breslau,  on  the  railway  to  Frankfort- 
on-Oder.  Pop.  (1905)  23,461.  It  is  built  partly  on  an  island 
and  partly  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Oder;  and  owing  to  the 
fortified  enceinte  having  been  pushed  farther  afield,  new  quarters 
have  been  opened  up.  Among  its  most  important  buildings 
are  the  cathedral,  in  the  Gothic,  and  a  castle  (now  used  as  a 
courthouse),  in  the  Renaissance  style,  two  other  Roman  Catholic 
and  three  Protestant  churches,  a  new  town-hall,  a  synagogue, 
a  military  hospital,  two  classical  schools  (Gymnasien)  and 
several  libraries.  Owing  to  its  situation  on  a  navigable  river 
and  at  the  junction  of  several  lines  of  railway,  Glogau  carries 
on  an  extensive  trade,  which  is  fostered  by  a  variety  of  local 
industries,  embracing  machinery-building,  tobacco,  beer,  oil, 
sugar  and  vinegar.  It  has  also  extensive  lithographic  works, 
and  its  wool  market  is  celebrated. 

In  the  beginning  of  the  nth  century  Glogau,  even  then  a 
populous  and  fortified  town,  was  able  to  withstand  a  regular 
siege  by  the  emperor  Henry  V.;  but  in  1157  the  duke  of  Silesia, 
finding  he  could  not  hold  out  against  Frederick  Barbarossa, 
set  it  on  fire.  In  1252  the  town,  which  had  been  raised  from  its 
ashes  by  Henry  I.,  the  Bearded,  became  the  capital  of  a  princi- 
pality of  Glogau,  and  in  1482  town  and  district  were  united  to 
the  Bohemian  crown.  In  the  course  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War 
Glogau  suffered  greatly.  The  inhabitants,  who  had  become 
Protestants  soon  after  the  Reformation,  were  dragooned  into 
conformity  by  Wallenstein's  soldiery;  and  the  Jesuits  received 
permission  to  build  themselves  a  church  and  a  college.  Captured 
by  the  Protestants  in  1632,  and  recovered  by  the  Imperialists 
in  1633,  the  town  was  again  captured  by  the  Swedes  in  1642, 
and  continued  in  Protestant  hands  till  the  peace  of  Westphalia 
in  1648,  when  the  emperor  recovered  it.  In  1741  the  Prussians 
took  the  place  by  storm,  and  during  the  Seven  Years'  War  it 
formed  an  important  centre  of  operations  for  the  Prussian  forces. 
After  the  battle  of  Jena  (1806)  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  French ; 
and  was  gallantly  held  by  Laplane,  against  the  Russian  and 
Prussian  besiegers,  after  the  battle  of  Katzbach  in  August  1813 
until  the  1 7th  of  the  following  April. 

See  Minsberg,  Geschichte  der  Stadt  und  Festung  Glogau's  (2  vols., 
Glogau,  1853);  and  H.  von  Below,  Zur  Geschichte  des  Jahres  1806. 
Glogau's  Belagerung  und  Verteidigung  (Berlin,  1893). 

GLORIOSA,  in  botany,  a  small  genus  of  plants  belonging  to 
the  natural  order  Liliaceae,  native  of  tropical  Asia  and  Africa. 
They  are  bulbous  plants,  the  slender  stems  of  which  support 
themselves  by  tendril-like  prolongations  of  the  tips  of  some 
of  the  narrow  generally  lanceolate  leaves.  The  flowers,  which 
are  borne  in  the  leaf-axils  at  the  ends  of  the  stem,  are  very 
handsome,  the  six,  generally  narrow,  petals  are  bent  back  and 
stand  erect,  and  are  a  rich  orange  yellow  or  red  in  colour;  the 
six  stamens  project  more  or  less  horizontally  from  the  place 
of  insertion  of  the  petals.  They  are  generally  grown  in  cultiva- 
tion as  stove-plants. 

GLORY  (through  the  0.  Fr.  glorie,  modern  gloire,  from  Lat. 
gloria,  cognate  with  Gr.  xXtos,  K\vtiv),  a  synonym  for  fame, 
renown,  honour,  and  thus  used  of  anything  which  reflects  honour 
and  renown  on  its  possessor.  In  the  phrase  "  glory  of  God  " 
the  word  implies  both  the  honour  due  to  the  Creator,  and  His 
majesty  and  effulgence.  In  liturgies  of  the  Christian  Church 
are  the  Gloria  Patri,  the  doxology  beginning  "  Glory  be  to  the 
Father,"  the  response  Gloria  libi,  Domine,  "  Glory  be  to  Thee, 
O  Lord,"  sung  or  said  after  the  giving  out  of  the  Gospel  for 
the  day,  and  the  Gloria  in  excelsis,  "  Glory  be  to  God  on 
high,"  sung  during  the  Mass  and  Communion  service.  A 
"  glory  "  is  the  term  often  used  as  synonymous  with  halo, 
nimbus  or  aureola  (q.v.)  for  the  ring  of  light  encircling  the 
head  or  figure  in  a  pictorial  or  other  representation  of  sacred 
persons. 


GLOSS,  GLOSSARY,  &c.  The  Greek  word  y\Sxr(ra  (whence; 
our  "  gloss  "),  meaning  originally  a  tongue,  then  a  language  or 
dialect,  gradually  came  to  denote  any  obsolete, foreign,  provincial, 
technical  or  otherwise  peculiar  word  or  use  of  a  word  (see  Arist. 
Rhet.  iii.  3.  2).  The  making  of  collections  and  explanations1  of 
such  7Xaxrerat  was  at  a  comparatively  early  date  a  well-recognized 
form  of  literary  activity.  Even  in  the  5th  century  B.C.,  among 
the  many  writings  of  Abdera  was  included  a  treatise  entitled 
Ilepi  'Ojuijpou  ft  bpOoeirdi)*  /ecu  ytwaaiuv.  It  was  not,  however, 
until  the  Alexandrian  period  that  the  "faaaavy pa0ot,  glosso- 
graphers  (writers  of  glosses),  or  glossators,  became  numerous. 
Of  many  of  these  perhaps  even  the  names  have  perished;  but 
Athenaeus  the  grammarian  alone  (c.  A.D.  250)  alludes  to  no 
fewer  than  thirty-five.  Among  the  earliest  was  Philetas  of  Cos 
(d.  c.  290  B.C.),  the  elegiac  poet,  to  whom  Aristarchus  dedicated 
the  treatise  IIpos  $iX7rrav;  he  was  the  compiler  of  a  lexico- 
graphical work,  arranged  probably  according  to  subjects,  and 
entitled  "AraKTa  or  Ty&ffffat.  (sometimes  "AraiCTOi  7Xcocrcr<u). 
Next  came  his  disciple  Zenodotus  of  Ephesus  (c.  280  B.C.),  one  of 
the  earliest  of  the  Homeric  critics  and  the  compiler  of  FXcSacrai 
'O/M/pi/ceu;  Zenodotus  in  turn  was  succeeded  by  his  greater  pupil 
Aristophanes  of  Byzantium  (c.  200  B.C.),  whose  great  compilation 
Iltpi  Xe^eco?  (still  partially  preserved  in  that  of  Pollux),  is  known 
to  have  included  'ArriKai  Xe£sts,  Aa/acpi/cal  7Xcocrcrcu,  and  the 
like.  From  the  school  of  Aristophanes  issued  more  than  one 
glossographer  of  name, — Diodorus,  Artemidorus  (FXcocrcrat,  and 
a  collection  of  Xe£eis  6\f/a.pTvriKai) ,  Nicander  of  Colophon 
(rXcocrcrcu,  of  which  some  twenty-six  fragments  still  survive), 
and  Aristarchus  (c.  210  B.C.),  the  famous  critic,  whose  numerous 
labours  included  an  arrangement  of  the  Homeric  vocabulary 
(X«£«s)  in  the  order  of  the  books.  Contemporary  with  the 
last  named  was  Crates  of  Mallus,  who,  besides  making  some 
new  contributions  to  Greek  lexicography  and  dialectology, 
was  the  first  to  create  at  Rome  a  taste  for  similar  investigations 
in  connexion  with  the  Latin  idioms.  From  his  school  proceeded 
Zenodotus  of  Mallus,  the  compiler  of  'E0w/«u  Xe£«s  or  7Xu>crcrai, 
a  work  said  to  have  been  designed  chiefly  to  support  the  views 
of  the  school  of  Pergamum  as  to  the  allegorical  interpretation  of 
Homer.2  Of  later  date  were  Didymus  (Chalcenterus,  c.  50  B.C.), 
who  made  collections  of  Xe£eis  rpayuSov^vai  /aojii/cai,  &c.;  Apol- 
lonius  Sophista  (c.  20  B.C.),  whose  Homeric  Lexicon  has  come 
down  to  modern  times;  and  Neoptolemus,  known  distinctively  as 
6  y\tiXfcroypA.<j>oi.  In  the  beginning  of  the  ist  century  of  the 
Christian  era  Apion,  a  grammarian  and  rhetorician  at  Rome 
during  the  reigns  of  Tiberius  and  Claudius,  followed  up  the  labours 
of  Aristarchus  and  other  predecessors  with  rXoio-crcu  'O/njpi/cai, 
and  a  treatise  Hepl  TTJS  'Pco/wu/^s  5iaXe/CTOi>;  Heliodorus  or 
Herodorus  was  another  almost  contemporary  glossographer; 
Erotian  also,  during  the  reign  of  Nero,  prepared  a  special  glossary 
for  the  writings  of  Hippocrates,  still  preserved.  To  this  period 
also  Pamphilus,  the  author  of  the  Aeijuuii',  from  which  Diogenian 
and  Julius  Vestinus  afterwards  drew  so  largely,  most  probably 
belonged.  In  the  following  century  one  of  the  most  prominent 
workers  in  this  department  oMiterature  was  Aelius  Herodianus, 
whose  treatise  Ilepl  tioviipovs  X«£«os  has  been  edited  in  modern 
times,  and  whose  'Eiri/i6p«r^ot  we  still  possess  in  an  abridgment; 
also  Pollux,  Diogenian  (MS-vs  iravToSairfi) ,  Julius  Vestinus 
('EiriTo/ii)  T&V  Ha.n<t>'t\ov  "fiMtrauiv)  and  especially  Phrynichus, 
who  flourished  towards  the  close  of  the  2nd  century,  and  whose 
Eclogae  nominum  et  verborum  Atticorum  has  frequently  been 
edited.  To  the  4th  century  belongs  Ammonius  of  Alexandria 
(c.  389) ,  who  wrote  Ilepi  6/xoiwi'  KO.I  dia<]>6puv  X«£«tfi',  a  dictionary 
of  words  used  in  senses  different  from  those  in  which  they  had 

,'  *  The  history  of  the  literary  gloss  in  its  proper  sense  has  given 
rise  to  the  common  English  use  ofthe  word  to  mean  an  interpretation, 
especially  in  a  disingenuous,  sinister  or  false  way;  the  form  "  j*loze," 
more  particularly  associated  with  explaining  away,  palliating  or 
talking  speciously,  is  simply  an  alternative  spelling.  The  word  has 
thus  to  some  extent  influenced,  or  been  influenced  by,  the  meaning 
of  the  etymologically  different  "  gloss  "  =  lustrous  surface  (from  the 
same  root  as  "  glass  ";  cf.  "  glow  "),  in  its  extended  sense  of  "  out- 
ward fair  seeming." 
2  See  Matthaei,  Glossaria  Graeca  (Moscow,  1774/5). 


GLOSS,  GLOSSARY 


been  employed  by  older  and  approved  writers.  Of  somewhat 
later  date  is  the  well-known  Hesychius,  whose  often-edited 
tiil-iK&v  superseded  all  previous  works  of  the  kind;  Cyril,  the 
celebrated  patriarch  of  Alexandria,  also  contributed  somewhat 
to  the  advancement  of  glossography  by  his  Zvvaywyfi  rSiv  Trpds 
8io.<t>opov  <rnnaoiav  Sia<£6po>s  rovovfjiivuv  Mi-tup;  while  Orus, 
Orion,  Philoxenus  and  the  two  Philemons  also  belong  to  this 
period.  The  works  of  Photius,  Suidas  and  Zonaras,  as  also  the 
Etymologicum  magnum,  to  which  might  be  added  the  Lexica 
Sangermania  and  the  Lexica  Segueriana,  are  referred  to  in  the 
article  DICTIONARY. 

To  a  special  category  of  technical  glossaries  belongs  a  large 
and  important  class  of  works  relating  to  the  law-compilations  of 
Justinian.  Although  the  emperor  forbade  under  severe  penalties 
all  commentaries  (wro/w^juaTa)  on  his  legislation  (Const.  Deo 
Auctore,  sec.  12;  Const.  Tanta,  sec.  21),  yet  indices  (ivdtKts) 
and  references  (irapdnrXa),  as  well  as  translations  (ipni\vtia.i 
Kara,  iroda.)  and  paraphrases  (^p/wjmac  els  irXaros),  were 
expressly  permitted,  and  lavishly  produced.  Among  the 
numerous  compilers  of  alphabetically  arranged  Xe£«J  'Pcojuai'Kai 
or  AartiviKai,  and  •yXoxwu  VOIUKCU.  (glossae  nomicae), 
Cyril  and  Philoxenus  are  particularly  noted;  but  the  authors 
of  ira.paypa<t>ai,  or  <rrnj,eiwaeis,  whether  t^uBev  or  eauOtv 
wi/iecat,  are  too  numerous  to  mention.  A  collection  of  these 
irapa.ypa<t>al  TUV  ira\<uuiv,  combined  with  viai  irapa.ypa<i>ai  on 
the  revised  code  called  TO.  /SacriXt/ci,  was  made  about  the  middle 
of  the  1 2th  century  by  a  disciple  of  Michael  Hagiotheodorita. 
This  work  is  known  as  the  Glossa  ordinaria  TUV  /3cwiXuca>j'.1 

In  Italy  also,  during  the  period  of  the  Byzantine  ascendancy, 
various  glossae  (glosae)  and  scholia  on  the  Justinian  code  were 
produced  2;  particularly  the  Turin  gloss  (reprinted  by  Savigny), 
to  which,  apart  from  later  additions,  a  date  prior  to  1000  is 
usually  assigned.  After  the  total  extinction  of  the  Byzantine 
authority  in  the  West  the  study  of  law  became  one  of  the  free 
arts,  and  numerous  schools  for  its  cultivation  were  instituted. 
Among  the  earliest  of  these  was  that  of  Bologna,  where  Pepo 
(1075)  and  Irnerius  (1100-1118)  began  to  give  their  expositions. 
They  had  a  numerous  following,  who,  besides  delivering  exegetical 
lectures  ("  ordinariae  "  on  the  Digest  and  Code,  "  extraordin- 
ariae  "  on  the  rest  of  the  Corpus  juris  civilis),  also  wrote 
Glossae,  first  interlinear,  afterwards  marginal.3  The  series 
of  these  glossators  was  closed  by  Accursius  (q.v.)  with  the  com- 
pilation known  as  the  Glossa  ordinaria  or  magistralis,  the 
authority  of  which  soon  became  very  great,  so  that  ultimately 
it  came  to  be  a  recognized  maxim,  "  Quod  non  agnoscit  glossa, 
non  agnoscit  curia."4  For  some  account  of  the  glossators  on 
the  canon  law,  see  CANON  LAW. 

In  late  classical  and  medieval  Latin,  glosa  was  the  vulgar  and 
romanic  (e.g.  in  the  early  8th  century  Corpus  Glossary,  and  the 
late  8th  century  Leiden  Glossary),  glossa  the  learned  form 
(Varro,  De  ling.  Lat.vu.  10;  Auson.  Epigr.  127.  2  (86.  2),  written 
in  Greek,  Quint,  i.  i.  34).  The  diminutive  glossula  occurs  in 
Diom.  426.  26  and  elsewhere.  The  same  meaning  has  glossarium 
(Cell,  xviii.  7.  3  glosaria  =  y\wj<iapu>v),  which  also  occurs  in  the 
modern  sense  of  "  glossary  "  (Papias,  "  unde  glossarium  dictum 
quod  omnium  fere  partium  glossas  contineat  "),  as  do  the  words 
glossa,  glossae,  glossulae,  glossemata  (Steinmeyer,  Alth.  Gloss,  iv. 
408,  410),  expressed  in  later  times  by  dictionarium,  dictionarius, 
vocabularium,  vocabularius  (see  DICTIONARY).  Glossa  and 

1  See  Labbe1,  Veteres  glossae  verborum  juris  quae  passim  in  Basilicis 
reperiuntur  (1606);  Otto,  Thesaurus  juris  Romani,  iii.  (1697); 
Stephens,  Thesaurus  linguae  Graecae,  viii.  (1825). 

1  See  Biener,  Geschichte  der  Novetten,  p.  229  sqq. 

1  Irnerius  himself  is  with  some  probability  believed  to  have  been 
the  author  of  the  Brachylogus  (g.v.). 

4  Thus  Fil.  Villani  (De  origine  civitatis  Florentiae.ed.  1847,  p.  23), 
speaking  of  the  Glossator  Accursius,  says  of  the  Glossae  thac  "  tantae 
auctoritatis  gratiaeque  fuere,  ut  omnium  consensu  publice  appro- 
barentur,  et  reiectis  aliis,  quibuscumque  penitus  abolitis,  solae 
juxta  textum  legum  adpositae  sunt  et  ubique  terrarum  sine  contro- 
versia  pro  legibus  celebrantur,  ita  ut  nefas  sit,  non  secus  quam 
textui,  Glpssis  Accursii  contraire."  For  similar  testimonies  see 
Bayle's  Dictionnaire,  s.v.  "  Accursius,"  and  Rudorff,  Ro'm.  Rechts- 
geschichte,  i.  338  (1857). 


glossema  (Varro  vii.  34.  107;  Asinius  Gallus,  ap.  Suet.  De  gramm. 
22;  Fest.  i66b.  8,  181".  18;  Quint,  i.  8.  15,  &c.)  are  synonyms, 
signifying  (a)  the  word  which  requires  explanation;  or  (6) 
such  a  word  (called  lemma)  together  with  the  interpretation 
(interpretamentum) ;  or  (c)  the  interpretation  alone  (so  first 
in  the  Anecd.  Heh.). 

Latin,  like  Greek  glossography,  had  its  origin  chiefly  in  the 
practical  wants  of  students  and  teachers,  of  whose  names  we 
only  know  a  few.  No  doubt  even  in  classical  times  collections 
of  glosses  ("  glossaries  ")  were  compiled,  to  which  allusion  seems 
to  be  made  by  Varro  (De  ling.  Lai.  vii.  10,  "  tesca,  aiunt  sancta  esse 
qui  glossas  scripserunt  ")  and  Verrius-Festus  (i66b.  6,  "  naucum 
.  .  .  glossematorum  .  .  .  scriptores  fabae  grani  quod  haereat  in 
fabulo  "),  but  it  is  not  known  to  what  extent  Varro,  for  instance, 
used  them,  or  retained  their  original  forms.  The  scriptores 
glossematorum  were  distinguished  from  the  learned  glossographers 
like  Aurelius  Opilius  (cf.  his  Musae,  ap.  Suet.  De  gramm.  6; 
Cell.  i.  25.  17;  Varro  vii.  50,  65,  67,  70,  79,  106),  Servius  Clodius 
(Varro  vii.  70.  106),  Aelius  Stilo,  L.  Ateius  Philol.,  whose  liber 
glossematorum  Festus  mentions  (181 a.  18). 

Verrius  Flaccus  and  his  epitomists,  Festus  and  Paulus,  have 
preserved  many  treasures  of  early  glossographers  who  are  now  lost  to 
us.  He  copied  Aelius  Stilo  (Reitzenstein,  Verr.  Forsch.,"  in  vol.  i. 
of  Breslauer  philol.  Abhandl.,  p.  88;  Kriegshammer,  Comm.  phil. 
len.  vii.  i.  74  sqq.),  Aurelius  Opilius,  Ateius  Philol.,  the  treatise 
De  obscuris  Catonis  (Reitzenstein,  ib.  56.  92).  He  often  made  use  of 
Varro  (Willers,  De  Verrio  Flacco,  Halle,  1898),  though  not  of  his 
ling.  lot.  (Kriegshammer,  74  sqq.);  and  was  also  acquainted  with 
later  glossographers.  Perhaps  we  owe  to  him  the  glossae  asbestos 
(Goetz,  Corpus,  iv. ;  id.,  Rhein.-  Mus.  xl.  328).  Festus  was  used  by 
Ps.-Philoxenus  (Dammann,  "  De  Festo  Ps.-Philoxeni  auctore," 
Comm.  len.  v.  26  sqq.),  as  appears  from  the  glossae  ab  absens  (Goetz, 
"  De  Astrabae  PI.  fragmentis,"  Ind.  len.,  1893,  iii.  sqq.).  The 
distinct  connexions  with  Nonius  need  not  be  ascribed  to  borrowing, 
as  Plinius  and  Caper  may  have  been  used  (P.  Schmidt,  De  Non.  Marc, 
auctt.  gramm.  145;  Nettleship,  Led.  and  Ess.  229;  Frohde,  De  Non. 
Marc,  et  Verrio  Flacco,  2;  W.  M.  Lindsay,  "  Non.  Marc.,"  Diet,  of 
Repub.  Latin,  100,  &c.). 

The  bilingual  (Gr.-Lat.,  Lat.-Gr.)  glossaries  also  point  to  an  early 
period,  and  were  used  by  the  grammarians  (i)  to  explain  the  peculi- 
arities (idiomata)  of  the  Latin  language  by  comparison  with  the 
Greek,  and  (2)  for  instruction  in  the  two  languages  (Charis.  254. 
9,  291.  7,  292.  16  sqq. ;  Marschall,  De  Q.  Remmii  P.  libris  gramm.  22 ; 
Goetz,  Corp.  gloss,  lat.  ii.  6). 

For  the  purposesof  grammatical  instruction  (Greek  for  the  Romans,. 
Latin  for  the  Hellenistic  world),  we  have  systematic  works,  a  trans- 
lation of  Dositheus  and  the  so-called  Hermeneutica,  parts  of  which 
may  be  dated  as  early  as  the  3rd  century  A.D.,  and  lexica  (cf. 
Schoenemann,  De  lexicts  ant.  122;  Knaack,  in  Phil.  Rundsch.,  1884,. 
372;  Traube,  in  Byzant.  Ztschr.  iii.  605;  David,  Comment.  len.  v. 
197  sqq.). 

The  most  important  remains  of  bilingual  glossaries  are  two  well- 
known  lexica;  one  (Latin-Greek),  formerly  attributed  (but  wrongly  ^ 
see  Rudorff,  in  Abh.  Akad.  Berl.,  1865,  220  sq.;  Loewe,  Prodr.  183, 
190;  Mommsen,  C.I.L.  v.  8120;  A.  Dammann,  De  Festo  Pseudo- 
philoxeni  auctore,  12  sqq.;  Goetz,  Corp.  ii.  1-212)  to  Philoxenus 
(consul  A.D.  525),  clearly  consists  of  two  closely  allied  glossaries 
(containing  glosses  to  Latin  authors,  as  Horace,  Cicero,  Juvenal, 
Virgil,  the  Jurists,  and  excerpts  from  Festus),  worked  into  one  by 
some  Greek  grammarian,  or  a  person  who  worked  under  Greek 
influence  (his  alphabet  runs  A,  B,  G,  D,  E,  &c.) ;  the  other  (Greek- 
Latin)  is  ascribed  to  Cyril  (Stephanus  says  it  was  found  at  the  end 
of  some  of  his  writings),  and  is  considered  to  be  a  compilation  of 
not  later  than  the  6th  century  (Macrobius  is  used,  and  the  Cod. 
Harl.,  which  is  the  source  of  all  the  other  MSS.,  belongs  to  the  7th 
century);  cf.  Goetz,  Corp.  ii.  215-483,  487-506,  praef.  ibid.  p. 
xx.  sqq.  Furthermore,  the  bilingual  medico-botanic  glossaries  had 
their  origin  in  old  lists  of  plants,  as  Ps.-Apuleius  in  the  treatise 
De  herbarum  virtutibus,  and  Ps.-Dioscorides  (cf.  M.  Wellmann, 
Hermes,  xxxiii.  360  sqq.,  who  thinks  that  the  latter  work  is  based  on 
Pamphilus,  q.v.;  Goetz,  Corp.  iii.);  the  glossary,  entitled  Herme- 
neuma,  printed  from  the  Cod.  Vatic,  reg.  Christ.  1260,  contains  names 
of  diseases. 

Just  as  grammar  developed,  so  we  see  the  original  form  of  the 
glosses  extend.  If  massucum  edacem  in  Placidus  indicates  the 
original  form,  the  allied  gloss  of  Festus  (masucium  edacem  a  man- 
dendo  scilicet)  shows  an  etymological  addition.  Another  extension 
consists  in  adding  special  references  to  the  original  source,  as  e.g. 
at  the  gloss  Ocrem  (Fest.  l8l».  17),  which  is  taken  from  Ateius 
Philol.  In  this  way  collections  arose  like  the  priscorum  verborum 
cum  exemplis,  a  title  given  by  Fest.  (218".  10)  to  a  particular  work. 
Further  the  glossae  veterum  (Charis.  242.  10) ;  the  glossae  antiquitatum 
(id.  229.  30);  the  idonei  vocum  antiquarum  enarralores  (Cell,  xviii. 
6.  8) ;  the  libri  rerum  verborumque  veterum  (id.  xiii.  24.  25).  L. 


126 


GLOSS,  GLOSSARY 


Cincius,  according  to  Festus  (33Ob.  2),  wrote  De  verbis  prtscis ;  Santra, 
De  antiquitate  verborum  (Festus  277".  2). 

Of  Latin  glossaries  of  the  first  four  centuries  of  the  Roman  emperors 
few  traces  are  left,  if  we  except  Verrius-Festus.  Charis,  229.  30, 
speaks  of  glossae  antiquitatum  and  242.  10  of  glossae  veterum,  but  it 
is  not  known  whether  these  glosses  are  identic,  or  in  what  relation 
they  stand  to  the  glossemata  per  litteras  Latinas  ordine  composita, 
which  were  incorporated  with  the  works  of  this  grammarian  according 
to  the  index  in  Keil,  p.  6.  Latin  glosses  occur  in  Ps.-Philoxenus, 
and  Nonius  must  have  used  Latin  glossaries;  there  exists  a  glos- 
sarium  Plautinum  (Ritschl,  Op.  ii.  234  sqq.),  and  the  bilingual 
glossaries  have  been  used  by  the  later  grammarian  Martyrius;  but 
of  this  early  period  we  know  by  name  only  Fulgentius  and  Placidus, 
who  is  sometimes  called  Luctatius  Placidus,  by  confusion  with 
the  Statius  scholiast,  with  whom  the  glossae  Placidi  have  no  con- 
nexion. All  that  we  know  of  him  tends  to  show  that  he  lived  in 
North  Africa  (like  Fulgentius  and  Nonius  and  perhaps  Charisius) 
in  the  6th  century,  from  whence  his  glosses  came  to  Spain,  and  were 
used  by  Isidore  and  the  compiler  of  the  Liber  glossarum  (see  below). 
These  glosses  we  know  from  (i)  Codices  Romani  (isth  and  i6th 
century);  (2)  the  Liber  glossarum ;  (3)  the  Cod.  Paris,  nov.  acquis. 
1298  (saec.  xi.),  a  collection  of  glossaries,  in  which  the  Placidus- 
glosses  are  kept  separate  from  the  others,  and  still  retain  traces  of 
their  original  order  (cf.  the  editions  published  by  A.  Mai,  Class, 
auct.  iii.  427-503,  and  Deuerling,  1875;  Goetz,  Corp.  v. ;  P.  Karl, 
"  De  Placidi  glossis,"  Comm.  len.  vii.  2.  99,  103  sqq. ;  Loewe, 
Gloss.  Nom.  86;  F.  Biicheler,  in  Thesaur.  gloss,  emend.).  His 
collection  includes  glosses  from  Plautus  and  Lucilius. 

(Fabius  Planciades)  Fulgentius  (c.  A. p.  468-533)  wrote  Expositio 
sermonum  antiquorurn  (ed.  Rud.  Helm,  Lips.  1898;  cf.  Wessner,  Com- 
ment, len.  vi.  2.  135  sqq.)  in  sixty-two  paragraphs,  each  containing  a 
lemma  (sometimes  twoor  three)  with  anexplanation  givingquotations 
and  names  of  authors.  Next  to  him  come  the  glossae  Nonianae,  which 
arose  ^from  the  contents  of  the  various  paragraphs  in  Nonius  Mar- 
cellus'  work  being  written  in  the  margin  without  the  words  of  the 
text;  these  epitomized  glosses  were  alphabetized  and  afterwards 
copied  for  other  collections  (see  Goetz,  Corp.  v.  637  sqq.,  id.  v. 
Praef.  xxxv. ;  Onions  and  Lindsay,  Harvard  Stud.  ix.  67  sqq. ; 
Lindsay,  Nonii  praef.  xxi.).  In  a  similar  way  arose  the  glossae 
Eucherii  or  glossae  spiritales  secundum  Eucherium  episcopum  found 
in  many  MSS.  (cf.  K.  Wotke,  Sitz.  Ber.  Akad.  Wien,  cxv.  425  sqq.; 
=  the  Corpus  Glossary,  first  part),  which  are  an  alphabetical  extract 
from  the  formulae  spiritalis  intelligence  of  St  Eucherius,  bishop  of 
Lyons,  c.  434-450.' 

Other  sources  were  the  Differentiae,  already  known  to  Placidus  and 
much  used  in  the  medieval  glossaries ;  and  the  Synonyma  Ciceronis ; 
cf.  Goetz,  "  Der  Liber  glossarum,"  in  Abhandl.  der  philol.-hist.  Cl. 
der  sacks.  Gesellsch.  a.  Wiss.,  1893,  p.  215;  id.  in  Berl.  philol. 
Wochenschr.,  1890,  p.  195  sqq.;  Beck,  in  Wochenschr.,  p.  297  sqq., 
and  Sittls,  ibid.  p.  267;  Archiv  f.  lat.  Lex.  vi.  594;  W.  L.  Mahne, 
(Leid.  1850,  1851);  also  various  collections  of  scholia.  By  the  side 
of  the  scholiasts  come  the  grammarians,  as  Charisius,  or  an  ars  similar 
to  that  ascribed  to  him;  further,  treatises  de  dubiis  generibus,  the 
scriptores  orlhographici  (especially  Caper  and  Beda),  and  Priscianus, 
the  chief  grammarian  of  the  middle  ages  (cf.  Goetz  in  Melanges 
Boissier,  224). 

During  the  6th,  7th  and  8th  centuries  glossography  developed  in 
various  ways;  old  glossaries  were  worked  up  into  new  forms,  or 
amalgamated  with  more  recent  ones.  It  ceased,  moreover,  to  be 
exclusively  Latin-Latin,  and  interpretations  in  Germanic  (Old  High 
German,  Anglo-Saxon)  and  Romanic  dialects  took  the  place  of  or 
were  used  side  by  side  with  earlier  Latin  ones.  The  origin  and 
development  of  the  late  classic  and  medieval  glossaries  preserved 


1  The  so-called  Malberg  glosses,  found  in  various  texts  of  the  Lex 
Salica,  are  not  glosses  in  the  ordinary  sense  of  the  word,  but  precious 
remains  of  the  parent  of  the  present  literary  Dutch,  namely,  the  Low 
German  dialect  spoken  by  the  Salian  Franks  who  conquered  Gaul 
from  the  Romans  at  the  end  of  the  §th  century.  It  is  supposed  that 
the  conquerors  brought  their  Prankish  law  with  them,  either  written 
down,  or  by  oral  tradition;  that  they  translated  it  into  Latin  for 
the  sake  of  the  Romans  settled  in  the  country,  and  that  the  trans- 
lators, not  always  knowing  a  proper  Latin  equivalent  for  certain 
things  or  actions,  retained  in  their  translations  the  Prankish  technical 
names  or  phrases  which  they  had  attempted  to  translate  into  Latin. 
E.g.  in  chapter  ii.,  by  the  side  of  "  porcellus  lactans  "  (a  sucking-pig), 
we  find  the  Frankish  "  chramnechaltio,"  lit.  a  stye-porker.  The 
person  who  stole  such  a  pig  (still  kept  in  an  enclosed  place,  in  a  stye) 
was  fined  three  times  as  much  as  one  who  stole  a  "  porcellus  de  campo 
qui  sine  matre  vivere  possit,"  as  the  Latin  text  has  it,  for  which  the 
Malberg  technical  expression  appears  to  have  been  ingymus,  that  is, 
a  one  year  (winter)  old  animal,  i.e.  a  yearling.  Nearly  all  these 
glosses  are  preceded  by  "  mal  "  or  "  malb,"  which  is  thought  to  be 
a  contraction  for  "  malberg,"  the  Frankish  for  "  forum."  The 
antiquity  and  importance  of  these  glosses  for  philology  may  be 
realized  from  the  fact  that  the  Latin  translation  of  the  Lex  Salica 


Salica. 


to  us  can  be  traced  with  certainty.  While  reading  the  manuscript 
texts  of  classical  authors,  the  Bible  or  early  Christian  and  profane 
writers,  students  and  teachers,  on  meeting  with  any  obscure  or  out- 
of-the-way  words  which  they  considered  difficult  to  remember  or  to 
require  elucidation,  wrote  above  them,  or  in  the  margins,  interpreta- 
tions or  explanations  in  more  easy  or  better-known  words.  The 
interpretations  _ written  above  the  line  are  called  "  interlinear," 
those  written  in  the  margins  of  the  MSS.  "  marginal  glosses." 
Again,  MSS.  of  the  Bible  or  portions  of  the  Bible  were  often  provided 
with  literal  translations  in  the  vernacular  written  above  the  lines  of 
the  Latin  version  (interlinear  versions). 

Of  such  glossed  MSS.  or  translated  texts,  photographs  may  be 
seen  in  the  various  palaeographical  works  published  in  recent  years; 
cf.  The  Palaeogr.  Society,  1st  ser.  vol.  ii.  pis.  q  (Terentius  MS.  of 
4th  or  5th  century,  interlinear  glosses)  and  24  (Augustine's  epistles, 
6th  or  7th  century,  marginal  glosses);  see  further,  plates  10,  12, 
33.  4°.  50-54,  57,  58,  63,  73,  75,  80;  vol.  iii.  plates  10,  24,  31,  39, 
44,  54-  80. 

From  these  glossed  or  annotated  MSS.  and  interlinear  versions 
glossaries  were  compiled;  that  is,  the  obscure  and  difficult  Latin 
words,  together  with  the  interpretations,  were  excerpted  and 
collected  in  separate  lists,  in  the  order  in  which  they  appeared,  one 
after  the  other,  in  the  MSS.,  without  any  alphabetical  arrangement, 
but  with  the  names  of  the  authors  or  the  titles  of  the  books  whence 
they  were  taken,  placed  at  the  head  of  each  separate  collection  or 
chapter.  In  this  arrangement  each  article  by  itself  is  called  a  gloss; 
when  reference  is  made  only  to  the  word  explained  it  is  called  the 
lemma,  while  the  explanation  is  termed  the  interpretamentum. 
In  most  cases  the  form  of  the  lemma  was  retained  just  as  it  stood 
in  its  source,  and  explained  by  a  single  word  (tesca:  sancta, 
Varro  vii.  10;  clucidatus:  suavis,  id.  vii.  107;  cf.  Isid.  Etym.  i. 
30.  I,  "  quid  enim  illud  sit  in  uno  verbo  positum  declarat  [sett. 
glossa]  ut  conticescere  est  tacere  "),  so  that  we  meet  with  lemmata 
in  the  accusative,  dative  and  genitive,  likewise  explained  by  words 
in  the  same  cases;  the  forms  of  verbs  being  treated  in  the  same  way. 
Of  this  first  stage  in  the  making  of  glossaries,  many  traces  are 
preserved,  for  instance,  in  the  late  8th  century  Leiden  Glossary 
(Voss.  69,  ed.  J.  H.  Hessels),  where  chapter  iii.  contains  words  or 
glosses  excerpted  from  the  Life  of  St  Martin  by  Sulpicius  Severus ; 
chs.  iv.,  v.  and_xxxv.  glosses  from  Rufinus;  chs.  vi.  and  xl.  from 
Gildas;  chs.  vii.  to  xxv.  from  books  of  the  Bible  (Paralipomenon; 
Proverbs,  &c.,  &c.);  chs.  xxvi.  to  xlviii.  from  Isidore,  the  Vita  S. 
Anthonii,  Cassiodorus,  St  Jerome,  Cassianus,  Orosius,  St  Augustine, 
St  Clement,  Eucherius,  St  Gregory,  the  grammarians  Donatus, 
Phocas,  &c.  (See  also  Goetz,  Corp.  v.  546.  23-547.  6.  and  i.  5-40 
from  Ovid's  Metam. ;  v.  657  from  Apuleius,  De  deo  Socratis;  cf. 
Landgraf,  in  Arch.  ix.  174). 

By  a  second  operation  the  glosses  came  to  be  arranged  in  alpha- 
betical order  according  to  the  first  letter  of  the  lemma,  but  still  re- 
tained in  separate  chapters  under  the  names  of  authors  or  the  titles 
of  books.  Of  this  second  stage  the  Leiden  Glossary  contains  traces 
also:  ch.  i.  (Verba  de  Canonibus)  and  ii.  (Sermones  de  Regulis);  see 
Goetz,  Corp.  v.  529  sqq.  (from  Terentius),  iv.  <j.27  sqq.  (Virgil). 

The  third  operation  collected  all  the  accessible  glosses  in  alpha- 
betical order,  in  the  first  instance  according  to  the  first  letters  of  the 
lemmata.  In  this  arrangement  the  names  of  the  authors  or  the  titles 
of  the  books  could  no  longer  be  preserved,  and  consequently  the 
sources  whence  the  glosses  were  excerpted  became  uncertain, 
especially  if  the  grammatical  forms  of  the  lemmata  had  been 
normalized. 

A  fourth  arrangement  collected  the  glosses  according  to  the  first 
two  letters  of  the  lemmata,  as  in  the  Corpus  Glossary  and  in  the  still 
earlier  Cod.  Vat.  3321  (Goetz,  Corp.  iv.  I  sqq.),  where  even  many 
attempts  were  made  to  arrange  them  according  to  the  first  three 
letters  of  the  alphabet.  A  peculiar  arrangement  is  seen  in  the 
Glossae  affatim  (Goetz,  Corp.  iv.  471  sqq.),  where  all  words  are 
alphabetized,  first  according  to  the  initial  letter  of  the  word  (a,  b,  c, 
&c.),  and  then  further  according  to  the  first  vowel  in  the  word 
(a,  e,  i,  o,  u). 

No  date  or  period  can  be  assigned  to  any  of  the  above  stages  or 
arrangements.  For  instance,  the  first  and  second  are  both  found  in 
the  Leiden  Glossary,  which  dates  from  the  end  of  the  8th  century, 
whereas  the  Corpus  Glossary,  written  in  the  beginning  of  the  same 
century,  represents  already  the  fourth  stage. 

For  the  purpose  of  identification  titles  have  of  late  years  been 
given  to  the  various  nameless  collections  of  glosses,  derived  partly 
From  their  first  lemma,  partly  from  other  characteristics,  as  glossae 
abstrusae  •  glossae  abavus  major  and  minor ;  g.  affatim ;  g.  ab  absens ; 
g.  abactor;  g.  Abba  Pater;  g.  a,  a;  g.  Vergttianae;  g.  nominum 
(Goetz,  Corp.  ii.  563,  iv.);  g.  Sangallenses  (Warren,  Transact. 
Amer.  Philol.  Assoc.  xv.,  1885,  p.  141  sqq.). 

A  chief  landmark  in  glossography  is  represented  by  the  Origines 
(Etymologiae)  of  Isidore  (d.  636),  an  encyclopedia  in  which  he,  like 
Cassiodorus,  mixed  human  and  divine  subjects  together.  In  many 
places  we  can  trace  his  sources,  but  he  also  used  glossaries.  His  work 
became  a  great  mine  for  later  glossographers.  In  the  tenth  book  he 
deals  with  the  etymology  of  many  substantives  and  adjectives 
arranged  alphabetically  according  to  the  first  letter  of  the  words, 
perhaps  by  himself  from  various  sources.  His  principal  source 
is  Servius,  then  the  fathers  of  the  Church  (Augustine,  Jerome, 


GLOSS,  GLOSSARY 


127 


Lactantius)  and  Donatus  the  grammarian.  This  tenth  book  was 
also  copied  and  used  separately,  and  mixed  up  with  other  works 
(cf.  Loewe,  Prodr.  167.  21).  Isidore's  Differentiae  have  also  had  a 
great  reputation. 

Next  comes  the  Liber  glossarum,  chiefly  compiled  from  Isidore, 
but  all  articles  arranged  alphabetically;  its  author  lived  in  Spain 
c.  A.D.  690-750;  he  has  been  called  Ansileubus,  but  not  in  any  of 
the  MSS.,  some  of  which  belong  to  the  8th  century;  hence  this  name 
is  suspected  to  be  merely  that  of  some  owner  of  a  copy  of  the  book 
(cf.  Goetz,  "  Der  Liber  Glossarum,"  in  AbKandl.  der  philol.-hist. 
Class,  der  kon.  sacks.  Ges.  xiii.,  1893;  id.,  Corp.  v.,  praef.  xx.  161). 

Here  come,  in  regard  to  time,  some  Latin  glossaries  already  largely 
mixed  with  Germanic,  more  especially  Anglo-Saxon  interpretations : 

(1)  the  Corpus  Glossary  (ed.  J.  H.  Hessels),  written  in  the  beginning 
of  the  8th  century,  preserved  in  the  library  of  Corpus  Christi  College, 
Cambridge;  (2)  the  Leiden  Glossary  (end  of  8th  century,  ed.  Hessels; 
another  edition  by  Plac.  Glogger),  preserved  in  the  Leiden  MS.  Voss. 
Q°-  69:  (3)  the  Epinal  Glossary,  written  in  the  beginning  of  the  9th 
century1  and  published  in  facsimile  by  the  London  Philol.  Society 
from  a  MS.  in  the  town  library  at  Epinal;  (4)  the  Glossae  Amplo- 
nianae,  i.e.  three  glossaries  preserved  in  the  Amplonian  library  at 
Erfurt,  known  as  Erfurt1,  Erfurt2  and  Erfurt'.     The  first,  published 
by  Goetz  (Corp.  v.  337-401;  cf.  also  Loewe,  Prodr.  114  sqq.)  with 
the  various  readings  of  the  kindred  Epinal,  consists,  like  the  latter, 
of  different  collections  of  glosses  (also  some  from  Aldhelm),  some 
arranged  alphabetically  according  to  the  first  letter  of  the  lemma, 
others  according  to  the  first  two  letters.     The  title  of  Erfurt2  (incipit 
II.  conscriptio  glosarum  in  unam)  shows  that  it  is  also  a  combination 
of  various  glossaries;  it  is  arranged  alphabetically  according  to  the 
first  two  letters  of  the  lemmata,  and  contains  the  affatim  and  abavus 
maior   glosses,  also  a  collection    from    Aldhelm;    Erfurt3   are  the 
Glossae  nominunt,   mixed   also   with   Anglo-Saxon   interpretations 
(Goetz,  Corp.  ii.  563).     The  form  in  which  the  three  Erfurt  glossaries 
have  come  down  to  us  points  back  to  the  8th  century. 

The  first  great  glossary  or  collection  of  various  glosses  and  glossaries 
is  that  of  Salomon,  bishop  of  Constance,  formerly  abbot  of  St  Gall, 
who  died  A.D.  919.  An  edition  of  it  in  two  parts  was  printed  c.  1475 
at  Augsburg,  with  the  headline  Salemonis  ecclesie  Constantiensis 
episcopi  glosse  ex  illustrissimis  collecte  auctoribus.  The  oldest  MSS. 
of  this  work  date  from  the  nth  century.  Its  sources  are  the  Liber 
glossarum  (Loewe,  Prodr.  234  sqq.),  the  glossary  preserved  in  the 
9th-century  MS.  Lat.  Monac.  14429  (Goetz,  "  Lib.  Gloss."  35  sqq.), 
and  the  great  Abavus  Gloss  (id.,  ibid.  p.  37;  id.,  Corp.  iv.  praef. 
xxxvii.). 

The  Lib.  glossarum  has  also  been  the  chief  source  for  the  important 
(but  not  original)  glossary  of  Papias,  of  A.D.  1053  (cf.  Goetz  in  Sitz. 
Ber.  Akad.  Munch.,  1903,  p.  267  sqq.,  who  enumerates  eighty-seven 
M  SS.  ofthei2thtothel5th  centuries) ,  of  whom  we  only  know  that  he 
lived  among  clerics  and  dedicated  his  work  to  his  two  sons.  An 
edition  of  it  was  published  at  Milan  "  per  Dominicum  de  Vespolate  " 
on  the  I2th  of  December  1476;  other  editions  followed  in  1485, 
1491,  1496  (at  Venice).  He  also  wrote  a  grammar,  chiefly  compiled 
from  Priscianus  (Hagen,  Anecd.  Helv.  clxxix.  sqq.). 

The  same  Lib.  gloss,  is  the  source  (i)  for  the  Abba  Pater  Glossary 
(cf.  Goetz,  ibid.  p.  39),  published  by  G.  M.  Thomas  (Sitz.  Ber.  Akad. 
Munch.,  1868,  ii.  369  sqq.);  (2)  the  Greek  glossary  Absida  lucida 
(Goetz,  ib.  p.  41);  and  (3)  the  Lat.-Arab.  glossary  in  the  Cod.  Leid. 
Seal.  Orient.  No.  231  (published  by  Seybold  in  Semit.  Studien,  Heft 
xv.-xvii.,  Berlin,  1900). 

The  Paulus-Glossary  (cf.  Goetz,  "  Der  Liber  Glossarum,"  p.  215)  is 
compiled  from  the  second  Salomon-Glossary  (abacti  magistratus), 
the  Abavus  major  and  the  Liber  glossarum,  with  a  mixture  of 
Hebraica.  Many  of  his  glosses  appear  again  in  other  compilations, 
as  in  the  Cod.  Vatic.  1469  (cf.  Goetz,  Corp.  v.  520  sqq.),  mixed  up 
with  glosses  from  Beda,  Placidus,  &c.  (cf.  a  glossary  published  by 
Ellis  in  Amer.  Journ.  of  Philol.  vi.  4,  vii.  3,  containing  besides 
Paulus  glosses,  also  excerpts  from  Isidore;  Cambridge  Journ.  of 
Philol.  viii.  71  sqq.,  xiv.  81  sqq.). 

Osbern  of  Gloucester  (c.  1 123-1200)  compiled  the  glossary  entitled 
Panormia  (published  by  Angelo  Mai  as  Thesaurus  novus  Latinitatis, 
from  Cod.  Vatic,  reg.  Christ.  1392;  cf.  W.  Meyer,  Rhein.  Mus. 
xxix.,  1874;  Goetz  in  Sitzungsber.  sacks.  Ges.  d.  Wiss.,  1903,  p.  133 
sqq.;  Berichte  lib.  die  Verhandl.  der  kon.  sacks.  Gesellsch.  der  Wiss., 
Leipzig,  1902);  giving  derivations,  etymologies,  testimonia  collected 
from  Paulus,  Priscianus,  Plautus,  Horace,  Virgil,  Ovid,  Mart. 
Capella,  Macrobius,  Ambrose,  Sidonius,  Prudentius,  Josephus, 
Jerome,  &c.,  &c.  Osbern's  material  was  also  used  by  Hugucio, 
whose  compendium  was  still  more  extensively  used  (cf.  Goetz,  I.e., 
p.  121  sqq.,  who  enumerates  one  hundred  and  three  MSS.  of  his 
treatise),  and  contains  many  biblical  glosses,  especially  Hebraica, 
some  treatises  on  Latin  numerals,  &c.  (cf.  Hamann,  Weitere  Mitteil. 
aus  dem  BrevUoquus  Benthemianus,  Hamburg,  1882;  A.  Thomas, 
"Glosses  provengales  in<$d."  in  Romania,  xxxiv.  p.  177  sqq;  P. 
Toynbee,  ibid.  xxv.  p.  537  sqq.). 

The  great  work  of  Johannes  de  Janua,  entitled  Summa  quae 
vocatur  catholicon,  dates  from  the  year  1286,  and  treats  of  (i)  accent, 

(2)  etymology,  (3)  syntax,  and  (4)  so-called  prosody,  i.e.  a  lexicon, 

1  Anglo-Saxon  scholars  ascribe  an  earlier  date  to  the  text  of  the 
MS.  on  account  of  certain  archaisms  in  its  Anglo-Saxon  words. 


which  also  deals  with  quantity.  It  mostly  uses  Hugucio  and  Papias ; 
its  classical  quotations  are  limited,  except  from  Horace ;  it  quotes  the 
Vulgate  by  preference,  frequently  independently  from  Hugucio; 
it  excerpts  Priscianus,  Donatus,  Isidore,  the  fathers  of  the  Church, 
especially  Jerome,  Gregory,  Augustine,  Ambrose;  it  borrows 
many  Hebrew  glosses,  mostly  from  Jerome  and  the  other  collections 
then  in  use;  it  mentions  the  Graecismus  of  Eberhardus  Bethuniensis, 
the  works  of  Hrabanus  Maurus,  the  Doctrinale  of  Alexander  de  Villa 
Dei,  and  the  Aurora  of  Petrus  de  Riga.  Many  quotations  from  the 
Catholicon  in  Du  Cange  are  really  from  Hugucio,  and  may  be  traced 
to  Osbern.  There  exist  many  MSS.  of  this  work,  and  the  Mainz 
edition  of  1460  is  well  known  (cf.  Goetz  in  Berichte  rib.  die  Verhandl. 
der  kon.  sdchs.  Gesellsch.  der  Wiss.,  Leipzig,  1902). 

The  gloss  MSS.  of  the  gth  and  loth  centuries  are  numerous,  but  a 
diminution  becomes  visible  towards  the  nth.  We  then  find  gram- 
matical treatises  arise,  for  which  also  glossaries  were  used.  The  chief 
material  was  (i)  the  Liber  glossarum;  (2)  the  Paulus  glosses;  (3) 
the  A  bavus  major ;  (4)  excerpts  from  Priscian  and  glosses  to  Priscian ; 
(5)  Hebrew-biblical  collections  of  proper  names  (chiefly  from  Jerome). 
After  these  comes  medieval  material,  as  the  derivationes  which  are 
found  in  many  MSS.  (cf.  Goetz  in  Sitzungsber.  sdchs.  Ges.  d.  Wiss., 
I9°3.  P-  136  sqq.;  Traube  in  Archiv  f.  lat.  Lex.  vi.  264),  containing 
quotations  from  Plautus,  Ovid,  Juvenal,  Persius,  Terence,  occasion- 
ally from  Priscian,  Eutyches,  and  other  grammarians,  with  etymo- 
logical explanations.  These  derivationes  were  the  basis  for  the 
grammatical  works  of  Osbern,  Hugucio  and  Joannes  of  Janua. 

A  peculiar  feature  of  the  late  middle  ages  are  the  medico-botanic 
glossaries  based  on  the  earlier  ones  (see  Goetz,  Corp.  iii.).  The 
additions  consisted  in  Arabic  words  with  Latin  explanations,  while 
Greek,  Latin,  Hebrew  and  Arabic,  interchange  with  English,  French, 
Italian  and  German  forms.  Of  glossaries  of  this  kind  we  have  (i) 
the  Glossae  alphita  (published  by  S.  de  Renzi  in  the  3rd  vol.  of  the 
Collect.  Salernitana,  Naples,  1854,  from  two  Paris  MSS.  of  the  I4th 
and  I5th  centuries,  but  some  of  the  glosses  occur  already  in  earlier 
MSS.);  (2)  Sinonoma  Bartholomei,  collected  by  John  Mirfeld, 
towards  the  end  of  the  I4th  century,  ed.  J.  L.  G.  Mowat  (Anecd. 
Oxon.  i.  I,  1882,  cf.  Loewe,  Gloss.  Nom.  116  sqq.);  it  seems  to  have 
used  the  same  or  some  similar  source  as  No.  i ;  (3)  the  compilations 
of  Simon  de  Janua  (Clavis  sanationis,  end  of  I3th  century),  and  of 
Matthaeus  Silvaticus  (Pandectae  medicinae,  I4th  century;  cf. 
H.  Stadler,  "  Dioscor.  Longob."  in  Roman.  Forsch.  x.  3.  371 ; 
Steinmeyer,  Althochd.  Gloss,  iii.). 

Of  biblical  glossaries  we  have  a  large  number,  mostly  mixed  with 
glosses  on  other,  even  profane,  subjects,  as  Hebrew  and  other 
biblical  proper  names,  and  explanations  of  the  text  of  the  Vulgate 
in  general,  and  the  prologues  of  Hieronymus.  So  we  have  the 
Glossae  veteris  ac  novi  testamenti  (beginning  "  Prologus  graece  latine 
praelocutio  sive  praefatio  ")  in  numerous  MSS.  of  the  gth  to  I4th 
centuries,  mostly  retaining  the  various  books  under  separate  headings 
(cf.  Arevalo,  Jsid.  vii.  407  sqq.;  Loewe,  Prodr.  141;  Steinmeyer 
iv.  459;  S.  Berger,  De  compendiis  exegeticis  quibusdam  medii  aevi, 
Paris,  1879).  Special  mention  should  be  made  of  Guil.  Brito,.  who 
lived  about  1250,  and  compiled  a  Summa  (beginning  "difficiles  studeo 
partes  quas  Biblia  gestat  Pandere  "),  contained  in  many  MSS.  especi- 
ally in  French  libraries.  This  Summa  gave  rise  to  the  Mammotrectus 
of  Joh.  Marchesinus,  about  1300,  of  which  we  have  editions  printed 
in  1470,  1476,  1479,  &c. 

Finally  we  may  mention  such  compilations  as  the  Summa  Heinrici; 
theworkof  Johannes  de  Garlandia,  which  he  himself  calls  dictionarius 
(cf.  Scheler  in  Jahrb.  f.  rom.  u.  engl.  Philol.  vi.,  1865,  p.  142  sqq.); 
and  that  of  Alexander  Neckam  (ib.  vii.  p.  60  sqq.),  cf.  R.  Ellis,  in 
Amer.  Journ.  of  Phil.  x.  2);  which  are,  strictly  speaking,  not  glosso- 
graphic.  The  BrevUoquus  drew  its  chief  material  from  Papias, 
Hugucio,  Brito,  &c.  (K.  Hamann,  Mitteil.  aus  dem  BrevUoquus 
Benthemianus,  Hamburg,  1879;  id.,  Weitere  Mitteil.,  &c.,  Hamburg, 
1882);  so  also  the  Vocabularium  Ex  quo;  the  various  Gemmae; 
Vocabularia  rerum  (cf.  Diefenbach,  Glossar.  Latino-Germanicum). 

After  the  revival  of  learning,  J.  Scaliger  (1540-1609)  was  the  first 
to  impart  to  glossaries  that  importance  which  they  deserve  (cf. 
Goetz,  in  Sitzungsber.  sdchs.  Ger.  d.  Wiss.,  1888,  p.  219  sqq.),  and  in 
his  edition  of  Festus  made  great  use  of  Ps.-Philoxenus,  which  enabled 
O.  Miiller,  the  later  editor  of  Festus,  to  follow  in  his  footsteps. 
Scaliger  also  planned  the  publication  of  a  Corpus  glossarum,  and  left 
behind  a  collection  of  glosses  known  as  glossae  Istdori  (Goetz,  Corp. 
v.  p.  589  sqq. ;  id.  in  Sitzungsber.  sacks.  Ges.,  1888,  p.  224  sqq. ;  Loewe, 
Prodr.  23  sqq.),  which  occurs  also  in  old  glossaries,  clearly  in  reference 
to  the  tenth  book  of  the  Etymologiae. 

The  study  of  glosses  spread  through  the  publication,  in  1573, 
of  the  bilingual  glossaries  by  H.  Stephanus  (Estienne),  containing, 
besides  the  two  great  glossaries,  also  the  Hermeneumata  Stephani, 
which  is  a  recension  of  the  Ps.-Dositheana  (republished  Goetz, 
Corp.  iii.  438-474),  and  the  glossae  Stephani,  excerpted  from  a 
collection  of  the  Hermeneumata  (ib.  iii.  438-474). 

In  1600  Bonav.  Vulcanius  republished  the  same  glossaries,  adding 
(i)  the  glossae  Isidori,  which  now  appeared  for  the  first  time;  (2) 
the  Onomasticon;  (3)  notae  and  castigationes,  derived  from  Scaliger 
(Loewe,  Prodr.  183). 

In  1606  Carolus  and  Petrus  Labbaeus  published,  with  the  effective 
help  of  Scaliger,  another  collection  of  glossaries,  republished,  in  1679, 
by  Du  Cange,  after  which  the  I7th  and  1 8th  centuries  produced  no 


i28         GLOSSOP— GLOUCESTER,  EARLS  AND  DUKES  OF 


further  glossaries  (Erasm.  Nyerup  published  extracts  from  the 
Leiden  Glossary,  Voss.  69,  in  1787,  Symbolae  ad  Literal.  Teut.), 
though  glosses  were  constantly  used  or  referred  to  by  Salmasius, 
Meursius,  Heraldus,  Earth,  Fabricius  and  Burman  at  Leiden,  where 
a  rich  collection  of  glossaries  had  been  obtained  by  the  acquisition 
of  the  Vossius  library  (cf.  Loewe,  Prodr.  168).  In  the  igth  century 
came  Osann's  Glossarii  Latini  specimen  (1826);  the  glpssographic 
publications  of  Angelo  Mai  (Classici  auctores,  vols.  iii.,  vi.,  vu.,  viii., 
Rome,  1831-1836,  containing  Osbern's  Panormia,  Placidus  and 
various  glosses  from  Vatican  MSS.);  Fr.  Oehler's  treatise  (1847) 
on  the  Cod.  Amplonianus  of  Osbern,  and  his  edition  of  the  three 
Erfurt  glossaries,  so  important  for  Anglo-Saxon  philology;  in  1854 
G.  F.  Hildebrand's  Glossarium  Latinum  (an  extract  from  Abavus 
minor),  preserved  in  a  Cod.  Paris,  lat.  7690;  1857,  Thomas  Wright's 
vol.  of  Anglo-Saxon  glosses,  which  were  republished  with  others  in 
1884  by  R.  Paul  Wulcker  under  the  title  Anglo-Saxon  and  Old  English 
Vocabularies  (London,  2  vols.,  1857);  L.  Diefenbach's  supplement 
to  Du  Cange,  entitled  Glossarium  Latino-Germanicum  mediae  et 
infimae  aetatis,  containing  mostly  glosses  collected  from  glossaries, 
vocabularies,  &c.,  enumerated  in  the  preface;  Ritschl's  treatise 
(1870)  on  Placidus,  which  called  forth  an  edition  (1875)  of  Placidus 
by  Deuerling;  G.  Loewe's  Prodromus  (1876),  and  other  treatises 
by  him,  published  after  his  death  by  G.  Goetz  (Leipzig,  1884); 
1888,  the  second  volume  of  Goetz's  own  great  Corpus  glossariorum 
Latinorum,  of  which  seven  volumes  (except  the  first)  had  seen  the 
light  by  1907,  the  last  two  being  separately  entitled  Thesaurus 
glossarum  emendatarum,  containing  many  emendations  and  correc- 
tions of  earlier  glossaries  by  the  author  and  other  scholars;  1900, 
Arthur  S.  Napier,  Old  English  Glosses  (Oxford),  collected  chiefly  from 
Aldhelm  MSS.,  but  also  from  Augustine,  Avianus,  Beda,  Boethius, 
Gregory,  Isidore,  Juvencus,  Phocas,  Prudentius,  &c. 

There  are  a  very  great  number  of  gjossaries  still  in  MS.  scattered  in 
various  libraries  of  Europe,  especially  in  the  Vatican.at  Monte  Cassino, 
Paris,  Munich,  Bern,  the  British  Museum,  Leiden,  Oxford,  Cambridge, 
&c.  Much  has  already  been  done  to  make  the  material  contained  in 
these  MSS.  accessible  in  print,  and  much  may  yet  be  done  with  what 
is  still  unpublished,  though  we  may  find  that  the  differences  between 
the  glossaries  which  often  present  themselves  at  first  sight  are  mere 
differences  in  form  introduced  by  successive  more  or  less  qualified 
copyists. 

Some  Celtic  (Breton,  Cornish,  Welsh,  Irish)  glossaries  have  been 
preserved  to  us,  the  particulars  of  which  may  be  learnt  from  the 
publications  of  Whitley  Stokes,  Sir  John  Rhys,  Kuno  Meyer,  L.  C. 
Stern,  G.  I.  Ascoli,  Heinr.  Zimmer,  Ernst  Windisch,  Nigra,  and  many 
others;  these  are  published  separately  as  books  or  in  Zeuss's  Gram- 
matica  Celtica,  A.  Kiihn's  Beitrdge  zur  vergleich.  Sprachforschung, 
Zeitschr.  fur  celtische  Philologie,  Archiv  fur  Celtische  Lexicographie, 
the  Revue  celtique.  Transactions  of  the  London  Philological  Society,  &c. 

The  first  Hebrew  author  known  to  have  used  glosses  was  R. 
•Gershom  of  Metz  (1000)  in  his  commentaries  on  the  Talmud.  But 
he  and  other  Hebrew  writers  after  him  mostly  used  the  Old  French 
language  (though  sometimes  also  Italian,  Slavonic,  German)  of  which 
an  example  has  been  published  by  Lambert  and  Brandin,  in  their 
Glossaire  hebreu-franc,ais  du  XIII'  siecle:  recueil  de  mots  hebreux 
bibliques  avec  traduction  franfaise  (Paris,  1905).  See  further  The 
Jewish  Encyclopedia  (New  York  and  London,  1903),  article  "Gloss." 

AUTHORITIES. — For  a  great  part  of  what  has  been  said  above,  the 
writer  is  indebted  to  G.  Goetz's  article  on  "  Latein.  Glossographie  " 
in  Pauly's  Realencyklopddie.  By  the  side  of  Goetz's  Corpus  stands 
the  great  collection  of  Steinmeyer  and  Sievers,  Die  allhochdeutschen 
Classen  (in  4  vols.,  1879-1898),  containing  a  vast  number  of  (also 
Anglo-Saxon)  glosses  culled  from  Bible  MSS.  and  MSS.  of  classical 
Christian  authors,  enumerated  and  described  in  the  4th  vol.  Besides 
the  works  of  the  editors  of,  or  writers  on,  glosses,  already  mentioned, 
we  refer  here  to  a  few  others,  whose  writings  may  be  consulted: 
Hugo  Bltimner;  Catholicon  Anglicum  (ed.  Hertage);  De-Vit  (at 
end  of  Forcellini's  Lexicon);  F.  Deycks;  Du  Cange;  Funck; 
J.  H.  Gallee  (Altsdchs.  Sprachdenkm.,  1894);  Grober;  K.  Gruber 
(Hauptquellen  des  Corpus,  £pin.  u.  Erfurt  Gloss.,  Erlangen,  1904) ; 
Hattemer;  W.  Heraeus  (Die  Sprache  des  Petronius  und  die  Classen, 
Leipzig,  1899);  Kettner;  Kluge;  Krumbacher;  Lagarde;  Land- 
graf ;  Marx;  W.  Meyer-Lubke  ("  Zu  den  latein.  Glossen "  in 
Wiener  Stud.  xxv.  90  sqq.);  Henry  Nettleship;  Niedermann, 
Notes  d'etymol.  lat.  (Macon,  1902),  Contribut.  d  la  critique  des  glosses 
latines  (Neuchatel,  1905);  Pokrowskii;  Quicherat;  Otto  B. 
Schlutter  (many  important  articles  in  Anglia,  Englische  Studien, 
Archiv  f.  latein.  Lexicographie,  &c.);  Scholl;  Scnuchardt;  Leo 
Sommer;  Stadler;  Stowasser;  Strachan;  H.  Sweet;  Usener 
(Rhein.  Mus.  xxiii.  496,  xxiv.  382) ;  A.  Way,  Promptorium  parvulorum 
sive  clericorum  (3  vols.,  London,  1843-1865) ;  Weyman;  Wilmanns  (in 
Rhein.  Mus.  xxiv.  363) ;  Wolfflin  in  Arch,  fur  lat.Lexicogr.;  Zupitza. 
Cf.  further,  the  various  volumes  of  the  following  periodicals: 
Romania;  Zeitschr.  fiir  deutsches  Alterthum;  Anglia;  Englische 
Studien;  Journal  of  English  and  German  Philology  (ed.  Cook  and 
Karsten);  Archiv  fiir  latein.  Lexicogr.,  and  others  treating  of  philo- 
logy, lexicography,  grammar,  &c.  (J.  H.  H.) 

GLOSSOP,  a  market  town  and  municipal  borough,  in  the 
High  Peak  parliamentary  division  of  Derbyshire,  England,  on 
the  extreme  northern  border  of  the  county;  13  m.  E.  by  S.  of 


Manchester  by  the  Great  Central  railway.  Pop.  (1901)  21,526. 
It  is  the  chief  seat  of  the  cotton  manufacture  in  Derbyshire, 
and  it  has  also  woollen  and  paper  mills,  dye  and  print  works, 
and  bleaching  greens.  The  town  consists  of  three  main  divisions, 
the  Old  Town  (or  Glossop  proper),  Howard  Town  (or  Glossop 
Dale)  and  Mill  Town.  An  older  parish  church  was  replaced  by 
that  of  All  Saints  in  1830;  there  is  also  a  very  fine  Roman 
Catholic  church.  In  the  immediate  neighbourhood  is  Glossop 
Hall,  the  seat  of  Lord  Howard,  lord  of  the  manor,  a  picturesque 
old  building  with  extensive  terraced  gardens.  On  a  hill  near  the 
town  is  Melandra  Castle,  the  site  of  a  Roman  fort  guarding 
Longdendale  and  the  way  into  the  hills  of  the  Peak  District. 
In  the  neighbourhood  also  a  great  railway  viaduct  spans  the 
Dinting  valley  with  sixteen  arches.  To  the  north,  in  Longden- 
dale, there  are  five  lakes  belonging  to  the  water-supply  system 
of  Manchester,  formed  by  damming  the  Etherow,  a  stream  which 
descends  from  the  high  moors  north-east  of  Glossop.  The  town 
is  governed  by  a  mayor,  6  aldermen  and  18  councillors.  Area, 
3052  acres. 

Glossop  was  granted  by  Henry  I.  to  William  Peverel,  on  the 
attainder  of  whose  son  it  reverted  to  the  crown.  In  1157  it 
was  gifted  by  Henry  II.  to  the  abbey  of  Basingwerk.  Henry 
VIII.  bestowed  it  on  the  earl  of  Shrewsbury.  It  was  made  a 
municipal  borough  in  1866. 

GLOUCESTER,  EARLS  AND  DUKES  OF.  The  English 
earldom  of  Gloucester  was  held  by  several  members  of  the  royal 
family,  including  Robert,  a  natural  son  of  Henry  I.,  and  John, 
afterwards  king,  and  others,  until  1218,  when  Gilbert  de  Clare 
was  recognized  as  earl  of  Gloucester.  It  remained  in  the  family 
of  Clare  (q.v.)  until  1314,  when  another  Earl  Gilbert  was  killed 
at  Bannockburn;  and  after  this  date  it  was  claimed  by  various 
relatives  of  the  Clares,  among  them  by  the  younger  Hugh  le 
Despenser  (d.  1326)  and  by  Hugh  Audley  (d.  1347),  both  of  whom 
had  married  sisterspf  Earl  Gilbert.  In  1397  Thomas  le  Despenser 
(I373-14°°)»  a  descendant  of  the  Clares,  was  created  earl  of 
Gloucester;  but  in  1399  he  was  degraded  from  his  earldom 
and  in  January  1400  was  beheaded. 

The  dukedom  dates  from  1385,  when  Thomas  of  Woodstock, 
a  younger  son  of  Edward  III.,  was  created  duke  of  Gloucester, 
but  his  honours  were  forfeited  when  he  was  found  guilty  of 
treason  in  1397.  The  next  holder  of  the  title  was  Humphrey, 
a  son  of  Henry  IV.,  who  was  created  duke  of  Gloucester  in  1414. 
He  died  without  sons  in  1447,  and  in  1461  the  title  was  revived 
in  favour  of  Richard,  brother  of  Edward  IV.,  who  became  king 
as  Richard  III.  in  1483. 

In  1659  Henry  (1639-1660),  a  brother  of  Charles  II.,  was 
formally  created  duke  of  Gloucester,  a  title  which  he  had  borne 
since  infancy.  This  prince,  sharing  the  exile  of  the  Stuarts,  had 
incensed  his  mother,  Queen  Henrietta  Maria,  by  his  firm  ad- 
herence to  the  Protestant  religion,  and  had  fought  among  the 
Spaniards  at  Dunkirk  in  1658.  Having  returned  to  England 
with  Charles  II.,  he  died  unmarried  in  London  on  the  i3th  of 
September  1660.  The  next  duke  was  William  (1680-1700), 
son  of  the  princess  Anne,  who  was,  after  his  mother,  the  heir  to 
the  English  throne,  and  who  was  declared  duke  of  Gloucester  by 
his  uncle,  William  III.,  in  1689,  but  no  patent  for  this  creation 
was  ever  passed.  William  died  on  the  3oth  of  July  1700,  and 
again  the  title  became  extinct. 

Frederick  Louis,  the  eldest  son  of  George  II.,  was  known 
for  some  time  as  duke  of  Gloucester,  but  when  he  was  raised  to 
the  peerage  in  1726  it  was  as  duke  of  Edinburgh  only.  In  1764 
Frederick's  third  son,  William  Henry  (1743-1805),  was  created 
duke  of  Gloucester  and  Edinburgh  by  his  brother,  George  III. 
This  duke's  secret  marriage  with  Maria  (d.  1807),  an  illegitimate 
daughter  of  Sir  Edward  Walpole  and  widow  of  James,  2nd 
Earl  Waldegrave,  in  1766,  greatly  incensed  his  royal  relatives 
and  led  to  his  banishment  from  court.  Gloucester  died  on  the 
25th  of  August  1805,  leaving  an  only  son,  William  Frederick 
(17  76-1834), who  now  became  duke  of  Gloucester  and  Edinburgh. 
The  duke,  who  served  with  the  British  army  in  Flanders,  married 
his  cousin  Mary  (1776-1857),  a  daughter  of  George  III.  He 
died  on  the  3Oth  of  November  1834,  leaving  no  children,  and  his 


GLOUCESTER,  EARLS  AND  DUKES  OF 


widow,  the  last  survivor  of  the  family  of  George  III.,  died  on  the 
3Oth  of  April  1857. 

GLOUCESTER,  GILBERT  DE  CLARE,  EARL  OF  (1243-1295), 
was  a  son  of  Richard  de  Clare,  7th  earl  of  Gloucester  and  8th 
earl  of  Clare,  and  was  born  at  Christchurch,  Hampshire,  on  the 
2nd  of  September  1243.  Having  married  Alice  of  Angouleme, 
half-sister  of  king  Henry  III.,  he  became  earl  of  Gloucester 
and  Clare  on  his  father's  death  in  July  1262,  and  almost  at  once 
joined  the  baronial  party  led  by  Simon  de  Montfort,  earl  of 
Leicester.  With  Simon  Gloucester  was  at  the  battle  of  Lewes 
in  May  1264,  when  the  king  himself  surrendered  to  him,  and 
after  this  victory  he  was  one  of  the  three  persons  selected  to 
nominate  a  council.  Soon,  however,  he  quarrelled  with  Leicester. 
Leaving  London  for  his  lands  on  the  Welsh  border  he  met 
Prince  Edward,  afterwards  king  Edward  I.,  at  Ludlow,  just 
after  his  escape  from  captivity,  and  by  his  skill  contributed 
largely  to  the  prince's  victory  at  Evesham  in  August  1265.  But 
this  alliance  was  as  transitory  as  the  one  with  Leicester.  Glou- 
cester took  up  the  cudgels  on  behalf  of  the  barons  who  had 
surrendered  at  Kenilworth  in  November  and  December  1266, 
and  after  putting  his  demands  before  the  king,  secured  possession 
of  London.  This  happened  in  April  1267,  but  the  earl  quickly 
made  his  peace  with  Henry  III.  and  with  Prince  Edward,  and, 
having  evaded  an  obligation  to  go  on  the  Crusade,  he  helped 
to  secure  the  peaceful  accession  of  Edward  I.  to  the  throne 
in  1272.  Gloucester  then  passed  several  years  in  fighting  in 
Wales,  or  on  the  Welsh  border;  in  1289  when  the  barons  were 
asked  for  a  subsidy  he  replied  on  their  behalf  that  they  would 
grant  nothing  until  they  saw  the  king  in  person  (nisi  prius 
pcrsonaliter  videreiil  in  Anglia  Jaciem  regis),  and  in  1291  he  was 
fined  and  imprisoned  on  account  of  his  violent  quarrel  with 
Humphrey  de  Bohun,  earl  of  Hereford.  Having  divorced  his 
wife  Alice,  he  married  in  1290  Edward's  daughter  Joan,  or 
Johanna  (d.  1307).  Earl  Gilbert,  who  is  sometimes  called  the 
"  Red,"  died  at  Monmouth  on  the  7th  of  December  1295, 
leaving  in  addition  to  three  daughters  a  son,  Gilbert,  earl  of 
Gloucester  and  Clare,  who  was  killed  at  Bannockburn. 

See  C.  Bdmont,  Simon  de  Montfort,  comte  de  Leicester  (1884),  and 
G.  W.  Prothero,  Simon  de  Montfort  (1877). 

GLOUCESTER,  HUMPHREY,  DUKE  OF  (1391-1447),  fourth 
son  of  Henry  IV.  by  Mary  de  Bohun,  was  born  in  1391.  He  was 
knighted  at  his  father's  coronation  on  the  nth  of  October 
1399,  and  created  duke  of  Gloucester  by  Henry  V.  at  Leicester 
on  the  i6th  of  May  1414.  He  served  in  the  war  next  year, 
and  was  wounded  at  Agincourt,  where  he  owed  his  life  to  his 
brother's  valour.  In  April  1416  Humphrey  received  the  emperor 
Sigismund  at  Dover  and,  according  to  a  16th-century  story, 
did  not  let  him  land  till  he  had  disclaimed  all  title  to  imperial 
authority  in  England.  In  the  second  invasion  of  France 
Humphrey  commanded  the  force  which  during  1418  reduced 
the  Cotentin  and  captured  Cherbourg.  Afterwards  he  joined 
the  main  army  before  Rouen,  and  took  part  in  subsequent 
campaigns  till  January  1420.  He  then  went  home  to  replace 
Bedford  as  regent  in  England,  and  held  office  till  Henry's 
own  return  in  February  1421.  He  was  again  regent  for  his 
brother  from  May  to  September  1422. 

Henry  V.  measured  Humphrey's  capacity,  and  by  his  will 
named  him  merely  deputy  for  Bedford  in  England.  Humphrey 
at  once  claimed  the  full  position  of  regent,  but  the  parliament 
and  council  allowed  him  only  the  title  of  protector  during 
Bedford's  absence,  with  limited  powers.  His  lack  of  discretion 
soon  justified  this  caution.  In  the  autumn  of  1422  he  married 
Jacqueline  of  Bavaria,  heiress  of  Holland,  to  whose  lands 
Philip  of  Burgundy  had  claims.  Bedford,  in  the  interest  of  so 
important  an  ally,  endeavoured  vainly  to  restrain  his  brother. 
Finally  in  October  1424  Humphrey  took  up  arms  in  his  wife's 
behalf,  but  after  a  short  campaign  in  Hainault  went  home, 
and  left  Jacqueline  to  be  overwhelmed  by  Burgundy.  Return- 
ing to  England  in  April  1425  he  soon  entangled  himself  in  a 
quarrel  with  the  council  and  his  uncle  Henry  Beaufort,  and 
stirred  up  a  tumult  in  London.  Open  war  was  averted  only  by 
Beaufort's  prudence,  and  Bedford's  hurried  return.  Humphrey 
xii.  5 


129 

had  charged  his  uncle  with  disloyalty  to  the  late  and  present 
kings.  With  some  difficulty  Bedford  effected  a  formal  reconcilia- 
tion at  Leicester  in  March  1426,  and  forced  Humphrey  to  accept 
Beaufort's  disavowal.  When  Bedford  left  England  next  year 
Humphrey  renewed  his  intrigues.  But  one  complication  was 
removed  by  the  annulling  in  1428  of  his  marriage  with  Jacqueline. 
His  open  adultery  with  his  mistress,  Eleanor  Cobham,  also  made 
him  unpopular.  To  check  his  indiscretion  the  council,  in 
November  1429,  had  the  king  crowned,  and  so  put  an  end  to 
Humphrey's  protectorate.  However,  when  Henry  VI.  was  soon 
afterwards  taken  to  be  crowned  in  France,  Humphrey  was  made 
lieutenant  and  warden  of  the  kingdom,  and  thus  ruled  England 
for  nearly  two  years.  His  jealousy  of  Bedford  and  Beaufort 
still  continued,  and  when  the  former  died  in  1435  there  was  no 
one  to  whom  he  would  defer.  The  defection  of  Burgundy  roused 
English  feeling,  and  Humphrey  won  popularity  as  leader  of  the 
war  party.  In  1436  he  commanded  in  a  short  invasion  of 
Flanders.  But  he  had  no  real  power,  and  his  political  im- 
portance lay  in  his  persistent  opposition  to  Beaufort  and  the 
councillors  of  his  party.  In  1439  he  renewed  his  charges  against 
his  uncle  without  effect.  His  position  was  further  damaged  by 
his  connexion  with  Eleanor  Cobham,  whom  he  had  now  married. 
In  1441  Eleanor  was  charged  with  practising  sorcery  against 
the  king,  and  Humphrey  had  to  submit  to  see  her  condemned, 
and  her  accomplices  executed.  Nevertheless,  he  continued 
his  political  opposition,  and  endeavoured  to  thwart  Suffolk, 
who  was  now  taking  Beaufort's  place  in  the  council,  by  opposing 
the  king's  marriage  to  Margaret  of  Anjou.  Under  Suffolk's 
influence  Henry  VI.  grew  to  distrust  his  uncle  altogether.  The 
crisis  came  in  the  parliament  of  Bury  St  Edmunds  in  February 
1447.  Immediately  on  his  arrival  there  Humphrey  was  arrested, 
and  four  days  later,  on  the  23rd  of  February,  he  died.  Rumour 
attributed  his  death  to  foul  play.  But  his  health  had  been  long 
undermined  by  excesses,  and  his  end  was  probably  only  hastened 
by  the  shock  of  his  arrest. 

Humphrey  was  buried  at  St  Albans  Abbey,  in  a  fine  tomb, 
which  still  exists.  He  was  ambitious  and  self-seeking,  but 
unstable  and  unprincipled,  and,  lacking  the  fine  qualities  of  his 
brothers,  excelled  neither  in  war  nor  in  peace.  Still  he  was  a 
cultured  and  courtly  prince,  who  could  win  popularity.  He 
was  long  remembered  as  the  good  Duke  Humphrey,  and  in  his 
lifetime  was  a  liberal  patron  of  letters.  He  had  been  a  great 
collector  of  books,  many  of  which  he  presented  to  the  university 
of  Oxford.  He  contributed  also  to  the  building  of  the  Divinity 
School,  and  of  the  room  still  called  Duke  Humphrey's  library. 
His  books  were  dispersed  at  the  Reformation  and  only  three 
volumes  of  his  donation  now  remain  in  the  Bodleian  library. 
Titus  Livius,  an  Italian  in  Humphrey's  service,  wrote  a  life 
of  Henry  V.  at  his  patron's  bidding.  Other  Italian  scholars, 
as  Leonardo  Aretino,  benefited  by  his  patronage.  Amongst 
English  men  of  letters  he  befriended  Reginald  Pecock,  Whet- 
hamstead  of  St  Albans,  Capgrave  the  historian,  Lydgate,  and 
Gilbert  Kymer,  who  was  his  physician  and  chancellor  of  Oxford 
university.  A  popular  error  found  Humphrey  a  fictitious  tomb 
in  St  Paul's  Cathedral.  The  adjoining  aisle,  called  Duke 
Humphrey's  Walk,  was  frequented  by  beggars  and  needy 
adventurers.  Hence  the  16th-century  proverb  "  to  dine  with 
Duke  Humphrey,"  used  of  those  who  loitered  there  dinner- 
less. 

The  most  important  contemporary  sources  are  Stevenson's  Wars 
of  the  English  in  France,  Whethamstead's  Register,  and  Beckington's 
Letters  (all  in  Rolls  Sen),  with  the  various  London  Chronicles,  and 
the  works  of  Waurin  and  Monstrelet.  For  his  relations  with 
Jacqueline  see  F.  von  Loher's  Jacobda  von  Bayern  und  ihre  Zeit 
('2  vols.,  Nordlingen,  1869).  For  other  modern  authorities  consult 
W.  Stubbs's  Constitutional  History;  ].  H.  Ramsay's  Lancaster  and 
York ;  Political  History  of  England,  vol.  iv. ;  R.  Pauli,  Pictures  of 
Old  England,  pp.  373-401  (1861);  and  K.  H.  Viekers,  Humphrey, 
Duke  oj  Gloucester  (1907).  For  Humphrey's  correspondence  with 
Piero  Candido  Decembrio  see  the  English  Historical  Review,  vols. 
x.,  xix.,  xx.  (C.  L.  K.) 

GLOUCESTER,  RICHARD  DE  CLARE,  EARL  OF  (1222-1262), 
was  a  son  of  Gilbert  de  Clare,  6th  earl  of  Gloucester  and  7th 
earl  of  Clare,  and  was  born  on  the  4th  of  August  1222,  succeeding 


GLOUCESTER,  EARLS  AND  DUKES  OF 


130 

to  his  father's  earldoms  on  the  death  of  the  latter  in  October 
1 230.  His  first  wife  was  Margaret,  daughter  of  Hubert  de  Burgh, 
and  after  her  death  in  1237  he  married  Maud,  daughter  of  John  de 
Lacy,  earl  of  Lincoln,  and  passed  his  early  years  in  tournaments 
and  pilgrimages,  taking  for  a  time  a  secondary  and  undecided 
part  in  politics.  He  refused  to  help  Henry  III.  on  the  French 
expedition  of  1250,  but  was  afterwards  with' the  king  at  Paris; 
then  he  went  on  a  diplomatic  errand  to  Scotland,  and  was  sent 
to  Germany  to  work  among  the  princes  for  the  election  of  his 
stepfather,  Richard,  earl  of  Cornwall,  as  king  of  the  Romans. 
About  1258  Gloucester  took  up  his  position  as  a  leader  of  the 
barons  in  their  resistance  to  the  king,  and  he  was  prominent 
during  the  proceedings  which  followed  the  Mad  Parliament  at 
Oxford  in  1258.  In  1259,  however,  he  quarrelled  with  Simon  dc 
Montfort,  earl  of  Leicester;  the  dispute,  begun  in  England, 
was  renewed  in  France  and  he  was  again  in  the  confidence  and 
company  of  the  king.  This  attitude,  too,  was  only  temporary, 
and  in  1261  Gloucester  and  Leicester  were  again  working  in 
concord.  The  earl  died  at  his  residence  near  Canterbury  on  the 
1 5th  of  July  1 262.  A  large  landholder  like  his  son  and  successor, 
Gilbert,  Gloucester  was  the  most  powerful  English  baron  of  his 
time;  he  was  avaricious  and  extravagant,  but  educated  and  able. 
He  left  several  children  in  addition  to  Earl  Gilbert. 

GLOUCESTER,  ROBERT,  EARL  OF  (d.  1147),  was  a  natural 
son  of  Henry  I.  of  England.  He  was  born,  before  his  father's 
accession,  at  Caen  in  Normandy;  but  the  exact  date  of  his  birth, 
and  his  mother's  name  are  unknown.  He  received  from  his 
father  the  hand  of  a  wealthy  heiress,  Mabel  of  Gloucester, 
daughter  of  Robert  Fitz  Hamon,  and  with  her  the  lordships 
of  Gloucester  and  Glamorgan.  About  1121  the  earldom  of 
Gloucester  was  created  for  his  benefit.  His  rank  and  territorial 
influence  made  him  the  natural  leader  of  the  western  baronage. 
Hence,  at  his  father's  death,  he  was  sedulously  courted  by  the 
rival  parties  of  his  half-sister  the  empress  Matilda  and  of  Stephen. 
After  some  hesitation  he  declared  for  the  latter,  but  tendered 
his  homage  upon  strict  conditions,  the  breach  of  which  should  be 
held  to  invalidate  the  contract.  Robert  afterwards  alleged  that 
he  had  merely  feigned  submission  to  Stephen  with  the  object 
of  secretly  furthering  his  half-sister's  cause  among  the  English 
barons.  The  truth  appears  to  be  that  he  was  mortified  at  finding 
himself  excluded  from  the  inner  councils  of  the  king,  and  so 
resolved  to  sell  his  services  elsewhere.  Robert  left  England  for 
Normandy  in  1137,  renewed  his  relations  with  the  Angevin 
party,  and  in  1 138  sent  a  formal  defiance  to  the  king.  Returning 
to  England  in  the  following  year,  he  raised  the  standard  of 
rebellion  in  his  own  earldom  with  such  success  that  the  greater 
part  of  western  England  and  the  south  Welsh  marches  were 
soon  in  the  possession  of  the  empress.  By  the  battle  of  Lincoln 
(Feb.  2,  1141),  in  which  Stephen  was  taken  prisoner,  the  earl 
made  good  Matilda's  claim  to  the  whole  kingdom.  He  accom- 
panied her  triumphal  progress  to  Winchester  and  London;  but 
was  unable  to  moderate  the  arrogance  of  her  behaviour.  Con- 
sequently she  was  soon  expelled  from  London  and  deserted  by 
the  bishop  Henry  of  Winchester  who,  as  legate,  controlled  the 
policy  of  the  English  church.  With  Matilda  the  earl  besieged 
the  legate  at  Winchester,  but  was  forced  by  the  royalists  to  beat 
a  hasty  retreat,  and  in  covering  Matilda's  flight  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  pursuers.  So  great  was  his  importance  that  his 
party  purchased  his  freedom  by  the  release  of  Stephen.  The  earl 
renewed  the  struggle  for  the  crown  and  continued  it  until  his 
death  (Oct.  31,  1147);  but  the  personal  unpopularity  of  Matilda, 
and  the  estrangement  of  the  Church  from  her  cause,  made  his 
efforts  unavailing.  His  loyalty  to  a  lost  cause  must  be  allowed 
to  weigh  in  the  scale  against  his  earlier  double-dealing.  But  he 
hardly  deserves  the  extravagant  praise  which  is  lavished  upon 
him  by  William  of  Malmesbury.  The  sympathies  of  the  chronicler 
are  too  obviously  influenced  by  the  earl's  munificence  towards 
literary  men. 

See  the  Historia  novella  by  William  of  Malmesbury  (Rolls  edition) ; 
the  Historia  Anglorum  by  Henry  of  Huntingdon  (Rolls  edition); 
J.  H.  Round's  Geoffrey  de  Mandeville  (1892) ;  and  O.  RSssler's 
Kaiserin  Mathilde  (Berlin,  1897).  (H.  W.  C.  D.) 


GLOUCESTER,  THOMAS  OF  WOODSTOCK,  DUKE  OF  (1355- 
i397)>  seventh  and  youngest  son  of  the  English  king  Edward  III., 
was  born  at  Woodstock  on  the  7th  of  January  1355.  Having 
married  Eleanor  (d.  1399),  daughter  and  co-heiress  of  Humphrey 
de  Bohun,  earl  of  Hereford,  Essex  and  Northampton  (d.  1373), 
Thomas  obtained  the  office  of  constable  of  England,  a  position 
previously  held  by  the  Bohuns,  and  was  made  earl  of  Buckingham 
by  his  nephew,  Richard  II.,  at  the  coronation  in  July  1377. 
He  took  part  in  defending  the  English  coasts  against  the  attacks 
of  the  French  and  Castilians,  after  which  he  led  an  army  through 
northern  and  central  France,  and  besieged  Nantes,  which  town, 
however,  he  failed  to  take. 

Returning  to  England  early  in  1381,  Buckingham  found  that 
his  brother,  John  of  Gaunt,  duke  of  Lancaster,  had  married 
his  wife's  sister,  Mary  Bohun,  to  his  own  son,  Henry,  afterwards 
King  Henry  IV.  The  relations  between  the  brothers,  hitherto 
somewhat  strained,  were  not  improved  by  this  proceeding,  as 
Thomas,  doubtless,  was  hoping  to  retain  possession  of  Mary's 
estates.  Having  taken  some  part  in  crushing  the  rising  of  the 
peasants  in  1381,  Buckingham  became  more  friendly  with 
Lancaster;  and  while  marching  with  the  king  into  Scotland  in 
1385  was  created  duke  of  Gloucester,  a  mark  of  favour,  however, 
which  did  not  prevent  him  from  taking  up  an  attitude  of  hostility 
to  Richard.  Lancaster  having  left  the  country,  Gloucester 
placed  himself  at  the  head  of  the  party  which  disliked  the  royal 
advisers,  Michael  de  la  Pole,  earl  of  Suffolk  and  Robert  de  Vere, 
earl  of  Oxford,  whose  recent  elevation  to  the  dignity  of  duke  of 
Ireland  had  aroused  profound  discontent.  The  moment  was 
propitious  for  interference,  and  supported  by  those  who  were 
indignant  at  the  extravagance  and  incompetence,  real  or  alleged, 
of  the  king,  Gloucester  was  soon  in  a  position  of  authority.  He 
forced  on  the  dismissal  and  impeachment  of  Suffolk;  was  a 
member  of  the  commission  appointed  in  1386  to  reform  the 
kingdom  and  the  royal  household;  and  took  up  arms  when 
Richard  began  proceedings  against  the  commissioners.  Having 
defeated  Vere  at  Radcot  in  December  1387  the  duke  and  his 
associates  entered  London  to  find  the  king  powerless  in  their 
hands.  Gloucester,  who  had  previously  threatened  his  uncle 
with  deposition,  was  only  restrained  from  taking  this  extreme 
step  by  the  influence  of  his  colleagues;  but,  as  the  leader  of  the 
"  lords  appellant  "  in  the  "  Merciless  Parliament,"  which  met 
in  February  1388  and  was  packed  with  his  supporters,  he  took 
a  savage  revenge  upon  his  enemies,  while  not  neglecting  to  add 
to  his  own  possessions. 

He  was  not  seriously  punished  when  Richard  regained  his 
power  in  May  1389,  but  he  remained  in  the  background,  although 
employed  occasionally  on  public  business,  and  accompanying  the 
king  to  Ireland  in  1394.  In  1396,  however,  uncle  and  nephew  were 
again  at  variance.  Gloucester  disliked  the  peace  with  France  and 
Richard's  second  marriage  with  Isabella,  daughter  of  King 
Charles  VI. ;  other  causes  of  difference  were  not  wanting,  and  it 
has  been  asserted  that  the  duke  was  plotting  to  seize  the  king.  At 
all  events  Richard  decided  to  arrest  him.  By  refusing  an  invita- 
tion to  dinner  the  duke  frustrated  the  first  attempt,  but  on  the 
nth  of  July  1397  he  was  arrested  by  the  king  himself  at  his 
residence,  Pleshey  castle  in  Essex.  He  was  taken  at  once  to 
Calais,  and  it  is  probable  that  he  was  murdered  by  order  of  the 
king  on  the  gth  of  September  following.  The  facts  seem  to  be  as 
follows.  At  the  beginning  of  September  it  was  reported  that  he 
was  dead.  The  rumour,  probably  a  deliberate  one,  was  false,  and 
about  the  same  time  a  justice,  Sir  William  Rickhill  (d.  1407), 
was  sent  to  Calais  with  instructions  dated  the  I7th  of  August  to 
obtain  a  confession  from  Gloucester.  On  the  8th  of  September 
the  duke  confessed  that  he  had  been  guilty  of  treason,  and  his 
death  immediately  followed  this  avowal.  Unwilling  to  meet  his 
parliament  so  soon  after  his  uncle's  death,  Richard's  purpose  was 
doubtless  to  antedate  this  occurrence,  and  to  foster  the  impression 
that  the  duke  had  died  from  natural  causes  in  August.  When 
parliament  met  in  September  he  was  declared  guilty  of  treason 
and  his  estates  forfeited.  Gloucester  had  one  son,  Humphrey 
(c.  1381-1399),  who  died  unmarried,  and  four  daughters,  the 
most  notable  of  whom  was  Anne  (c.  1380-1438),  who  was 


GLOUCESTER 


successively  the  wife  of  Thomas,  3rd  earl  of  Stafford,  Edmund,  sth 
earl  of  Stafford,  and  William  Bourchier,  count  of  Eu.  Gloucester 
is  supposed  to  have  written  L'Ordonnance  d'Anglelerre  pour  le 
camp  a  I'outrance,  ou  gaige  de  bataille. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — See  T.  Walsingham,  Historic.  Anglicana,  edited 
by  H.  T.  Riley  (London,  1863-1864);  The  Monk  of  Evesham, 
Historia  vitae  et  regni  Ricardi  II.,  edited  by  T.  Hearne  (Oxford, 
1729);  Chronique  de  la  traison  et  mart  de  Richard  II,  edited  by  B. 
Williams  (London,  1846);  J.  Froissart,  Chroniques,  edited  by  S. 
Luce  and  G.  Raynaud  (Paris,  1869-1897);  W.  Stubbs,  Constitutional 
History,  vol.  ii.  (Oxford,  1896);  J.  Tait  in  Owens  College  Historical 
Essays  and  S.  Armitage-Smith,  John  of  Gaunt  (London,  1904). 

GLOUCESTER  (abbreviated  as  pronounced  Glo'sler),  a  city, 
county  of  a  city,  municipal  and  parliamentary  borough  and  port, 
and  the  county  town  of  Gloucestershire,  England,  on  the  left 
(east)  bank  of  the  river  Severn,  1 14  m.  W.N.W.  of  London.  Pop. 
(1901)  47,9SS-  It  is  served  by  the  Great  Western  railway  and 
the  west-and-north  branch  of  the  Midland  railway;  while  the 
Berkeley  Ship  Canal  runs  S.W.  to  Sharpness  Docks  in  the  Severn 
estuary  (i6|  m.).  Gloucester  is  situated  on  a  gentle  eminence 
overlooking  the  Severn  and  sheltered  by  the  Cotteswolds  on  the 
east,  while  the  Malverns  and  the  hills  of  the  Forest  of  Dean  rise 
prominently  to  the  west  and  north-west. 

The  cathedral,  in  the  north  of  the  city  near  the  river,  originates 
in  the  foundation  of  an  abbey  of  St  Peter  in  681,  the  foundations 
of  the  present  church  having  been  laid  by  Abbot  Serlo  (1072- 
1104);  and  Walter  Froucester  (d.  1412)  its  historian,  became  its 
first  mitred  abbot  in  1381.  Until  1541,  Gloucester  lay  in  the  see 
of  Worcester,  but  the  separate  see  was  then  constituted,  with 
John  Wakeman,  last  abbot  of  Tewkesbury,  for  its  first  bishop. 
The  diocese  covers  the  greater  part  of  Gloucestershire,  with  small 
parts  of  Herefordshire  and  Wiltshire.  The  cathedral  may  be 
succinctly  described  as  consisting  of  a  Norman  nucleus,  with 
additions  in  every  style  of  Gothic  architecture.  It  is  420  ft.  long, 
and  144  ft.  broad,  with  a  beautiful  central  tower  of  the  isth 
century  rising  to  the  height  of  225  ft.  and  topped  by  four  graceful 
pinnacles.  The  nave  is  massive  Norman  with  Early  English 
roof;  the  crypt  also,  under  the  choir,  aisles  and  chapels,  is 
Norman,  as  is  the  chapter-house.  The  crypt  is  one  of  the  four 
apsidal  cathedral  crypts  in  England,  theothersbeingat  Worcester, 
Winchester  and  Canterbury.  The  south  porch  is  Perpendicular, 
with  fan-tracery  roof,  as  also  is  the  north  transept,  the  south 
being  transitional  Decorated.  The  choir  ;has  Perpendicular 
tracery  over  Norman  work,  with  an  apsidal  chapel  on  each  side. 
The  choir-vaulting  is  particularly  rich,  and  the  modern  scheme 
of  colouring  is  judicious.  The  splendid  late  Decorated  east 
window  is  partly  filled  with  ancient  glass.  Between  the  apsidal 
chapels  is  a  cross  Lady  chapel,  and  north  of  the  nave  are  the 
cloisters,  with  very  early  example  of  fan-tracery,  the  carols  or 
stalls  for  the  monks'  study  and  writing  lying  to  the  south.  The 
finest  monument  is  the  canopied  shrine  of  Edward  II.  who  was 
brought  hither  from  Berkeley.  By  the  visits  of  pilgrims  to  this 
the  building  and  sanctuary  were  enriched.  In  a  side-chapel,  too, 
is  a  monument  in  coloured  bog  oak  of  Robert  Curthose,  a  great 
benefactor  to  the  abbey,  the  eldest  son  of  the  Conqueror,  who  was 
interred  there;  and  those  of  Bishop  Warburton  and  Dr  Edward 
Jenner  are  also  worthy  of  special  mention.  A  musical  festival 
(the  Festival  of  the  Three  Choirs)  is  held  annually  in  this  cathedral 
and  those  of  Worcester  and  Hereford  in  turn.  Between  1873 
and  1890  and  in  1897  the  cathedral  was  extensively  restored, 
principally  by  Sir  Gilbert  Scott.  Attached  to  the  deanery  is  the 
Norman  prior's  chapel.  In  St  Mary's  Square  outside  the  Abbey 
gate,  Bishop  Hooper  suffered  martyrdom  under  Queen  Mary  in 

1555- 

Quaint  gabled  and  timbered  houses  preserve  the  ancient  aspect 
of  the  city.  At  the  point  of  intersection  of  the  four  principal 
streets  stood  the  Tolsey  or  town  hall,  replaced  by  a  modern 
building  in  1894.  None  of  the  old  public  buildings,  in  fact,  isleft, 
but  the  New  Inn  in  Northgate  Street  is  a  beautiful  timbered 
house,  strong  and  massive,  with  external  galleries  and  courtyards, 
built  in  1450  for  the  pilgrims  to  Edward  II. 's  shrine,  by  Abbot 
Sebroke,  a  traditional  subterranean  passage  leading  thence  to  the 
cathedral.  The  timber  is  principally  chestnut.  There  are  a  large 


number  of  churches  and  dissenting  chapels,  and  it  may  have 
been  the  old  proverb,  "  as  sure  as  God's  in  Gloucester,"  which 
provoked  Oliver  Cromwell  to  declare  that  the  city  had  "  more 
churches  than  godliness."  Of  the  churches  four  are  of  special 
interest:  St  Mary  de  Lode,  with  a  Norman  tower  and  chancel, 
and  a  monument  of  Bishop  Hooper,  on  the  site  of  a  Roman 
temple  which  became  the  first  Christian  church  in  Britain;  St 
Mary  de  Crypt,  a  cruciform  structure  of  the  1 2th  century,  with 
later  additions  and  a  beautiful  and  lofty  tower;  the  church  of 
St  Michael,  said  to  have  been  connected  with  the  ancient  abbey  of 
St  Peter;  and  St  Nicholas  church,  originally  of  Norman  erection, 
and  possessing  a  tower  and  other  portions  of  later  date.  In  the 
neighbourhood  of  St  Mary  de  Crypt  are  slight  remains  of  Grey- 
friars  and  Blackfriars  monasteries,  and  also  of  the  city  wall. 
Early  vaulted  cellars  remain  under  the  Fleece  and  Saracen's 
Head  inns. 

There  are  three  endowed  schools:  the  College  school,  refounded 
by  Henry  VIII.  as  part  of  the  cathedral  establishment;  the 
school  of  St  Mary  de  Crypt,  founded  by  Dame  Joan  Cooke  in  the 
same  reign;  and  Sir  Thomas  Rich's  Blue  Coat  hospital  for  34 
boys  (1666).  At  the  Crypt  school  the  famous  preacher  George 
Whitefield  (1714-1770)  was  educated,  and  he  preached  his  first 
sermon  in  the  church.  The  first  Sunday  school  was  held  in 
Gloucester,  being  originated  by  Robert  Raikes,  in  1780. 

The  noteworthy  modern  buildings  include  the  museum  and 
school  of  art  and  science,  the  county  gaol  (on  the  site  of  a  Saxon 
and  Norman  castle),  the  Shire  Hall  and  the  Whitefield  memorial 
church.  A  park  in  the  south  of  the  city  contains  a  spa,  a  chaly- 
beate spring  having  been  discovered  in  1814.  West  of  this, 
across  the  canal,  are  the  remains  (a  gateway  and  some  walls)  of 
Llanthony  Priory,  a  cell  of  the  mother  abbey  in  the  vale  of 
Ewyas,  Monmouthshire,  which  in  the  reign  of  Edward  IV.  became 
the  secondary  establishment. 

Gloucester  possesses  match  works,  foundries,  marble  and 
slate  works,  saw-mills,  chemical  works,  rope  works,  flour-mills, 
manufactories  of  railway  wagons,  engines  and  agricultural 
implements,  and  boat  and  ship-building  yards.  Gloucester 
was  declared  a  port  in  1882.  The  Berkeley  canal  was  opened  in 
1827.  The  Gloucester  canal-harbour  and  that  at  Sharpness  on 
the  Severn  are  managed  by  a  board.  Principal  imports  are 
timber  and  grain;  and  exports,  coal,  salt,  iron  and  bricks. 
The  salmon  and  lamprey  fisheries  in  the  Severn  are  valuable. 
The  tidal  bore  in  the  river  attains  its  extreme  height  just  below 
the  city,  and  sometimes  surmounts  the  weir  in  the  western 
branch  of  the  river,  affecting  the  stream  up  to  Tewkesbury  lock. 
The  parliamentary  borough  returns  one  member.  The  city  is 
governed  by  a  mayor,  10  aldermen  and  30  councillors.  Area, 
23 1 5  acres. 

History. — The  traditional  existence  of  a  British  settlement 
at  Gloucester  (Caer  Glow,  Gleawecastre,  Gleucestre)  is  not 
confirmed  by  any  direct  evidence,  but  Gloucester  was  the  Roman 
municipality  or  colonia  of  Glevum,  founded  by  Nerva  (A.D.  96-98) . 
Parts  of  the  walls  can  be  traced,  and  many  remains  and  coins 
have  been  found,  though  inscriptions  (as  is  frequently  the  case 
in  Britain)  are  somewhat  scarce.  Its  situation  on  a  navigable 
river,  and  the  foundation  in  68 1  of  the  abbey  of  St  Peter  by 
^Ethelred  favoured  trie  growth  of  the  town;  and  before  the 
Conquest  Gloucester  was  a  borough  governed  by  a  portreeve, 
with  a  castle  which  was  frequently  a  royal  residence,  and  a  mint. 
The  first  overlord,  Earl  Godwine,  was  succeeded  nearly  a  century 
later  by  Robert,  earl  of  Gloucester.  Henry  II.  granted  the  first 
charter  in  1155  which  gave  the  burgesses  the  same  liberties 
as  the  citizens  of  London  and  Winchester,  and  a  second  charter 
of  Henry  II.  gave  them  freedom  of  passage  on  the  Severn.  The 
first  charter  was  confirmed  in  1 194  by  Richard  I.  The  privileges 
of  the  borough  were  greatly  extended  by  the  charter  of  John 
(1200)  which  gave  freedom  from  toll  throughout  the  kingdom 
and  from  pleading  outside  the  borough.  Subsequent  charters 
were  numerous.  Gloucester  was  incorporated  by  Richard  III. 
in  1483,  the  town  being  made  a  county  in  itself.  This  charter 
was  confirmed  in  1489  and  1510,  and  other  charters  of  incorpora- 
tion were  received  by  Gloucester  from  Elizabeth  in  1 560,  James  I. 


132 


GLOUCESTER,  U.S.A.— GLOUCESTERSHIRE 


in  1604,  Charles  I.  in  1626  and  Charles  II.  in  1672.  The 
chartered  port  of  Gloucester  dates  from  1580.  Gloucester 
returned  two  members  to  parliament  from  1275  to  1885,  since 
when  it  has  been  represented  by  one  member.  A  seven  days' 
fair  from  the  24th  of  June  was  granted  by  Edward  I.  in  1302, 
and  James  I.  licensed  fairs  on  the  25th  of  March  and  the  I7th 
of  November,  and  fairs  under  these  grants  are  still  held  on  the 
first  Saturday  in  April  and  July  and  the  last  Saturday  in 
November.  The  fair  now  held  on  the  28th  of  September  was 
granted  to  the  abbey  of  St  Peter  in  1227.  A  market  on  Wednes- 
day existed  in  the  reign  of  John,  was  confirmed  by  charter  in 
1227  and  is  still  held.  The  iron  trade  of  Gloucester  dates  from 
before  the  Conquest,  tanning  was  carried  on  before  the  reign  of 
Richard  III.,  pin-making  and  bell-founding  were  introduced 
in  the  i6th,  and  the  long-existing  coal  trade  became  important 
in  the  i8th  century.  The  cloth  trade  flourished  from  the  i2th 
to  the  1 6th  century.  The  sea-borne  trade  in  corn  and  wine 
existed  before  the  reign  of  Richard  I. 

See  W.  H.  Stevenson,  Records  of  the  Corporation  of  Gloucester 
(Gloucester,  1893) ;  Victoria  County  History,  Gloucestershire. 

GLOUCESTER,  a  city  and  port  of  entry  of  Essex  county, 
Massachusetts,  U.S.A.,  beautifully  situated  on  Cape  Ann. 
Pop.  (1890)  24,651;  (1900)  26,121,  of  whom  8768  were  foreign- 
born,  including  4388  English  Canadians,  800  French  Canadians, 
665  Irish,  653  Finns  and  594  Portuguese;  (1910  census) 
24,398.  Area,  53-6  sq.  m.  It  is  served  by  the  Boston  &  Maine 
railway  and  by  a  steamboat  line  to  Boston.  The  surface  is 
sterile,  naked  and  rugged,  with  bold,  rocky  ledges,  and  a  most 
picturesque  shore,  the  beauties  of  which  have  made  it  a  favourite 
summer  resort,  much  frequented  by  artists.  Included  within 
the  city  borders  are  several  villages,  of  which  the  principal  one, 
also  known  as  Gloucester,  has  a  deep  and  commodious  harbour. 
Among  the  other  villages,  all  summer  resorts,  are  Annisquam, 
Bay  View  and  Magnolia  (so  called  from  the  Magnolia  glauca, 
which  grows  wild  there,  this  being  probably  its  most  northerly 
habitat) ;  near  Magnolia  are  Rafe's  Chasm  (60  ft.  deep  and  6-10  ft. 
wide)  and  Norman's  Woe,the  scene  of  the  wreck  of  the  "Hesperus " 
(which  has  only  tradition  as  a  basis),  celebrated  in  Longfellow's 
poem.  There  is  some  slight  general  commerce — in  1909  the 
imports  were  valued  at  $130,098;  the  exports  at  $7853 — 
but  the  principal  business  is  fishing,  and  has  been  since  early 
colonial  days.  The  pursuit  of  cod,  mackerel,  herring  and 
halibut  fills  up,  with  a  winter  coasting  trade,  the  round  of 
the  year.  In  this  industry  Gloucester  is  the  most  important 
place  in  the  United  States;  and  is,  indeed,  one  of  the  greatest 
fishing  ports  of  the  world.  Most  of  the  adult  males  are  engaged 
in  it.  The  "  catch  "  was  valued  in  1895  at  $3,212,985  and  in 
1905  at  $3,377,330.  The  organization  of  the  industry  has 
undergone  many  transformations,  but  a  notable  feature  is  the 
general  practice — especially  since  modern  methods  have  necessi- 
tated larger  vessels  and  more  costly  gear,  and  correspondingly 
greater  capital — of  profit-sharing;  all  the  crew  entering  on  that 
basis  and  not  independently.  There  are  some  manufactures, 
chiefly  connected  with  the  fisheries.  The  total  factory  product 
in  1905  was  valued  at  $6,920,984,  of  which  the  canning  and 
preserving  of  fish  represented  $4,068,571,  and  glue  represented 
$752,003.  An  industry  of  considerable  importance  is  the 
quarrying  of  the  beautiful,  dark  Cape  Ann  granite  that  underlies 
the  city  and  all  the  environs. 

Gloucester  harbour  was  probably  noted  by  Champlain  (as 
La  Beauport),  and  a  temporary  settlement  was  made  by  English 
fishermen  sent  out  by  the  Dorchester  Company  of  "  merchant 
adventurers  "  in  1623-1625;  some  of  these  settlers  returned 
to  England  in  1625,  and  others,  with  Roger  Conant,  the  governor, 
removed  to  what  is  now  Salem.1  Permanent  settlement  ante- 
dated 1639  at  least,  and  in  1642  the  township  was  incorporated. 
From  Gosnold's  voyages  onward  the  extraordinary  abundance 
of  cod  about  Cape  Ann  was  well  known,  and  though  the  first 

1  According  to  some  authorities  (e.g.  Pringle)  a  few  settlers 
remained  on  the  site  of  Gloucester,  the  permanent  settlement  thus 
dating  from  1623  to  1625;  of  this,  however,  there  is  no  proof,  and 
the  contrary  opinion  is  the  one  generally  held. 


settlers  characteristically  enough  tried  to  live  by  farming,  they 
speedily  became  perforce  a  sea-faring  folk.  The  active  pursuit  of 
fishing  as  an  industry  may  be  dated  as  beginning  about  1700, 
for  then  began  voyages  beyond  Cape  Sable.  Voyages  to  the 
Grand  Banks  began  about  1741.  Mackerel  was  a  relatively 
unimportant  catch  until  about  1821,  and  since  then  has  been 
an  important  but  unstable  return;  halibut  fishing  has  been 
vigorously  pursued  since  about  1836  and  herring  since  about 
1856.  At  the  opening  of  the  War  of  Independence  Gloucester, 
whose  fisheries  then  employed  about  600  men,  was  second  to 
Marblehead  as  a  fishing-port.  The  war  destroyed  the  fisheries, 
which  steadily  declined,  reaching  their  lowest  ebb  from  1820  to 
1840.  Meanwhile  foreign  commerce  had  greatly  expanded. 
The  cod  take  had  supported  in  the  i8th  century  an  extensive 
trade  with  Bilbao,  Lisbon  and  the  West  Indies,  and  though 
changed  in  nature  with  the  decline  of  the  Bank  fisheries  after 
the  War  of  Independence,  it  continued  large  through  the  first 
quarter  of  the  igth  century.  Throughout  more  than  half  of 
the  same  century  also  Gloucester  carried  on  a  varied  and 
valuable  trade  with  Surinam,  hake  being  the  chief  article  of 
export  and  molasses  and  sugar  the  principal  imports.  "  India 
Square  "  remains,  a  memento  of  a  bygone  day.  About  1850  the 
fisheries  revived,  especially  after  1860,  under  the  influence  of 
better  prices,  improved  methods  and  the  discovery  of  new 
grounds,  becoming  again  the  chief  economic  interest;  and  since 
that  time  the  village  of  Gloucester  has  changed  from  a  picturesque 
hamlet  to  a  fairly  modern,  though  still  quaint  and  somewhat 
foreign,  settlement.  Gasoline  boats  were  introduced  in  1900. 
Ship-building  is  another  industry  of  the  past.  The  first  "  schooner  " 
was  launched  at  Gloucester  in  1713.  From  1830  to  1907,  776 
vessels  and  5242  lives  were  lost  in  the  fisheries;  but  the  loss  of 
life  has  been  greatly  reduced  by  the  use  of  better  vessels  and  by 
improved  methods  of  fishing.  Gloucester  became,  a  city  in  1874. 

Gloucester  life  has  been  celebrated  in  many  books ;  among  others 
in  Elizabeth  Stuart  Phelps-Ward's  Singular  Life  and  Old  Maid's 
Paradise,  in  Rudyard  Kipling's  Captains  Courageous,  and  in  James 
B.  Connolly's  Out  of  Gloucester  (1902),  The  Deep  Sea's  Toll  (1905), 
and  The  Crested  Seas  (1907). 

See  J.  J.  Babson,  History  of  the  Town  of  Gloucester  (Gloucester, 
1860;  with  Notes  and  Additions,  on  genealogy,  1876,  1891);  and 
|.  R.  Pringle,  History  of  the  Town  and  City  of  Gloucester  (Gloucester, 
1892). 

GLOUCESTER  CITY,  a  city  of  Camden  county,  New  Jersey, 
U.S.A.,  on  the  Delaware  river,  opposite  Philadelphia.  Pop. 
(1890)  6564;  (1900)  6840,  of  whom  1094  were  foreign-born; 
(1905)  8055;  (1910)  9462.  The  city  is  served  by  the  West 
Jersey  &  Seashore  and  the  Atlantic  City  railways,  and  by  ferry 
to  Philadelphia,  of  which  it  is  a  residential  suburb.  Among 
its  manufactures  are  incandescent  gas-burners,  rugs,  cotton 
yarns,  boats  and  drills.  The  municipality  owns  and  operates 
the  water  works.  It  was  near  the  site  of  Gloucester  City  that 
the  Dutch  in  1623  planted  the  short-lived  colony  of  Fort  Nassau, 
the  first  European  settlement  on  the  Delaware  river,  but  it  was 
not  until  after  the  arrival  of  English  Quakers  on  the  Delaware, 
in  1677,  that  a  permanent  settlement,  at  first  called  Axwamus, 
was  established  on  the  site  of  the  present  city.  This  was  surveyed 
and  laid  out  as  a  town  in  1689.  During  the  War  of  Independence 
the  place  was  frequently  occupied  by  troops,  and  a  number  of 
skirmishes  were  fought  in  its  vicinity.  The  most  noted  of  these 
was  a  successful  attack  upon  a  detachment  of  Hessians  on  the 
25th  of  November  1777  by  American  troops  under  the  command 
of  General  Lafayette.  In  1868  Gloucester  City  was  chartered 
as  a  city.  In  Camden  county  there  is  a  township  named 
GLOUCESTER  (pop.  in  1905,  2300),  incorporated  in  1798,  and 
originally  including  the  present  township  of  Clementon  and  parts 
of  the  present  townships  of  Waterford,  Union  and  Winslow. 

GLOUCESTERSHIRE,  a  county  of  the  west  midlands  of 
England,  bounded  N.  by  Worcestershire,  N.E.  by  Warwickshire, 
E.  by  Oxfordshire,  S.E.  by  Berkshire  and  Wiltshire,  S.  by 
Somerset,  and  W.  by  Monmouth  and  Herefordshire.  Its  area 
is  1 243-3  sq.  m.  The  outline  is  very  irregular,  but  three  physical 
divisions  are  well  marked — the  hills,  the  vale  and  the  forest, 
(i)  The  first  (the  eastern  part  of  the  county)  lies  among  the 


GLOUCESTERSHIRE 


uplands  of  the  Cotteswold  Hills  (?.».),  whose  westward  face  is 
a  line  of  heights  of  an  average  elevation  of  700  ft.,  but  exceeding 
1000  ft.  at  some  points.  This  line  bisects  the  county  from 
S.W.  to  N.E.  The  watershed  between  the  Thames  and  Severn 
valleys  lies  close  to  it,  so  that  Gloucestershire  includes  Thames 
Head  itself,  in  the  south-east  near  Cirencester,  and  most  of  the 
upper  feeders  of  the  Thames  which  join  the  main  stream,  from 
narrow  and  picturesque  valleys  on  the  north.  (2)  The  western 
Cotteswold  line  overlooks  a  rich  valley,  that  of  the  lower  Severn, 
usually  spoken  of  as  "  The  Vale,"  or,  in  two  divisions,  as  the 
vale  of  Gloucester  and  the  vale  of  Berkeley.  This  great  river 
receives  three  famous  tributaries  during  its  course  through 
Gloucestershire.  Near  Tewkesbury,  on  the  northern  border, 
the  Avon  joins  it  on  the  left  and  forms  the  county  boundary 
for  4  m.  This  is  the  river  known  variously  as  the  Upper, 
Worcestershire,  Warwickshire,  Stratford  or  Shakespeare's  Avon, 
which  descends  a  lovely  pastoral  valley  through  the  counties 
named.  It  is  to  be  distinguished  from  the  Bristol  Avon,  which 
rises  as  an  eastward  flowing  stream  of  the  Cotteswolds,  in  the 
south-east  of  Gloucestershire,  sweeps  southward  and  westward 
through  Wiltshire,  pierces  the  hills  through  a  narrow  valley 
which  becomes  a  wooded  gorge  where  the  Clifton  suspension 
bridge  crosses  it  below  Bristol,  and  enters  the  Severn  estuary 
at  Avonmouth.  For  1 7  m.  from  its  mouth  it  forms  the  boundary 
between  Gloucestershire  and  Somersetshire,  and  for  8  m.  it  is 
one  of  the  most  important  commercial  waterways  in  the  kingdom, 
connecting  the  port  of  Bristol  with  the  sea.  The  third  great 
tributary  of  the  Severn  is  the  Wye.  From  its  mouth  in  the 
estuary,  8  m.  N.  of  that  of  the  Bristol  Avon,  it  forms  the  county 
boundary  for  16  m.  northward,  and  above  this,  over  two  short 
reaches  of  its  beautiful  winding  course,  it  is  again  the  boundary. 
(3)  Between  the  Wye  and  the  Severn  lies  a  beautiful  and  historic 
tract,  the  forest  of  Dean,  which,  unlike  the  majority  of  English 
forests,  maintains  its  ancient  character.  Gloucestershire  has 
thus  a  share  in  the  courses  of  five  of  the  most  famous  of  English 
rivers,  and  covers  two  of  the  most  interesting  physical  districts 
in  the  country.  The  minor  rivers  of  the  county  are  never  long. 
The  vale  is  at  no  point  within  the  county  wider  than  24  m.,  and 
so  does  not  permit  the  formation  of  any  considerable  tributary 
to  the  Severn  from  the  Dean  Hills  on  the  one  hand  or  the 
Cotteswolds  on  the  other.  The  Leadon  rises  east  of  Hereford, 
forms  part  of  the  north-western  boundary,  and  joins  the  Severn 
near  Gloucester,  watering  the  vale  of  Gloucester,  the  northern 
part  of  the  vale.  In  the  southern  part,  the  vale  of  Berkeley, 
the  Stroudwater  traverses  a  narrow,  picturesque  and  populous 
valley,  and  'the  Little  Avon  flows  past  the  town  of  Berkeley, 
joining  the  Severn  estuary  on  the  left.  The  Frome  runs  south- 
ward to  the  Bristol  Avon  at  Bristol.  The  principal  northern 
feeders  of  the  Thames  are  the  Churn  (regarded  by  some  as 
properly  the  headwater  of  the  main  river)  rising  in  the  Seven 
Springs,  in  the  hills  above  Cheltenham,  and  forming  the  southern 
county  boundary  near  its  junction  with  the  Thames  at  Cricklade; 
the  Coin,  a  noteworthy  trout-stream,  joining  above  Lechlade, 
and  the  Lech  (forming  part  of  the  eastern  county  boundary) 
joining  below  the  same  town;  while  from  the  east  of  the  county 
there  pass  into  Oxfordshire  the  Windrush  and  the  Evenlode, 
much  larger  streams,  rising  among  the  bare  uplands  of  the 
northern  Cotteswolds. 

Geology. — No  county  in  England  has  a  greater  variety  of  geological 
formations.  The  pre-Cambnan  is  represented  by  the  gneissic  rocks 
at  the  south  end  of  the  Malvern  Hills  and  by  grits  at  Huntley. 
At  Damory,  Charfield  and  Woodford  is  a  patch  of  greenstone,  the 
cause  of  the  upheaval  of  the  Upper  Silurian  basin  ofTortworth,  in 
which  are  the  oldest  stratified  rocks  of  the  county.  Of  these  the  Upper 
Llandovery  is  the  dominant  stratum,  exposed  near  Damory  mill, 
Micklewood  chase  and  Purton  passage,  wrapping  round  the  base  of 
May  and  Huntley  hills,  and  reappearing  in  the  vale  of  Woolhope. 
The  Wenlock  limestone  is  exposed  at  Falfield  mill  and  Whitfield, 
and  quarried  for  burning  at  May  hill.  The  Lower  Ludlow  shales  or 
mudstones  are  seen  at  Berkeley  and  Purton,  where  the  upper  part 
is  probably  Aymestry  limestone.  The  series  of  sandy  shales  and 
sandstones  which,  as  Downton  sandstones  and  Ledbury  shales, 
form  a  transition  to  the  Old  Red  Sandstone  are  quarried  at  Dymock. 
The  "  Old  Red  "  itself  occurs  at  Berkeley,  Tortworth  Green,  Thorn- 
bury,  and  several  places  in  the  Bristol  coal-field,  in  anticlinal  folds 


forming  hills.  It  forms  also  the  great  basin  extending  from  Ross  to 
Monmouth  and  from  Dymock  to  Mitcheldean,  Abenhall,  Blakeney, 
&c.,  within  which  is  the  Carboniferous  basin  of  the  forest.  It  is  cut 
through  by  the  Wye  from  Monmouth  to  Woolaston.  This  formation 
is  over  8000  ft.  thick  in  the  forest  of  Dean.  The  Bristol  and  Forest 
Carboniferous  basins  lie  within  the  synclinal  folds  of  the  Old  Red 
Sandstone ;  and  though  the  seams  of  coal  have  not  yet  been  corre- 
lated, they  must  have  been  once  continuous,  as  further  appears  from 
the  existence  of  an  intermediate  basin,  recently  pierced,  under  the 
Severn.  The  lower  limestone  shales  are  500  ft.  thick  in  the  Bristol 
area  and  only  165  in  the  forest,  richly  fossiliferous  and  famous  for 
their  bone  bed.  The  great  marine  series  known  as  the  Mountain 
Limestone,  forming  the  walls  of  the  grand  gorges  of  the  Wye  and 
Avon,  is  over  2000  ft.  thick  in  the  latter  district,  but  only  480  in  the 
former,  where  it  yields  the  brown  hematite  in  pockets  so  largely 
worked  for  iron  even  from  Roman  times.  It  is  much  used  too  for 
lime  and  road  metal.  Above  this  comes  the  Millstone  Grit,  well  seen 
at  Brandon  hill,  where  it  is  1000  ft.  in  thickness,  though  but  455 
in  the  forest.  On  this  rest  the  Coal  Measures,  consisting  in  the 
Bristol  field  of  two  great  series,  the  lower  2000  ft.  thick  with  36 
seams,  the  upper  3000  ft.  with  22  seams,  9  of  which  reach  2  ft.  in 
thickness.  These  two  series  are  separated  by  over  1700  ft.  of  hard 
sandstone  (Pennant  Grit),  containing  only  5  coal-seams.  In  the 
Forest  coal-field  the  whole  series  is  not  3000  ft.  thick,  with  but  15 
seams.  At  Durdham  Down  a  dolomitic  conglomerate,  of  the  age 
known  as  Keuper  or  Upper  Trias,  rests  unconformably  on  the  edges 
of  the  Palaeozoic  rocks,  and  is  evidently  a  shore  deposit,  yielding 
dinosaurian  remains.  Above  the  Keuper  clays  come  the  Penarth 
beds,  of  which  classical  sections  occur  at  Westbury,  Aust,  &c.  The 
series  consists  of  grey  marls,  black  paper  shales  containing  much 
pyrites  and  a  celebrated  bone  bed,  the  Gotham  landscape  marble, 
and  the  White  Lias  limestone,  yielding  Oslrea  Liass-ica  and  Cardium 
Rhaeticum.  The  district  of  Over  Severn  is  mainly  of  Keuper  marls. 
The  whole  vale  of  Gloucester  is  occupied  by  the  next  formation,  the 
Lias,  a  warm  sea  deposit  of  clays  and  clayey  limestones,  characterized 
by  ammonites,  belemnites  and  gigantic  saurians.  At  its  base  is 
the  insect-bearing  limestone  bed.  The  pastures  producing  Gloucester 
cheese  are  on  the  clays  of  the  Lower  Lias.  The  more  calcareous 
Middle  Lias  or  marlstone  forms  hillocks  flanking  the  Oolite  escarp- 
ment of  the  Cotteswolds,  as  at  Wotton-under-Edge  and  Churchdown. 
The  Cotteswolds  consist  of  the  great  limestone  series  of  the  Lower 
Oolite.  At  the  base  is  a  transition  series  of  sands,  30  to  40  ft.  thick, 
well  developed  at  Nailsworth  and  Frocester.  Leckhampton  hill  is 
a  typical  section  of  the  Lower  Oolite,  where  the  sands  are  capped  by 
40  ft.  of  a  remarkable  pea  grit.  Above  this  are  147  ft.  of  freestone, 
j  ft.  of  polite  marl,  34  ft.  of  upper  freestone  and  38  ft.  of  ragstone. 
The  Painswick  stone  belongs  to  lower  freestone.  Resting  on  the 
Inferior  Oolite,  and  dipping  with  it  to  S.E.,  is  the  "  fuller's  earth," 
a  rubbly  limestone  about  100  ft.  thick,  throwing  out  many  of  the 
springs  which  form  the  head  waters  of  the  Thames.  Next  comes 
the  Great  or  Bath  Oolite,  at  the  base  of  which  are  the  Stonesfield 
"  slate  "  beds,  quarried  for  roofing,  paling,  &c.,  at  Sevenhampton  and 
elsewhere.  From  the  Great  Oolite  Minchinhampton  stone  is  obtained, 
and  at  its  top  is  about  40  ft.  of  flaggy  Oolite  with  bands  of  clay 
known  as  the  Forest  Marble.  Ripple  marks  are  abundant  on  the 
flags;  in  fact  all  the  Oolites  seem  to  have  been  near  shore  or  in 
shallow  water,  much  of  the  limestone  being  merely  comminuted 
coral.  The  highest  bed  of  the  Lower  Oolite  is  the  Cornbrash,  about 
40  ft.  of  rubble,  productive  in  corn,  forming  a  narrow  belt  from 
Siddington  to  Fairford.  Near  the  latter  town  and  Lechlade  is  a 
small  tract  of  blue  Oxford  Clay  of  the  Middle  Oolite.  The  county  has 
no  higher  Secondary  or  Tertiary  rocks;  but  the  Quaternary  series 
is  represented  by  much  northern  drift  gravel  in  the  vale  and  Over 
Severn,  by  accumulations  of  Oolitic  detritus,  including  post-Glacial 
extinct  mammalian  remains  on  the  flanks  of  the  Cotteswolds,  and  by 
submerged  forests  extending  from  Sharpness  to  Gloucester. 

Agriculture. — The  climate  is  mild.  Between  three-quarters  and 
seven-eighths  of  the  total  area  is  under  cultivation,  and  of  this  some 
four-sevenths  is  in  permanent  pasture.  Wheat  is  the  chief  grain 
crop.  In  the  vale  the  deep  rich  black  and  red  loamy  soil  is  well 
adapted  for  pasturage,  and  a  moist  mild  climate  favours  the  growth 
of  grasses  and  root  crops.  The  cattle,  save  on  the  frontier  of  Here- 
fordshire, are  mostly  shorthorns,  of  which  many  are  fed  for  distant 
markets,  and  many  reared  and  kept  for  dairy  purposes.  The  rich 
grazing  tract  of  the  vale  of  Berkeley  produces  the  famous  "  double 
Gloucester  "  cheeses,  and  the  vale  in  general  has  long  been  celebrated 
for  cheese  and  butter.  The  vale  of  Gloucester  is  the  chief  grain- 
growing  district.  Turnips,  &c.,  occupy  about  three-fourths  of  the 
green  crop  acreage,  potatoes  occupying  only  about  a  twelfth.  A 
feature  of  the  county  is  its  apple  and  pear  orchards,  chiefly  for  the 
manufacture  of  cider  and  perry,  which  are  attached  to  nearly  every 
farm.  The  Cotteswold  district  is  comparatively  barren  except  in 
the  valleys,  but  it  has  been  famous  since  the  isth  century  for  the 
breed  of  sheep  named  after  it.  Oats  and  barley  are  here  the  chief 
crops. 

Other  Industries. — The  manufacture  of  woollen  cloth  followed  upon 
the  early  success  in  sheep-farming  among  the  Cotteswolds.  This 
industry  is  not  confined  to  the  hill  country  or  even  to  Gloucestershire 
itself  in  the  west  of  England.  The  description  of  cloth  principally 
manufactured  is  broadcloth,  dressed  with  teazles  to  produce  a  short 


134 


GLOUCESTERSHIRE 


close  nap  on  the  face,  and  made  of  all  shades  of  colour,  but  chiefly 
black,  blue  and  scarlet.  The  principal  centre  of  the  industry  lies 
in  and  at  the  foot  of  the  south-western  Cotteswolds.  Stroud  is  the 
centre  for  a  number  of  manufacturing  villages,  and  south-west  of 
this  are  Wotton-under-Edge,  North  Nibley  and  others.  .Machinery 
and  tools,  paper,  furniture,  pottery  and  glass  are  also  produced. 
Ironstone,  clay,  limestone  and  sandstone  are  worked,  and  the 
coal-fields  in  the  forest  of  Dean  are  important.  Of  less  extent  is  the 
field  in  the  south  of  the  county,  N.E.  of  Bristol.  Strontium  sulphate 
is  dug  from  shallow  pits  in  the  red  marl  of  Gloucestershire  and 
Somersetshire. 

Communications. — Railway  communications  are  provided  princi- 
pally by  the  Great  Western  and  Midland  companies.  Of  the  Great 
Western  lines,  the  main  line  serves  Bristol  from  London.  It  divides 
at  Bristol,  one  section  serving  the  south-western  counties,  another 
South  Wales,  crossing  beneath  the  Severn  by  the  Severn  Tunnel, 
4$  m.  in  length,  a  remarkable  engineering  work.  A  more  direct 
route,  by  this  tunnel,  between  London  and  South  Wales,  is  provided 
by  a  line  from  Wootton  Bassett  on  the  main  line,  running  north  of 
Bristol  by  Badminton  and  Chipping  Sodbury.  Other  Great  Western 
lines  are  that  from  Swindon  on  the  main  line,  by  the  Stroud  valley 
to  Gloucester,  crossing  the  Severn  there,  and  continuing  by  the  right 
bank  of  the  river  into  Wales,  with  branches  north-west  into  Hereford- 
shire; the  Oxford  and  Worcester  trunk  line,  crossing  the  north-east 
of  the  county,  connected  with  Cheltenham  and  Gloucester  by  a 
branch  through  the  Cotteswolds  from  Chipping  Norton  junction; 
and  the  line  from  Cheltenham  by  Broadway  to  Honeybourne. 
The  west-and-north  line  of  the  Midland  railway  follows  the  vale 
from  Bristol  by  Gloucester  and  Cheltenham  with  a  branch  into  the 
forest  of  Dean  by  Berkeley,  crossing  the  Severn  at  Sharpness  by  a 
great  bridge  1387  yds.  in  length,  with  22  arches.  The  coal-fields  of 
the  forest  of  Dean  are  served  by  several  branch  lines.  In  the  north, 
Tewkesbury  is  served  by  a  Midland  branch  from  Ashchurch  to 
Malvern.  The  Midland  and  South-western  Junction  railway  runs 
east  and  south  from  Cheltenham  by  Cirencester,  affording  com- 
munication with  the  south  of  England.  The  East  Gloucester  line 
of  the  Great  Western  from  Oxford  terminates  at  Fairford.  The 
Thames  and  Severn  canal,  rising  to  a  summit  level  in  the  tunnel 
through  the  Cotteswolds  at  Sapperton,  is  continued  from  Wallbridge 
(Stroud)  by  the  Stroudwater  canal, and  gives  communication  between 
the  two  great  rivers.  The  Berkeley  Ship  Canal  (i6J  m.)  connects 
the  port  of  Gloucester  with  its  outport  of  Sharpness  on  Severn. 

Population  and  Administration. — The  area  of  the  ancient  county  is 
795,709  acres,  with  a  population  in  1891  of  599,947  and  in  1901  of 
634,729.  The  area  of  the  administrative  county  is  805,482  acres.  The 
county  contains  28  hundreds.  The  municipal  boroughs  are — Bristol, 
a  city  and  county  borough  (pop.  328,945) ;  Cheltenham  (49,439) ; 
Gloucester,  a  city  and  county  borough  (47,955) ;  Tewkesbury 
(5419).  The  other  urban  districts  are — Awre  (1096),  Charlton  Kings 
(3806), Circenester  (7536),  Coleford  (254 i),Kingswood,  on  the  eastern 
outskirts  of  Bristol  (11,961),  Nailsworth  (3028),  Newnham  (1184), 
Stow-on-the-Wold  (1386),  Stroud  (9153),  Tetbury  (1989),  Westbury- 
on-Severn  (1866).  The  number  of  small  ancient  market  towns  is 
large,  especially  in  the  southern  part  of  the  vale,  on  the  outskirts 
of  the  forest,  and  among  the  foot  hills  of  the  wolds.  Those  in  the 
forest  district  are  mostly  connected  with  the  coal  trade,  such  as 
Lydney  (3559),  besides  Awre  and  Coleford;  and,  to  the  north, 
besides  Newnham,  Cinderford  and  Mitcheldean.  South  from  Stroud 
there  are  Minchinhampton  (3737)  and  Nailsworth ;  near  the  south- 
eastern boundary  Tetbury  and  Marshfield;  Stonehouse  (2183), 
Dursley  (2372),  Wotton-under-Edge  (2992)  and  Chipping  Sodbury 
along  the  western  line  of  the  hills;  and  between  them  and  the 
Severn,  Berkeley  and  Thornbury  (2594).  Among  the  uplands  of  the 
Cotteswolds  there  are  no  towns,  and  villages  are  few,  but  in  the  east  of 
the  county,  in  the  upper  Thames  basin,  there  are,  besides  Cirencester, 
Fairford  on  the  Coin  and  Lechlade,  close  to  the  head  of  the  naviga- 
tion on  the  Thames  itself.  Far  up  in  the  Lech  valley,  remote  from 
railway  communication,  is  Northleach,  once  a  great  posting  station 
on  the  Oxford  and  Cheltenham  road.  In  the  north-east  are  Stow-on- 
the-Wold,  standing  high,  and  Moreton-in-the-Marsh  near  the  head- 
waters of  the  Evenlode.  In  a  northern  prolongation  of  the  county, 
almost  detached,  is  Chipping  Campden.  Winchcomb  (2699)  lies 
6  m.  N.E.  of  Cheltenham.  In  the  north-west,  Newent  (2485)  is  the 
only  considerable  town.  Gloucestershire  is  in  the  Oxford  circuit,  and 
assizes  are  held  at  Gloucester.  It  has  one  court  of  quarter  sessions, 
and  is  divided  into  24  petty  sessional  divisions.  The  boroughs 
of  Bristol,  Gloucester  and  Tewkesbury  have  separate  commissions 
of  the  peace  and  courts  of  quarter  sessions.  There  are  359  civil 
parishes.  Gloucestershire  is  principally  in  the  diocese  of  Gloucester, 
but  part  is  in  that  of  Bristol,  and  small  parts  in  those  of  Worcester 
and  Oxford.  There  are  408  ecclesiastical  parishes  or  districts  wholly 
or  in  part  within  the  county.  There  are  five  parliamentary  divisions, 
namely,  Tewkesbury  or  northern,  Cirencester  or  eastern,  Stroud  or 
mid,  Thornbury  or  southern,  and  Forest  of  Dean,  each  returning 
one  member.  The  county  also  includes  the  boroughs  of  Gloucester 
and  Cheltenham,  each  returning  one  member;  and  the  greater  part 
of  the  borough  of  Bristol,  which  returns  four  members. 

History.— The  English  conquest  of  the  Severn  valley  began  in 
577  with  the  victory  of  Ceawlin  at  Deorham,  followed  by  the 


capture  of  Cirencester,  Gloucester  and  Bath.  The  Hwiccas  who 
occupied  the  district  were  a  West  Saxon  tribe,  but  their  territory 
had  become  a  dependency  of  Mercia  in  the  7th  century,  and 
was  not  brought  under  West  Saxon  dominion  until  the  gth 
century.  No  important  settlements  were  made  by  the  Danes 
in  the  district.  Gloucestershire  probably  originated  as  a  shire 
in  the  loth  century,  and  is  mentioned  by  name  in  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  Chronicle  in  1016.  Towards  the  close  of  the  nth  century 
the  boundaries  were  readjusted  to  include  Winchcomb,  hitherto 
a  county  by  itself,  and  at  the  same  time  the  forest  district  between 
the  Wye  and  the  Severn  was  added  to  Gloucestershire.  The 
divisions  of  the  county  for  a  long  time  remained  very  unsettled, 
and  the  thirty-nine  hundreds  mentioned  in  the  Domesday  Survey 
and  the  thirty-one  hundreds  of  the  Hundred  Rolls  of  1274  differ 
very  widely  in  name  and  extent  both  from  each  other  and  from 
the  twenty-eight  hundreds  of  the  present  day. 

Gloucestershire  formed  part  of  Harold's  earldom  at  the  time 
of  the  Norman  invasion,  but  it  offered  slight  resistance  to  the 
Conqueror.  In  the  wars  of  Stephen's  reign  the  cause  of  the 
empress  Maud  was  supported  by  Robert  of  Gloucester  who  had 
rebuilt  the  castle  at  Bristol,  and  the  castles  at  Gloucester  and 
Cirencester  were  also  garrisoned  on  her  behalf.  In  the  barons' 
war  of  the  reign  of  Henry  III.  Gloucester  was  garrisoned  for 
Simon  de  Montfort,  but  was  captured  by  Prince  Edward  in  1265, 
in  which  year  de  Montfort  was  slain  at  Evesham.  Bristol  and 
Gloucester  actively  supported  the  Yorkist  cause  during  the  Wars 
of  the  Roses.  In  the  religious  struggles  of  the  i6th  century 
Gloucester  showed  strong  Protestant  sympathy,  and  in  the 
reign  of  Mary  Bishop  Hooper  was  sent  to  Gloucester  to  be  burnt 
as  a  warning  to  the  county,  while  the  same  Puritan  leanings 
induced  the  county  to  support  the  Parliamentary  cause  in  the 
civil  war  of  the  i7th  century.  In  1643  Bristol  and  Cirencester 
were  captured  by  the  Royalists,  but  the  latter  was  recovered 
in  the  same  year  and  Bristol  in  1645.  Gloucester  was  garrisoned 
for  the  parliament  throughout  the  struggle. 

On  the  subdivision  of  the  Mercian  diocese  in  680  the  greater 
part  of  modern  Gloucestershire  was  included  in  the  diocese  of 
Worcester,  and  shortly  after  the  Conquest  constituted  the  arch- 
deaconry of  Gloucester,  which  in  1290  comprised  the  deaneries 
of  Campden,  Stow,  Cirencester,  Fairford,  Winchcombe,  Stone- 
house,  Hawkesbury,  Bitton,  Bristol,  Dursley  and  Gloucester. 
The  district  west  of  the  Severn,  with  the  exception  of  a  few 
parishes  in  the  deaneries  of  Ross  and  Staunton,  constituted  the 
deanery  of  the  forest  within  the  archdeaconry  and  diocese  of 
Hereford.  In  1535  the  deanery  of  Bitton  had  been  absorbed 
in  that  of  Hawkesbury.  In  1541  the  diocese  of  Gloucester  was 
created,  its  boundaries  being  identical  with  those  of  the  county. 
On  the  erection  of  Bristol  to  a  see  in  1542  the  deanery  of  Bristol 
was  transferred  from  Gloucester  to  that  diocese.  In  1836  the 
sees  of  Gloucester  and  Bristol  were  united;  the  archdeaconry  of 
Bristol  was  created  out  of  the  deaneries  of  Bristol,  Cirencester, 
Fairford  and  Hawkesbury;  and  the  deanery  of  the  forest  was 
transferred  to  the  archdeaconry  of  Gloucester.  In  1882  the 
archdeaconry  of  Cirencester  was  constituted  to  include  the 
deaneries  of  Campden,  Stow,  Northleach  north  and  south, 
Fairford  and  Cirencester.  In  1897  the  diocese  of  Bristol  was 
recreated,  and  included  the  deaneries  of  Bristol,  Stapleton  and 
Bitton. 

After  the  Conquest  very  extensive  lands  and  privileges  in  the 
county  were  acquired  by  the  church,  the  abbey  of  Cirencester 
alone  holding  seven  hundreds  at  fee-farm,  and  the  estates  of  the 
principal  lay-tenants  were  for  the  most  part  outlying  parcels 
of  baronies  having  their  "  caput  "  in  other  counties.  The  large 
estates  held  by  William  Fitz  Osbern,  earl  of  Hereford,  escheated 
to  the  crown  on  the  rebellion  of  his  son  Earl  Roger  in  1074- 
1075.  The  Berkeleys  have  held  lands  in  Gloucestershire  from 
the  time  of  the  Domesday  Survey,  and  the  families  of  Basset, 
Tracy,  Clifton,  Dennis  and  Poyntz  have  figured  prominently 
in  the  annals  of  the  county.  Gilbert  de  Clare,  earl  of  Gloucester, 
and  Richard  of  Cornwall  claimed  extensive  lands  and  privileges 
in  the  shire  in  the  I3th  century,  and  Simon  de  Montfort  owned 
Minsterworth  and  Rodley. 


GLOVE 


Bristol  was  made  a  county  in  1425,  and  in  1483  Richard  III. 
created  Gloucester  an  independent  county,  adding  to  it  the 
hundreds  of  Dudston  and  King's  Barton.  The  latter  were 
reunited  to  Gloucestershire  in  1673,  but  the  cities  oi  Bristol  and 
Gloucester  continued  to  rank  as  independent  counties,  with 
separate  jurisdiction,  county  rate  and  assizes.  The  chief  officer 
of  the  forest  of  Dean  was  the  warden,  who  was  generally  also 
constable  of  St  Briavel  Castle.  The  first  justice-seat  for  the 
forest  was  held  at  Gloucester  Castle  in  1282,  the  last  in  1635. 
The  hundred  of  the  duchy  of  Lancaster  is  within  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  duchy  of  Lancaster  for  certain  purposes. 

The  physical  characteristics  of  the  three  natural  divisions  of 
Gloucestershire  have  given  rise  in  each  to  a  special  industry, 
as  already  indicated.  The  forest  district,  until  the  development 
of  the  Sussex  mines  in  the  i6th  century,  was  the  chief  iron- 
producing  area  of  the  kingdom,  the  mines  having  been  worked 
in  Roman  times,  while  the  abundance  of  timber  gave  rise  to 
numerous  tanneries  and  to  an  important  ship-building  trade. 
The  hill  district,  besides  fostering  agricultural  pursuits,  gradually 
absorbed  the  woollen  trade  from  the  big  towns,  which  now 
devoted  themselves  almost  entirely  to  foreign  commerce.  Silk- 
weaving  was  introduced  in  the  i;th  century,  and  was  especially 
prosperous  in  the  Stroud  valley.  The  abundance  of  clay  and 
building-stone  in  the  county  gave  rise  to  considerable  manu- 
factures of  brick,  tiles  and  pottery.  Numerous  minor  industries 
sprang  up  in  the  i;th  and  i8th  centuries,  such  as  flax-growing 
and  the  manufacture  of  pins,  buttons,  lace,  stockings,  rope  and 
sailcloth. 

Gloucestershire  was  first  represented  in  parliament  in  1290, 
when  it  returned  two  members.  Bristol  and  Gloucester  acquired 
representation  in  1295,  Cirencester  in  1572  and  Tewkesbury 
in  1620.  Under  the  Reform  Act  of  1832  the  county  returned 
four  members  in  two  divisions;  Bristol,  Gloucester,  Cirencester, 
Stroud  and  Tewkesbury  returned  two  members  each,  and 
Cheltenham  returned  one  member.  The  act  of  1868  reduced  the 
representation  of  Cirencester  andTewkesbury  to  one  member  each. 

Antiquities. — The  cathedrals  of  Gloucester  and  Bristol,  the 
magnificent  abbey  church  of  Tewkesbury,  and  the  church  of 
Cirencester  with  its  great  Perpendicular  porch,  are  described 
under  their  separate  headings.  Of  the  abbey  of  Hayles  near 
Winchcomb,  founded  by  Richard,  earl  of  Cornwall,  in  1246, 
little  more  than  the  foundations  are  left,  but  these  have  been 
excavated  with  great  care,  and  interesting  fragments  have  been 
brought  to  light.  Most  of  the  old  market  towns  have  fine  parish 
churches.  At  Deerhurst  near  Tewkesbury,  and  Cleeve  near 
Cheltenham,  there  are  churches  of  special  interest  on  account 
of  the  pre-Norman  work  they  retain.  The  Perpendicular  church 
at  Lechlade  is  unusually  perfect;  and  that  at  Fairford  was 
built  (c.  1500),  according  to  tradition,  to  contain  the  remarkable 
series  of  stained-glass  windows  which  are  said  to  have  been 
brought  from  the  Netherlands.  These  are,  however,  adjudged 
to  be  of  English  workmanship,  and  are  one  of  the  finest  series 
in  the  country.  The  great  Decorated  Calcot  Barn  is  an  interesting 
relic  of  the  monastery  of  Kingswood  near  Tetbury.  The  castle 
at  Berkeley  is  a  splendid  example  of  a  feudal  stronghold.  Thorn- 
bury  Castle,  in  the  same  district,  is  a  fine  Tudor  ruin,  the  pre- 
tensions of  which  evoked  the  jealousy  of  Cardinal  Wolsey  against 
its  builder,  Edward  Stafford,  duke  of  Buckingham,  who  was 
beheaded  in  1521.  Near  Cheltenham  is  the  fine  isth-century 
mansion  of  Southam  de  la  Bere,  of  timber  and  stone.  Memorials 
of  the  de  la  Bere  family  appear  in  the  church  at  Cleeve.  The 
mansion  contains  a  tiled  floor  from  Hayles  Abbey.  Near 
Winchcomb  is  Sudeley  Castle,  dating  from  the  isth  century, 
but  the  inhabited  portion  is  chiefly  Elizabethan.  The  chapel  is 
the  burial  place  of  Queen  Catherine  Parr.  At  Great  Badminton 
is  the  mansion  and  vast  domain  of  the  Beauforts  (formerly  of 
the  Botelers  and  others),  on  the  south-eastern  boundary  of  the 
county. 

See  Victoria  County  History,  Gloucestershire;  Sir  R.  Atkyns, 
The  Ancient  and  Present  State  of  Gloucestershire  (London,  1712;  2nd 
ed.,  London,  1768) ;  Samuel  Rudder,  A  New  History  of  Gloucestershire 
(Cirencester,  1779);  Ralph  Bigland,  Historical,  Monumental  and 


Genealogical  Collections  relative  to  the  County  of  Gloucester  (2  vols., 
London,  1 79 1 );  Thomas  Rudge,  The  History  of  the  County  of  Gloucester 
(2  vols.,  Gloucester,  1803);  T.  D.  Fosbroke  Abstract  of  Records  and 
Manuscripts  respecting  the  County  of  Gloucestershire  formed  into  a 
History  (2  vols.,  Gloucester,  1807);  Legends,  Tales  and  Songs  in 
the  Dialect  of  the  Peasantry  of  Gloucestershire  (London,  1876) ;  J.  D. 
Robertson,  Glossary  of  Dialect  and  Archaic  Words  of  Gloucester 
(London,  1890);  W.  Bazeley  and  F.  A.  Hyett,  Bibliographers' 
Manual  of  Gloucestershire  (3  vols.,  London,  1895-1897);  W.  H. 
Hutton,  By  Thames  and  Cotswold  (London,  1903).  See  also  Trans- 
actions of  the  Bristol  and  Gloucestershire  Archaeological  Society. 

GLOVE  (O.  Eng.  glof,  perhaps  connected  with  Gothic  lofa,  the 
palm  of  the  hand),  a  covering  for  the  hand,  commonly  with  a 
separate  sheath  for  each  finger. 

The  use  of  gloves  is  of  high  antiquity,  and  apparently  was 
known  even  to  the  pre-historic  cave  dwellers.  In  Homer 
Laertes  is  described  as  wearing  gloves  (x«pi5cu  eiri  xtpai) 
while  walking  in  his  garden  (Od.  xxiv.  230).  Herodotus  (vi. 
72)  tells  how  Leotychides  filled  a  glove  (x«pis)  with  the  money 
he  received  as  a  bribe,  and  Xenophon  (Cyrop.  viii.  8.  17)  records 
that  the  Persians  wore  fur  gloves  having  separate  sheaths  for 
the  fingers  (x«pT6as  Sacreias  /ecu  daxrvMiOpas).  Among  the 
Romans  also  there  are  occasional  references  to  the  use  of  gloves. 
According  to  the  younger  Pliny  (Ep.  iii.  5.  15)  the  secretary 
whom  his  uncle  had  with  him  when  ascending  Vesuvius  wore 
gloves  (manicae)  so  that  he  might  not  be  impeded  in  his  work 
by  the  cold,  and  Varro  (R.R.  i.  55.1)  remarks  that  olives  gathered 
with  the  bare  fingers  are  better  than  those  gathered  with  gloves 
(digilabula  or  digitalia).  In  the  northern  countries  the  general 
use  of  gloves  would  be  more  natural  than  in  the  south,  and  it 
is  not  without  significance  that  the  most  common  medieval 
Latin  word  for  glove  (guanlus  or  wantus,  Mod.  Fr.  gant)  is  of 
Teutonic  origin  (O.  H.  Ger.  want) .  Thus  in  the  life  of  Columbanus 
by  Jonas,  abbot  of  Bobbio  (d.  c.  665),  gloves  for  protecting  the 
hands  in  doing  manual  labour  are  spoken  of  as  tegumenta  manuum 
quae  Galli  wantos  vacant.  Among  the  Germans  and  Scandi- 
navians, in  the  8th  and  gth  centuries,  the  use  of  gloves,  fingerless 
at  first,  would  seem  to  have  been  all  but  universal;  and  in  the 
case  of  kings,  prelates  and  nobles  they  were  often  elaborately 
embroidered  and  bejewelled.  This  was  more  particularly  the  case 
with  the  gloves  which  formed  part  of  the  pontifical  vestments(see 
below).  In  war  and  in  the  chase  gloves  of  leather,  or  with  the 
backs  armoured  with  articulated  iron  plates,  were  early  worn;  yet 
in  the  Bayeux  tapestry  the  warriors  on  either  side  fight  ungloved. 
The  fact  that  gloves  are  not  represented  by  contemporary  artists 
does  not  prove  their  non-existence,  since  this  might  easily  be 
an  omission  due  to  lack  of  observation  or  of  skill;  but,  so  far 
as  the  records  go,  there  is  no  evidence  to  prove  that  gloves  were 
in  general  use  in  England  until  the  I3th  century.  It  was  in 
this  century  that  ladies  began  to  wear  gloves  as  ornaments; 
they  were  of  linen  and  sometimes  reached  to  the  elbow.  It 
was,  however,  not  till  the  i6th  century  that  they  reached  their 
greatest  elaboration,  when  Queen  Elizabeth  set  the  fashion  for 
wearing  them  richly  embroidered  and  jewelled. 

The  symbolic  sense  of  the  middle  ages  early  gave  to  the  use 
of  gloves  a  special  significance.  Their  liturgical  use  by  the 
Church  is  dealt  with  below  (Pontifical  gloves);  this  was  imitated 
from  the  usage  of  civil  life.  Embroidered  and  jewelled  gloves 
formed  part  of  the  insignia  of  the  emperors,  and  also,  and  that 
quite  early,  of  the  kings  of  England.  Thus  Matthew  of  Paris, 
in  recording  the  burial  of  Henry  II.  in  1189,  mentions  that  he 
was  buried  in  his  coronation  robes,  with  a  golden  crown  on  his 
head  and  gloves  on  his  hands.  Gloves  were  also  found  on  the 
hands  of  King  John  when  his  tomb  was  opened  in  1797,  and  on 
those  of  King  Edward  I.  when  his  tomb  was  opened  in  1774. 

See  W.  B.  Redfern,  Royal  and  Historic  Gloves  and  Shoes,  with 
numerous  examples. 

Gages. — Of  the  symbolical  uses  of  the  glove  one  of  the  most 
widespread  and  important  during  the  middle  ages  was  the 
practice  of  tendering  a  folded  glove  as  a  gage  for  waging  one's 
law.  The  origin  of  this  custom  is  probably  not  far  to  seek.  The 
promise  to  fulfil  a  judgment  of  a  court  of  law,  a  promise  secured 
by  the  delivery  of  a  wed  or  gage,  is  one  of  the  oldest,  if  not  the 
very  oldest,  of  all  enforceable  contracts.  This  gage  was  originally 


136 


GLOVE 


a  chattel  of  value,  which  had  to  be  deposited  at  once  by  the 
defendant  as  security  into  his  adversary's  hand;  and  that  the 
glove  became  the  formal  symbol  of  such  deposit  is  doubtless 
due  to  its  being  the  most  convenient  loose  object  for  the  purpose. 
The  custom  survived  after  the  contract  with  the  vadium,  wed 
or  gage  had  been  superseded  by  the  contract  with  pledges  (per- 
sonal sureties).  In  the  rules  of  procedure  of  a  baronial  court 
of  the  i4th  century  we  find:  "  He  shall  wage  his  law  with  his 
folded  glove  (de  son  gaunt  plyee)  and  shall  deliver  it  into  the  hand 
of  the  other,  and  then  take  his  glove  back  and  find  pledges  for 
his  law."  The  delivery  of  the  glove  had,  in  fact,  become  a  mere 
ceremony,  because  the  defendant  had  his  sureties  close  at  hand.1 

Associated  with  this  custom  was  the  use  of  the  glove  in  the 
wager  of  battle  (vadium  in  duello).  The  glove  here  was  thrown 
down  by  the  defendant  in  open  court  as  security  that  he  would 
defend  his  cause  in  arms;  the  accuser  by  picking  it  up  accepted 
the  challenge  (see  WAGER).  This  form  is  still  prescribed  for  the 
challenge  of  the  king's  champion  at  the  coronation  of  English 
sovereigns,  and  was  actually  followed  at  that  of  George  IV. 
(see  CHAMPION).  The  phrase  "  to  throw  down  the  gauntlet  " 
is  still  in  common  use  of  any  challenge. 

Pledges  of  Service. — The  use  of  the  glove  as  a  pledge  of  fulfilment 
is  exemplified  also  by  the  not  infrequent  practice  of  enfeoffing 
vassals  by  investing  them  with  the  glove;  similarly  the  emperors 
symbolized  by  the  bestowal  of  a  glove  the  concession  of  the  right 
to  found  a  town  or  to  establish  markets,  mints  and  the  like; 
the  "  hands  "  in  the  armorial  bearings  of  certain  German  towns 
are  really  gloves,  reminiscent  of  this  investiture.  Conversely, 
fiefs  were  held  by  the  render  of  presenting  gloves  to  the  sovereign. 
Thus  the  manor  of  Little  Holland  in  Essex  was  held  in  Queen 
Elizabeth's  time  by  the  service  of  one  knight's  fee  and  the  rent  of 
a  pair  of  gloves  turned  .up  with  hare's  skin  (Blount's  Tenures, 
ed.  Beckwith,  p.  130).  The  most  notable  instance  in  England, 
however,  is  the  grand  serjeanty  of  finding  for  the  king  a  glove 
for  his  right  hand  on  coronation  day,  and  supporting  his  right 
arm  as  long  as  he  holds  the  sceptre.  The  right  to  perform 
this  "  honourable  service  "  was  originally  granted  by  William  the 
Conqueror  to  Bertram  de  Verdun,  together  with  the  manor  of 
Fernham  (Farnham  Royal)  in  Buckinghamshire.  The  male 
descendants  of  Bertram  performed  this  serjeanty  at  the  corona- 
tions until  the  death  of  Theobald  de  Verdun  in  1316,  when  the 
right  passed,  with  the  manor  of  Farnham,  to  Thomas  Lord 
Furnival  by  his  marriage  with  the  heiress  Joan.  His  son  William 
Lord  Furnival  performed  the  ceremony  at  the  coronation  of 
Richard  II.  He  died  in  1383,  and  his  daughter  and  heiress  Jean 
de  Furnival  having  married  Sir  Thomas  Nevill,  Lord  Furnival 
in  her  right,  the  latter  performed  the  ceremony  at  the  coronation 
of  Henry  IV.  His  heiress  Maud  married  Sir  John  Talbot  (ist 
earl  of  Shrewsbury)  who,  as  Lord  Furnival,  presented  the  glove 
embroidered  with  the  arms  of  Verdun  at  the  coronation  of 
Henry  V.  When  in  1541  Francis  earl  of  Shrewsbury  exchanged 
the  manor  of  Farnham  with  King  Henry  VIII.  for  the  site  and 
precincts  of  the  priory  of  Worksop  in  Nottinghamshire  he 
stipulated  that  the  right  to  perform  this  serjeanty  should  be 
reserved  to  him,  and  the  king  accordingly  transferred  the 
obligation  from  Farnham  to  Worksop.  On  the  3rd  of  April 
1838  the  manor  of  Worksop  was  sold  to  the  duke  of  Newcastle 
and  with  it  the  right  to  perform  the  service,  which  had  hitherto 
always  been  carried  out  by  a  descendant  of  Bertram  de  Verdun. 
At  the  coronation  of  King  Edward  VII.  the  earl  of  Shrewsbury 
disputed  the  duke  of  Newcastle's  right,  on  the  ground  that  the 
serjeanty  was  attached  not  to  the  manor  but  to  the  priory  lands 
at  Worksop,  and  that  the  latter  had  been  subdivided  by  sale 
so  that  no  single  person  was  entitled  to  perform  the  ceremony 
and  the  right  had  therefore  lapsed.  His  petition  for  a  regrant 
to  himself  as  lineal  heir  of  Bertram  de  Verdun,  however,  was 

1  F.  W.  Maitland  and  W.  P.  Baildon,  The  Court  Baron  (Selden 
Society,  London,  1891),  p.  17.  Maitland  wrongly  translates  gaunt 
plyee  as  "  twisted  "  glove,  adding  "  why  it  should  be  twisted  I  cannot 
say."  An  earlier  instance  of  the  delivery  of  a  folded  glove  as  gage 
is  quoted  from  the  13th-century  Anglo- Norman  poem  known  as  The 
Song  of  Dermott  ana  the  Earl  (ed.  G.  H.  Orpen,  Oxford,  1892)  in 
J.  H.  Round's  Commune  of  London,  p.  153. 


disallowed  by  the  court  of  claims,  and  the  serjeanty  was  declared 
to  be  attached  to  the  manor  of  Worksop  (G.  Woods  Wollaston, 
Coronation  Claims,  London,  1903,  p.  133). 

Presentations. — From  the  ceremonial  and  symbolic  use  of 
gloves  the  transition  was  easy  to  the  custom  which  grew  up  of 
presenting  them  to  persons  of  distinction  on  special  occasions. 
When  Queen  Elizabeth  visited  Cambridge  in  1578  the  vice- 
chancellor  offered  her  a  "  paire  of  gloves,  perfumed  and  garnished 
with  embroiderie  and  goldsmithe's  wourke,  price  6os.,"  and  at 
the  visit  of  James  I.  there  in  1615  the  mayor  and  corporation 
of  the  town  "  delivered  His  Majesty  a  fair  pair  of  perfumed 
gloves  with  gold  laces."  It  was  formerly  the  custom  in  England 
for  bishops  at  their  consecrations  to  make  presents  of  gloves  to 
those  who  came  to  their  consecration  dinners  and  others,  but  this 
gift  became  such  a  burden  to  them  that  by  an  order  in  council 
in  1678  it  was  commuted  for  the  payment  of  a  sum  of  £50  towards 
the  rebuilding  of  St  Paul's.  Serjeants  at  law,  on  their  appoint- 
ment, were  given  a  pair  of  gloves  containing  a  sum  of  money 
which  was  termed  "  regards  ";  this  custom  is  recorded  as  early 
as  1495,  when  according  to  the  Black  Book  of  Lincoln's  Inn 
each  of  the  new  Serjeants  received  £6,  135.  4d.  and  a  pair  of 
gloves  costing  4d.,  and  it  persisted  to  a  late  period.  At  one  time 
it  was  the  practice  for  a  prisoner  who  pleaded  the  king's  pardon 
on  his  discharge  to  present  the  judges  with  gloves  by  way  of  a 
fee.  Glove-silver,  according  to  Jacob's  Law  Dictionary,  was  a 
name  used  of  extraordinary  rewards  formerly  given  to  officers  of 
courts,  &c.,  or  of  money  given  by  the  sheriff  of  a  county  in  which 
no  offenders  were  left  for  execution  to  the  clerk  of  assize  and 
judge's  officers;  the  explanation  of  the  term  is  that  the  glove 
given  as  a  perquisite  or  fee  was  in  some  cases  lined  with  money 
to  increase  its  value,  and  thus  came  to  stand  for  money  osten- 
sibly given  in  lieu  of  gloves.  It  is  still  the  custom  in  the  United 
Kingdom  to  present  a  pair  of  white  gloves  to  a  judge  or  magis- 
trate who  when  he  takes  his  seat  for  criminal  business  at  the 
appointed  time  finds  no  cases  for  trial.  By  ancient  custom 
judges  are  not  allowed  to  wear  gloves  while  actually  sitting  on 
the  bench,  and  a  witness  taking  the  oath  must  remove  the  glove 
from  the  hand  that  holds  the  book.  (See  J.  W.  Norton-Kyshe, 
The  Law  and  Customs  relating  to  Gloves,  London,  1901.) 

Pontifical  gloves  (Lat.  chirothecae)  are  liturgical  ornaments 
peculiar  to  the  Western  Church  and  proper  only  to  the  pope,  the 
cardinals  and  bishops,  though  the  right  to  wear  them  is  often 
granted  by  the  Holy  See  to  abbots,  cathedral  dignitaries  and 
other  prelates,  as  in  the  case  of  the  other  episcopal  insignia. 
According  to  the  present  use  the  gloves  are  of  silk  and  of  the 
liturgical  colour  of  the  day,  the  edge  of  the  opening  ornamented 
with  a  narrow  band  of  embroidery  or  the  like,  and  the  middle  of 
the  back  with  a  cross.  They  may  be  worn  only  at  the  celebra- 
tion of  mass  (except  masses  for  the  dead).  In  vesting,  the 
gloves  are  put  on  the1  bishop  immediately  after  the  dalmatic,  the 
right  hand  one  by  the  deacon,  the  other  by  the  subdeacon.  They 
are  worn  only  until  the  ablution  before  the  canon  of  the  mass, 
after  which  they  may  not  again  be  put  on. 

At  the  consecration  of  a  bishop  the  consecrating  prelate  puts 
the  gloves  on  the  new  bishop  immediately  after  the  mitre,  with 
a  prayer  that  his  hands  may  be  kept  pure,  so  that  the  sacrifice  he 
offers  may  be  as  acceptable  as  the  gift  of  venison  which  Jacob, 
his  hands  wrapped  in  the  skin  of  kids,  brought  to  Isaac.  This 
symbolism  (as  in  the  case  of  the  other  vestments)  is,  however,  of 
late  growth.  The  liturgical  use  of  gloves  itself  cannot,  according 
to  Father  Braun,  be  traced  beyond  the  beginning  of  the  icth 
century,  and  their  introduction  was  due,  perhaps  to  the  simple 
desire  to  keep  the  hands  clean  for  the  holy  mysteries,  but  more 
probably  merely  as  part  of  the  increasing  pomp  with  which  the 
Carolingian  bishops  were  surrounding  themselves.  From  the 
Prankish  kingdom  the  custom  spread  to  Rome,  where  liturgical 
gloves  are  first  heard  of  in  the  earlier  half  of  the  nth  century. 
The  earliest  authentic  instance  of  the  right  to  wear  them  being 
granted  to  a  non-bishop  is  a  bull  of  Alexander  IV.  in  1070,  con- 
ceding this  to  the  abbot  of  S.  Pietro  in  Cielo  d'  Oro. 

During  the  middle  ages  the  occasions  on  which  pontifical  gloves 
(often  wanti,  guanti,  and  sometimes  manicae  in  the  inventories) 


GLOVER,  SIRJ.  H.— GLOVERSVILLE 


were  worn  were  not  so  carefully  defined  as  now,  the  use  varying  in 
different  churches.  Nor  were  the  liturgical  colours  prescribed. 
The  most  characteristic  feature  of  the  medieval  pontifical  glove 
was  the  ornament  (tasellus,  fibula,  monile,  paralura)  set  in  the 
middle  of  the  back  of  the  glove.  This  was  usually  a  small  plaque 
of  metal,  enamelled  or  jewelled,  generally  round,  but  sometimes 
square  or  irregular  in  shape.  Sometimes  embroidery  was  substi- 
tuted; still  more  rarely  the  whole  glove  was  covered,  even  to  the 
fingers,  with  elaborate  needlework  designs. 

Liturgical  gloves  have  not  been  worn  by  Anglican  bishops  since 
the  Reformation,  though  they  are  occasionally  represented  as 
wearing  them  on  their  effigies. 

See  J.  Braun,S.J.,/)Je  liturgische  Gewandung  (Freiburg;  im  Breisgau, 
I9o7)i  PP-  359-382,  where  many  beautiful  examples  are  illustrated. 

Manufacture  of  Gloves. — Three  countries,  according  to  an  old 
proverb,  contribute  to  the  making  of  a  good  glove — Spain 
dressing  the  leather,  France  cutting  it  and  England  sewing  it. 
But  the  manufacture  of  gloves  was  not  introduced  into  Great 
Britain  till  the  loth  or  nth  century.  The  incorporation  of 
glovers  of  Perth  was  chartered  in  1165,  and  in  1190  a  glove- 
makers'  gild  was  formed  in  France,  with  the  object  of  regulating 
the  trade  and  ensuring  good  workmanship.  The  glovers  of 
London  in  1349  framed  their  ordinances  and  had  them  approved 
by  the  corporation,  the  city  regulations  at  that  time  fixing  the 
price  of  a  pair  of  common  sheepskin  gloves  at  id.  In  1464,  when 
the  gild  received  armorial  bearings,  they  do  not  seem  to  have 
been  very  strong,  but  apparently  their  position  improved  sub- 
sequently and  in  1638  they  were  incorporated  as  a  new  company. 
In  1 580  it  is  recorded  that  both  French  and  Spanish  gloves  were 
on  sale  in  London  shops,  and  in  1661  a  company  of  glovers  was 
incorporated  at  Worcester,  which  still  remains  an  important  seat 
of  the  English  glove  industry.  In  America  the  manufacture  of 
gloves  dates  from  about  1 760,  when  Sir  William  Johnson  brought 
over  several  families  of  glove  makers  from  Perth;  these  settled 
in  Fulton  county,  New  York,  which  is  now  the  largest  seat  of  the 
glove  trade  in  the  United  States. 

Gloves  may  be  divided  into  two  distinct  categories,  according  as 
these  are  made  of  leather  or  are  woven  or  knitted  from  fibres  such  as 
silk,  wool  or  cotton.  The  manufacture  of  the  latter  kinds  is  a  branch 
of  the  hosiery  industry.  For  leather  gloves  skins  of  various  animals 
are  employed — deer,  calves,  sheep  and  lambs,  goats  and  kids,  &c. — 
but  kids  have  had  nothing  to  do  with  the  production  of  many  of 
the  "  kid  gloves  "  of  commerce.  The  skins  are  prepared  and  dressed 
by  special  processes  (see  LEATHER)  before  going  to  the  glove-maker 
to  be  cut.  Owing  to  the  elastic  character  of  the  material  the  cutting 
is  a  delicate  operation,  and  long  practice  is  required  before  a  man 
becomes  expert  at  it.  Formerly  it  was  done  by  shears,  the  workmen 
following  an  outline  marked  on  the  leather,  but  now  steel  dies  are 
universally  employed  not  only  for  the  bodies  of  the  gloves  but  also 
for  the  thumb-pieces  and  fourchettes  or  sides  of  the  fingers.  When 
hand  sewing  is  employed  the  pieces  to  be  sewn  together  are  placed 
between  a  pair  of  jaws,  the  holding  edges  of  which  are  serrated  with 
fine  saw-teeth,  and  the  sewer  by  passing  the  needle  forwards  and 
backwards  between  each  of  these  teeth  secures  neat  uniform  stitching. 
But  sewing  machines  are  now  widely  employed  on  the  work.  The 
labour  of  making  a  glove  is  much  subdivided,  different  operators 
sewing  different  pieces,  and  others  again  embroidering  the  back, 
forming  the  button-holes,  attaching  the  buttons,  &c.  After  the  gloves 
are  completed,  they  undergo  the  process  of  "  laying  off,"  in  which 
they  are  drawn  over  metal  forms,  shaped  like  a  hand  and  heated 
internally  by  steam;  in  this  way  they  are  finally  smoothed  and 
shaped  before  being  wrapped  in  paper  and  packed  in  boxes. 

Gloves  made  of  thin  indiarubber  or  of  white  cotton  are  worn  by 
some  surgeons  while  performing  operations,  on  account  of  the  ease 
with  which  they  can  be  thoroughly  sterilized. 

GLOVER,  SIR  JOHN  HAWLEY  (1820-1885),  captain  in  the 
British  navy,  entered  the  service  in  1841  and  passed  his  examina- 
tion as  lieutenant  in  1849,  but  did  not  receive  a  commission  till 
May  1851.  He  served  on  various  stations,  and  was  wounded 
severely  in  an  action  with  the  Burmese  at  Donabew  (4th 
February  1853).  But  his  reputation  was  not  gained  at  sea  and 
as  a  naval  officer,  but  on  shore  and  as  an  administrative  official 
in  the  colonies.  During  his  years  of  service  as  lieutenant  in  the 
navy  he  had  had  considerable  experience  of  the  coast  of  Africa, 
and  had  taken  part  in  the  expedition  of  Dr  W.  B.  Baikie  (1824- 
1864)  up  the  Niger.  On  the  2ist  of  April  1863  he  was  appointed 
administrator  of  the  government  of  Lagos,  and  in  that  capacity, 
or  as  colonial  secretary,  he  remained  there  till  1872.  During  this 


137 

period  he  had  been  much  employed  in  repelling  the  marauding 
incursions  of  the  Ashantis.  When  the  Ashanti  war  broke  out 
in  1873,  Captain  Glover  undertook  the  hazardous  and  doubtful 
task  of  organizing  the  native  tribes,  whom  hatred  of  the  Ashantis 
might  be  expected  to  make  favourable  to  the  British  authorities — 
to  the  extent  at  least  to  which  their  fears  would  allow  them  to  act. 
His  services  were  accepted,  and  in  September  of  1873  he  landed  at 
Cape  Coast,  and,  after  forming  a  small  trustworthy  force  of 
Hausa,  marched  to  Accra.  His  influence  sufficed  to  gather  a 
numerous  native  force,  but  neither  he  nor  anybody  else  could 
overcome  their  abject  terror  of  the  ferocious  Ashantis  to  the 
extent  of  making  them  fight.  In  January  1874  Captain  Glover 
was  able  to  render  some  assistance  in  the  taking  of  Kumasi, 
but  it  was  at  the  head  of  a  Hausa  force.  His  services  were 
acknowledged  by  the  thanks  of  parliament  and  by  his  creation 
as  G.C.M.G.  In  1875  he  was  appointed  governor  of  Newfound- 
land and  held  the  post  till  1881,  when  he  was  transferred  to  the 
Leeward  Islands.  He  returned  to  Newfoundland  in  1883,  and 
died  in  London  on  the  3Oth  September  1885. 

Lady  Glover's  Life  of  her  husband  appeared  in  1897. 

GLOVER,  RICHARD  (1712-1785),  English  poet,  son  of  Richard 
Glover,  a  Hamburg  merchant,  was  born  in  London  in  1712.  He 
was  educated  at  Cheam  in  Surrey.  While  there  he  wrote  in  his 
sixteenth  year  a  poem  to  the  memory  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  which 
was  prefixed  by  Dr  Pemberton  to  hisView  of  Newton's  Philosophy, 
published  in  1728.  In  1737  he  published  an  epic  poem  in  praise 
of  liberty,  Leonidas,  which  was  thought  to  have  a  special  reference 
to  the  politics  of  the  time;  and  being  warmly  commended  by  the 
prince  of  Wales  and  his  court,  it  soon  passed  through  several 
editions.  In  1739  Glover  published  a  poem  entitled  London,  or 
the  Progress  of  Commerce;  and  in  the  same  year,  with  a  view  to 
exciting  the  nation  against  the  Spaniards,  he  wrote  a  spirited 
ballad,  Hosier's  Ghost,  very  popular  in  its  day.  He  was  also  the 
author  of  two  tragedies,  Boadicea  (1753)  and  Medea  (1761), 
written  in  close  imitation  of  Greek  models.  The  success  of 
Glover's  Leonidas  led  him  to  take  considerable  interest  in  politics, 
and  in  1761  he  entered  parliament  as  member  for  Weymouth. 
He  died  on  the  25th  of  November  1 785.  The  Alhenaid,  an  epic  in 
thirty  books,  was  published  in  1787,  and  his  diary,  entitled 
Memoirs  of  a  distinguished  literary  and  political  Character  from 
1742  to  1757,  appeared  in  1813.  Glover  was  one  of  the  reputed 
authors  of  Junius;  but  his  claims — which  were  advocated  in  an 
Inquiry  concerning  the  author  of  the  Letters  of  Junius  (1815),  by 
R.  Duppa — rest  on  very  slight  grounds. 

GLOVERSVILLE,  a  city  of  Fulton  county,  New  York, 
U.S.A.,  at  the  foot-hills  of  the  Adirondacks,  about  55  m.  N.W. 
of  Albany.  Pop.  (1890)  13,864;  (1000)  18,349,  of  whom  2542 
were  foreign-born;  (1910  census)  20,642.  It  is  served  by 
the  Fonda,  Johnstown  &  Gloversville  railway  (connecting 
at  Fonda,  about  9  m.  distant,  with  the  New  York  Central), 
and  by  electric  lines  connecting  with  Johnstown,  Amsterdam 
and  Schenectady.  The  city  has  a  public  library  (26,000 
volumes  in  1908),  the  Nathan  Littauer  memorial  hospital, 
a  state  armoury  and  a  fine  government  building.  Gloversville 
is  the  principal  glove-manufacturing  centre  in  the  United 
States.  In  1900  Fulton  county  produced  more  than  57%, 
and  Gloversville  38-8%,  of  all  the  leather  gloves  and  mittens 
made  in  the  United  States;  in  1905  Gloversville  produced  29-9% 
of  the  leather  gloves  and  mittens  made  in  the  United  States, 
its  products  being  valued  at  $5,302,196.  Gloversville  has  more 
than  a  score  of  tanneries  and  leather-finishing  factories,  and 
manufactures  fur  goods.  In  1905  the  city's  total  factory  product 
was  valued  at  $9,340,763.  The  extraordinary  localization  of  the 
glove-making  industry  in  Gloversville,  Johnstown  and  other 
parts  of  Fulton  county,  is  an  incident  of  much  interest  in  the 
economic  history  of  the  United  States.  The  industry  seems  to 
have  had  its  origin  among  a  colony  of  Perthshire  families, 
including  many  glove-makers,  who  were  settled  in  this  region  by 
Sir  William  Johnson  about  1760.  For  many  years  the  entire 
product  seems  to  have  been  disposed  of  in  the  neighbourhood, 
but  about  1809  the  goods  began  to  find  more  distant  markets, 
and  by  1825  the  industry  was  firmly  established  on  a  prosperous 


GLOW-WORM— GLUCK 


basis,  the  trade  being  handed  down  from  father  to  son.  An 
interesting  phase  of  the  development  is  that,  in  addition  to  the 
factory  work,  a  large  amount  of  the  industry  is  in  the  hands  of 
"  home  workers "  both  in  the  town  and  country  districts. 
Gloversville,  settled  originally  about  1770,  was  known  for  some 
time  as  Stump  City,  its  present  name  being  adopted  in  1832. 
It  was  incorporated  as  a  village  in  1851  and  was  chartered  as  a 
city  in  1890. 

GLOW- WORM,  the  popular  name  of  the  wingless  female  of 
the  beetle  Lampyris  noctiluca,  whose  power  of  emitting  light  has 
been  familiar  for  many  centuries.  The  luminous  organs  of  the 
glow-worm  consist  of  cells  similar  to  those  of  the  fat-body, 
grouped  into  paired  masses  in  the  ventral  region  of  the  hinder 
abdominal  segments.  The  light  given  out  by  the  wingless 
female  insect  is  believed  to  serve  as  an  attraction  to  the  flying 
male,  whose  luminous  organs  remain  in  a  rudimentary  condition. 
The  common  glow-worm  is  a  widespread  European  and  Siberian 
insect,  generally  distributed  in  England  and  ranging  in  Scotland 
northwards  to  the  Tay,  but  unknown  in  Ireland.  Exotic  species 
of  Lampyris  are  similarly  luminous,  and  light-giving  organs  are 
present  in  many  genera  of  the  family  Lampyridae  from  various 
parts  of  the  world.  Frequently — as  in  the  south  European  Luciola 
italica — both  sexes  of  the  beetle  are  provided  with  wings,  and  both 
male  and  female  emit  light.  These  luminous,  winged  Lampyrids 
are  generally  known  as  "  fire-flies.  "  In  correspondence  with  their 
power  of  emitting  light,  the  insects  are  nocturnal  in  habit. 

Elongate  centipedes  of  the  family  Geophilidae,  certain  species 
of  which  are  luminous,  are  sometimes  mistaken  for  the  true 
glow-worm. 

GLOXINIA,  a  charming  decorative  plant,  botanically  a  species 
of  Sinningia  (S.  speciosd),  a  member  of  the  natural  order  Ges- 
neraceae  and  a  native  of  Brazil.  The  species  has  given  rise  under 
cultivation  to  numerous  forms  showing  a  wonderful  variety  of 
colour,  and  hybrid  forms  have  also  been  obtained  between  these 
and  other  species  of  Sinningia.  A  good  strain  of  seed  will 
produce  many  superb  and  charmingly  coloured  varieties,  and 
if  sown  early  in  spring,  in  a  temperature  of  65°  at  night,  they 
may  be  shifted  on  into  6-in.  pots,  and  in  these  may  be  flowered 
during  the  summer.  The  bulbs  are  kept  at  rest  through  the 
winter  in  dry  sand,  in  a  temperature  of  50°,  and  to  yield  a  succession 
should  be  started  at  intervals,  say  at  the  end  of  February  and 
the  beginning  of  April.  To  prolong  the  blooming  season,  use 
weak  manure  water  when  the  flower-buds  show  themselves. 

GLUCINUM,  an  alternative  name  for  Beryllium  (q.v.).  When 
L.  N.  Vauquelin  in  1798  published  in  the  Annales  de  chimie  an 
account  of  a  new  earth  obtained  by  him  from  beryl  he  refrained 
from  giving  the  substance  a  name,  but  in  a  note  to  his  paper 
the  editors  suggested  glucine,  from  y\vKvs,  sweet,  in  reference 
to  the  taste  of  its  salts,  whence  the  name  Glucinum  or  Glucinium 
(symbol  Gl.  or  sometimes  G).  The  name  beryllium  was  given 
to  the  metal  by  German  chemists  and  was  generally  used  until 
recently,  when  the  earlier  name  was  adopted. 

GLUCK,1  CHRISTOPH  WILLIBALD  (1714-1787),  operatic 
composer,  German  by  his  nationality,  French  by  his  place  in  art, 
was  born  at  Weidenwang,  near  Neumarkt,  in  the  upper 
Palatinate,  on  the  and  of  July  1714.  He  belonged  to  the  lower 
middle  class,  his  father  being  gamekeeper  to  Prince  Lobkowitz; 
but  the  boy's  education  was  not  neglected  on  that  account. 
From  his  twelfth  to  his  eighteenth  year  he  frequented  the 
Jesuit  school  of  Kommotau  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Prince 
Lobkowitz's  estate  in  Bohemia,  where  he  not  only  received  a 
good  general  education,  but  also  had  lessons  in  music.  At  the 
age  of  eighteen  Gluck  went  to  Prague,  where  he  continued  his 
musical  studies  under  Czernohorsky,  and  maintained  himself 
by  the  exercise  of  his  art,  sometimes  in  the  very  humble  capacity 
of  fiddler  at  village  fairs  and  dances.  Through  the  introductions 
of  Prince  Lobkowitz,  however,  he  soon  gained  access  to  the  best 
families  of  the  Austrian  nobility;  and  when  in  1736  he  proceeded 
to  Vienna  he  was  hospitably  received  at  his  protector's  palace. 
Here  he  met  Prince  Melzi,  an  ardent  lover  of  music,  whom  he 
accompanied  to  Milan,  continuing  his  education  under  Giovanni 
1  Not,  as  frequently  spelt,  Gluck. 


Battista  San  Martini,  a  great  musical  historian  and  contra- 
puntist, who  was  also  famous  in  his  own  day  as  a  composer  of 
church  and  chamber  music.  We  soon  find  Gluck  producing 
operas  at  the  rapid  rate  necessitated  by  the  omnivorous  taste 
of  the  Italian  public  in  those  days.  Nine  of  these  works  were 
produced  at  various  Italian  theatres  between  i?4r  and  1745. 
Although  their  artistic  value  was  small,  they  were  so  favourably 
received  that  in  1745  Gluck  was  invited  to  London  to  compose 
for  the  Haymarket.  The  first  opera  produced  there  was  called 
La  Caduta  dei  giganti;  it  was  followed  by  a  revised  version  of 
one  of  his  earlier  operas.  Gluck  also  appeared  in  London  as  a 
performer  on  the  musical  glasses  (see  HARMONICA). 

The  success  of  his  two  operas,  as  well  as  that  of  a  pasticcio 
(i.e.  a  collection  of  favourite  arias  set  to  a  new  libretto)  entitled 
Piramo  e  Tisbe,  was  anything  but  brilliant,  and  he  accordingly 
left  London.  But  his  stay  in  England  was  not  without  important 
consequences  for  his  subsequent  career.  Gluck  at  this  time  was 
rather  less  than  an  ordinary  producer  of  Italian  opera.  Handel's 
well-known  saying  that  Gluck  "  knew  no  more  counterpoint 
than  his  cook  "  must  be  taken  in  connexion  with  the  less  well- 
known  fact  that  that  cook  was  an  excellent  bass  singer  who 
performed  in  many  of  Handel's  own  operas.  But  it  indicates 
the  musical  reason  of  Gluck's  failure,  while  Gluck  himself  learnt 
the  dramatic  reason  through  his  surprise  at  finding  that  arias 
which  in  their  original  setting  had  been  much  applauded  lost 
all  effect  when  adapted  to  new  words  in  the  pasticcio.  Irrelevant 
as  Handel's  criticism  appears,  it  was  not  without  bearing  on 
Gluck's  difficulties.  The  use  of  counterpoint  has  very  little 
necessary  connexion  with  contrapuntal  display;  its  real  and 
final  cause  is  a  certain  depth  of  harmonic  expression  which  Gluck 
attained  only  in  his  most  dramatic  moments,  and  for  want  of 
which  he,  even  in  his  finest  works,  sometimes  moved  very  lamely. 
And  in  later  years  his  own  mature  view  of  the  importance  of 
harmony,  which  he  upheld  in  long  arguments  with  Gretry,  who 
believed  only  in  melody,  shows  that  he  knew  that  the  dramatic 
expression  of  music  must  strike  below  the  surface.  At  this 
early  period  he  was  simply  producing  Handelian  opera  in  an 
amateurish  style,  suggesting  an  unsuccessful  imitation  of  Hasse; 
but  the  failure  of  his  pasticcio  is  as  significant  to  us  as  it  was  to 
him,  since  it  shows  that  already  the  effect  of  his  music  depended 
upon  its  characteristic  treatment  of  dramatic  situations.  This 
characterizing  power  was  as  yet  not  directly  evident,  and  it 
needed  all  the  influence  of  the  new  instrumental  resources  of 
the  rising  sonata-forms  before  music  could  pass  out  of  what  we 
may  call  its  architectural  and  decorative  period  and  enter  into 
dramatic  regions  at  all. 

It  is  highly  probable  that  the  chamber  music  of  his  master, 
San  Martini,  had  already  indicated  to  Gluck  a  new  direction 
which  was  more  or  less  incompatible  with  the  older  art;  and 
there  is  nothing  discreditable  either  to  Gluck  or  to  his  con- 
temporaries in  the  failure  of  his  earlier  works.  Had  the  young 
composer  been  successful  in  the  ordinary  opera  seria,  there  is 
reason  to  fear  that  the  great  dramatic  reform,  initiated  by  him, 
might  not  have  taken  place.  The  critical  temper  of  the  London 
public  fortunately  averted  this  calamity.  It  may  also  be  assumed 
that  the  musical  atmosphere  of  the  English  capital,  and  especially 
the  great  works  of  Handel,  were  not  without  beneficial  influence 
upon  the  young  composer.  But  of  still  greater  importance  in 
this  respect  was  a  short  trip  to  Paris,  where  Gluck  became  for 
the  first  time  acquainted  with  the  classic  traditions  and  the 
declamatory  style  of  the  French  opera — a  sphere  of  music  in 
which  his  own  greatest,  triumphs  were  to  be  achieved.  Of 
these  great  issues  little  trace,  however,  is  to  be  found  in  the  works 
produced  by  Gluck  during  the  fifteen  years  after  his  return  from 
England.  In  this  period  Gluck,  in  a  long  course  of  works  by 
no  means  free  from  the  futile  old  traditions,  gained  technical 
experience  and  important  patronage,  though  his  success  was 
not  uniform.  His  first  opera  written  for  Vienna,  La  Semiramide 
riconosciuta,  is  again  an  ordinary  opera  seria,  and  little  more 
can  be  said  of  Telemacco,  although  thirty  years  later  Gluck  was 
able  to  use  most  of  its  overture  and  an  energetic  duet  in  one  of 
his  greatest  works,  Armide. 


GLUCK 


139 


Gluck  settled  permanently  at  Vienna  in  1756,  having  two 
years  previously  been  appointed  court  chapel-master,  with  a 
salary  of  2000  florins,  by  the  empress  Maria  Theresa.  He  had 
already  received  the  order  of  knighthood  from  the  pope  in  conse- 
quence of  the  successful  production  of  two  of  his  works  in  Rome. 
During  the  long  interval  from  1756  to  1762  Gluck  seems  to  have 
matured  his  plans  for  the  reform  of  the  opera;  and,  barring  a 
ballet  named  Don  Giovanni,  and  some  airs  nouveaux  to  French 
words  with  pianoforte  accompaniment,  no  compositions  of  any 
importance  have  to  be  recorded.  Several  later  pieces  d'occasion, 
such  as  //  Trionfo  di  Clelia  (1763),  are  still  written  in  the  old 
manner,  though  already  in  1762  Orfeo  ed  Euridice  shows  that  the 
composer  had  entered  upon  a  new  career.  Gluck  had  for  the 
first  time  deserted  Metastasio  for  Raniero  Calzabigi,  who,  as 
Vernon  Lee  suggests,  was  in  all  probability  the  immediate  cause 
of  the  formation  of  Gluck's  new  ideas,  as  he  was  a  hot-headed 
dramatic  theorist  with  a  violent  dislike  for  Metastasio,  who  had 
hitherto  dominated  the  whole  sphere  of  operatic  libretto. 

Quite  apart  from  its  significance  in  the  history  of  dramatic 
music,  Orpheus  is  a  work  which,  by  its  intrinsic  beauty,  commands 
the  highest  admiration.  Orpheus's  air,  Che  faro,  is  known  to 
every  one;  but  still  finer  is  the  great  scena  in  which  the  poet's 
song  softens  even  the  ombre  sdegnose  of  Tartarus.  The  ascending 
passion  of  the  entries  of  the  solo  (Deht  placatevi;  Mille  pene; 
Men  tiranne),  interrupted  by  the  harsh  but  gradually  softening 
exclamations  of  the  Furies,  is  of  the  highest  dramatic  effect. 
These  melodies,  moreover,  as  well  as  every  declamatory  passage 
assigned  to  Orpheus,  are  made  subservient  to  the  purposes  of 
dramatic  characterization;  that  is,  they  could  not  possibly 
be  assigned  to  any  other  person  in  the  drama,  any  more  than 
Hamlet's  monologue  could  be  spoken  by  Polonius.  It  is  in  this 
power  of  musically  realizing  a  character — a  power  all  but  un- 
known in  the  serious  opera  of  his  day — that  Gluck's  genius 
as  a  dramatic  composer  is  chiefly  shown.  After  a  short  relapse 
into  his  earlier  manner,  Gluck  followed  up  his  Orpheus  by  a 
second  classical  music-drama  (1767)  named  Alceste.  In  his 
dedication  of  the  score  to  the  grand-duke  of  Tuscany,  he  fully 
expressed  his  aims,  as  well  as  the  reasons  for  his  total  breach  with 
the  old  traditions.  "  I  shall  try,"  he  wrote,  "  to  reduce  music 
to  its  real  function,  that  of  seconding  poetry  by  intensifying 
the  expression  of  sentiments  and  the  interest  of  situations 
without  interrupting  the  action  by  needless  ornament.  I  have 
accordingly  taken  care  not  to  interrupt  the  singer  in  the  heat  of 
the  dialogue,  to  wait  for  a  tedious  ritornel,  nor  do  I  allow  him  to 
stop  on  a  sonorous  vowel,  in  the  middle  of  a  phrase,  in  order  to 
show  the  nimbleness  of  a  beautiful  voice  in  a  long  cadenza." 
Such  theories,  and  the  stern  consistency  with  which  they  were 
carried  out,  were  little  to  the  taste  of  the  pleasure-loving 
Viennese;  and  the  success  of  Alceste,  as  well  as  that  of  Paris 
and  Helena,  which  followed  two  years  later,  was  not  such  as 
Gluck  had  desired  and  expected.  He  therefore  eagerly  accepted 
the  chance  of  finding  a  home  for  his  art  in  the  centre  of  intellectual 
and  more  especially  dramatic  life,  Paris.  Such  a  chance  was 
opened  to  him  through  the  bailli  Le  Blanc  du  Roullet,  attache  of 
the  French  embassy  at  Vienna,  and  a  musical  amateur  who 
entered  into  Gluck's  ideas  with  enthusiasm.  A  classic  opera 
for  the  Paris  stage  was  accordingly  projected,  and  the  friends 
fixed  upon  Racine's  Iphiginie  en  Aulide.  After  some  difficulties, 
overcome  chiefly  by  the  intervention  of  Gluck's  former  pupil 
the  dauphiness  Marie  Antoinette,  the  opera  was  at  last  accepted 
and  performed  at  the  Academic  de  Musique,  on  the  igth  of 
April  1774. 

The  great  importance  of  the  new  work  was  at  once  perceived 
by  the  musical  amateurs  of  the  French  capital,  and  a  hot  con- 
troversy on  the  merits  of  Iphigenie  ensued,  in  which  some  of  the 
leading  literary  men  of  France  took  part.  Amongst  the  opponents 
of  Gluck  were  not  only  the  admirers  of  Italian  vocalization  and 
sweetness,  but  also  the  adherents  of  the  earlier  French  school,  who 
refused  to  see  in  the  new  composer  the  legitimate  successor  of 
Lulli  and  Rameau.  Marmontel,  Laharpe  and  D'Alembert  were 
his  opponents,  the  Abbe  Arnaud  and  others  his  enthusiastic 
friends.  Rousseau  took  a  peculiar  position  in  the  struggle. 


In  his  early  writings  he  is  a  violent  partisan  of  Italian  music, 
but  when  Gluck  himself  appeared  as  the  French  champion 
Rousseau  acknowledged  the  great  composer's  genius;  although 
he  did  not  always  understand  it,  as  for  example  when  he  suggested 
that  in  Alceste,  "  Divinites  du  Styx,"  perhaps  the  most  majestic 
of  all  Gluck's  arias,  ought  to  have  been  set  as  a  rondo.  Neverthe- 
less in  a  letter  to  Dr  Burney,  written  shortly  before  his  death, 
Rousseau  gives  a  close  and  appreciative  analysis  of  Alceste, 
the  first  Italian  version  of  which  Gluck  had  submitted  to  him 
for  suggestions;  and  when,  on  the  first  performance  of  the 
piece  not  being  received  favourably  by  the  Parisian  audience, 
the  composer  exclaimed,  "  Alceste  est  torribee,"  Rousseau  is  said 
to  have  comforted  him  with  the  flattering  bonmot,  "  Oui,  mats 
elle  est  tombie  du  del."  The  contest  received  a  still  more  personal 
character  when  Piccinni,  a  celebrated  and  by  no  means  incapable 
composer,  came  to  Paris  as  the  champion  of  the  Italian  party 
at  the  invitation  of  Madame  du  Barry,  who  held  a  rival  court  to 
that  of  the  young  princess  (see  OPERA).  As  a  dramatic  contro- 
versy it  suggests  a  parallel  with  the  Wagnerian  and  anti- 
Wagnerian  warfare  of  a  later  age;  but  there  is  no  such  radical 
difference  between  Gluck's  and  Piccinni's  musical  methods  as 
the  comparison  would  suggest.  Gluck  was  by  far  the  better 
musician,  but  his  deficiencies  in  musical  technique  were  of  a 
kind  which  contemporaries  could  perceive  as  easily  as  they  could 
perceive  Piccinni's.  Both  composers  were  remarkable  inventors 
of  melody,  and  both  had  the  gift  of  making  incorrect  music 
sound  agreeable.  Gluck's  indisputable  dramatic  power  might 
be  plausibly  dismissed  as  irrelevant  by  upholders  of  music  for 
music's  sake,  even  if  Piccinni  himself  had  not  chosen,  as  he 
did,  to  assimilate  every  feature  in  Gluck's  style  that  he  could 
understand.  The  rivalry  between  the  two  composers  was  soon 
developed  into  a  quarrel  by  the  skilful  engineering  of  Gluck's 
enemies.  In  1777  Piccinni  was  given  a  libretto  by  Marmontel 
on  the  subject  of  Roland,  to  Gluck's  intense  disgust,  as  he  had 
already  begun  an  opera  on  that  subject  himself.  This,  and  the 
failure  of  an  attempt  to  show  his  command  of  a  lighter  style  by 
furbishing  up  some  earlier  works  at  the  instigation  of  Marie 
Antoinette,  inspired  Gluck  to  produce  his  Armide,  which  appeared 
four  months  before  Piccinni's  Roland  was  ready,  and  raised  a 
storm  of  controversy,  admiration  and  abuse.  Gluck  did  not 
anticipate  Wagner  more  clearly  in  his  dramatic  reforms  than  in 
his  caustic  temper;  and,  as  in  Gluck's  own  estimation  the 
difference  between  Armide  and  Alceste  is  that  "  I'un  (Alceste) 
doitfaire.pleurer  et  I'autrefaire  iprouver  une  wluptueuse  sensation," 
it  was  extremely  annoying  for  him  to  be  told  by  Laharpe  that 
he  had  made  Armide  a  sorceress  instead  of  an  enchantress,  and 
that  her  part  was  "  ttne  criaillerie  monotone  et  fatiguante."  He 
replied  to  Laharpe  in  a  long  public  letter  worthy  of  Wagner  in 
its  venomous  sarcasm  and  its  tremendous  value  as  an  advertise- 
ment for  its  recipient. 

Gluck's  next  work  was  Iphiginie  en  Tauride,  the  success 
of  which  finally  disposed  of  Piccinni,  who  produced  a  work 
on  the  same  subject  at  the  same  time  and  who  is  said  to  have 
acknowledged  Gluck's  superiority.  Gluck's  next  work  was 
£clw  et  Narcisse,  the  comparative  failure  of  which  greatly 
disappointed  him;  and  during  the  composition  of  another  opera, 
Les  Danaides,  an  attack  of  apoplexy  compelled  him  to  give  up 
work.  He  left  Paris  for  Vienna,  where  he  lived  for  several 
years  in  dignified  leisure,  disturbed  only  by  his  declining  health. 
He  died  on  the  isth  of  November  1787.  (F.  H.;  D.  F.  T.) 

The  great  interest  of  the  dramatic  aspect  of  Gluck's  reforms 
is  apt  to  overshadow  his  merit  as  a  musician,  and  yet  in  some 
ways  to  idealize  it.  One  is  tempted  to  regard  him  as  condoning 
for  technical  musical  deficiencies  by  sheer  dramatic  power, 
whereas  unprejudiced  study  of  his  work  shows  that  where  his 
dramatic  power  asserts  itself  there  is  no  lack  of  musical  technique. 
Indeed  only  a  great  musician  could  so  reform  opera  as  to  give  it 
scope  for  dramatic  power  at  all.  Where  Gluck  differs  from  the 
greatest  musicians  is  in  his  absolute  dependence  on  literature 
for  his  inspiration.  Where  his  librettist  failed  him  (as  in  his 
last  complete  work,  £cho  et  Narcisse),  he  could  hardly  write 
tolerably  good  music;  and,  even  in  the  finest  works  of  his  French 


140 


GLUCK 


period,  the  less  emotional  situations  are  sometimes  set  to  music 
which  has  little  interest  except  as  a  document  in  the  history  of 
the  art.  This  must  not  be  taken  to  mean  merely  that  Gluck 
could  not,  like  Mozart  and  nearly  all  the  great  song-writers, 
set  good  music  to  a  bad  text.  Such  inability  would  prove 
Gluck 's  superior  literary  taste  without  casting  a  slur  on  his 
musicianship.  But  it  points  to  a  certain  weakness  as  a  musician 
that  Gluck  could  not  be  inspired  except  by  the  more  thrilling 
portions  of  his  libretti.  When  he  was  inspired  there  was  no 
question  that  he  was  the  first  and  greatest  writer  of  dramatic 
music  before  Mozart.  To  begin  with,  he  could  invent  sublime 
melodies;  and  his  power  of  producing  great  musical  effects  by 
the  simplest  means  was  nothing  short  of  Handelian.  Moreover, 
in  his  peculiar  sphere  he  deserves  the  title  generally  accorded 
to  Haydn  of  "  father  of  modem  orchestration."  It  is  misleading 
to  say  that  he  was  the  first  to  use  the  timbre  of  instruments 
with  a  sense  of  emotional  effect,  for  Bach  and  Handel  well  knew 
how  to  give  a  whole  aria  or  whole  chorus  peculiar  tone  by  means 
of  a  definite  scheme  of  instrumentation.  But  Gluck  did  not  treat 
instruments  as  part  of  a  decorative  design,  any  more  than  he  so 
treated  musical  forms.  Just  as  his  sense  of  musical  form  is  that 
of  Philipp  Emmanuel  Bach  and  of  Mozart,  so  is  his  treatment 
of  instrumental  tone-colour  a  thing  that  changes  with  every 
shade  of  feeling  in  the  dramatic  situation,  and  not  in  accordance 
with  any  purely  decorative  scheme.  To  accompany  an  aria 
with  strings,  oboes  and  flutes,  was,  for  example,  a  perfectly 
ordinary  procedure;  nor  was  there  anything  unusual  in  making 
the  wind  instruments  play  in  unison  with  the  strings  for  the 
first  part  of  the  aria,  and  writing  a  passage  for  one  or  more  of 
them  in  the  middle  section.  But  it  was  ah  unheard-of  thing  to 
make  this  passage  consist  of  long  appoggiaturas  once  every  two 
bars  in  rising  sequence  on  the  first  oboe,  answered  by  deep 
pizzicato  bass  notes,  while  Agamemnon  in  despair  cries: 
"  J'entends  retentir  dans  man  sein  le  cri  plaintif  de  la  nature." 
Some  of  Gluck's  most  forcible  effects  are  of  great  subtlety,  as, 
for  instance,  in  Iphigenie  en  Tauride,  where  Orestes  tries  to 
reassure  himself  by  saying:  "  Le  calnte  rentre  dans  man  casur," 
while  the  intensely  agitated  accompaniment  of  the  strings 
belies  him.  Again,  the  sense  of  orchestral  climax  shown  in  the 
oracle  scene  in  Alceste  was  a  thing  inconceivable  in  older  music, 
and  unsurpassed  in  artistic  and  dramatic  spirit  by  any  modern 
composer.  Its  influence  in  Mozart's  Idomeneo  is  obvious  at  a 
first  glance. 

The  capacity  for  broad  melody  always  implies  a  true  sense 
of  form,  whether  that  be  developed  by  skill  or  not;  and  thus 
Gluck,  in  rejecting  the  convenient  formalities  of  older  styles 
of  opera,  was  not,  like  some  reformers,  without  something 
better  to  substitute  for  them.  Moreover  he,  in  consultation  with 
his  librettist,  achieved  great  skill  in  holding  together  entire 
scenes,  or  even  entire  acts,  by  dramatically  apposite  repetitions 
of  short  arias  and  choruses.  And  thus  in  large  portions  of  his 
finest  works  the  music,  in  spite  of  frequent  full  closes,  seems  to 
move  pari  passu  with  the  drama  in  a  manner  which  for  natural- 
ness and  continuity  is  surpassed  only  by  the  finales  of  Mozart 
and  the  entire  operas  of  Wagner.  This  is  perhaps  most  noticeable 
in  the  second  act  of  Orfeo.  In  its  original  Italian  version  both 
scenes,  that  in  Hades  and  that  in  Elysium,  are  indivisible  wholes, 
and  the  division  into  single  movements,  though  technically 
obvious,  is  aesthetically  only  a  natural  means  of  articulating 
the  structure.  The  unity  of  the  scene  in  Hades  extends,  in  the 
original  version,  even  to  the  key-system.  This  was  damaged 
when  Gluck  had  to  transpose  the  part  of  Orpheus  from  an  alto 
to  a  tenor  in  the  French  version.  And  here  we  have  one  of 
many  instances  in  which  the  improvements  his  French  experience 
enabled  him  to  make  in  his  great  Italian  works  were  not  alto- 
gether unmixed.  Little  harm,  however,  was  done  to  Orfeo 
which  has  not  been  easily  remedied  by  transposing  Orpheus's 
part  back  again;  and  in  a  suitable  compromise  between  the 
two  versions  Orfeo  remains  Gluck's  most  perfect  and  inspired 
work.  The  emotional  power  of  the  music  is  such  that  the 
inevitable  spoiling  of  the  story  by  a  happy  ending  has  not  the 
aspect  of  mere  conventionality  which  it  had  in  cases  where  the 


music  produced  no  more  than  the  normal  effect  upon  i8th- 
century  audiences.  Moreover  Gluck's  genius  was  of  too  high 
an  order  for  him  to  be  less  successful  in  portraying  a  sufficiently 
intense  happiness  than  hi  portraying  grief.  He  failed  only  in 
what  may  be  called  the  business  capacities  of  artistic  technique; 
and  there  is  less  "  business  "  in  Orfeo  than  in  almost  any  other 
music-drama.  It  was  Gluck's  first  great  inspiration,  and  his 
theories  had  not  had  time  to  take  action  in  paper  warfare. 
Alceste  contains  his  grandest  music  and  is  also  very  free  from 
weak  pages;  but  in  its  original  Italian  version  the  third  act 
did  not  give  Gluck  scope  for  an  adequate  ch'max.  This  difficulty 
so  accentuated  itself  in  the  French  version  that  after  continual 
retouchings  a  part  for  Hercules  was,  in  Gluck's  absence,  added 
by  Gossec;  and  three  pages  of  Gluck's  music,  dealing  with  the 
supreme  crisis  where  Alceste  is  rescued  from  Hades  (either  by 
Apollo  or  by  Hercules)  were  no  longer  required  in  performance 
and  have  been  lost.  The  Italian  version  is  so  different  from  the 
French  that  it  cannot  help  us  to  restore  this  passage,  in  which 
Gluck's  music  now  stops  short  just  at  the  point  where  we  realize 
the  full  height  of  his  power.  The  comparison  between  the 
Italian  and  French  Alceste  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  that  can 
be  made  in  the  study  of  a  musician's  development.  It  would  have 
been  far  easier  for  Gluck  to  write  a  new  opera  if  he  had  not 
been  so  justly  attached  to  his  second  Italian  masterpiece.  So 
radical  are  the  differences  that  hi  retranslating  the  French 
libretto  into  Italian  for  performance  with  the  French  music 
not  one  line  of  Calzabigi's  original  text  can  be  retained. 

In  Iphigenie  en  Aulide  and  Iphigenie  en  Tauride,  Gluck 
shows  signs  that  the  controversies  aroused  by  his  methods 
began  to  interfere  with  his  musical  spontaneity.  He  had  not, 
in  Orfeo,  gone  out  of  his  way  to  avoid  rondos,  or  we  should  have 
had  no  "  Che  faro  senza  Euridice."  We  read  with  a  respectful 
smile  Gluck's  assurance  to  the  bailli  Le  Blanc  du  Roullet  that 
"  you  would  not  believe  Armide  to  be  by  the  same  composer  " 
as  Alceste.  But  there  is  no  question  that  Armide  is  a  very  great 
work,  full  of  melody,  colour  and  dramatic  point;  and  that  Gluck 
has  availed  himself  of  every  suggestion  that  his  libretto  afforded 
for  orchestral  and  emotional  effects  of  an  entirely  different  type 
from  any  that  he  had  attempted  before.  And  it  is  hardly 
relevant  to  blame  him  for  his  inability  to  write  erotic  music. 
In  the  first  place,  the  libretto  is  not  erotic,  though  the  subject 
would  no  doubt  become  so  if  treated  by  a  modern  poet.  In  the 
second  place  a  conflict  of  passions  (as,  for  instance,  where  Armide 
summons  the  demons  of  Hate  to  exorcise  love  from  her  heart, 
and  her  courage  fails  her  as  soon  as  they  begin)  has  never,  even 
in  Alceste,  been  treated  with  more  dramatic  musical  force. 
The  work  as  a  whole  is  unequal,  partly  because  there  is  a  little 
too  much  action  in  it  to  suit  Gluck's  methods;  but  it  shows, 
as  does  no  other  opera  until  Mozart's  Don  Giovanni,  a  sense  of 
the  development  of  characters,  as  distinguished  from  the  mere 
presentation  of  them  as  already  fixed. 

In  Iphigenie  en  Aulide  and  Iphigf.nie  en  Tauride,  the  very 
subtlety  of  the  finest  features  indicates  a  certain  self-conscious- 
ness which,  when  inspiration  is  lacking,  becomes  mannerism. 
Moreover,  in  both  cases  the  libretti,  though  skilfully  managed, 
tell  a  rather  more  complicated  story  than  those  which  Gluck 
had  hitherto  so  successfully  treated;  and,  where  inspiration 
fails,  the  musical  technique  becomes  curiously  amateurish 
without  any  corresponding  naivete.  Still  these  works  are 
immortal,  and  their  finest  passages  are  equal  to  anything  in 
Alceste  and  Orfeo.  £cho  et  Narcisse  we  must,  like  Gluck's 
contemporaries,  regard  as  a  failure.  As  in  Orfeo,  the  pathetic 
story  is  ruined  by  a  violent  happy  ending,  but  here  this  artistic 
disaster  takes  place  before  the  pathos  has  had  time  to  assert 
itself.  Gluck  had  no  opportunities  in  this  work  for  any  higher 
qualities,  musical  or  dramatic,  than  prettiness;  and  with  him 
beauty,  without  visible  emotion,  was  indeed  skin-deep.  It  is 
a  pity  that  the  plan  of  the  great  Pelletan-Damcke  critical 
edition  de  luxe  of  Gluck's  French  operas  forbids  the  inclusion 
of  his  Italian  Paride  e  Elena,  his  third  opera  to  Calzabigi's 
libretto,  which  was  never  given  in  a  French  version;  for  there 
can  be  no  question  that,  whatever  he  owed  to  France,  the 


nprif 


GLUCKSBURG— GLUCOSE 


141 


period  of  his  greatness  began  with  hii  collaboration  with 
Calzabigi.  (D.  F.  T.) 

GLUCKSBURG,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  Prussian  province 
of  Schleswig-Holstein,  romantically  situated  among  pine  woods 
on  the  Flensburg  Fjord  off  the  Baltic,  6  m.  N.E.  from  Flensburg 
byrail.  Pop.  (1905)  1551.  It  has  a  Protestant  church  and  some 
small  manufactures  and  is  a  favourite  sea-bathing  resort.  The 
castle,  which  occupies  the  site  of  a  former  Cistercian  monastery, 
was,  from  1622  to  1779,  the  residence  of  the  dukes  of  Holstein- 
Sonderburg-Glucksburg,  passing  then  to  the  king  of  Denmark 
and  in  1866  to  Prussia.  King  Frederick  VII.  of  Denmark  died 
here  on  the  isth  of  November  1863. 

GLUCKSTADT,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  Prussian  province 
of  Schleswig-Holstein,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Elbe,  at  the 
confluence  of  the  small  river  Rhin,  and  28  m.  N.W.  of  Altona, 
on  the  railway  from  Itzehoe  to  Elmshorn.  Pop.  (1905)  6586. 
It  has  a  Protestant  and  a  Roman  Catholic  church,  a  handsome 
town-hall  (restored  in  1873-1874),  a  gymnasium,  a  provincial 
prison  and  a  penitentiary.  The  inhabitants  are  chiefly  engaged 
in  commerce  and  fishing;  but  the  frequent  losses  from  inunda- 
tions have  greatly  retarded  the  prosperity  of  the  town.  Gltick- 
stadt  was  founded  by  Christian  IV.  of  Denmark  in  1617,  and 
fortified  in  r6ao.  It  soon  became  an  important  trading  centre. 
In  1627-28  it  was  besieged  for  fifteen  weeks  by  the  imperialists 
under  Tilly,  without  success.  In  1814  it  was  blockaded  by  the 
allies  and  capitulated,  whereupon  its  fortifications  were  de- 
molished. In  1830  it  was  made  a  free  port.  It  came  into  the 
possession  of  Prussia  together  with  the  rest  of  Schleswig-Holstein 
in  1866. 

See  Lucht,  Cliickstadl.  Beitrdge  zur  Geschichte  dieser  Stadt  (Kiel, 
I854)- 

GLUCOSE  (from  Gr.  7\tiKvs,  sweet),  a  carbohydrate  of  the 
formula  CsH^Oe;  it  may  be  regarded  as  the  aldehyde  of  sorbite. 
The  name  is  applied  in  commerce  to  a  complex  mixture  of 
carbohydrates  obtained  by. boiling  starch  with  dilute  mineral 
acids';  in  chemistry,  it  denotes,  with  the  prefixes  d,  I  and 
d-\-l  (or  i),  the  dextro-rotatory,  laevo-rotatory  and  inactive 
forms  of  the  definite  chemical  compound  defined  above.  The 
d  modification  is  of  the  commonest  occurrence,  the  other  forms 
being  only  known  as  synthetic  products;  for  this  reason  it  is 
usually  termed  glucose,  simply;  alternative  names  are  dextrose, 
grape  sugar  and  diabetic  sugar,  in  allusion  to  its  right-handed 
optical  rotation,  its  occurrence  in  large  quantity  in  grapes,  and 
in  the  urine  of  diabetic  patients  respectively.  In  the  vegetable 
kingdom  glucose  occurs,  always  in  admixture  with  fructose, 
in  many  fruits,  especially  grapes,  cherries,  bananas,  &c.;  and 
in  combination,  generally  with  phenols«and  aldehydes  belonging 
to  the  aromatic  series,  it  forms  an  extensive  class  of  compounds 
termed  glucosides.  It  appears  to  be  synthesized  in  the  plant 
tissues  from  carbon  dioxide  and  water,  formaldehyde  being  an 
intermediate  product;  or  it  may  be  a  hydrolytic  product  of  a 
glucoside  or  of  a  polysaccharose,  such  as  cane  sugar,  starch, 
cellulose,  &c.  In  the  plant  it  is  freely  converted  into  more 
complex  sugars,  poly-saccharoses  and  also  proteids.  In  the 
animal  kingdom,  also,  it  is  very  widely  distributed,  being  some- 
times a  normal  and  sometimes  a  pathological  constituent  of 
the  fluids  and  tissues;  in  particular,  it  is  present  in  large 
amount  in  the  urine  of  those  suffering  from  diabetes,  and 
may  be  present  in  nearly  all  the  body  fluids.  It  also  occurs  in 
honey,  the  white  appearance  of  candied  honey  being  due  to 
its  separation. 

Pure  d-glucose,  which  may  be  obtained  synthetically  (see 
SUGAR)  or  by  adding  crystallized  cane  sugar  to  a  mixture  of 
80%  alcohol  and  jV  volume  of  fuming  hydrochloric  acid  so 
long  as  it  dissolves  on  shaking,  crystallizes  from  water  or  alcohol 
at  ordinary  temperatures  in  nodular  masses,  composed  of  minute 
six-sided  plates,  and  containing  one  molecule  of  water  of  crystal- 
lization. This  product  melts  at  86°  C.,  and  becomes  anhydrous 
when  heated  to  110°  C.  The  anhydrous  compound  can  also  be 
prepared,  as  hard  crusts  melting  at  146°,  by  crystallizing  con- 
centrated aqueous  solutions  at  30°  to  35°.  It  is  very  soluble 
in  water,  but  only  slightly  soluble  in  strong  alcohol.  Its  taste 


is  somewhat  sweet,  its  sweetening  power  being  estimated  at 
from  J  to  $•  that  of  cane  sugar.  When  heated  to  above  200°  it 
turns  brown  and  produces  caramel,  a  substance  possessing  a 
bitter  taste,  and  used,  in  its  aqueous  solution  or  otherwise, 
under  various  trade  names,  for  colouring  confectionery,  spirits, 
&c.  The  specific  rotation  of  the  plane  of  polarized  light  by 
glucose  solutions  is  characteristic.  The  specific  rotation  of  a 
freshly  prepared  solution  is  105°,  but  this  value  gradually 
diminishes  to  52-5°,  24  hours  sufficing  for  the  transition  in  the 
cold,  and  a  few  minutes  when  the  solution  is  boiled.  This 
phenomenon  has  been  called  mutarotation  by  T.  M.  Lowry. 
The  specific  rotation  also  varies  with  the  concentration;  this 
is  due  to  the  dissociation  of  complex  molecules  into  simpler 
ones,  a  view  confirmed  by  cryoscopic  measurements. 

Glucose  may  be  estimated  by  means  of  the  polarimeter,  i.e. 
by  determining  the  rotation  of  the  plane  of  polarization  of  a 
solution,  or,  chemically,  by  taking  advantage  of  its  property  of 
reducing  alkaline  copper  solutions.  If  a  glucose  solution  be 
added  to  copper  sulphate  and  much  alkali  added,  a  yellowish-red 
precipitate  of  cuprous  hydrate  separates,  slowly  in  the  cold, 
but  immediately  when  the  liquid  is  heated;  this  precipitate 
rapidly  turns  red  owing  to  the  formation  of  cuprous  oxide.  In 
1846  L.  C.  A.  Barreswil  found  that  a  strongly  alkaline  solution 
of  copper  sulphate  and  potassium  sodium  tartrate  (Rochelle 
salt)  remained  unchanged  on  boiling,  but  yielded  an  immediate 
precipitate  of  red  cuprous  oxide  when  a  solution  of  glucose  was 
added.  He  suggested  that  the  method  was  applicable  for  quanti- 
tatively estimating  glucose,  but  its  acceptance  only  followed 
after  H.  von  Fehling's  investigation.  "  Fehling's  solution  " 
is  prepared  by  dissolving  separately  34-639  grammes  of  copper 
sulphate,  173  grammes  of  Rochelle  salt,  and  71  grammes  of 
caustic  soda  in  water,  mixing  and  making  up  to  1000  ccs.; 
10  ccs.  of  this  solution  is  completely  reduced  by  0-05  grammes  of 
hexose.  Volumetric  methods  are  used,  but  the  uncertainty  of 
the  end  of  the  reaction  has  led  to  the  suggestion  of  special 
indicators,  or  of  determining  the  amount  of  cuprous  oxide 
gravimetrically. 

Chemistry. — In  its  chemical  properties  glucose  is  a  typical  oxyalde- 
hyde  or  aldose.  The  aldehyde  group  reacts  with  hydrocyanic  acid 
to  produce  two  stereo-isomeric  cyanhydrins;  this  isomensm  is  due 
to  the  conversion  of  an  originally  non-asymmetric  carbon  atom  into 
an  asymmetric  one.  The  cyanhydrin  is  hydrolysable  to  an  acid, 
the  lactone  of  which  may  be  reduced  by  sodium  amalgam  to  a 
glucoheptose,  a  non-fermentable  sugar  containing  seven  carbon 
atoms.  By  repeating  the  process  a  non-fermentable  gluco-octose 
and  a  fermentable  glucononose  may  be  prepared.  The  aldehyde 
group  also  reacts  with  phenyl  hydrazine  to  form  two  phenylhydra- 
zones;  under  certain  conditions  a  hydroxyl  group  adjacent  to  the 
aldehyde  group  is  oxidized  and  glucosazone  is  produced;  this 
glucosazone  is  decomposed  by  hydrochloric  acid  into  phenyl 
hydrazine  and  the  keto-aldehyde  elucosone.  These  transformations 
are  fully  discussed  in  the  article  SUGAR.  On  reduction  glucose 
appears  to  yield  the  hexahydric  alcohol  d!-sorbite,  and  on  oxidation 
d-gluconic  and  <Z-saccharic  acids.  Alkalis  partially  convert  it  into 
<f-mannose  and  d-fructose.  Baryta  and  lime  yield  saccharates, 
e.g.  CeHi2O6-BaO,  precipitable  by  alcohol. 

The  constitution  of  glucose  was  established  by  H.  Kiliani  in  1885- 
1887,  who  showed  it  to  be  CH2OH-(CH-OH)4-CHO.  The  subject 
was  taken  up  by  Emil  Fischer,  who  succeeded  in  synthesizing 
glucose,  and  also  several  of  its  stereo-isomers,  there  being  16  accord- 
ing to  the  Le  Bel-van't  Hoff  theory  (see  STEREO-!SOMERISM  and 
SUGAR).  This  open  chain  structure  is  challenged  in  the  views  put 
forward  by  T.  M.  Lowry  and  E.  F.  Armstrong.  In  1895  C.  Tanret 
showed  that  glucose  existed  in  more  than  one  form,  and  he  isolated 
a,  /8  and  y  varieties  with  specific  rotations  of  105°,  52-5°  and  22°. 
It  is  now  agreed  that  the  0  variety  is  a  mixture  of  the  a  and  y. 
This  discovery  explained  the  mutarotation  of  glucose.  In  a  fresh 
solution  o-glucose  only  exists,  but  on  standing  it  is  slowly  trans- 
formed into  ^-glucose,  equilibrium 
being  reached  when  the  a  and  y 
forms  are  present  in  the  ratio 
0-368:0-632  (Tanret,  Zeit.  physikal. 
Chem.,  1905,  53,  p.  692).  It  is 
convenient  to  refer  to  these  two 
forms  as  a  and  ft.  Lowry  and  Arm- 
strong represent  these  compounds 
by  the  following  spatial  formulae 
which  postulate  a  -y-oxidic  structure, 

atoms,  i.e.  one  more  than  in  the  Fischer  formulae.  These  formulae 
are  supported  by  many  considerations,  especially  by  the  selective 


CH2OH 
CH-OH 
CH 


CHjOH 
CH-OH 
CH 


HC-OH 

o-glucose 


HO-CH 
0-glucose 

and  5  asymmetric  carbon 


GLUCOSIDE 


action  of  enzymes,  which  follows  similar  lines  with  the  a-  and 
/3-glucosides,  i.e.  the  compounds  formed  by  the  interaction  of 
glucose  with  substances  generally  containing  hydroxyl  groups  (see 
GLUCOSIDE). 

Fermentation  of  Glucose. — Glucose  is  readily  fermentable.  Of 
the  greatest  importance  is  the  alcoholic  fermentation  brought  about 
by  yeast  cells  (Saccharomyces  cerevisiae  sen  vini) ;  this  follows  the 
equation  C8Hi2O6  =  2C2H6O  + 2CO2)  Pasteur  considering  94  to  95  %  of 
the  sugar  to  be  so  changed.  This  character  is  the  base  of  the  plan  of 
adding  glucose  to  wine  and  beer  wort  before  fermenting,  the  alcohol 
content  of  the  liquid  after  fermentation  being  increased.  Some 
fusel  oil,  glycerin  and  succinic  acid  appear  to  be  formed  simultane- 
ously, but  in  small  amount.  Glucose  also  undergoes  fermentation 
into  lactic  acid  (q.v.)  in  the  presence  of  the  lactic  acid  bacillus,  and 
into  butyric  acid  if  the  action  of  the  preceding  ferment  be  continued, 
or  by  other  bacilli.  It  also  yields,  by  the  so-called  mucous  fermenta- 
tion, a  mucous,  gummy  mass,  mixed  with  mannitol  and  lactic 
acid. 

We  may  here  notice  the  frequent  production  of  glucose  by  the  action 
of  enzymes  upon  other  carbohydrates.  Of  especial  note  is  the 
transformation  of  maltose  by  maltase  into  glucose,  and  of  cane  sugar 
by  invertase  into  a  mixture  of  glucose  and  fructose  (invert  sugar) ; 
other  instances  are:  lactose  by  lactase  into  galactose  and  glucose; 
trehalose  by  trehalase  into  glucose;  melibiose  by  melibiase  into 
galactose  and  glucose ;  and  of  melizitose  by  melizitase  into  touranose 
and  glucose,  touranose  yielding  glucose  also  when  acted  upon  by  the 
enzyme  touranase. 

Commercial  Glucose. — The  glucose  of  commerce,  which  may  be 
regarded  as  a  mixture  of  grape  sugar,  maltose  and  dextrins,  is  pre- 
pared by  hydrolysing  starch  by  boiling  with  a  dilute  mineral  acid. 
In  Europe,  potato  starch  is  generally  employed;  in  America,  corn 
starch.  The  acid  employed  may  be  hydrochloric,  which  gives  the 
best  results,  or  sulphuric,  which  is  used  in  Germany;  sulphuric  acid 
is  more  readily  separated  from  the  product  than  hydrochloric,  since 
the  addition  of  powdered  chalk  precipitates  it  as  calcium  sulphate, 
which  may  be  removed  by  a  filter  press.  The  processes  of  manu- 
facture have  much  in  common,  although  varying  in  detail.  The 
following  is  an  outline  of  the  process  when  hydrochloric  acid  is  used  : 
Starch  ("  green  "  starch  in  America)  is  made  into  a  "  milk  "  with 
water,  and  the  milk  pumped  into  boiling  dilute  acid  contained  in 
a  closed  "  converter,"  generally  made  of  copper  or  cast  iron;  steam 
is  led  in  at  the  same  time,  and  the  pressure  is  kept  up  to  about  25  ft 
to  the  sq.  in.  When  the  converter  is  full  the  pressure  is  raised  some- 
what, and  the  heating  continued  until  the  conversion  is  complete. 
The  liquid  is  now  run  into  neutralizing  tanks  containing  sodium 
carbonate,  and,  after  settling,  the  supernatant  liquid,  termed 
"  light  liquor,"  is  run  through  bag  filters  and  then  on  to  bone-char 
filters,  which  have  been  previously  used  for  the  "  heavy  liquor." 
The  colourless  or  amber-coloured  filtrate  is  concentrated  to  27°  to 
28°  B.,  when  it  forms  the  "heavy  liquor,"  just  mentioned.  This  is 
filtered  through  fresh  bone-char  filters,  from  which  it  is  discharged 
as  a  practically  colourless  liquid.  This  liquid  is  concentrated  in 
vacuum  pans  to  a  specific  gravity  of  40°  to  44°  B.,  a  small  quantity 
of  sodium  bisulphite  solution  being  added  to  bleach  it,  to  prevent 
fermentation,  and  to  inhibit  browning.  "  Syrup  glucose  '  is  the 
commercial  name  of  the  product;  by  continuing  the  concentration 
further  solid  glucose  or  grape  sugar  is  obtained. 

Several  brands  are  recognized:  "  Mixing  glucose"  is  used  by 
syrup  and  molasses  manufacturers,  "  jelly  glucose  "  by  makers  of 
jellies,  "  confectioners'  glucose  "  in  confectionery,  "  brewers'  glucose" 
in  brewing,  &c. 

GLUCOSIDE,  in  chemistry,  the  generic  name  of  an  extensive 
group  of  substances  characterized  by  the  property  of  yielding 
a  sugar,  more  commonly  glucose,  when  hydrolysed  by  purely 
chemical  means,  or  decomposed  by  a  ferment  or  enzyme.  The 
name  was  originally  given  to  vegetable  products  of  this  nature, 
in  which  the  other  part  of  the  molecule  was,  in  the  greater 
number  of  cases,  an  aromatic  aldehydic  or  phenolic  compound 
(exceptions  are  sinigrin  and  jalapin  or  scammonin).  It  has  now 
been  extended  to  include  synthetic  ethers,  such  as  those  obtained 
by  acting  on  alcoholic  glucose  solutions  with  hydrochloric  acid, 
and  also  the  polysaccharoses,  e.g.  cane  sugar,  which  appear 
to  be  ethers  also.  Although  glucose  is  the  commonest  sugar 
present  in  glucosides,  many  are  known  which  yield  rhamnose 
or  iso-dulcite;  these  may  be  termed  pentosides.  Much  attention 
has  been  given  to  the  non-sugar  parts  of  the  molecules;  the 
constitutions  of  many  have  been  determined,  and  the  compounds 
synthesized;  and  in  some  cases  the  preparation  of  the  synthetic 
glucoside  effected. 

The  simplest  glucosides  are  the  alkyl  esters  which  E.  Fischer 
(Ber.,  28,  pp.  1151,  3081)  obtained  by  acting  with  hydrochloric 
acid  on  alcoholic  glucose  solutions.  A  better  method  of  pre- 
paration is  due  to  E.  F.  Armstrong  and  S.  L.  Courtauld  (Proc. 


CH2OH 
CHOH 


CH2OH 
CHOH 


'• 


"' 


Phys.  Soc.,  1005,  July  i),  who  dissolve  solid  anhydrous  glucose 
in  methyl  alcohol  containing  hydrochloric  acid.  A  mixture 
of  a-  and  /3-glucose  result,  which  are  then  etherified,  and  if  the 
solution  be  neutralized  before  the  p"-form  isomerizes  and  the 
solvent  removed,  a  mixture  of  the  a-  and  /3-methyl  ethers  is 
obtained.  These  may  be  separated  by  the  action  of  suitable 
ferments.  Fischer  found  that  these  ethers  did  not  reduce 
Fehling's  solution,  neither  did  they  combine  with  phenyl  hydra- 
zine  at  100°;  they  appear  to  be  stereo-isomeric  -y-oxidic  com: 
pounds  of  the  formulae  I.,  II. :  The  difference  between  the  a-  and 
/3-forms  is  best  shown  by  the 
selective  action  of  enzymes. 
Fischer  found  that  maltase,  .  ( 

an  enzyme  occurring  in  yeast   O<^  / 

cells,  hydrolysed  a-glucosides  ^>  n<-u  r*u  r»  f*  u 

but  not  the  j3;  while  emulsin, 
an  enzyme  occurring  in  bitter 
almonds,  hydrolyses  the  ft 
but  not  the  a.  The  ethers  of  non-fermentable  sugars  are  them- 
selves non-fermentable.  By  acting  with  these  enzymes  on  the 
natural  glucosides,  it  is  found  that  the  majority  are  of  the 
j3-form;  e.g.  emulsin  hydrolyses  salicin,  helicin,  aesculin,  coni- 
ferin,  syringin,  &c. 

Classification  of  the  glucosides  is  a  matter  of  some  difficulty. 
One  based  on  the  chemical  constitution  of  the  non-glucose  part 
of  the  molecules  has  been  proposed  by  Umney,  who  framed  four 
groups:  (i)  ethylene  derivatives,  (2)  benzene  derivatives, 
(3)  styrolene  derivatives,  (4)  anthracene  derivatives.  A  group 
may  also  be  made  to  include  the  cyanogenetic  glucosides,  i.e. 
those  containing  prussic  acid.  J.  J.  L.  van  Rijn  (Die  Glyko- 
side,  1900)  follows  a  botanical  classification,  which  has  several 
advantages;  in  particular,  plants  of  allied  genera  contain  similar 
compounds.  In  this  article  the  chemical  classification  will  be 
followed.  Only  the  more  important  compounds  will  be  noticed, 
the  reader  being  referred  to  van  Rijn  (loc.  cit.)  and  to  Beilstein's 
Handbuch  der  organischen  Chemie  for  further  details. 

i.  Ethylene  Derivatives. — These  are  generally  mustard  oils,  and 
are  characterized  by  a  burning  taste ;  their  principal  occurrence  is  in 
mustard  and  Tropaeolum  seeds.  Sinigrin  or  the  potassium  salt  of 
myronic  acid,  CioHieNSjKOs-HjO,  occurs  in  black  pepper  and  in 
horse-radish  root.  Hydrolysis  with  baryta,  or  decomposition  by 
the  ferment  myrosin,  gives  glucose,  allyl  mustard  oil  and  potassium 
bisulphate.  Sinalbin,  C30H42N2S2Oi6,  occurs  in  white  pepper; 
it  decomposes  to  the  mustard  oil  HO-C6H4-CH2-NCS,  glucose  and 
sinapin,  a  compound  of  choline  and  sinapinic  acid.  Jalapin  or 
scammonin,  CitHwOit,  occurs  in  scammony;  it  hydrolyses  to  glucose 
and  jalapinolic  acid.  The  formulae  of  sinigrin,  sinalbin,  sinapin  and 
jalapinolic  acid  are: — 
^u  r,  C(~^NC3H5  •  rw  n  qr^  N-CH2  CeH,-OH 

C6HUU6SL^Q.SQ2.QK  "  \OSp2-OCieH24O5N 

Sinigrin  Sinalbin 


Sinapin 


Jalapinolic  acid  (Kramer) 

2.  Benzene  Derivatives. — These  are  generally  oxy  and  oxyaldehydic 
compounds.     Arbutin,  CizHuA,  which  occurs  in  bearberry  along 
with   methyl   arbutin,   hydrolyses   to   hydroquinone   and   glucose. 
Pharmacologically   it  acts  as  a   urinary  antiseptic  and   diuretic; 
the  benzoyl  derivative,  cellotropin,  has  been  used  for  tuberculosis. 
Salicin,  also  termed  "  saligenin  '  and  "  glucose,"  C^H^Cy,  occurs  in 
the  willow.     The  enzymes  ptyalin  and  emulsin  convert  it  into  glucose 
and  saligenin,  ortho-oxybenzylalcohol,  HO-CeH4-CH2OH.     Oxida- 
tion gives  the  aldehyde  helicin.     Populin,  CWHKOS,  which  occurs 
in  the  leaves  and  bark  of  Populus  tremula,  is  benzoyl  salicin. 

3.  Styrolene  Derivatives. — This  group  contains  a  benzene  and  also 
an  ethylene  group,  being  derived  from  styrolene  C6H5-CH:CHj. 
Coniferin,  CieHzA,,  occurs  in  the  cambium  of  coniferous  woods. 
Emulsin  converts  it  into  glucose  and  coniferyl  alcohol,  while  oxida- 
tion gives  glycovanilliri,   which  yields  with  emulsin  glucose  and 
vanillin  (see  EUGENOL  and  VANILLA).  Syringin,  which  occurs  in  the 
bark  of  Syringa  vulgaris,  is  methoxyconiferin.   Phloridzin,  C2iH24Oio, 
occurs  in  the  root-bark  of  various  fruit  trees;  it  hydrolyses  to 
glucose  and   phloretin,   which   is   the  phloroglucin  ester  of  para- 
oxyhydratropic   acid.     It   is   related    to   the   pentosides   naringm, 
C2iH26On,    which    hydrolyses    to    rhamnose    and    naringenin,    the 
phloroglucin    ester    of    para-oxycinnamic    acid,    and    hespendin, 


GLUE 


CMH6oOM(?),  which  hydrolyses  to  rhamnose  and  hesperetin,  CuHuOo, 
the  phloroglucin  ester  of  meta-oxy-para-methoxycinnamic  acid  or 
isoferulic  acid,  CioHi0O4.  We  may  here  include  various  coumarin 
and  benzo-7-pyrone  derivatives.  Aesculin,  CuHleO«,  occurring  in 
horse-chestnut,  and  daphnin,  occurring  in  Daphne  alpina,  are  iso- 
meric;  the  former  hydrolyses  to  glucose  and  aesculetin  (4'5-dioxy- 
coumarin),  the  latter  to  glucose  and  daphnetin  (3-4-dioxycoumarin). 
Fraxin,  CmHigOio,  occurring  in  Fraxinus  excelsior,  and  with  aesculin 
in  horse-chestnut,  hydrolyses  to  glucose  and  fraxetin,  the  mono- 
methyl  ester  of  a  trioxycoumarin.  Flavone  or  benzo--y-pyrone 
derivatives  are  very  numerous;  in  many  cases  they  (or  the  non- 
sugar  part  of  the  molecule)  are  vegetable  dyestuffs.  Quercitrin, 
C:iH»Oi2,  is  a  yellow  dyestuff  found  in  Quercus  tinctoria\  it  hydro- 
lyses to  rhamnose  and  quercetin,  a  dioxy-/3-phenyl-trioxybenzo- 
•y-pyrone.  Rhamnetin,  a  splitting  product  of  the  glucosides  of 
Rhamnus,  is  monomethyl  quercetin;  fisetin,  from  Rhus  cotinus, 
is  monoxyquercetin ;  chrysin  is  phenyl-dioxybenzo-7-pyrone. 
Saponarin,  a  glucoside  found  in  Saponaria  officinalis,  is  a  related 
compound.  Strophanthin  is  the  name  given  to  three  different 
compounds,  two  obtained  from  Slrophanthus  Kombe  and  one  from 
S.  hispidus. 

4.  Anthracene  Derivatives. — These  are  generally  substituted 
anthraquinones;  many  have  medicinal  applications,  being  used 
as  purgatives,  while  one,  ruberythric  acid,  yields  the  valuable  dye- 
stuff  madder,  the  base  of  which  is  alizarin  (q.v.).  Chryspphanic 
acid,  a  dioxymethylanthraquinone,  occurs  in  rhubarb,  which  also 
contains  emodin,  a  trioxymethylanthraquinone;  this  substance 
occurs  in  combination  with  rhamnose  in  frangula  bark. 

The  most  important  cyanogenetic  glucoside  is  amygdalin,  which 
occurs  in  bitter  almonds.  The  enzyme  maltase  decomposes  it  into 
glucose  and  mandelic  nitrile  glucoside;  the  latter  is  broken  down 
"by  emulsin  into  glucose,  benzaldehyde  and  prussic  acid.  Emulsin 
also  decomposes  amygdalin  directly  into  these  compounds  without 
the  intermediate  formation  of  mandelic  nitrile  glucoside.  Several 
other  glucosides  of  this  nature  have  been  isolated.  The  saponins  are 
a  group  of  substances  characterized  by  forming  a  lather  with  water; 
they  occur  in  soap-bark  (q.v.).  Mention  may  also  be  made.of  indican, 
the  glucoside  of  the  indigo  plant;  this  is  hydrolysed  by  the  indigo 
ferment,  indimulsin,  to  indoxyl  and  indiglucin. 

GLUE  (from  the  O.  Fr.  glu,  bird-lime,  from  the  Late  Lat. 
gliitem,  glus,  glue),  a  valuable  agglutinant,  consisting  of  impure 
gelatin  and  widely  used  as  an  adhesive  medium  for  wood,  leather, 
paper  and  similar  substances.  Glues  and  gelatins  merge  into 
one  another  by  imperceptible  degrees.  The  difference  is  con- 
ditioned by  the  degree  of  purity:  the  more  impure  form  is  termed 
glue  and  is  only  used  as  an  adhesive,  the  purer  forms,  termed 
gelatin,  have  other  applications,  especially  in  culinary  operations 
and  confectionery.  Referring  to  the  article  GELATIN  for  a 
general  account  of  this  substance,  it  is  only  necessary  to  state 
here  that  gelatigenous  or  glue-forming  tissues  occur  in  the  bones, 
skins  and  intestines  of  all  animals,  and  that  by  extraction  with 
hot  water  these  agglutinating  materials  are  removed,  and  the 
solution  on  evaporating  and  cooling  yields  a  jelly-like  substance 
— gelatin  or  glue. 

Glues  may  be  most  conveniently  classified  according  to  their 
sources:  bone  glue,  skin  glue  and  fish  glue;  these  may  be 
regarded  severally  as  impure  forms  of  bone  gelatin,  skin  gelatin 
and  isinglass. 

Bone  Glue. — For  the  manufacture  of  glue  the  bones  are  supplied 
fresh  or  after  having  been  used  for  making  soups;  Indian  and 
South  American  bones  are  unsuitable,  since,  by  reason  of  their 
previous  treatment  with  steam,  both  their  fatty  and  glue-forming 
constituents  have  been  already  removed  (to  a  great  extent). 
On  the  average,  fresh  bones  contain  about  50%  °f  mineral 
matter,  mainly  calcium  and  magnesium  phosphates,  about 
12%  each  of  moisture  and  fat,  the  remainder  being  other 
organic  matter.  The  mineral  matter  reappears  in  commerce 
chiefly  as  artificial  manure;  the  fat  is  employed  in  the  candle, 
soap  and  glycerin  industries,  while  the  other  organic  matter 
supplies  glue. 

The  separation  of  the  fat,  or  "  de-greasing  of  the  bones  " 
is  effected  (i)  by  boiling  the  bones  with  water  in  open  vessels; 
(2)  by  treatment  with  steam  under  pressure;  or  (3)  by  means 
of  solvents.  The  last  process  is  superseding  the  first  two,  which 
give  a  poor  return  of  fat — a  valuable  consideration — and  also 
involve  the  loss  of  a  certain  amount  of  glue.  Many  sol/ents 
have  been  proposed;  the  greatest  commercial  success  appears 
to  attend  Scottish  shale  oil  and  natural  petroleum  (Russian  or 
American)  boiling  at  about  100°  C.  The  vessels  in  which  the 


extraction  is  carried  out  consist  of  upright  cylindrical  boilers, 
provided  with  manholes  for  charging,  a  false  bottom  on  which 
the  bones  rest,  and  with  two  steam  coils — one  for  heating  only, 
the  other  for  leading  in  "  live  "  steam.  There  is  a  pipe  from 
the  top  of  the  vessel  leading  to  a  condensing  plant.  The  vessels 
are  arranged  in  batteries.  In  the  actual  operation  the  boiler 
is  charged  with  bones,  solvent  is  run  in,  and  the  mixture  gradually 
heated  by  means  of  the  dry  coil ;  the  spirit  distils  over,  carrying 
with  it  the  water  present  in  the  bones;  and  after  a  time  the 
extracted  fat  is  run  off  from  discharge  cocks  in  the  bottom  of  the 
extractor.1  A  fresh  charge  of  solvent  is  introduced,  and  the  cycle 
repeated;  this  is  repeated  a  third  and  fourth  time,  after  which 
the  bones  contain  only  about  0-2%  of  fat,  and  a  little  of  the 
solvent,  which  is  removed  by  blowing  in  live  steam  under  70  to 
80  Ib  pressure.  The  de-greased  bones  are  now  cleansed  from 
all  dirt  and  flesh  by  rotation  in  a  horizontal  cylindrical  drum 
covered  with  stout  wire  gauze.  The  attrition  accompanying 
this  motion  suffices  to  remove  the  loosely  adherent  matter, 
which  falls  through  the  meshes  of  the  gauze;  this  meal  contains 
a  certain  amount  of  glue-forming  matter,  and  is  generally 
passed  through  a  finer  mesh,  the  residuum  being  worked  up  in 
the  glue-house,  and  the  flour  which  passes  through  being  sold 
as  a  bone-meal,  or  used  as  a  manure. 

The  bones,  which  now  contain  5  to  6%  of  glue-forming 
nitrogen  and  about  60%  of  calcium  phosphate,  are  next  treated 
for  glue.  The  most  economical  process  consists  in  steaming 
the  bones  under  pressure  (15  Ib  to  start  with,  afterwards  5  Ib) 
in  upright  cylindrical  boilers  fitted  with  false  bottoms.  The 
glue-liquors  collect  beneath  the  false  bottoms,  and  when  of  a 
strength  equal  to  about  20%  dry  glue  they  are  run  off  to  the 
clarifiers.  The  first  runnings  contain  about  65  to  70%  of  the 
total  glue;  a  second  steaming  extracts  another  25  to  30%.  For 
clarifying  the  solutions,  ordinary  alum  is  used,  one  part  being 
used  for  200  parts  of  dry  glue.  The  alum  is  added  to  the  hot 
liquors  ,  and  the  temperature  raised  to  100°;  it  is  then  allowed 
to  settle,  and. the  surface  scum  removed  by  filtering  through 
coarse  calico  or  fine  wire  filters. 

The  clear  liquors  are  now  concentrated  to  a  strength  of  about 
32 %  dry  glue  in  winter  and  35  %  in  summer.  This  is  invariably 
effected  in  vacuum  pans — open  boiling  yields  a  dark-coloured 
and  inferior  product.  Many  types  of  vacuum  plant  are  in  use; 
the  Yaryan  form,  invented  by  H.  T.  Yaryan,  is  perhaps  the  best, 
and  the  double  effect  system  is  the  most  efficient.  After  con- 
centration the  liquors  are  bleached  by  blowing  in  sulphur 
dioxide,  manufactured  by  burning  sulphur;  by  this  means  the 
colour  can  be  lightened  to  any  desired  degree.  The  liquors  are 
now  run  into  galvanized  sheet-iron  troughs,  2  ft.  long,  6  in. 
wide  and  5  in.  deep,  where  they  congeal  to  a  firm  jelly,  which  is 
subsequently  removed  by  cutting  round  the  edges,  or  by  warming 
with  hot  water,  and  turning  the  cake  out.  The  cake  is  sliced 
to  sheets  of  convenient  thickness,  generally  by  means  of  a  wire 
knife,  i.e.  a  piece  of  wire  placed  in  a  frame.  Mechanical  slicers 
acting  on  this  principle  are  in  use.  Instead  of  allowing  the 
solution  to  congeal  in  troughs,  it  may  be  "  cast  "  on  sheets  of 
glass,  the  bottoms  of  which  are  cooled  by  running  water.  After 
congealing,  the  tremulous  jelly  is  dried;  this  is  an  operation 
of  great  nicety:  the  desiccation  must  be  slow  and  is  generally 
effected  by  circulating  a  rapid  current  of  air  about  the  cakes 
supported  on  nets  set  in  frames;  it  occupies  from  four  to  five 
days,  and  the  cake  contains  on  the  average  from  10  to  13%  of 
water. 

Skin .  Clue. — In  the  preparation  of  skin  glue  the  materials 
used  are  the  parings  and  cuttings  of  hides  from  tan-yards,  the 
ears  of  oxen  and  sheep,  the  skins  of  rabbits,  hares,  cats,  dogs 
and  other  animals,  the  parings  of  tawed  leather,  parchment 
and  old  gloves,  and  many  other  miscellaneous  scraps  of  animal 
matter.  Much  experience  is  needed  in  order  to  prepare  a  good 

1  This  fat  contains  a  small  quantity  of  solvent,  which  is  removed 
by  heating  with  steam,  when  the  solvent  distils  off.  Hot  water  is 
then  run  in  to  melt  the  fat,  which  rises  to  the  surface  of  the  water 
and  is  floated  off.  Another  boiling  with  water,  and  again  floating 
off,  frees  the  fat  from  dirt  and  mineral  matter,  and  the  product  is 
ready  for  casking. 


144 


GLUTARIC  ACID 


glue  from  such  heterogeneous  materials;  one  blending  may  be 
a  success  and  another  a  failure.  The  raw  material  has  been 
divided  into  three  great  divisions:  (i)  sheep  pieces  and  fleshings 
(ears,  &c.);  (2)  ox  fleshings  and  trimmings;  (3)  ox  hides  and 
pieces;  the  best  glue  is  obtained  from  a  mixture  of  the  hide, 
ear  and  face  clippings  of  the  ox  and  calf.  The  raw  material 
or  "  stock  "  is  first  steeped  for  from  two  to  ten  weeks,  according 
to  its  nature,  in  wooden  vats  or  pits  with  lime  water,  and  after- 
wards carefully  dried  and  stored.  The  object  of  the  lime  steeping 
is  to  remove  any  blood  and  flesh  which  may  be  attached  to  the 
skin,  and  to  form  a  lime  soap  with  the  fatty  matter  present. 
The  "  scrows  "  or  glue  pieces,  which  may  be  kept  a  long  time 
without  undergoing  change,  are  washed  with  a  dilute  hydro- 
chloric acid  to  remove  all  lime,  and  then  very  thoroughly  with 
water;  they  are  now  allowed  to  drain  and  dry.  The  skins 
are  then  placed  in  hemp  nets  and  introduced  into  an  open  boiler 
which  has  a  false  bottom,,  and  a  tap  by  which  liquid  may  be  run 
off.  As  the  boiling  proceeds  test  quantities  of  liquid  are  from 
time  to  time  examined,  and  when  a  sample  is  found  on  cooling 
to  form  a  stiff  jelly,  which  happens  when  it  contains  about  32% 
dry  glue,  it  is  ready  to  draw  off.  The  solution  is  then  run  to  a 
clarifier,  in  which  a  temperature  sufficient  to  keep  it  fluid  is 
maintained,  and  in  this  way  any  impurity  is  permitted  to  subside. 
The  glue  solution  is  then  run  into  wooden  troughs  or  coolers  in 
which  it  sets  to  a  firm  jelly.  The  cakes  are  removed  as  in  the 
case  of  bone  glue  (see  above),  and,  having  been  placed  on  nets, 
are,  in  the  Scottish  practice,  dried  by  exposure  to  open  air. 
This  primitive  method  has  many  disadvantages:  on  a  hot 
day  the  cake  may  become  unshapely,  or  melt  and  slip  through 
the  net,  or  dry  so  rapidly  as  to  crack;  a  frost  may  produce 
fissures,  while  a  fog  or  mist  may  precipitate  moisture  on  the 
surface  and  occasion  a  mouldy  appearance.  The  surface  of  the 
cake,  which  is  generally  dull  after  drying,  is  polished  by  washing 
with  water.  The  practice  of  boiling,  clarification,  cooling  and 
drying,  which  has  been  already  described  in  the  case  of  bone  glue, 
has  been  also  applied  to  the  separation  of  skin  glue. 

Fish  Glue. — Whereas  isinglass,  a  very  pure  gelatin,  is  yielded 
by  the  sounds  of  a  limited  number  of  fish,  it  is  found  that  all 
fish  offals  yield  a  glue  possessing  considerable  adhesive  properties. 
The  manufacture  consists  in  thoroughly  washing  the  offal  with 
water,  and  then  discharging  it  into  extractors  with  live  steam. 
After  digestion,  the  liquid  is  run  off,  allowed  to  stand,  the 
upper  oily  layer  removed,  and  the  lower  gluey  solution  clarified 
with  alum.  The  liquid  is  then  filtered,  concentrated  in  open  vats, 
and  bleached  with  sulphur  dioxide.1  Fish  glue  is  a  light-brown 
viscous  liquid  which  has  a  distinctly  disagreeable  odour  and 
an  acrid  taste;  these  disadvantages  to  its  use  are  avoided  if  it 
be  boiled  with  a  little  water  and  i  %  of  sodium  phosphate,  and 
0-025%  of  saccharine  added. 

Properties  of  Glue. — A  good  quality  of  glue  should  be  free  from 
all  specks  and  grit,  have  a  uniform,  light  brownish-yellow, 
transparent  appearance,  and  should  break  with  a  glassy  fracture. 
Steeped  for  some  time  in  cold  water  it  softens  and  swells  up 
without  dissolving,  and  when  again  dried  it  ought  to  resume  its 
original  properties.  Under  the  influence  of  heat  it  entirely 
dissolves  in  water,  forming  a  thin  syrupy  fluid  with  a  not 
disagreeable  smell.  The  adhesiveness  of  different  qualities  of 
glue  varies  considerably;  the  best  adhesive  is  formed  by  steeping 
the  glue,  broken  in  small  pieces,  in  water  until  they  are  quite 
soft,  and  then  placing  them  with  just  sufficient  water  to  effect 
solution  in  the  glue-pot.  The  hotter  the  glue,  the  better  the 
joint;  remelted  glue  is  not  so  strong  as  the  freshly  prepared; 
and  newly  manufactured  glue  is  inferior  to  that  which  has  been 
long  in  stock.  It  is  therefore  seen  that  many  factors  enter  into 
the  determination  of  the  cohesive  power  of  glue;  a  well-prepared 
joint  may,  under  favourable  conditions,  withstand  a  pull  of 
about  700  Ib  per  sq.  in.  The  following  table,  after  Kilmarsch, 
shows  the  holding  power  of  glued  joints  with  various  kinds  of 
woods. 

1  The  residue  in  the  extractors  is  usually  dried  in  steam-heated 
vessels,  and  mixed  with  potassium  and  magnesium  salts;  the  product 
is  then  put  on  the  market  as  fish-potash  guano. 


Wood. 

Ib  per  sq.  in. 

With  grain. 

Across  grain. 

Beech     .      .      . 
Maple    . 
Oak        ... 
Fir    .... 

852 
484 
704 
605 

434-5 
346 
302 
132 

Special  Kinds  of  Clues,  Cements,  &c. — By  virtue  of  the  fact  that 
the  word  "  glue  "  is  frequently  used  to  denote  many  adhesives,  which 
may  or  may  not  contain  gelatin,  there  will  now  be  given  an  account 
of  some  special  preparations.  These  may  be  conveniently  divided 
into:  (i)  liquid  glues,  mixtures  containing  gelatin  which  do  not 
jelly  at  ordinary  temperatures  but  still  possess  adhesive  properties; 
(2)  water-proof  glues,  including  mixtures  containing  gelatin,  and 
also  the  "  marine  glues,"  which  contain  no  glue;  (3)  glues  or  cements 
for  special  purposes,  e.g.  for  cementing  glass,  pottery,  leather,  &c., 
for  cementing  dissimilar  materials,  such  as  paper  or  leather  to  iron. 

Liquid  Glues. — The  demand  for  liquid  glues  is  mainly  due  to  the 
disadvantages — the  necessity  of  dissolving  and  using  while  hot — 
of  ordinary  glue.  They  are  generally  prepared  by  adding  to  a  warm 
glue  solution  some  reagent  which  destroys  the  property  of  gelatinizing. 
The  reagents  in  common  use  are  acetic  acid ;  magnesium  chloride, 
used  for  a  glue  employed  by  printers;  hydrochloric  acid  and  zinc 
sulphate;  nitric  acid  and  lead  sulphate;  and  phosphoric  acid  and 
ammonium  carbonate. 

Water-proof  Glues. — Numerous  recipes  for  water-proof  glues  have 
been  published;  glue,  having  been  swollen  by  soaking  in  water, 
dissolved  in  four-fifths  its  weight  of  linseed  oil,  furnishes  a  good 
water-proof  adhesive;  linseed  oil  varnish  and  litharge,  added  to. 
a  glue  solution,  is  also  >used;  resin  added  to  a  hot  glue  solu- 
tion in  water,  and  afterwards  diluted  with  turpentine,  is  another 
recipe;  the  best  glue  is  said  to  be  obtained  by  dissolving  one 
part  of  glue  in  one  and  a  half  parts  of  water,  and  then  adding 
one-fiftieth  part  of  potassium  bichromate.  Alcoholic  solutions  of 
various  gums,  and  also  tannic  acid,  confer  the  same  property  on 
glue  solutions.  The  "  marine  glues  "  are  solutions  of  india-rubber, 
shellac  or  asphaltum,  or  mixtures  of  these  substances,  in  benzene  or 
naphtha.  Jeffrey's  marine  glue  is  formed  by  dissolving  india-rubber 
in  four  parts  of  benzene  and  adding  two  parts  of  shellac;  it  is 
extensively  used,  being  easily  applied  and  drying  rapidly  and  hard. 
Another  water-proof  glue  which  contains  no  gelatin  is  obtained  by 
heating  linseed  oil  with  five  parts  of  quicklime;  when  cold  it  forms 
a  hard  mass,  which  melts  on  heating  like  ordinary  glue. 

Special  Glues. — There  are  innumerable  recipes  for  adhesives 
specially  applicable  to  certain  substances  and  under  certain  con- 
ditions. For  repairing  glass,  ivory,  &c.  isinglass  (q.v .),  which  may  be 
replaced  by  fine  glue,  yields  valuable  cements;  bookbinders  employ 
an  elastic  glue  obtained  from  an  ordinary  glue  solution  and  glycerin, 
the  water  being  expelled  by  heating ;  an  efficient  cement  for  mounting 
photographs  is  obtained  by  dissolving  glue  in  ten  parts  of  alcohol 
and  adding  one  part  of  glycerin;  portable  or  mouth  glue — so  named 
because  it  melts  in  the  mouth — is  prepared  by  dissolving  one  part  of 
sugar  in  a  solution  of  four  parts  of  glue.  An  india-rubber  substitute 
is  obtained  by  adding  sodium  tungstate  and  hydrochloric  acid  to  a 
strong  glue  solution;  this  preparation  may  be  rolled  out  when 
heated  to  60°. 

For  further  details  see  Thomas  Lambert,  Glue,  Gelatine  and  their 
Allied  Products  (London,  1905) ;  R.  L.  Fernbach,  Glues  and  Gelatine 
(1907);  H.  C.  Standage,  Agglutinants  of  all  Kinds  for  all  Purposes 
(1907). 

GLUTARIC  ACID,  or  NORMAL  PYROTARTARIC  ACID, 
HO2C-CH2-CH2-CH2-CO2H,  an  organic  acid  prepared  by  the 
reduction  of  a-oxyglutaric  acid  with  hydriodic  acid,  by  reducing 
glutaconic  acid, HO2C- CH2- CH  :CH- CO2H,  with  sodium  amalgam, 
by  conversion  of  trimethylene  bromide  into  the  cyanide 
and  hydrolysis  of  this  compound,  or  from  acetoacetic  ester, 
which,  in  the  form  of  its  sodium  derivative,  condenses 
with  /3-iodopropionic  ester  to  form  acetoglutaric  ester, 
CH3-CO-CH(CO2C2H6)-CH2-CH2-CO2C2H6,  from  which  glutaric 
acid  is  obtained  by  hydrolysis.  It  is  also  obtained  when  sebacic, 
stearic  and  oleic  acids  are  oxidized  with  nitric  acid.  It  crystal- 
lizes in  large  monoclinic  prisms  which  melt  at  97-5°  C.,  and 
distils  between  302°  and  304°  C.,  practically  without  decomposi- 
tion. It  is  soluble  in  water,  alcohol  and  ether.  By  long  heating  the 
acid  is  converted  into  its  anhydride,  which,  however,  is  obtained 
more  readily  by  heating  the  silver  salt  of  the  acid  with  acetyl 
chloride.  By  distillation  of  the  ammonium  salt  glutarimide, 
CH2(CH2-CP)2NH,  is  obtained;  it  forms  small  crystals  melting 
at  151°  to  152°  C.  and  sublimes  unchanged. 

On  the  alkyl  glutaric  acids,  see  C.  Hell  (Ber.,  1889,  22,  pp.  48,  60), 
C.  A.  Bischoff  (Ber.,  1891,  24,  p.  1041),  K.  Auwers  (Ber.,  1891,  24, 
p.  1923)  and  W.  H.  Perkin,  junr.  (Journ.  Chem.  Soc.,  1896, 69,  p.  268). 


GLUTEN— GLYCAS 


GLUTEN,  a  tough,  tenacious,  ductile,  somewhat  elastic, 
nearly  tasteless  and  greyish-yellow  albuminous  substance, 
obtained  from  the  flour  of  wheat  by  washing  in  water,  in  which 
it  is  insoluble.  Gluten,  when  dried,  loses  about  two-thirds  of 
its  weight,  becoming  brittle  and  semi-transparent;  when  strongly 
heated  it  crackles  and  swells,  and  burns  like  feather  or  horn. 
It  is  soluble  in  strong  acetic  acid,  and  in  caustic  alkalis,  which 
latter  may  be  used  for  the  purification  of  starch  in  which  it  is 
present.  When  treated  with  -i  to  -2%  solution  of  hydrochloric 
acid  it  swells  up,  and  at  length  forms  a  liquid  resembling  a 
solution  of  albumin,  and  laevorotatory  as  regards  polarized 
light.  Moistened  with  water  and  exposed  to  the  air  gluten 
putrefies,  and  evolves  carbon  dioxide,  hydrogen  and  sulphuretted 
hydrogen,  and  in  the  end  is  almost  entirely  resolved  into  a  liquid, 
which  contains  leucin  and  ammonium  phosphate  and  acetate.  On 
analysis  gluten  shows  a  composition  of  about  S3  %  of  carbon,  7  % 
of  hydrogen,  and  nitrogen  15  to  18%,  besides  oxygen,  and  about 
i  %  of  sulphur,  and  a  small  quantity  of  inorganic  matter.  Accord- 
ing to  H.  Ritthausen  it  is  a  mixture  of  glutencasein  (Liebig's 
vegetable  fibrin),  glutenfibrin^'^iiadin  (Pflanzenleim),  glutin  or 
vegetable  gelatin,  and  mucedin,  which  are  all  closely  allied  to  one 
another  in  chemical  composition.  It  is  the  gliadin  which  confers 
upon  gluten  its  capacity  of  cohering  to  form  elastic  masses,  and 
of  separating  readily  from  associated  starch.  In  the  so-called 
gluten  of  the  flour  of  barley,  rye  and  maize,  this  body  is  absent 
(H.  Ritthausen  and  U.  Kreusler).  The  gluten  yielded  by  wheat 
which  has  undergone  fermentation  or  has  begun  to  sprout  is 
devoid  of  toughness  and  elasticity.  These  qualities  can  be 
restored  to  it  by  kneading  with  salt,  lime-water  or  alum.  Gluten 
is  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  gluten  bread  and  biscuits 
for  the  diabetic,  and  of  chocolate,  and  also  in  the  adulteration 
of  tea  and  coffee.  For  making  bread  it  must  be  used  fresh,  as 
otherwise  it  decomposes,  and  does  not  knead  well.  Granulated 
gluten  is  a  kind  of  vermicelli,  made  in  some  starch  manufactories 
by  mixing  fresh  gluten  with  twice  its  weight  of  flour,  and  granu- 
lating by  means  of  a  cylinder  and  contained  stirrer,  each  armed 
with  spikes,  and  revolving  in  opposite  directions.  The  process 
is  completed  by  the  drying  and  sifting  of  the  granules. 

GLUTTON,  or  WOLVERINE  (Gtdo  luscus),  a  carnivorous 
mammal  belonging  to  the  Mustelidae,  or  weasel  family,  and  the 
sole  representative  of  its  genus.  The  legs  are  short  and  stout, 
with  large  feet,  the  toes  of  which  terminate  in  strong,  sharp 
claws  considerably  curved.  The  mode  of  progression  is  semi- 
plantigrade.  In  size  and  form  the  glutton  is  something  like  the 
badger,  measuring  from  2  to  3  ft.  in  length,  exclusive  of  the  thick 
bushy  tail,  which  is  about  8  in.  long.  The  head  is  broad,  the 
eyes  are  small  and  the  back  arched.  The  fur  consists  of  an  under- 
growth of  short  woolly  hair,  mixed  with  long  straight  hairs, 
to  the  abundance  and  length  of  which  on  the  sides  and  tail 
the  creature  owes  its  shaggy  appearance.  The  colour  of  the  fur 
is  blackish-brown,  with  a  broad  band  of  chestnut  stretching 
from  the  shoulders  along  each  side  of  the  body,  the  two  meeting 
near  the  root  of  the  tail.  Unlike  the  majority  of  arctic  animals, 
the  fur  of  the  glutton  in  winter  grows  darker.  Like  other 
Mustelidae,  the  glutton  is  provided  with  anal  glands,  which 
secrete  a  yellowish  fluid  possessing  a  highly  foetid  odour.  It 
is  a  boreal  animal,  inhabiting  the  northern  regions  of  both 
hemispheres,  but  most  abundant  in  the  circumpolar  area  of  the 
New  World,  where  it  occurs  throughout  the  British  provinces 
and  Alaska,  being  specially  numerous  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  Mackenzie  river,  and  extending  southwards  as  far  as  New 
York  and  the  Rocky  Mountains.  The  wolverine  is  a  voracious 
animal,  and  also  one  with  an  inquisitive  disposition.  It  feeds 
on  grouse,  the  smaller  rodents  and  foxes,  which  it  digs  from 
their  burrows  during  the  breeding-season;  but  want  of  activity 
renders  it  dependent  for  most  of  its  food  on  dead  carcases,  which 
it  frequently  obtains  by  methods  that  have  made  it  peculiarly 
obnoxious  to  the  hunter  and  trapper.  Should  the  hunter, 
after  succeeding  in  killing  his  game,  leave  the  carcase  insufficiently 
protected  for  more  than  a  single  night,  the  glutton,  whose  fear 
of  snares  is  sufficient  to  prevent  him  from  touching  it  during 
the  first  night,  will,  if  possible,  get  at  and  devour  what  he  can 


on  the  second,  hiding  the  remainder  beneath  the  snow.  It 
annoys  the  trapper  by  following  up  his  lines  of  marten-traps, 
often  extending  to  a  length  of  40  to  50  m.,  each  of  which  it  enters 
from  behind,  extracting  the  bait,  pulling  up  the  traps,  and  devour- 
ing or  concealing  the  entrapped  martens.  So  persistent  is  the 
glutton  in  this  practice,  when  once  it  discovers  a  line  of  traps, 
that  its  extermination  along  the  trapper's  route  is  a  necessary 
preliminary  to  the  success  of  his  business.  This  is  no  easy  task, 
as  the  glutton  is  too  cunning  to  be  caught  by  the  methods  success- 
fully employed  on  the  other  members  of  the  weasel  family. 
The  trap  generally  used  for  this  purpose  is  made  to  resemble 
a  cache,  or  hidden  store  of  food,  such  as  the  Indians  and  hunters 
are  in  the  habit  of  forming,  the  discovery  and  rifling  of  which 
is  one  of  the  glutton's  most  congenial  occupations — the  bait, 
instead  of  being  paraded  as  in  most  traps,  being  carefully  con- 
cealed, to  lull  the  knowing  beast's  suspicions.  One  of  the  most 
prominent  characteristics  of  the  wolverine  is  its  propensity 
to  steal  and  hide  things,  not  merely  food  which  it  might  after- 
wards need,  or  traps  which  it  regards  as  enemies,  but  articles 
which  cannot  possibly  have  any  interest  except  that  of  curiosity. 
The  following  instance  of  this  is  quoted  by  Dr  E.  Coues  in  his 
work  on  the  Fur-bearing  Animals  of  North  America:  "A 
hunter  and  his  family  having  left  their  lodge  unguarded  during 


The  Glutton,  or  Wolverine  (Gulo  luscus). 

their  absence,  on  their  return  found  it  completely  gutted — the 
walls  were  there,  but  nothing  else.  Blankets,  guns,  kettles, 
axes,  cans,  knives  and  all  the  other  paraphernalia  of  a  trapper's 
tent  had  vanished,  and  the  tracks  left  by  the  beast  showed 
who  had  been  the  thief.  The  family  set  to  work,  and,  by  carefully 
following  up  all  his  paths,  recovered,  with  some  trifling|exceptions, 
the  whole  of  the  lost  property."  The  cunning  displayed  by  the 
glutton  in  unravelling  the  snares  set  for  it  forms  at  once  the 
admiration  and  despair  of  every  trapper,  while  its  great  strength 
and  ferocity  render  it  a  dangerous  antagonist  to  animals  larger 
than  itself,  occasionally  including  man.  The  rutting-season 
occurs  in  March,  and  the  female,  secure  in  her  burrow,  produces 
her  young — four  or  five  at  a  birth — in  June  or  July.  In  defence 
of  these  she  is  exceedingly  bold,  and  the  Indians,  according  to 
Dr  Coues,  "  have  been  heard  to  say  that  they  would  sooner 
encounter  a  she-bear  with 'her  cubs  than  a  carcajou  (the  Indian 
name  of  the  glutton)  under  the  same  circumstances."  On 
catching  sight  of  its  enemy,  man,  the  wolverine  before  finally 
determining  on  flight,  is  said  to  sit  on  its  haunches,  and,  in  order 
to  get  a  clearer  view  of  the  danger,  shade  its  eyes  with  one  of 
its  fore-paws.  When  pressed  for  food  it  becomes  fearless,  and 
has  been  known  to  come  on  board  an  ice-bound  vessel,  and  in 
presence  of  the  crew  seize  a  can  of  meat.  The  glutton  is  valuable 
for  its  fur,  which,  when  several  skins  are  sewn  together,  forms 
elegant  hearth  and  carriage  rugs.  (R.  L.*) 

GLYCAS,  MICHAEL,  Byzantine  historian  (according  to  some 
a  Sicilian,  according  to  others  a  Corfiote),  flourished  during  the 
i  ath  century  A.D.  His  chief  work  is  his  Chronicle  of  events 


146 


GLYCERIN 


from  the  creation  of  the  world  to  the  death  of  Alexius  I.  Com- 
nenus  (1118).  It  is  extremely  brief  and  written  in  a  popular 
style,  but  too  much  space  is  devoted  to  theological  and  scientific 
matters.  Glycas  was  also  the  author  of  a  theological  treatise 
and  a  number  of  letters  on  theological  questions.  A  poem  of 
some  600  "  political "  verses,  written  during  his  imprisonment 
on  a  charge  of  slandering  a  neighbour  and  containing  an  appeal 
to  the  emperor  Manuel,  is  still  extant.  The  exact  nature  of  his 
offence  is  not  known,  but  the  answer  to  his  appeal  was  that  he 
was  deprived  of  his  eyesight  by  the  emperor's  orders. 

Editions:  "  Chronicle  and  Letters,"  in  J.  P.  Migne,  Patrologia 
Graeca,  clviii. ;  poem  in  E.  Legrand,  Bibliotheque  grecque  vulgaire, 
i.;  see  also  F.  Hirsch,  Byzantinische  Studien  (1876);  C.  Krumbacher 
in  Sitzungsberichte  buyer.  Acad.,  1894;  C.  F.  Bahr  in  Ersch  and 
Gruber's  Allgemeine  Encyklopddie. 

GLYCERIN,  GLYCERINE  or  GLYCEROL  (in  pharmacy  Gly- 
cerinuni)  (from  Gr.  -yXuici*,  sweet),  a  trihydric  alcohol, 
trihydroxypropane,  CsH^OHJs.  It  is  obtainable  from  most 
natural  fatty  bodies  by  the  action  of  alkalis  and  similar  reagents, 
whereby  the  fats  are  decomposed,  water  being  taken  up,  and 
glycerin  being  formed  together  with  the  alkaline  salt  of  some 
particular  acid  (varying  with  the  nature  of  the  fat).  Owing  to 
their  possession  of  this  common  property,  these  natural  fatty 
bodies  and  various  artificial  derivatives  of  glycerin,  which 
behave  in  the  same  way  when  treated  with  alkalis,  are  known 
as  glycerides.  In  the  ordinary  process  of  soap-making  the 
glycerin  remains  dissolved  in  the  aqueous  liquors  from  which  the 
soap  is  separated. 

Glycerin  was  discovered  in  1779  by  K.  W.  Scheele  and  named 
Olsiiss  (principe  doux  des  huiles — sweet  principle  of  oils),  and 
more  fully  investigated  subsequently  by  M.  E.  Chevreul,  who 
named  it  glycerin,  M.  P.  E.  Berthelot,  and  many  other  chemists, 
from  whose  researches  it  results  that  glycerin  is  a  trihydric 
alcohol  indicated  by  the  formula  C3H6(OH)3,  the  natural  fats 
and  oils,  and  the  glycerides  generally,  being  substances  of  the 
nature  of  compound  esters  formed  from  glycerin  by  the  replace- 
ment of  the  hydrogen  of  the  OH  groups  by  the  radicals  of 
certain  acids,  called  for  that  reason  "  fatty  acids."  The  relation- 
ship of  these  glycerides  to  glycerin  is  shown  by  the  series  of  bodies 
formed  from  glycerin  by  replacement  of  hydrogen  by  "  stearyl  " 
(Ci8H36O),  the  radical  of  stearic  acid  (Ci8H350-OH):— 
Glycerin.  Monostearin.  Distearin.  Tristearin. 

CH2-OH      CH2-O(C]8H36O)      CH2-O(C]8H360)      CH2-0(Ci8H3SO) 

CH-OH       CH-OH  CH-O(C,8H36O)       CH-O(Ci8H36O) 

CHj-OH      CH2-OH  CH2-OH  CH2-O(C18H35O) 

The  prpcess  of  saponification  may  be  viewed  as  the  gradual 
progressive  transformation  of  tristearin,  or  some  analogously 
constituted  substance,  into  distearin,  monostearin  and  glycerin, 
or  as  the  similar  transformation  of  a  substance  analogous  to 
distearin  or  to  monostearin  into  glycerin.  If  the  reaction  is 
brought  about  in  presence  of  an  alkali,  the  acid  set  free  becomes 
transformed  into  the  corresponding  alkaline  salt;  but  if  the 
decomposition  is  effected  without  the  presence  of  an  alkali 
(i.e.  by  means  of  water  alone  or  by  an  acid),  the  acid  set  free 
and  the  glycerin  are  obtained  together  in  a  form  which  usually 
admits  of  their  ready  separation.  It  is  noticeable  that  with 
few  exceptions  the  fatty  and  oily  matters  occurring  in  nature 
are  substances  analogous  to  tristearin,  i.e.  they  are  trebly 
replaced  glycerins.  Amongst  these  glycerides  may  be  mentioned 
the  following : 

Tristearin — C3Hj(0-Ci8H36O)3.  The  chief  constituent  of  hard 
animal  fats,  such  as  beef  and  mutton  tallow,  &c. ;  also  con- 
tained in  many  vegetable  fats  in  smaller  quantity. 
Triolein — C3Hi(O-Ci8H33O)3.  Largely  present  in  olive  oil  and 
other  saponifiable  vegetable  oils  and  soft  fats;  also  present 
in  animal  fats,  especially  hog's  lard. 

Tripalmitin — C3Hs(O-Ci6H3iO)3.     The  chief  constituent  of  palm 
oil;  also  contained  in  greater  or  less  quantities  in  human 
fat,  olive  oil,  and  other  animal  and  vegetable  fats. 
Triricinolein — C3H6(O-Ci8H  j3O2)3.  The  main  constituent  of  castor 
oil. 

Other  analogous  glycerides  are  apparently  contained  in 
greater  or  smaller  quantity  in  certain  other  oils.  Thus  in  cows' 


butter,  tributyrin,  C3H5(O-C4H7O)s,  and  the  analogous  glycerides 
of  other  readily  volatile  acids  closely  resembling  butyric  acid, 
are  present  in  small  quanjtity;  the  production  of  these  acids 
on  saponification  and  distillation  with  dilute  sulphuric  acid  is 
utilized  as  a  -test  of  a  purity  of  butter  as  sold.  Triacetin, 
C3H6(O-C2H3O)3,  is  apparently  contained  in  cod-liver  oil.  Some 
other  glycerides  isolated  from  natural  sources  are  analogous 
in  composition  to  tristearin,  but  with  this  difference,  that  the 
three  radicals  which  replace  hydrogen  in  glycerin  are  not  all 
identical;  thus  kephalin,  myelin  and  lecithin  are  glycerides 
in  which  two  hydrogens  are  replaced  by  fatty  acid  radicals, 
and  the  third  by  a  complex  phosphoric  acid  derivative. 

Glycerin  is  also  a  product  of  certain  kinds  of  fermentation, 
especially  of  the  alcoholic  fermentation  of  sugar;  consequently 
it  is  a  constituent  of  many  wines  and  other  fermented  liquors. 
According  to  Louis  Pasteur,  about  -fath  of  the  sugar  transformed 
under  ordinary  conditions  in  the  fermentation  of  grape  juice 
and  similar  saccharine  liquids  into  alcohol  and  other  products 
becomes  converted  into  glycerin.  In  certain  natural  fatty 
substances,  e.g.  palm  oil,  it  exibCs'-la  the  free  state,  so  that  it  can 
be  separated  by  washing  with  boiling  water,  which  dissolves 
the  glycerin  but  not  the  fatty  glycerides. 

Properties. — Glycerin  is  a  viscid,  colourless  liquid  of  sp.  gr. 
1-265  at  15°  C.,  possessing  a  somewhat  sweet  taste;  below  o°  C. 
it  solidifies  to  a  white  crystalline  mass,  which  melts  at  17°  C. 
When  heated  alone  it  partially  volatilizes,  but  the  greater  part 
decomposes;  under  a  pressure  of  12  mm.  of  mercury  it  boils 
at  170°  C.  In  an  atmosphere  of  steam  it  distils  without  decom- 
position under  ordinary  barometric  pressure.  It  dissolves 
readily  in  water  and  alcohol  in  all  proportions,  but  is  insoluble 
in  ether.  It  possesses  considerable  solvent  powers,  whence  it  is 
employed  for  numerous  purposes  in  pharmacy  and  the  arts. 
Its  viscid  character,  and  its  non-liability  to  dry  and  harden  by 
exposure  to  air,  also  fit  it  for  various  other  uses,  such  as  lubrica- 
tion, &c.,  whilst  its  peculiar  physical  characters,  enabling  it  to 
blend  with  either  aqueous  or  oily  matters  under  certain  circum- 
stances, render  it  a  useful  ingredient  in  a  large  number  of  products 
of  varied  kinds. 

Manufacture. — The  simplest  modes  of  preparing  pure  glycerin  are 
based  on  the  saponification  of  fats,  either  by  alkalis  or  by  superheated 
steam,  and  on  the  circumstance  that,  although  glycerin  cannot  be 
distilled  by  itself  under  the  ordinary  pressure  without  decomposition, 
it  can  be  readily  volatilized  in  a  current  of  superheated  steam. 
Commercial  glycerin  is  mostly  obtained  from  the  "  spent  lyes  '* 
of  the  soap-maker.  In  the  van  Ruymbeke  process  the  spent  lyes 
are  allowed  to  settle,  and  then  treated  with  "  persulphate  of  iron," 
the  exact  composition  of  which  is  a  trade  secret,  but  it  is  possibly  a 
mixture  of  ferric  and  ferrous  sulphates.  Ferric  hydrate,  iron  soaps 
and  all  insoluble  impurities  are  precipitated.  The  liquid  is  filter- 
pressed,  and  any  excess  of  iron  in  the  filtrate  is  precipitated  by  the 
careful  addition  of  caustic  soda  and  then  removed.  The  liquid  is  then 
evaporated  under  a  vacuum  of  27  to  28  in.  of  mercury,  and,  when  of 
specific  gravity  1-295  (corresponding  to  about  80%  of  glycerin), 
it  is  distilled  under  a  vacuum  of  28  to  29  in.  In  the  Glatz  process  the 
lye  is  treated  with  a  little  milk  of  lime,  the  liquid  then  neutralized 
with  hydrochloric  acid,  and  the  liquid  filtered.  Evaporation  and 
subsequent  distillation  under  a  high  vacuum  gives  crude  glycerin. 
The  impure  glycerin  obtained  as  above  is  purified  by  redistillation 
in  steam  and  evaporation  in  vacuum  pans. 

Technical  Uses. — Besides  its  use  as  a  starting-point  in  the  produc- 
tion of  "  nitroglycerin  "  (q.v.)  and  other  chemical  products,  glycerin 
is  largely  employed  for  a  number  of  purposes  in  the  arts,  its  applica- 
tion thereto  being  due  to  its  peculiar  physical  properties.  Thus  its 
non-liability  to  freeze  (when  not  absolutely  anhydrous,  which  it 
practically  never  is  when  freely  exposed  to  the  air)  and  its  non- 
volatility  at  ordinary  temperatures,  combined  with  its  power  of 
always  keeping  fluid  and  not  drying  up  and  hardening,  render  it 
valuable  as  a  lubricating  agent  for  clockwork,  watches,  &c.,  as  a 
substitute  for  water  in  wet  gas-meters,  and  as  an  ingredient  in 
cataplasms,  plasters,  modelling  clay,  pasty  colouring  matters, 
dyeing  materials,  moist  colours  for  artists,  and  numerous  other 
analogous  substances  which  are  required  to  be  kept  in  a  permanently 
soft  condition.  Glycerin  acts  as  a  preservative  against  decomposition, 
owing  to  its  antiseptic  qualities,  which  also  led  to  its  being  employed 
to  preserve  untanned  leather  (especially  during  transit  when  ex- 
ported, the  hides  being,  moreover,  kept  soft  and  supple);  to  make 
solutions  of  gelatin,  albumen,  gum,  paste,  cements,  &c.  which  will 
keep  without  decomposition;  to  preserve  meat  and  other  edibles; 
to  mount  anatomical  preparations;  to  preserve  vaccine  lymph  un- 
changed ;  and  for  many  similar  purposes.  Its  solvent  power  is  also 


GLYCOLS— GLYPTOTHEK 


utilized  in  the  production  of  various  colouring  fluids,  where  the 
colouring  matter  would  not  dissolve  in  water  alone;  thus  aniline 
violet,  the  tinctorial  constituents  of  madder,  and  various  allied 
colouring  matters  dissolve  in  glycerin,  forming  liquids  which  remain 
coloured  even  when  diluted  with  water,  the  colouring  matters  being 
either  retained  in  suspension  or  dissolved  by  the  glycerin  present 
in  the  diluted  fluid.  Glycerin  is  also  employed  in  the  manufacture 
of  formic  acid  (q.v.).  Certain  kinds  of  copying  inks  are  greatly 
improved  by  the  substitution  of  glycerin,  in  part  or  entirely,  for  the 
sugar  or  honey  usually  added. 

In  its  medicinal  use  glycerin  is  an  excellent  solvent  for  such  sub- 
stances as  iodine,  alkaloids,  alkalis,  &c.,  and  is  therefore  used  for 
applying  them  to  diseased  surfaces,  especially  as  it  aids  in  their 
absorption.  It  does  not  evaporate  or  turn  rancid,  whilst  its  marked 
hygroscopic  action  ensures  the  moistness  and  softness  of  any  surface 
that  it  covers.  Given  by  the  mouth  glycerin  produces  purging  if 
large  doses  are  administered,  and  has  the  same  action  if  only  a  small 
quantity  be  introduced  into  the  rectum.  For  this  purpose  it  is 
very  largely  used  either  as  a  suppository  or  in  the  fluid  form  (one 
or  two  drachms).  The  result  is  prompt,  safe  and  painless.  Glycerin 
is  useless  as  a  food  and  is  not  in  any  sense  a  substitute  for  cod-liver 
oil.  Very  large  doses  in  animals  cause  lethargy,  collapse  and  death. 

GLYCOLS,  5n  organic  chemistry,  the  generic  name  given 
to  the  aliphatic  dihydric  alcohols.  These  compounds  may  be 
obtained  by  heating  the  alkylen  iodides  or  bromides  (e.g.  ethylene 
dibromide)  with  silver  acetate  or  with  potassium  acetate  and 
alcohol,  the  esters  so  produced  being  then  hydrolysed  with 
caustic  alkalis,  thus: 

C2H,Br2-|-2C2H302-Ag->C2H4(O-C2H3O)2-»C2H4(OH)2+2K-C2H302; 
by  the  direct  union  of  water  with  the  alkylen  oxides;  by  oxida- 
tion of  the  defines  with  cold  potassium  permanganate  solution 
(G.  Wagner,  Ber.,  1888,  21,  p.  1231),  or  by  the  action  of  nitrous 
acid  on  the  diamines. 

Glycols  may  be  classified  as  primary,  containing  two  — CH«OH 
groups;  primary-secondary,  containing  the  grouping  — CH(OH)- 
CH2OH;  secondary,  with  the  grouping  -  CH(OH)  •  CH(OH)  -  ;  and 
tertiary,  with  the  grouping  >C(OH)-(OH)C<.  The  secondary 
glycols  are  prepared  by  the  action  of  alcoholic  potash  on  alde- 
hydes, thus: 
3(CH3)2CH-CHO  +  KHO  =  (CHa)2CHCO2K  + 

(CH3)2CH-CH(OH)-CH(OH)-CH(CH3)2. 

The  tertiary  glycols  are  known  as  pinacones  and  are  formed 
on  the  reduction  of  ketones  with  sodium  amalgam. 

The  glycols  are  somewhat  thick  liquids,  of  high  boiling  point, 
the  pinacones  only  being  crystalline  solids;  they  are  readily 
soluble  in  water  and  alcohol,  but  are  insoluble  in  ether.  By  the 
action  of  dehydrating  agents  they  are  converted  into  aldehydes 
or  ketones.  In  their  general  behaviour  towards  oxidizing  agents 
the  primary  glycols  behave  very  similarly  to  the  ordinary 
primary  alcohols  (q.v.),  but  the  secondary  and  tertiary  glycols 
break  down,  yielding  compounds  with  a  smaller  carbon  content. 

Ethylene  glycol,  QH4(OH)2,  was  first  prepared  by  A.  VVurtz 
(Ann.  chim.,  1859  [3],  55,  p.  400)  from  ethylene  dibromide  and 
silver  acetate.  It  is  a  somewhat  pleasant  smelling  liquid,  boiling 
at  197°  to  197-5°  C..  and  having  a  specific  gravity  0(1-125  (o°).  On 
fusion  with  solid  potash  at  250  C.  it  completely  decomposes,  giving 
potassium  oxalate  and  hydrogen, 

C2H602+2KHO  =  K2C2O4+4H2. 

Two  propylene  glycols,  C3H8O2,  are  known,  viz.  o-propvlene 
glycol,  CH3-CH(OH)-CH2OH,  a  liquid  boiling  at  188°  to  189"  and 
obtained  by  heating  glycerin  with  sodium  hydroxide  and  distilling 
the  mixture;  and  trimethylene  glycol,  CH2OH-CH2-CH2OH,  a 
liquid  boiling  at  214°  C.  and  prepared  by  boiling  trimethylene  bro- 
mide with  potash  solution  (A.  Zander,  Ann.,  1882,  214,  p.  178). 

GLYCONIC  (from  Glycon,  a  Greek  lyric  poet),  a  form  of  verse, 
best  known  in  Catullus  and  Horace  (usually  in  the  catalectic 
variety  ^-_^_,,-),  with  three  feet — a  spondee  and  two  dac- 
tyls; or  four — three  trochees  and  a  dactyl,  or  a  dactyl  and  three 
chorees.  Sir  R.  Jebb  pointed  out  that  the  last  form  might  be 
varied  by  placing  the  dactyl  second  or  third,  and  according  to  its 
place  this  verse  was  called  a  First,  Second  or  Third  Glyconic 

Cf.  J.  W.  White,  in  Classical  Quarterly  (Oct.  1909). 

GLYPH  (from  Gr.  y\v<t>€iv,  to  carve),  in  architecture,  a  vertical 
channel  in  a  frieze  (see  TRIGLYPH). 

GLYPTODON  (Greek  for  "  fluted-tooth  ") ,  a  name  applied 
by  Sir  R.  Owen  to  the  typical  representative  of  a  group  of 
gigantic,  armadillo-like,  South  American,  extinct  Edentata, 


characterized  by  having  the  carapace  composed  of  a  solid  piece 
(formed  by  the  union  of  a  multitude  of  bony  dermal  plates) 
without  any  movable  rings.  The  facial  portion  of  the  skull  is 
very  short;  a  long  process  of  the  maxillary  bone  descends 
from  the  anterior  part  of  the  zygomatic  arch;  and  the  ascending 
ramus  of  the  mandible  is  remarkably  high.  The  teeth,  $  in  the 
later  species,  are  much  alike,  having  two  deep  grooves  or  flutings 
on  each  side,  so  as  to  divide  them  into  three  distinct  lobes  (fig.). 
They  are  very  tall  and  grew  throughout 
life.  The  vertebral  column  is  almost 
entirely  welded  into  a  solid  tube,  but 
there  is  a  complex  joint  at  the  base  of  the 
neck,  to  allow  the  head  being  retracted 
within  the  carapace.  The  limbs  are  very 
strong,  and  the  feet  short  and  broad,  re- 
sembling externally  those  of  an  elephant 
or  tortoise. 

Glyptodonts  constitute  a  family,  the  Glypto- 
dontidae,  whose  position  is  next  to  the 
armadillos  (Dasypodidae) ;  the  group  being 
represented  by  a  number  of  generic  types. 
The  Pleistocene  forms,  whose  remains  occur 
abundantly  in  the  silt  of  the  Buenos  Aires 
pampas,  are  by  far  the  largest,  the  skull  and 
tail-sheath  in  some  instances  having  a  length 
of  from  12  to  16  ft.  In  Glyptodon  (with 
which  Schistopleurum  is  identical)  the  tail- 
sheath  consists  of  a  series  of  coronet-like 
rings,  gradually  diminishing  in  diameter  from 
base  to  tip.  Daedicurus,  in  which  the  tail- 
sheath  is  in  the  form  of  a  huge  solid  club,  is 
the  largest  member  of  the  family;  in  Pano- 
chthus  and  Sclerocalyptus  (Hoplophorus)  the 
tail-sheath  consists  basally  of  a  small  number 
of  smooth  rings,  and  terminally  of  a  tube. 
In  some  specimens  of  these  genera  the  horny 
shields  covering  the  bony  scutes  of  the  cara- 
pace have  been  preserved,  and  since  the  Two  views  of  the 
foramina,  which  often  pierce  the  latter,  stop  tooth  of  a  Glyptodon', 
short  of  the  former,  it  is  evident  that  these  the  upper  figure  show- 
were  for  the  passage  of  blood-vessels  and  ing  one  side,  and  the 
not  receptacles  for  bristles.  In  the  earlv  lower  the  crown. 
Pleistocene  epoch,  when  South  America 

became  connected  with  North  America,  some  of  the  glyptodonts 
found  their  way  into  the  latter  continent.  Among  these  northern 
forms  some  from  Texas  and  Florida  have  been  referred  to 
Glyptodon.  One  large  species  from  Texas  has,  however,  been 
made  the  type  of  a  separate  genus,  under  the  name  of  Glyplo- 
therium  texanum.  In  some  respects  it  shows  affinity  with  Pano- 
chthus,  although  in  the  simple  structure  of  the  tail-sheath  it 
recalls  the  undermentioned  Propalaeohoplophorus.  All  the  above 
are  of  Pleistocene  and  perhaps  Pliocene  age,  but  in  the  Santa  Cruz 
beds  of  Patagonia  there  occur  the  two  curious  genera  Propalaeohoplo- 
phorus and  Peltephilus,  the  former  of  which  is  a  primitive  and 
generalized  type  of  glyptodont,  while  the  latter  seems  to  come 
nearer  to  the  armadillos.  Both  are  represented  by  species  of  com- 
paratively small  size.  In  Propalaeohoplophorus  the  scutes  of  the 
carapace,  which  are  less  deeply  sculptured  than  in  the  larger  glypto- 
donts, are  arranged  in  distinct  transverse  rows,  in  three  of  which 
they  partially  overlap  near  the  border  of  the  carapace  after  the 
fashion  of  the  armadillos.  The  skull  and  limb-bones  exhibit  several 
features  met  with  in  the  latter,  and  the  vertebrae  of  the  back  are  not 
welded  into  a  continuous  tube.  There  are  eight  pairs  of  teeth,  the 
first  four  of  which  are  simpler  than  the  rest,  and  may  perhaps  there- 
fore be  regarded  as  premolars.  More  remarkable  is  Peltephilus,  on 
account  of  the  fact  that  the  teeth,  which  are  simple,  with  a  chevron- 
shaped  section,  form  a  continuous  series  from  the  front  of  the  jaw 
backwards,  the  number  of  pairs  being  seven.  Accordingly,  a 
modification  of  the  character,  even  of  the  true  Edentata,  as  given 
in  the  earlier  article,  is  rendered  necessary.  The  head  bears  a  pair 
of  horn-like  scutes,  and  the  scutes  of  the  carapace  and  tail,  which 
are  loosely  opposed  or  slightly  overlapping,  form  a  number  of  trans- 
verse rows. 

LITERATURE.— R.  Lydekker,  "  The  Extinct  Edentates  of  Ar- 
gentina," An.  Mus.  La  Plata— Pal.  Argent,  vol.  iii.  p.  2  (1904); 
H.  F.  Osbprn,  "  '  Glyptotherium  texanum,'  a  Glyptodont  from  the 
Lower  Pleistocene  of  Texas,"  Bull.  Amer.  Mus.,  vol.  xvii.  p.  491 
(1903) ;  W.  B.  Scott, "  Mammalia  of  the  Santa  Cruz  Beds— Edentata," 
Rep.  Princeton  Exped.  to  Patagonia,  vol.  v.  (1903-1904).  (R.  L.*) 

GLYPTOTHEK  (from  Gr.  y\VTrr6s,  carved,  and  0^,  a  place 
of  storage),  an  architectural  term  given  to  a  gallery  for  the 
exhibition  of  sculpture,  and  first  employed  at  Munich,  where  it 
was  built  to  exhibit  the  sculptures  from  the  temple  of  Aegina. 


148 


GMELIN— GNEISENAU 


GMELIN,  the  name  of  several  distinguished  German  scientists, 
of  a  Tubingen  family.  Johann  Georg  Gmelin  (1674-1728), 
an  apothecary  in  Tubingen,  and  an  accomplished  chemist  for 
the  times  in  which  he  lived,  had  three  sons.  The  first,  Johann 
Conrad  (1702-1759),  was  an  apothecary  and  surgeon  in  Tubingen. 
The  second,  Johann  Georg  (1709-1755),  was  appointed  professor 
of  chemistry  and  natural  history  in  St  Petersburg  in  1731,  and 
from  1733  to  1743  was  engaged  in  travelling  through  Siberia. 
The  fruits  of  his  journey  were  Flora  Sibirica  (4  vols.,  1749- 
1750)  and  Reisen  durch  Sibirien  (4  vols.,  1753).  He  ended  his 
days  as  professor  of  medicine  at  Tubingen,  a  post  to  which  he 
was  appointed  in  1749.  The  third  son,  Philipp  Friedrich  (1721- 
1768),  was  extraordinary  professor  of  medicine  at  Tubingen 
in  1750,  and  in  1755  became  ordinary  professor  of  botany  and 
chemistry.  In  the  second  generation  Samuel  Gottlieb  (1743- 
1774),  the  son  of  Johann  Conrad,  was  appointed  professor  of 
natural  history  at  St  Petersburg  in  1766,  and  in  the  following 
year  started  on  a  journey  through  south  Russia  and  the  regions 
round  the  Caspian  Sea.  On  his  way  back  he  was  captured  by 
Usmey  Khan,  of  the  Kaitak  tribe,  and  died  from  the  ill-treatment 
he  suffered,  on  the  27th  of  July  1774.  One  of  his  nephews, 
Ferdinand  Gottlob  von  Gmelin  (1782-1848),  became  professor  of 
medicine  and  natural  history  at  Tubingen  in  1805,  and  another, 
Christian  Gottlob  (1792-1860),  who  in  1828  was  one  of  the 
first  to  devise  a  process  for  the  artificial  manufacture  of  ultra- 
marine, was  professor  of  chemistry  and  pharmacy  in  the  same 
university.  In  the  youngest  branch  of  the  family,  Philipp 
Friedrich  had  a  son,  Johann  Friedrich  (1748-1804),  who  was 
appointed  professor  of  medicine  in  Tubingen  in  1772,  and  in 
1775  accepted  the  chair  of  medicine  and  chemistry  at  Gottingen. 
In  1788  he  published  the  i3th  edition  of  Linnaeus'  Systema 
Naturae  with  many  additions  and  alterations.  His  son  Leopold 
(1788-1853),  was  the  best-known  member  of  the  family.  He 
studied  medicine  and  chemistry  at  Gottingen,  Tubingen  and 
Vienna,  and  in  1813  began  to  lecture  on  chemistry  at  Heidelberg, 
where  in  1814  he  was  appointed  extraordinary,  and  in  1817 
ordinary,  professor  of  chemistry  and  medicine.  He  was  the 
discoverer  of  potassium  ferricyanide  (1822),  and  wrote  the 
Handbuch  der  Chemie  (ist  ed.  1817-1819,  4th  ed.  1843-1855), 
an  important  work  in  its  day,  which  was  translated  into  English 
for  the  Cavendish  Society  by  H.  Watts  (1815-1884)  in  1848- 
1859.  He  resigned  his  chair  in  1852,  and  died  on  the  i3th  of 
April  in  the  following  year  at  Heidelberg. 

GMUND,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  kingdom  of  Wiirttemberg,1 
in  a  charming  and  fruitful  valley  on  the  Rems,  here  spanned  by 
a  beautiful  bridge,  31  m.  E.N.E.  of  Stuttgart  on  the  railway 
to  Nordlingen.  Pop.  (1905)  18,699.  It  is  surrounded  by  old 
walls,  flanked  with  towers,  and  has  a  considerable  number  of 
ancient  buildings,  among  which  are  the  fine  church  of  the  Holy 
Cross;  St  John's  church,  which  dates  from  the  time  of  the 
Hohenstaufen;  and,  situated  on  a  height  near  the  town,  partly 
hewn  out  of  the  rock,  the  pilgrimage  church  of  the  Saviour. 
Among  the  modern  buildings  are  the  gymnasium,  the  drawing 
and  trade  schools,  the  Roman  Catholic  seminary,  the  town 
hall  and  the  industrial  art  museum.  Clocks  and  watches  are 
manufactured  here  and  also  other  articles  of  silver,  while  the 
town  has  a  considerable  trade  in  corn,  hops  and  fruit.  The 
scenery  in  the  neighbourhood  is  very  beautiful,  near  the  town 
being  the  district  called  Little  Switzerland. 

Gmund  was  surrounded  by  walls  in  the  beginning  of  the  1 2th 
century  by  Duke  Frederick  of  Swabia.  It  received  town  rights 
from  Frederick  Barbarossa,  and  after  the  extinction  of  the 
Hohenstaufen  became  a  free  imperial  town.  It  retained  its 
independence  till  1803,  when  it  came  into  the  possession  of 
Wiirttemberg.  Gmund  is  the  birth-place  of  the  painter  Hans 
Baldung  (1475-1545)  and  of  the  architect  Heinrich  Arler  or  Parler 
(fl.  1350).  In  the  middle  ages  the  population  was  about  10,000. 

See  Kaiser,  Gmund  und  seine  Umgebung  (1888). 

1  There  are  two  places  of  this  name  in  Austria,  (i)  Gmiind, 
a  town  in  Lower  Austria,  containing  a  palace  belonging  to  the 
imperial  family,  (2)  a  town  in  Carinthia,  with  a  beautiful  Gothic 
church  and  some  interesting  ruins. 


GMUNDEN,  a  town  and  summer  resort  of  Austria,  in  Upper 
Austria,  40  m.  S.S.W.  of  Linz  by  rail.  Pop.  (1900)  7126.  It 
is  situated  at  the  efflux  of  the  Traun  river  from  the  lake  of  the 
same  name  and  is  surrounded  by  high  mountains,  as  the  Traun- 
stein  (5446  ft.),  the  Erlakogel  (5150  ft.),  the  Wilde  Kogel  (6860 
ft.)  and  the  Hollen  Gebirge.  It  is  much  frequented  as  a  health 
and  summer  resort,  and  has  a  variety  of  lake,  brine,  vegetable 
and  pine-cone  baths,  a  hydropathic  establishment,  inhalation 
chambers,  whey  cure,  &c.  There  are  a  great  number  of  ex- 
cursions and  points  of  interest  round  Gmunden,  specially  worth 
mentioning  being  the  Traun  Fall,  10  m.  N.  of  Gmunden.  It  is 
also  an  important  centre  of  the  salt  industry  in  Salzkammergut. 
Gmunden  was  a  town  encircled  with  walls  already  in  1186.  On 
the  i4th  of  November  1626,  Pappenheim  completely  defeated 
here  the  army  of  the  rebellious  peasants. 

See  F.  Krackowizer,  Geschichte  der  Stadt  Gmunden  in  OberSsterreich 
(Gmunden,  1898-1901,  3  vols.). 

GNAT  (O.  Eng.  gnat),  the  common  English  name  for  the 
smaller  dipterous  flies  (see  DIPTERA)  of  the  family  Culicidae, 
which  are  now  included  among  "  mosquitoes  "  (see  MOSQUITO). 
The  distinctive  term  has  no  zoological  significance,  but  in 
England  the  "  mosquito  "  has  commonly  been  distinguished 
from  the  "  gnat  "  as  a  variety  of  larger  size  and  more  poisonous 
bite. 

GNATHOPODA,  a  term  in  zoological  classification,  suggested 
as  an  alternative  name  for  the  group  Arthropoda  (<?.».).  The 
word,  which  means  "  jaw-footed,"  refers  to  the  fact  that  in  the 
members  of  the  group,  some  of  the  lateral  appendages  or  "  feet  " 
in  the  region  of  the  mouth  act  as  jaws. 

GNATIA  (also  EGNATIA  or  IGNATIA,  mod.  Anazzo,  near 
Fasano),  an  ancient  city  of  the  Peucetii,  and  their  frontier  town 
towards  the  Sallentini  (i.e.  of  Apulia  towards  Calabria),  in 
Roman  times  of  importance  for  its  trade,  lying  as  it  did  on  the 
sea,  at  the  point  where  the  Via  Traiana  joined  the  coast  road,2 
38  m.  S.E.  of  Barium.  The  ancient  city  walls  have  been  almost 
entirely  destroyed  in  recent  times  to  provide  building  material,3 
and  the  place  is  famous  for  the  discoveries  made  in  its  tombs. 
A  considerable  collection  of  antiquities  from  Gnatia  is  preserved 
at  Fasano,  though  the  best  are  in  the  museum  at  Bari.  Gnatia 
was  the  scene  of  the  prodigy  at  which  Horace  mocks  (Sat.  i. 
5.  97).  Near  Fasano  are  two  small  subterranean  chapels  with 
paintings  of  the  nth  century  A.D.  (E.  Bertaux,  L' 'Art  dans 
I'llalie  meridionals,  Paris,  1904,  135).  (T.  As.) 

GNEISENAU,  AUGUST  WILHELM  ANTON,  COUNT  NEIT- 
HARDT  VON  (1760-1831),  Prussian  field  marshal,  was  the  son 
of  a  Saxon  officer  named  Neithardt.  Born  in  1760  at  Schildau, 
near  Torgau,  he  was  brought  up  in  great  poverty  there,  and 
subsequently  at  Wurzburg  and  Erfurt.  In  1777  he  entered 
Erfurt  university;  but  two  years  later  joined  an  Austrian 
regiment  there  quartered.  In  1782  taking  the  additional  name 
of  Gneisenau  from  some  lost  estates  of  his  family  in  Austria, 
he  entered  as  an  officer  the  service  of  the  margrave  of  Baireuth- 
Anspach.  With  one  of  that  prince's  mercenary  regiments  in 
English  pay  he  saw  active  service  and  gained  valuable  experi- 
ence in  the  War  of  American  Independence,  and  returning 
in  1786,  applied  for  Prussian  service.  Frederick  the  Great  gave 
him  a  commission  as  first  lieutenant  in  the  infantry.  Made 
Stabskapitan  in  1790,  Gneisenau  served  in  Poland,  1793-1794, 
and,  subsequently  to  this,  ten  years  of  quiet  garrison  life  in 
Jauer  enabled  him  to  undertake  a  wide  range  of  military  studies. 
In  1796  he  married  Caroline  von  Kottwitz.  In  1806  he  was 
one  of  Hohenlohe's  staff-officers,  fought  at  Jena,  and  a  little 
later  commanded  a  provisional  infantry  brigade  which  fought 
under  Lestocq  in  the  Lithuanian  campaign.  Early  in  1807 
Major  von  Gneisenau  was  sent  as  commandant  to  Colberg,  which, 
small  and  ill-protected  as  it  was,  succeeded  in  holding  out  until 
the  peace  of  Tilsit.  The  commandant  received  the  much-prized 
order  "  pour  le  merite,"  and  was  promoted  lieutenant-colonel. 

A  wider  sphere  of  work  was  now  opened  to  him.     As  chief  of 

1  There  is  no  authority  for  calling  the  latter  Via  Egnatia. 
8  H.  Swinburne,  Travels  in  the  Two  Sicilies  (London,  1790),  ii.  15, 
mentions  the  walls  as  being  8  yds.  thick  and  16  courses  high. 


GNEISS 


149 


engineers,  and  a  member  of  the  reorganizing  committee,  he 
played  a  great  part,  along  with  Scharnhorst,  in  the  work  of  re- 
constructing the  Prussian  army.  A  colonel  in  1809,  he  soon  drew 
upon  himself,  by  his  energy,  the  suspicion  of  the  dominant  French, 
and  Stein's  fall  was  soon  followed  by  Gneisenau's  retirement. 
But,  after  visiting  Russia,  Sweden  and  England,  he  returned 

!to  Berlin  and  resumed  his  place  as  a  leader  of  the  patriotic 
party.  In  open  military  work  and  secret  machinations  his 
energy  and  patriotism  were  equally  tested,  and  with  the  out- 
break of  the  •  War  of  Liberation,  Major-General  Gneisenau 
became  BlUcher's  quartermaster-general.  Thus  began  the 
connexion  between  these  two  soldiers  which  has  furnished 
military  history  with  its  best  example  of  the  harmonious  co- 
operation between  the  general  and  his  chief-of-staff.  With 
Bliicher,  Gneisenau  served  to  the  capture  of  Paris;  his  military 
character  was  the  exact  complement  of  Bliicher's,  and  under 
this  happy  guidance  the  young  troops  of  Prussia,  often  defeated 
but  never  discouraged,  fought  their  way  into  the  heart  of  France. 
The  plan  of  the  march  on  Paris,  which  led  directly  to  the  fall 
of  Napoleon,  was  specifically  the  work  of  the  chief-of-staff. 
In  reward  for  his  distinguished  service  he  was  in  1814,  along 
with  York,  Kleist  and  Biilow,  made  count  at  the  same  time  as 
Bliicher  became  prince  of  Wahlstatt;  an  annuity  was  also 
assigned  to  him. 

In  1815,  once  more  chief  of  Bliicher's  staff,  Gneisenau  played 
a  very  conspicuous  part  in  the  Waterloo  campaign  (q.v.).  Senior 
generals,  such  as  York  and  Kleist,  had  been  set  aside  in  order 
that  the  chief-of-staff  should  have  the  command  in  case  of  need, 
and  when  on  the  field  of  Ligny  the  old  field  marshal  was  disabled, 
Gneisenau  at  once  assumed  the  control  of  the  Prussian  army. 
Even  in  the  light  of  the  evidence  that  many  years'  research 
has  collected,  the  precise  part  taken  by  Gneisenau  in  the  events 
which  followed  is  much  debated.  It  is  known  that  Gneisenau 
had  the  deepest  distrust  of  the  British  commander,  who,  he 
considered,  had  left  the  Prussians  in  the  lurch  at  Ligny,  and  that 
to  the  hour  of  victory  he  had  grave  doubts  as  to  whether  he  ought 
not  to  fall  back  on  the  Rhine.  Bliicher,  however,  soon  recovered 
from  his  injuries,  and,  with  Grolmann,  the  quartermaster- 
general,  he  managed  to  convince  Gneisenau.  The  relations  of 
the  two  may  be  illustrated  by  Brigadier-General  Hardinge's 
report.  Bliicher  burst  into  Hardinge's  room  at  Wavre,  saying 
"  Gneisenau  has  given  way,  and  we  are  to  march  at  once  to  your 
chief." 

On  the  field  of  Waterloo,  however,  Gneisenau  was  quick  to 
realize  the  magnitude  of  the  victory,  and  he  carried  out  the 
pursuit  with  a  relentless  vigour  which  has  few  parallels  in 
history.  His  reward  was  further  promotion  and  the  insignia 
of  the  "  Black  Eagle  "  which  had  been  taken  in  Napoleon's 
coach.  In  1816  he  was  appointed  to  command  the  VIHth 
Prussian  Corps,  but  soon  retired  from  the  service,  both  because 
of  ill-health  and  for  political  reasons.  For  two  years  he  lived  in 
retirement  on  his  estate,  Erdmannsdorf  in  Silesia,  but  in  1818 
he  was  made  governor  of  Berlin  in  succession  to  Kalkreuth,  and 
member  of  the  Staatsrath.  In  1825  he  became  general  field 
marshal.  In  1831  he  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the 
Army  of  Observation  on  the  Polish  frontier,  with  Clausewitz 
as  his  chief-of-staff.  At  Posen  he  was  struck  down  by 
cholera  and  died  on  the  24th  of  August  1831,  soon  followed 
by  his  chief-of-staff,  who  fell  a  victim  to  the  same  disease  in 
November. 

As  a  soldier,  Gneisenau  was  the  greatest  Prussian  general 
since  Frederick;  as  a  man,  his  noble  character  and  virtuous  life 
secured  him  the  affection  and  reverence,  not  only  of  his  superiors 
and  subordinates  in  the  service,  but  of  the  whole  Prussian 
nation.  A  statue  by  Rauch  was  erected  in  Berlin  in  1855,  and 
in  memory  of  the  siege  of  1807  the  Colberg  grenadiers  received 
his  name  in  1889.  One  of  his  sons  led  a  brigade  of  the  VIHth 
Army  Corps  in  the  war  of  1870. 

See  G.  H.  Pertz,  Das  Leben  des  Feldmarschalls  Graf  en  Neithardt 
von  Gneisenau,  vols.  1-3  (Berlin,  1864-1869);  vols.  4  and  5, 
G.  Delbruck  (ib.  1879,  1880),  with  numerous  documents  and  letters; 
H.  Delbruck,  Das  Leben  des  G.  F.  M.  Grafen  von  Gneisenau  (2  vols., 
2nd  ed.,  Berlin,  1894),  based  on  Pertz's  work,  but  containing  much 


new  material;  Frau  von  Beguelin,  Denkwiirdigkeiten  (Berlin,  1892); 
Hormayr,  Lebensbilder  aus  den  Befreiungskrieeen  (Jena,  1841); 
Pick,  A  us  dem  brieflichen  Nachlass  Gneisenaus ;  also  the  histories  of 
the  campaigns  of  1807  and  1813-15. 

GNEISS,  a  term  long  used  by  the  miners  of  the  Harz  Mountains 
to  designate  the  country  rock  in  which  the  mineral  veins  occur; 
it  is  believed  to  be  a  word  of  Slavonic  origin  meaning  "  rotted  " 
or  "  decomposed."  It  has  gradually  passed  into  acceptance  as  a 
generic  term  signifying  a  large  and  varied  series  of  metamorphic 
rocks,  which  mostly  consist  of  quartz  and  felspar  (orthoclase 
and  plagioclase)  with  muscovite  and  biotite,  hornblende  or 
augite,  iron  oxides,  zircon  and  apatite.  There  is  also  a  long 
list  of  accessory  minerals  which  are  present  in  gneisses  with  more 
or  less  frequency,  but  not  invariably,  as  garnet,  sillimanite, 
cordierite,  graphite  and  graphitoid,  epidote,  calcite,  orthite, 
tourmaline  and  andalusite.  The  gneisses  all  possess  a  more 
or  less  marked  parallel  structure  or  foliation,  which  is  the  main 
feature  by  which  many  of  them  are  separated  from  the  granites, 
a  group  of  rocks  having  nearly  the  same  mineralogical  composi- 
tion and  closely  allied  to  many  gneisses. 

The  felspars  of  the  gneisses  are  predominantly  orthoclase 
(often  perthitic),  but  microcline  is  common  in  the  more  acid 
types  and  oligoclase  occurs  also  very  frequently,  especially  in 
certain  sedimentary  gneisses,  while  more  basic  varieties  of 
plagioclase  are  rare.  Quartz  is  very  seldom  absent  and  may  be 
blue  or  milky  and  opalescent.  Muscovite  and  biotite  may  both 
occur  in  the  same  rock;  in  other  cases  only  one  of  them  is  present. 
The  commonest  and  most  important  types  of  gneiss  are  the  mica- 
gneisses.  Hornblende  is  green,  rarely  brownish;  augite  pale 
green  or  -nearly  colourless;  enstatite  appears  in  some  granulite- 
gneisses.  Epidote,  often  with  enclosures  of  orthite,  is  by  no 
means  rare  in  gneisses  from  many  different  parts  of  the  world. 
Sillimanite  and  andalusite  are  not  infrequent  ingredients  of 
gneiss,  and  their  presence  has  been  accounted  for  in  more  than 
one  way.  Cordierite-gneisses  are  a  special  group  of  great  interest 
and  possessing  many  peculiarities;  they  are  partly,  if  not 
entirely,  foliated  contact-altered  sedimentary  rocks.  Kyanite 
and  staurolite  may  also  be  mentioned  as  occasionally  occurring. 

Many  varieties  of  gneiss  have  received  specific  names  according 
to  the  minerals  they  consist  of  and  the  structural  peculiarities 
they  exhibit.  Muscovite-gneiss,  biotite-gneiss  and  muscovite- 
biotite-gneiss,  more  common  perhaps  than  all  the  others  taken 
together,  are  grey  or  pinkish  rocks  according  to  the  colour  of 
their  prevalent  felspar,  not  unlike  granites,  but  on  the  whole 
more  often  fine-grained  (though  coarse-grained  types  occur)  and 
possessing  a  gneissose  or  foliated  structure.  The  latter  consists 
in  the  arrangement  of  the  flakes  of  mica  in  such  a  way  that 
their  faces  are  parallel,  and  hence  the  rock  has  the  property  of 
splitting  more  readily  in  the  direction  in  which  the  mica  plates 
are  disposed.  This  fissility,  though  usually  marked,  is  not  so 
great  as  in  the  schists  or  slates,  and  the  split  faces  are  not  so 
smooth  as  in  these  latter  rocks.  The  films  of  mica  may  be 
continuous  and  are  usually  not  flat,  but  irregularly  curved. 
In  some  gneisses  the  parallel  flakes  of  mica  are  scattered  through 
the  quartz  and  felspar;  in  others  these  minerals  form  discrete 
bands,  the  quartz  and  felspar  being  grouped  into  lenticles 
separated  by  thin  films  of  mica.  When  large  felspars,  of  rounded 
or  elliptical  form,  are  visible  in  the  gneiss,  it  is  said  to  have 
augen  structure  (Ger.  Augen  =  eyes).  It  should  also  be  remarked 
that  the  essential  component  minerals  of  the  rocks  of  this  family 
are  practically  always  determinable  by  naked  eye  inspection  or 
with  the  aid  of  a  simple  lens.  If  the  rock  is  too  fine  grained 
for  this  it  is  generally  relegated  to  the  schists.  When  the 
bands  of  folia  are  very  fine  and  tortuous  the  structure  is  called 
helizitic. 

In  mica-gneisses  sillimanite,  kyanite,  andalusite  and  garnet 
may  occur.  The  significance  of  these  minerals  is  variously 
interpreted;  they  may  indicate  that  the  gneiss  consists  wholly 
or  in  part  of  sedimentary  material  which  has  been  contact- 
altered,  but  they  have  also  been  regarded  as  having  been 
developed  by  metamorphic  action  out  of  biotite  or  other  primary 
ingredients  of  the  rock. 


150 


GNEIST 


Hornblende-gneisses  are  usually  darker  in  colour  and  less 
fissile  than  mica-gneisses;  they  contain  more  plagioclase,  less 
orthoclase  and  microcline,  and  more  sphene  and  epidote.  Many 
of  them  are  rich  in  hornblende  and  thus  form  transitions  to 
amphibolites.  Pyroxene-gneisses  are  less  frequent  but  occur 
in  many  parts  of  both  hemispheres.  The  "  charnockite  "  series 
are  very  closely  allied  to  the  pyroxene-gneisses.  Hypersthene 
and  scapolite  both  may  occur  in  these  rocks  and  they  are  some- 
times garnetiferous. 

In  every  country  where  the  lowest  and  oldest  rocks  have  come  to 
the  surface  and  been  exposed  by  the  long  continued  action  of  denuda- 
tion in  stripping  away  the  overlying  formations,  gneisses  are  found  in 
great  abundance  and  of  many  different  kinds.  They  are  in  fact  the 
typical  rocks  of  the  Archean  (Lewisian,  Laurentian,  &c.)  series. 
In  the  Alps,  Harz,  Scotland,  Norway  and  Sweden,  Canada,  South 
America,  Peninsular  India,  Himalayas  (to  mention  only  a  few 
localities)  they  occupy  wide  areas  and  exhibit  a  rich  diversity  of 
types.  From  this  it  has  been  inferred  that  they  are  of  great  geological 
age,  and  in  fact  this  can  be  definitely  proved  in  many  cases,  for  the 
oldest  known  fossiliferous  formations  may  be  seen  to  rest  uncon- 
formably  en  these  gneisses  and  are  made  up  of  their  debris.  It  was 
for  a  long  time  believed  that  they  represented  the  primitive  crust  of 
the  earth,  and  while  this  is  no  longer  generally  taught  there  are 
still  geologists  who  hold  that  these  gneisses  are  necessarily  of  pre- 
Cambrian  age.  Others,  while  admitting  the  general  truth  of  this 
hypothesis,  consider  that  there  are  localities  in  which  typical  gneisses 
can  be  shown  to  penetrate  into  rocks  which  may  be  as  recent  as  the 
Tertiary  period,  or  to  pass  into  these  rocks  so  gradually  and  in  such 
a  way  as  to  make  it  certain  that  the  gneisses  are  merely  altered 
states  of  comparatively  recent  sedimentary  or  igneous  rocks.  Much 
controversy  has  arisen  on  these  points;  but  this  is  certain,  that 
gneisses  are  far  the  most  common  among  Archean  rocks,  and  where 
their  age  is  not  known  the  presumption  is  strong  that  they  are  at 
least  pre-Cambrian. 

Many  gneisses  are  undoubtedly  sedimentary  rocks  that  have  been 
brought  to  their  present  state  by  such  agents  of  metamorphism  as 
heat,  movement,  crushing  and  recrystallization.  This  may  be 
demonstrated  partly  by  their  mode  of  occurrence:  they  accompany 
limestones,  graphitic  schists,  quartzites  and  other  rocks  of  sedimentary 
type;  some  of  them  where  least  altered  may  even  show  remains  of 
bedding  or  of  original  pebbly  character  (conglomerate  gneisses). 
More  conclusive,  however,  is  the  chemical  composition  of  these  rocks, 
which  often  is  such  as  no  igneous  masses  possess,  but  resembles  that 
of  many  impure  argillaceous  sediments.  These  sedimentary  gneisses 
(or  paragneisses,  as  they  are  often  called)  are  often  rich  in  biotite 
and  garnet  and  may  contain  kyanite  and  sillimanite.orlessfrequently 
calcite.  Some  of  them,  however,  are  rich  in  felspar  and  quartz,  with 
muscovite  and  biotite;  others  may  even  contain  hornblende  and 
augite,  and  all  these  may  bear  so  close  a  resemblance  to  gneisses  of 
igneous  origin  that  by  no  single  character,  chemical  or  mineralogical, 
can  their  original  nature  be  definitely  established.  In  these  cases, 
however,  a  careful  study  of  the  relations  of  the  rock  in  the  field  and 
of  the  different  types  which  occur  together  will  generally  lead  to  some 
positive  conclusion. 

Other  gneisses  are  igneous  (orthogneisses).  These  have  very  much 
the  same  composition  as  acid  igneous  rocks  such  as  granite,  aplite, 
hornblende  granite,  or  intermediate  rocks  such  as  syenite  and  quartz 
diorite.  Many  of  these  orthogneisses  are  not  equally  well  foliated 
throughout,  but  are  massive  or  granitoid  in  places.  They  are  some- 
times subdivided  into  granite  gneiss,  diorite  gneiss,  syenite  gneiss 
and  so  on.  The  sedimentary  schists  into  which  these  rocks  have 
been  intruded  may  show  contact  alteration  by  the  development  of 
such  minerals  as  cordierite,  andalusite  and  sillimanite.  In  many 
of  these  orthogneisses  the  foliation  is  primitive,  being  an  original 
character  of  the  rock  which  was  produced  either  by  fluxion  move- 
ments in  a  highly  viscous,  semi-solid  mass  injected  at  great  pressure 
into  the  surrounding  strata,  or  by  folding  stresses  acting  immediately 
after  consolidation.  That  the  foliation  in  other  orthogneisses  is 
subsequent  or  superinduced,  having  been  occasioned  by  pressure 
and  deformation  of  the  solid  mass  long  after  it  had  consolidated  and 
cooled,  admits  of  no  doubt,  but  it  is  very  difficult  to  establish  criteria 
by  which  these  types  may  be  differentiated.  Those  gneisses  in  which 
the  minerals  have  been  crushed  and  broken  by  fluxion  or  injection 
movements  have  been  called  protoclastic,  while  those  which  have 
attained  their  gneissose  state  by  crushing  long  after  consolidation 
are  distinguished  as  cataclastic.  There  are  also  many  examples  of 
gneisses  of  mixed  or  synthetic  origin.  They  may  be  metamorphosed 
sediments  (granulites  and  schists)  into  which  tongues  and  thin 
veins  of  granitic  character  have  been  intruded,  following  the  more 
or  less  parallel  foliation  planes  already  present  in  the  country  rock. 
These  veinlets  produce  that  alternation  in  mineral  composition  and 
banded  structure  which  are  essential  in  gneisses.  This  intermixture 
of  igneous  and  sedimentary  material  may  take  place  on  the  finest  scale 
and  in  the  most  intricate  manner.  Often  there  has  been  resorption 
of  the  older  rocks,  whether  sedimentary  or  igneous,  by  those  which 
have  invaded  them,  and  movement  has  gone  on  both  during  injection 
and  at  a  later  period,  so  that  the  whole  complex  becomes  amalgamated 


and  its  elements  are  so  completely  confused  that  the  geologist  can 
no  longer  disentangle  them. 

When  we  remember  that  in  the  earlier  stages  of  the  earth's  history, 
to  which  most  gneisses  belong,  and  in  the  relatively  deep  parts  of 
the  earth's  crust,  where  they  usually  occur,  there  has  been  most 
igneous  injection  and  greatest  frequency  of  earth  movements,  it 
is  not  difficult  to  understand  the  geological  distribution  of  gneissose 
rocks.  All  the  factors  which  are  required  for  their  production,  heat, 
movement,  plutonic  intrusions,  contact  alteration,  interstitial 
moisture  at  high  temperatures,  are  found  at  great  depths  and  have 
acted  most  frequently  and  with  greatest  power  on  the  older  rock 
masses.  But  locally,  where  the  conditions  were  favourable,  the 
same  processes  may  have  gone  on  in  comparatively  recent  times. 
Hence,  though  most  gneisses  are  Archean,  all  gneisses  are  not 
necessarily  so.  (J.  S.  F.) 

GNEIST,  HEINRICH  RUDOLF  HERMANN  FRIEDRICH 
VON  (1816-1895),  German  jurist  and  politician,  was  born  at 
Berlin  on  the  I3th  of  August  1816,  the  son  of  a  judge  attached 
to  the  "  Kammergericht  "  (court  of  appeal)  in  that  city.  After 
receiving  his  school  education  at  the  gymnasium  at  Eisleben 
in  Prussian  Saxony,  he  entered  the  university  of  Berlin  in  1833 
as  a  student  of  jurisprudence,  and  became  a  pupil  of  the  famous 
Roman  law  teacher  von  Savigny.  Proceeding  to  the  degree 
of  doctor  juris  in  1838,  young  Gneist  immediately  established 
himself  as  a  Privaldozent  in  the  faculty  of  law.  He  had,  however, 
already  chosen  the  judicial  branch  of  the  legal  profession  as  a 
career,  and  having  while  yet  a  student  acted  as  Auscultalor, 
was  admitted  Assessor  in  1841.  He  soon  found  leisure  and 
opportunity  to  fulfil  a  much-cherished  wish,  and  spent  the 
next  few  years  on  a  lengthened  tour  in  Italy,  France  and 
England.  He  utilized  his  Wanderjahre  for  the  purposes  of 
comparative  study,  and  on  his  return  in  1844  was  appointed 
extraordinary  professor  of  Roman  law  in  Berlin  university, 
and  thus  began  a  professorial  connexion  which  ended  only  with 
his  death.  The  first-fruits  of  his  activity  as  a  teacher  were 
seen  in  his  brilliant  work,  Die  formellen  Vertrage  des  heutigen 
romischen  Obligationen-Rechtes  (Berlin,  1845).  Part  passu 
with  his  academic  labours  he  continued  his  judicial  career, 
and  became  in  due  course  successively  assistant  judge  of  the 
superior  court  and  of  the  supreme  tribunal.  But  to  a  mind 
constituted  such  as  his,  the  want  of  elasticity  in  the  procedure 
of  the  courts  was  galling.  "  Brought  up,"  he  tells,  in  the  preface 
to  his  Englische  V  erjassungsgeschichte,  "  in  the  laborious  and 
rigid  school  of  Prussian  judges,  at  a  time  when  the  duty  of 
formulating  the  matter  in  litigation  was  entailed  upon  the  judge 
who  personally  conducted  the  pleadings,  I  became  acquainted 
both  with  the  advantages  possessed  by  the  Prussian  bureau 
system  as  also  with  its  weak  points."  Feeling  the  necessity 
for  fundamental  reforms  in  legal  procedure,  he  published,  in 
1849,  his  Trial  by  Jury,  in  which,  after  pointing  out  that  the 
origin  of  that  institution  was  common  to  both  Germany  and 
England,  and  showing  in  a  masterly  way  the  benefits  which  had 
accrued  to  the  latter  country  through  its  more  extended  applica- 
tion, he  pleaded  for  its  freer  admission  in  the  tribunals  of  his 
own  country. 

The  period  of  "  storm  and  stress  "  in  1848  afforded  Gneist  an 
opportunity  for  which  he  had  yearned,  and  he  threw  himself 
with  ardour  into  the  constitutional  struggles  of  Prussia.  Al- 
though his  candidature  for  election  to  the  National  Assembly 
of  that  year  was  unsuccessful,  he  felt  that  "  the  die  was  cast," 
and  deciding  for  a  political  career,  retired  in  1850  from  his  judicial 
position.  Entering  the  ranks  of  the  National  Liberal  party, 
he  began  both  in  writing  and  speeches  actively  to  champion 
their  cause,  now  busying  himself  pre-eminently  with  the  study 
of  constitutional  law  and  history.  In  1853  appeared  his  Adel 
und  Ritterschafl  in  England,  and  in  1857  the  Geschichte  und 
heutige  Geslalt  der  Amter  in  England,  a  pamphlet  primarily 
written  to  combat  the  Prussian  abuses  of  administration,  but 
for  which  the  author  also  claimed  that  it  had  not  been  without 
its  effect  in  modifying  certain  views  that  had  until  then  ruled 
in  England  itself.  In  1858  Gneist  was  appointed  ordinary 
professor  of  Roman  law,  and  in  the  same  year  commenced  his 
parliamentary  career  by  his  election  for  Stettin  to  the  Abgeord- 
netenhaus  (House  of  Deputies)  of  the  Prussian  Landtag,  in  which 
assembly  he  sat  thenceforward  uninterruptedly  until  1893. 


GNESEN— GNOME,  AND  GNOMIC  POETRY 


Joining  the  Left,  he  at  once  became  one  of  its  leading  spokesmen. 
His  chief  oratorical  triumphs  are  associated  with  the  early  period 
of  his  membership  of  the  House;  two  noteworthy  occasions 
being  his  violent  attack  (September  1862)  upon  the  government 
budget  in  connexion  with  the  reorganization  of  the  Prussian 
army,  and  his  defence  (1864)  of  the  Polish  chiefs  of  the  (then) 
grand-duchy  of  Posen,  who  were  accused  of  high  treason.  In 
1857-1863  was  published  Das  heutige  englische  Verfassungs- 
und  Venualtungsrecht,  a  work  which,  contrasting  English  and 
German  constitutional  law  and  administration,  aimed  at  exercis- 
ing political  pressure  upon  the  government  of  the  day.  In 
1868  Gneist  became  a  member  of  the  North  German  parliament, 
and  acted  as  a  member  of  the  commission  for  organizing  the 
federal  army,  and  also  of  that  for  the  settlement  of  ecclesiastical 
controversial  questions.  On  the  establishment  of  German 
unity  his  mandate  was  renewed  for  the  Reichstag,  and  in  this 
he  sat,  an  active  and  prominent  member  of  the  National  Liberal 
party,  until  1884.  In  the  Kulturkampf  he  sided  with  the 
government  against  the  attacks  of  the  Clericals,  whom  he  bitterly 
denounced,  and  whose  implacable  enemy  he  ever  showed  himself. 
In  1879,  together  with  his  colleague,  von  Hanel,  he  violently 
attacked  the  motion  for  the  prosecution  of  certain  Socialist 
members,  which  as  a  result  of  the  vigour  of  his  opposition  was 
almost  unanimously  rejected.  He  was  parliamentary  reporter 
for  the  committees  on  all  great  financial  and  administrative 
questions,  and  his  profound  acquaintance  with  constitutional 
law  caused  his  advice  to  be  frequently  sought,  not  only  in  his 
own  but  also  in  other  countries.  In  Prussia  he  largely  influenced 
legislation,  the  reform  of  the  judicial  and  penal  systems  and  the 
new  constitution  of  the  Evangelical  Church  being  largely  his 
work.  He  was  also  consulted  by  the  Japanese  government  when 
a  constitution  was  being  introduced  into  that  country.  In 
1875  he  was  appointed  a  member  of  the  supreme  administrative 
court  (Oberverwaltungsgerichl)  of  Prussia,  but  only  held  office 
for  two  years.  In  1882  was  published  his  Englische  Verfassungs- 
gcschichte  (trans.  History  of  the  English  Constitution,  London, 
1886),  which  may  perhaps  be  described  as  his  magnum  opus. 
It  placed  the  author  at  once  on  the  level  of  such  writers 
on  English  constitutional  history  as  Hallam  and  Stubbs,  and 
supplied  English  literature  with  a  text-book  almost  unrivalled 
in  point  of  historical  research.  In  1888  one  of  the  first  acts 
of  the  ill-fated  emperor  Frederick  III.,  who  had  always,  as 
crown  prince,  shown  great  admiration  for  him,  was  to  ennoble 
Gneist,  and  attach  him  as  instructor  in  constitutional  law  to  his 
son,  the  emperor  William  II.,  a  charge  of  which  he  worthily 
acquitted  himself.  The  last  years  of  his  life  were  full  of  energy, 
and,  in  the  possession  of  all  his  faculties,  he  continued  his  wonted 
academic  labours  until  a  short  time  before  his  death,  which 
occurred  at  Berlin  on  the  22nd  of  July  1895. 

As  a  politician,  Gneist's  career  cannot  perhaps  be  said  to  have 
been  entirely  successful.  In  a  country  where  parliamentary 
institutions  are  the  living  exponents  of  the  popular  will  he  might 
have  risen  to  a  foremost  position  in  the  state;  as  it  was,  the 
party  to  which  he  allied  himself  could  never  hope  to  become 
more  than  what  it  remained,  a  parliamentary  faction,  and  the 
influence  it  for  a  time  wielded  in  the  counsels  of  the  state  waned 
as  soon  as  the  Social-Democratic  party  grew  to  be  a  force  to  be 
reckoned  with.  It  is  as  a  writer  and  a  teacher  that  Gneist  is 
best  known  to  fame.  He  was  a  jurist  of  a  special  type.  To  him 
law  was  not  mere  theory,  but  living  force;  and  this  conception 
of  its  power  animates  all  his  schemes  of  practical  reform.  As 
a  teacher  he  exercised  a  magnetic  influence,  not  only  by  reason 
of  the  clearness  and  cogency  of  his  exposition,  but  also  because 
of  the  success  with  which  he  developed  the  talents  and  guided 
the  aspirations  of  his  pupils.  He  was  a  man  of  noble  bearing, 
religious,  and  imbued  with  a  stern  sense  of  duty.  He  was  proud 
of  being  a  "  Preussischer  Junker  "  (a  member  of  the  Prussian 
squirearchy),  and  throughout  his  writings,  despite  their  liberal 
tendencies,  may  be  perceived  the  loyalty  and  affection  with  which 
he  clung  to  monarchical  institutions.  A  great  admirer  and  a  true 
friend  of  England,  to  which  country  he  was  attached  by  many 
personal  ties,  he  surpassed  all  other  Germans  in  his  efforts  to 


make  her  free  institutions,  in  which  he  found  his  ideal,  the 
common  heritage  of  the  two  great  nations  of  the  Teutonic  race. 

Gneist  was  a  prolific  writer,  especially  on  the  subject  he  had  made 
peculiarly  his  own,  that  of  constitutional  law  and  history,  and  among 
his  works,  other  than  those  above  named,  may  be  mentioned  the 
following:  Budget  und  Cesetz  nach  dent  constitutionellen  Staatsrecht 
Englands  (Berlin,  1867);  Freie  Advocatur  (ib.,  1867);  Der  Rechts- 
staat  (ib.,  1872,  and  2nd  edition,  1879) ;  Zur  Verwallungsreform 
in  Preussen  (Leipzig,  1880);  Das  englische  Parlament  (Berlin,  1886); 
in  English  translation,  The  English  Parliament  (London,  1886;  3rd 
edition,  1889);  Die  Militar-Vorlage  von  1892  und  der  preussische 
Verfassungsconflikt  von  1862  bis  1866  (Berlin,  1893) ;  Die  nalionale 
Rechlsidee  von  den  Stdnden  und  das  preussische  Dreiklassenwahl- 
system  (ib.,  1895);  Die  verfassungsmdssige  Stettung  des  preussischen 
Gesamtministeriums  (ib.,  1895).  See  O.  Gierke,  Rudolph  von 
Gneist,  Geddchtnisrede  (Berlin,  1895),  an  In  Memoriam  address 
delivered  in  Berlin.  (P.  A.  A.) 

GNESEN  (Polish,  Gniezno),  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  Prussian 
province  of  Posen,  in  an  undulating  and  fertile  country,  on  the 
Wrzesnia,  30  m.  E.N.E.  of  Posen  by  the  railway  to  Thorn. 
Pop.  (1905)  23,727.  Besides  the  cathedral,  a  handsome  Gothic 
edifice  with  twin  towers,  which  contains  the  remains  of  St 
Adalbert,  there  are  eight  Roman  Catholic  churches,  a  Protestant 
church,  a  synagogue,  a  clerical  seminary  and  a  convent  of  the 
Franciscan  nuns.  Among  the  industries  are  cloth  and  linen 
weaving,  brewing  and  distilling.  A  great  horse  and  cattle 
market  is  held  here  annually.  Gnesen  is  one  of  the  oldest  towns 
in  the  former  kingdom  of  Poland.  Its  name,  Gniezno,  signifies 
"  nest,"  and  points  to  early  Polish  traditions.  The  cathedral  is 
believed  to  have  been  founded  towards  the  close  of  the  gth 
century,  and,  having  received  the  bones  of  St  Adalbert,  it  was 
visited  in  1000  by  the  emperor  Otto  III.,  who  made  it  the  seat 
of  an  archbishop.  Here,  until  1320,  the  kings  of  Poland  were 
crowned;  and  the  archbishop,  since  1416  primate  of  Poland, 
acted  as  protector  pending  the  appointment  of  a  new  king. 
In  1821  the  see  of  Posen  was  founded  and  the  archbishop 
removed  his  residence  thither,  though  its  cathedral  chapter 
still  remains  at  Gnesen.  After  a  long  period  of  decay  the  town 
revived  after  1815,  when  it  came  under  the  rule  of  Prussia. 

See  S.  Karwowski,  Gniezno  (Posen,  1892). 

GNOME,  AND  GNOMIC  POETRY.  Sententious  maxims,  put 
into  verse  for  the  better  aid  of  the  memory,  were  known  by  the 
Greeks  as  gnomes,  yv&nai,  from  yvu/jiTj,  an  opinion.  A  gnome 
is  defined  by  the  Elizabethan  critic  Henry  Peacham  (1576?- 
1643  ?)  as  "  a  saying  pertaining  to  the  manners  and  common 
practices  of  men,  which  declareth,  with  an  apt  brevity,  what 
in  this  our  life  ought  to  be  done,  or  not  done."  The  Gnomic 
Poets  of  Greece,  who  flourished  in  the  6th  century  B.C.,  were 
those  who  arranged  series  of  sententious  maxims  in  verse. 
These  were  collected  in  the  4th  century,  by  Lobon  of  Argos, 
an  orator,  but  his  collection  has  disappeared.  The  chief  gnomic 
poets  were  Theognis,  Solon,  Phocylides,  Simonides  of  Amorgos, 
Demodocus,  Xenophanes  and  Euenus.  With  the  exception  of 
Theognis,  whose  gnomes  were  fortunately  preserved  by  some 
schoolmaster  about  300  B.C.,  only  fragments  of  the  Gnomic 
Poets  have  come  down  to  us.  The  moral  poem  attributed  to 
Phocylides,  long  supposed  to  be  a  masterpiece  of  the  school, 
is  now  known  to  have  been  written  by  a  Jew  in  Alexandria. 
Of  the  gnomic  movement  typified  by  the  moral  works  of  the 
poets  named  above,  Prof.  Gilbert  Murray  has  remarked  that 
it  receives  its  special  expression  in  the  conception  of  the  Seven 
Wise  Men,  to  whom  such  proverbs  as  "  Know  thyself  "  and 
"  Nothing  too  much  "  were  popularly  attributed,  and  whose 
names  differed  in  different  lists.  These  gnomes  or  maxims 
were  extended  and  put  into  literary  shape  by  the  poets. 
Fragments  of  Solon,  Euenus  and  Mimnermus  have  been  pre- 
served, in  a  very  confused  state,  from  having  been  written, 
for  purposes  of  comparison,  on  the  margins  of  the  MSS.  of 
Theognis,  whence  they  have  often  slipped  into  the  text  of  that 
poet.  Theognis  enshrines  his  moral  precepts  in  his  elegies,  and 
this  was  probably  the  custom  of  the  rest;  it  is  improbable 
that  there  ever  existed  a  species  of  poetry  made  up  entirely  of 
successive  gnomes.  But  the  title  "  gnomic  "  came  to  be  given 
to  all  poetry  which  dealt  in  a  sententious  way  with  questions 


152 


GNOMES— GNOSTICISM 


of  ethics.  It  was,  unquestionably,  the  source  from  which  moral 
philosophy  was  directly  developed,  and  theorists  upon  life  and 
infinity,  such  as  Pythagoras  and  Xenophanes,  seem  to  have 
begun  their  career  as  gnomic  poets.  By  the  very  nature  of 
things,  gnomes,  in  their  literary  sense,  belong  exclusively  to  the 
dawn  of  literature;  their  naivet6  and  their  simplicity  in  moraliz- 
ing betray  it.  But  it  has  been  observed  that  many  of  the  ethical 
reflections  of  the  great  dramatists,  and  in  particular  of  Sophocles 
and  Euripides,  are  gnomic  distiches  expanded.  It  would  be  an 
error  to  suppose  that  the  ancient  Greek  gnomes  are  all  of  a 
solemn  character;  some  are  voluptuous  and  some  chivalrous; 
those  of  Demodocus  of  Leros  had  the  reputation  of  being  droll. 
In  modern  times,  the  gnomic  spirit  has  occasionally  been  dis- 
played by  poets  of  a  homely  philosophy,  such  as  Francis  Quarles 
(1592-1644)  in  England  and  Gui  de  Pibrac  (1529-1584)  in 
France.  The  once-celebrated  Quatrains  of  the  latter,  published 
in  1574,  enjoyed  an  immense  success  throughout  Europe;  they 
were  composed  in  deliberate  imitation  of  the  Greek  gnomic 
writers  of  the  6th  century  B.C.  These  modern  effusions  are 
rarely  literature  and  perhaps  never  poetry.  With  the  gnomic 
writings  of  Pibrac  it  was  long  customary  to  bind  up  those  of 
Antoine  Favre  (or  Faber)  (1557-1624)  and  of  Pierre  Mathieu 
(1563-1621).  Gnomes  are  frequently  to  be  found  in  the  ancient 
literatures  of  Arabia,  Persia  and  India,  and  in  the  Icelandic 
staves.  The  priamel,  a  brief,  sententious  kind  of  poem,  which 
was  in  favour  in  Germany  from  the  I2th  to  the  i6th  century, 
belonged  to  the  true  gnomic  class,  and  was  cultivated  with 
particular  success  by  Hans  Rosenblut,  the  lyrical  goldsmith 
of  Nuremberg,  in  the  isth  century.  (E.  G.) 

GNOMES  (Fr.  gnomes,  Ger.  Gnomen),  in  folk-lore,  the  name 
now  commonly  given  to  the  earth  and  mountain  spirits  who  are 
supposed  to  watch  over  veins  of  precious  metals  and  other 
hidden  treasures.  They  are  usually  pictured  as  bearded  dwarfs 
clad  in  brown  close-fitting  garments  with  hoods.  *  The  word 
"  gnome "  as  applied  to  these  is  of  comparatively  modern 
and  somewhat  uncertain  origin.  By  some  it  is  said  to  have 
been  coined  by  Paracelsus  (so  Hatzfeld  and  Darmesteter, 
Dictionnaire) ,  who  uses  Gnomi  as  a  synonym  of  Pygmaei,  from 
the  Greek  fvia^i],  intelligence.  The  New  English  Dictionary, 
however,  suggests  a  derivation  from  genomus,  i.e.  a  Greek  type 
•friv6fios,  "  earth-dweller,"  on  the  analogy  of  OdkaaaovoiMs, 
"  dwelling  in  the  sea,"  adding,  however,  that  though  there  is 
no  evidence  that  the  term  was  not  used  before  Paracelsus, 
it  is  possibly  "  a  mere  arbitrary  invention,  like  so  many  others 
found  in  Paracelsus  "  (N.E.D.  s.v.). 

GNOMON,  the  Greek  word  for  the  style  of  a  sundial,  or  any 
object,  commonly  a  vertical  column,  the  shadow  of  which  was 
observed  in  former  times  in  order  to  learn 
8  the  altitude  of  the  sun,  especially  when  on 
the  meridian.  The  art  of  constructing  a 
sundial  is  sometimes  termed  gnomonics. 
In  geometry,  a  gnomon  is  a  plane  figure 
formed  by  removing  a  parallelogram  from 
a  corner  of  a  larger  parallelogram;  in  the 
figure  ABCDEFA  is  a  gnomon.  Gnomonic  projection  is  a  pro- 
jection of  a  sphere  in  which  the  centre  of  sight  is  the  centre  of 
the  sphere. 

GNOSTICISM  (Gr.  yv£>(Hs,  knowledge),  the  name  generally 
applied  to  that  spiritual  movement  existing  side  by  side  with 
genuine  Christianity,  as  it  gradually  crystallized  into  the  old 
Catholic  Church,  which  may  roughly  be  defined  as  a  distinct  religi- 
ous syncretism  bearing  the  strong  impress  of  Christian  influences. 
I.  The  term  "  Gnosis  "  first  appears  in  a  technical  sense  in 
i  Tim.  vi.  20  (1^  \l/eudijivviios  "fvaiais).  It  seems  to  have  at  first 
been  applied  exclusively,  or  at  any  rate  principally,  to  a  particular 
tendency  within  the  movement  as  a  whole,  i.e.  to  those  sections  of 
(the  Syrian)  Gnostics  otherwise  generally  known  as  Ophites  or 
Naasseni  (see  Hippolytus,  Philosophumena,  v.  2:  Naawrivol 
.  .  .  oi  lavrobs  TVUOTIKOVS  dTroKaXoOires  ;  Irenaeus  i.  n.  i; 
Epiphanius,  Haeres.  xxvi.  Cf.  also  the  self-assumed  name  of  the 
Carpocratiani,  Iren.  i.  25.  6).  But  in  Irenaeus  the  term  has 
already  come  to  designate  the  whole  movement.  This  first  came 


into  prominence  in  the  opening  decades  of  the  2nd  century  A.D., 
but  is  certainly  older;  it  reached  its  height  in  the  second  third  of 
the  same  century,  and  began  to  wane  about  the  3rd  century,  and 
from  the  second  half  of  the  3rd  century  onwards  was  replaced  by 
the  closely-related  and  more  powerful  Manichaean  movement. 
Offshoots  of  it,  however,  continued  on  into  the  4th  and  sth 
centuries.  Epiphanius  still  had  the  opportunity  of  making 
personal  acquaintance  with  Gnostic  sects. 

II.  Of  the  actual  writings  of  the  Gnostics,  which  were  extra- 
ordinarily numerous,1  very  little  has  survived;  they  were 
sacrificed  to  the  destructive  zeal  of  their  ecclesiastical  opponents. 
Numerous  fragments  and  extracts  from  Gnostic  writings  are  to  be 
found  in  the  works  of  the  Fathers  who  attacked  Gnosticism. 
Most  valuable  of  all  are  the  long  extracts  in  the  5th  and  6th  books 
of  the  Philosophumena  of  Hippolytus.  The  most  accessible  and 
best  critical  edition  of  the  fragments  which  have  been  preserved 
word  for  word  is  to  be  found  in  Hilgenfeld's  Ketzergeschichte  des 
Urchristentums.  One  of  the  most  important  of  these  fragments  is 
the  letter  of  Ptolemaeus  to  Flora,  preserved  in  Epiphanius,  Haeres. 
xxxiii.  3-7  (see  on  this  point  Harnack  in  the  Sitzungsberichte  der 
Berliner  Akademie,  1902,  pp.  507-545).  Gnostic  fragments  are 
certainly  also  preserved  for  us  in  the  Acts  of  Thomas.  Here  we 
should  especially  mention  the  beautiful  and  much-discussed 
Song  of  the  Pearl,  or  Song  of  the  Soul,  which  is  generally,  though 
without  absolute  clear  proof,  attributed  to  the  Gnostic  Bardesanes 
(till  lately  it  was  known  only  in  the  Syrian  text;  edited  and 
translated  by  Bevan,  Texts  and  Studies,2  v.  3,  1897;  Hofmann, 
Zeitschrift  fur  neutestamentliche  Wissenschafl,  iv.;  for  the 
newly-found  Greek  text  see  Ada  apostolorum,  ed.  Bonnet,  ii.  2, 
c.  108,  p.  219).  Generally  also  much  Gnostic  matter  is  contained 
in  the  apocryphal  histories  of  the  Apostles.  To  the  school  of 
Bardesanes  belongs  the  "  Book  of  the  Laws  of  the  Lands,"  which 
does  not,  however,  contribute  much  to  our  knowledge  of  Gnos- 
ticism. Finally,  we  should  mention  in  this  connexion  the  text  on 
which  are  based  the  pseudo-Clementine  Homilies  and  Recogni- 
tiones  (beginning  of  the  3rd  century).  It  is,  of  course,  already 
permeated  with  the  Catholic  spirit,  but  has  drawn  so  largely  upon 
sources  of  a  Judaeo-Christian  Gnostic  character  that  it  comes  to 
a  great  extent  within  the  category  of  sources  for  Gnosticism. 
Complete  original  Gnostic  works  have  unfortunately  survived  to 
us  only  from  the  period  of  the  decadence  of  Gnosticism.  Of 
these  we  should  mention  the  comprehensive  work  called  the 
Pistis-Sophia,  probably  belonging  to  the  second  half  of  the  3rd 
century.3  Further,  the  Coptic-Gnostic  texts  of  the  Codex 
Brucianus;  both  the  books  of  leu,  and  an  anonymous  third 
work  (edited  and  translated  by  C.  Schmidt,  Texte  und  Unter- 
suchungen,  vol.  viii.,  1892;  and  a  new  translation  by  the  same  in 
Koplische-gnostische  Schriften,  i.)  which,  contrary  to  the  opinion 
of  their  editor  and  translator,  the  present  writer  believes  to 
represent,  in  their  existing  form,  a  stil!  later  period  and  a 
still  more  advanced  stage  in  the  decadence  of  Gnosticism. 
For  other  and  older  Coptic-Gnostic  texts,  in  one  of  which  is  con- 
tained the  source  of  Irenaeus's  treatises  on  the  Barbelognostics, 
but  which  have  unfortunately  not  yet  been  made  completely 
accessible,  see  C.  Schmidt  in  Sitzungsberichte  der  Berl.  Akad. 
(1896),  p.  839  seq.,  and  "  Philotesia,"  dedicated  to  Paul  Kleinert 
(1907),  p.  315  seq. 

On  the  whole,  then,  for  an  exposition  of  Gnosticism  we  are 
thrown  back  upon  the  polemical  writings  of  the  Fathers  in  their 
controversy  with  heresy.  The  most  ancient  of  these  is  Justin, 
who  according  to  his  Apol.  i.  26  wrote  a  Syntagma  against  all 
heresies  (c.  A.D.  150),  and  also,  probably,  a  special  polemic  against 

1  See  the  list  of  their  titles  in  A.  Harnack,  Geschichle  der  altchrist- 
lichen  Lileratur,  Teil  I.  v.  171;  ib.  Teil  II.  Chronologic  der  altchristl. 
Literatur,    i.    533    seq.;    also    Liechtenhahn,    Die   Offenbarung   im 
Gnosticismus  (1901). 

2  For  the  text  see  A.  Mere,  Bardesanes  von  Edessa  (1863),  and  A. 
Hilgenfeld,  Bardesanes  der  letzte  Gnostiker  (1864). 

3  Ed.    Petermann-Schwartze;   newly   translated   by   C.   Schmidt, 
Koptisch-gnostische  Schriften,  i.  (1905),  in  the  series  Die  griechischen 
christlichen    Schriftsteller    der    ersten    drei    Jahrhunderte;    see    also 
A.  Harnack,  Texte  und  Untersuchungen,  Bd.  vii.  Heft  2  (1891),  and 
Chronologie  der  altchristlichen  Literatur,  ii.  193-195. 


GNOSTICISM 


153 


Marcion  (fragment  in  Irenaeus  iv.  6.  2) .  Both  these  writings  are 
lost.  He  was  followed  by  Irenaeus,  who,  especially  in  the  first 
book  of  his  treatise  Adversus  haereses  (i\iyxov  Kai  dvarpoir^s 
rfjs  \l/tvdwviifu>v  yviJiaeus  /3i/3Xia  irivrt,  c.  A.D.  180),  gives  a 
detailed  account  of  the  Gnostic  heresies.  He  founds  his  work 
upon  that  of  his  master  Justin,  but  adds  from  his  own  knowledge 
among  many  other  things,  notably  the  detailed  account  of 
Valentinianism  at  the  beginning  of  the  book.  On  Irenaeus,  and 
probably  also  on  Justin,  Hippolytus  drew  for  his  Syntagma 
(beginning  of  the  3rd  century),  a  work  which  is  also  lost,  but  can, 
with  great  certainty,  be  reconstructed  from  three  recensions  of  it : 
in  the  Panarion  of  Epiphanius  (after  3  74) ,  in  Philaster  of  Brescia, 
Adversus  haereses,  and  the  Pseudo-Tertullian,  Liber  adversus 
omnes  haereses.  A  second  work  of  Hippolytus  (Kara  iraauiv 
tuv  «Xe7x°s)  is  preserved  in  the  so-called  Philosophumena 
which  survives  under  the  name  of  Origen.  Here  Hippolytus 
gave  a  second  exposition  supplemented  by  fresh  Gnostic  original 
sources  with  which  he  had  become  acquainted  in  the  meanwhile. 
These  sources  quoted  in  Hippolytus  have  lately  met  with  very 
unfavourable  criticisms.  The  opinion  has  been  advanced  that 
Hippolytus  has  here  fallen  a  victim  to  the  mystification  of  a 
forger.  The  truth  of  the  matter  must  be  that  Hippolytus 
probably  made  use  of  a  collection  of  Gnostic  texts,  put  together 
by  a  Gnostic,  in  which  were  already  represented  various  secondary 
developments  of  the  genuine  Gnostic  schools.  It  is  also  possible 
that  the  compiler  has  himself  attempted  here  and  there  to 
harmonize  to  a  certain  extent  the  various  Gnostic  doctrines,  yet 
in  no  case  is  this  collection  of  sources  given  by  Hippolytus  to  be 
passed  over;  it  should  rather  be  considered  as  important  evidence 
for  the  beginnings  of  the  decay  of  Gnosticism.  Very  noteworthy 
references  to  Gnosticism  are  also  to  be  found  scattered  up  and 
down  the  Stromateis  of  Clement  of  Alexandria.  Especially 
important  are  the  Excerpta  ex  Theodoto,  the  author  of  which  is 
certainly  Clement,  which  are  verbally  extracted  from  Gnostic 
writings,  and  have  almost  the  value  of  original  sources.  The 
writings  of  Origen  also  contain  a  wealth  of  material.  In  the 
first  place  should  be  mentioned  the  treatise  Contra  Celsum,  in 
which  the  expositions  of  Gnosticism  by  both  Origen  and  Celsus 
are  of  interest  (see  especially  v.  61  seq.  and  vi.  25  seq.).  Of 
Tertullian's  works  should  be  mentioned:  De  praescriptione 
haereticorum,  especially  Adversus  Marcionem,  Adversus  Hermo- 
genem,  and  finally  Adversus  Valenlinianos  (entirely  founded  on 
Irenaeus).  Here  must  also  be  mentioned  the  dialogue  of  Ada- 
mantius  with  the  Gnostics,  De  recta  in  deumfide  (beginning  of  4th 
century) .  Among  the  followers  of  Hippolytus,  Epiphanius  in  his 
Panarion  gives  much  independent  and  valuable  information 
from  his  own  knowledge  of  contemporary  Gnosticism.  But 
Theodoret  of  Cyrus  (d.  455)  is  already  entirely  dependent  on 
previous  works  and  has  nothing  new  to  add.  With  the  4th 
century  both  Gnosticism  and  the  polemical  literature  directed 
against  it  die  out.1 

III.  If  we  wish  to  grasp  the  peculiar  character  of  the  great 
Gnostic  movement,  we  must  take  care  not  to  be  led  astray  by 
the  catchword  "  Gnosis."  It  is  a  mistake  to  regard  the  Gnostics 
as  pre-eminently  therepresentativesof  intellectamongChristians, 
and  Gnosticism  as  an  intellectual  tendency  chiefly  concerned 
with  philosophical  speculation,  the  reconciliation  of  religion 
with  philosophy  and  theology.  It  is  true  that  when  Gnosticism 
was  at  its  height  it  numbered  amongst  its  followers  both  theo- 
logians and  men  of  science,  but  that  is  not  its  main  characteristic. 
Among  the  majority  of  the  followers  of  the  movement  "  Gnosis  " 
was  understood  not  as  meaning  "  knowledge  "  or  "  understand- 
ing," in  our  sense  of  the  word,  but  "  revelation."  These  little 
Gnostic  sects  and  groups  all  lived  in  the  conviction  that  they 

1  See  R.  A.  Lipsius,  Die  Quellen  der  dltesten  Ketzergcschichte  (1875) ; 
A.  Harnaek,  Zur  Quellenkritik  der  Geschichle  des  Gnosticismus  (1873) ; 
A.  Hilgenfeld,  Ketzergeschichte,  pp.  1-83;  Harnaek,  Geschichte  der 
altchristlich.  Literatur,  i.  171  seq.,  ii.  533  sea.,  712  seq.;  J.  Kunze, 
De  historiae  Gnostic,  fontibus  (1894).  On  the  Philosophumena  of 
Hippolytus  see  G.  Salmon,  the  cross-references  in  the  Philo- 
sophumena, Hermathena,  vol.  xi.  (1885)  p.  5389  seq.;  H.  Staehelin, 
Die  gnostischen  Quellen  Hippolyts,  Texte  und  Unters.  Bd.  vi.  Hft. 
3  (1890). 


possessed  a  secret  and  mysterious  knowledge,  in  no  way  accessible 
to  those  outside,  which  was  not  to  be  proved  or  propagated, 
but  believed  in  by  the  initiated,  and  anxiously  guarded  as  a 
secret.  This  knowledge  of  theirs  was  not  based  on  reflection, 
on  scientific  inquiry  and  proof,  but  on  revelation.  It  was 
derived  directly  from  the  times  of  primitive  Christianity;  from 
the  Saviour  himself  and  his  disciples  and  friends,  with  whom 
they  claimed  to  be  connected  by  a  secret  tradition,  or  else  from 
later  prophets,  of  whom  many  sects  boasted.  It  was  laid  down 
in  wonderful  mystic  writings,  which  were  in  the  possession  of  the 
various  circles  (Liechtenhahn,  Die  Ojfenbarung  im  Gnosticismus, 
1901). 

In  short,  Gnosticism,  in  all  its  various  sections,  its  form  and 
its  character,  falls  under  the  great  category  of  mystic  religions, 
which  were  so  characteristic  of  the  religious  life  of  decadent 
antiquity.  In  Gnosticism  as  in  the  other  mystic  religions  we 
find  the  same  contrast  of  the  initiated  and  the  uninitiated,  the 
same  loose  organization,  the  same  kind  of  petty  sectarianism 
and  mystery-mongering.  All  alike  boast  a  mystic  revelation 
and  a  deeply-veiled  wisdom.  As  in  many  mystical  religions, 
so  in  Gnosticism,  the  ultimate  object  is  individual  salvation, 
the  assurance  of  a  fortunate  destiny  for  the  soul  after  death. 
As  in  the  others,  so  in  this  the  central  object  of  worship  is  a 
redeemer-deity  who  has  already  trodden  the  difficult  way  which 
the  faithful  have  to  follow.  And  finally,  as  in  all  mystical 
religions,  so  here  too,  holy  rites  and  formulas,  acts  of  initiation 
and  consecration,  all  those  things  which  we  call  sacraments, 
play  a  very  prominent  part.  The  Gnostic  religion  is  full  of  such 
sacraments.  In  the  accounts  of  the  Fathers  we  find  less  about 
them;  yet  here  Irenaeus'  account  of  the  Marcosians  is  of  the 
highest  significance  (i.  21  seq.).  Much  more  material  is  to  be 
found  in  the  original  Gnostic  writings,  especially  in  the  Pistis- 
Sophia  and  the  two  books  of  leu,  and  again  in  the  Excerpta  ex 
Theodoto,  the  Acts  of  Thomas,  and  here  and  there  also  in  the 
pseudo-Clementine  writings.  Above  all  we  can  see  from  the 
original  sources  of  the  Mandaean  religion,  which  also  represents 
a  branch  of  Gnosticism,  how  great  a  part  the  sacraments  played 
in  the  Gnostic  sects  (Brandt,  Manddische  Religion,  p.  96  seq.). 
Everywhere  we  are  met  with  the  most  varied  forms  of  holy  rites 
— the  various  baptisms,  by  water,  by  fire,  by  the  spirit,  the 
baptism  for  protection  against  demons,  anointing  with  oil, 
sealing  and  stigmatizing,  piercing  the  ears,  leading  into  the 
bridal  chamber,  partaking  of  holy  food  and  drink.  Finally, 
sacred  formulas,  names  and  symbols  are  of  the  highest  import- 
ance among  the  Gnostic  sects.  We  constantly  meet  with  the 
idea  that  the  soul,  on  leaving  the  body,  finds  its  path  to  the 
highest  heaven  opposed  by  the  deities  and  demons  of  the  lower 
realms  of  heaven,  and  only  when  it  is  in  possession  of  the  names 
of  these  demons,  and  can  repeat  the  proper  holy  formula,  or  is 
prepared  with  the  right  symbol,  or  has  been  anointed  with  the 
holy  oil,  finds  its  way  unhindered  to  the  heavenly  home.  Hence 
the  Gnostic  must  above  all  things  learn  the  names  of  the  demons, 
and  equip  himself  with  the  sacred  formulas  and  symbols,  in 
order  to  be  certain  of  a  good  destiny  after  death.  The  exposition 
of  the  system  of  the  Ophites  given  by  Celsus  (in  Origen  vi.  25  seq.), 
and,  in  connexion  with  Celsus,  by  Origen,  is  particularly  instruc- 
tive on  this  point.  The  two  "  Coptic  leu  "  books  unfold  an 
immense  system  of  names  and  symbols.  This  system  again  was 
simplified,  and  as  the  supreme  secret  was  taught  in  a  single 
name  or  a  single  formula,  by  means  of  which  the  happy  possessor 
was  able  to  penetrate  through  all  the  spaces  of  heaven  (cf.  the 
name  "  Caulacau  "  among  the  Basilidians;  Irenaeus,  Adv.  haer. 
i.  24.  5,  and  among  other  sects).  It  was  taught  that  even  the 
redeemer-god,  when  he  once  descended  on  to  this  earth,  to  rise 
from  it  again,  availed  himself  of  these  names  and  formulas  on  his 
descent  and  ascent  through  the  world  of  demons.  Traces  of 
ideas  of  this  kind  are  to  be  met  with  almost  everywhere.  They 
have  been  most  carefully  collected  by  Anz  ( Ursprung  des  Gnosti- 
cismus, Texte  und  Unlersuchungen  xv.  4  passim)  who  would  see 
in  them  the  central  doctrine  of  Gnosticism. 

IV.  All  these  investigations  point  clearly  to  the  fact  that 
Gnosticism  belongs  to  the  group  of  mystical  religions.  We  must 


154 


GNOSTICISM 


now  proceed  to  define  more  exactly  the  peculiar  and  distinctive 
character  of  the  Gnostic  system.  The  basis  of  the  Gnostic 
religion  and  world-philosophy  lies  in  a  decided  Oriental  dualism. 
In  sharp  contrast  are  opposed  the  two  worlds  of  the  good  and  of 
the  evil,  the  divine  world  and  the  material  world  (iiXij),  the 
worlds  of  light  and  of  darkness.  In  many  systems  there  seems 
to  be  no  attempt  to  derive  the  one  world  from  the  other.  The 
true  Basilides  (<?.zO,  perhaps  also  Satornil,  Marcion  and  a  part 
of  his  disciples,  Bardesanes  and  others,  were  frankly  dualists. 
In  the  case  of  other  systems,  owing  to  the  inexactness  of  our 
information,  we  are  unable  to  decide;  the  later  systems  of 
Mandaeism  and  Manichaeanism,  so  closely  related  to  Gnosticism, 
are  also  based  upon  a  decided  dualism.  And  even  when  there 
is  an  attempt  at  reconciliation,  it  is  still  quite  clear  how  strong 
was  the  original  dualism  which  has  to  be  overcome.  Thus  the 
Gnostic  systems  make  great  use  of  the  idea  of  a  fall  of  the  Deity 
himself;  by  the  fall  of  the  Godhead  into  the  world  of  matter, 
this  matter,  previously  insensible,  is  animated  into  life  and 
activity,  and  then  arise  the  powers,  both  partly  and  wholly 
hostile,  who  hold  sway  over  this  world.  Such  figures  of  fallen 
divinities,  sinking  down  into  the  world  of  matter  are  those  of 
Sophia  (i.e.  Ahamoth)  among  the  Gnostics  (Ophites)  in 
the  narrower  sense  of  the  word,  the  Simoniani  (the  figure  of 
Helena),  the  Barbelognostics,  and  in  the  system  of  the  Pistis- 
Sophia  or  the  Primal  Man,  among  the  Naasseni  and  the  sect, 
related  to  them,  as  described  byHippolytus.1  A  further  weaken- 
ing of  the  dualism  is  indicated  when,  in  the  systems  of  the 
Valentinian  school,  the  fall  of  Sophia  takes  place  within  the 
godhead,  and  Sophia,  inflamed  with  love,  plunges  into  the  Bythos, 
the  highest  divinity,  and  when  the  attempt  is  thus  made  genetic- 
ally to  derive  the  lower  world  from  the  sufferings  and  passions 
of  fallen  divinity.  Another  attempt  at  reconciliation  is  set 
forth  in  the  so-called  "  system  of  emanations  "  in  which  it  is 
assumed  that  from  the  supreme  divinity  emanated  a  somewhat 
lesser  world,  from  this  world  a  second,  and  so  on,  until  the 
divine  element  (of  life)  became  so  far  weakened  and  attenuated, 
that  the  genesis  of  a  partly,  or  even  wholly,  evil  world  appears 
both  possible  and  comprehensible.  A  system  of  emanations 
of  this  kind,  in  its  purest  form,  is  set  forth  in  the  expositions 
coming  from  the  school  of  Basilides,  which  are  handed  down  by 
Irenaeus,  while  the  propositions  which  are  set  forth  in  the 
Philosophumena  of  Hippolytus  as  being  doctrines  of  Basilides 
represent  a  still  closer  approach  to  a  monistic  philosophy. 
Occasionally,  too,  there  is  an  attempt  to  establish  at  any  rate  a 
threefold  division  of  the  world,  and  to  assume  between  the 
worlds  of  light  and  darkness  a  middle  world  connecting  the  two; 
this  is  clearest  among  the  Sethiani  mentioned  by  Hippolytus 
(and  cf.  the  Gnostics  in  Irenaeus  i.  30.  i).  Quite  peculiar  in 
this  connexion  are  the  accounts  in  Books  xix.  and  xx.  of  the 
Clementine  Homilies.  After  a  preliminary  examination  of  all 
possible  different  attempts  at  a  solution  of  the  problem  of  evil, 
the  attempt  is  here  made  to  represent  the  devil  as  an  instrument 
of  God.  Christ  and  the  devil  are  the  two  hands  of  God,  Christ 
the  right  hand,  and  the  devil  the  left,  the  devil  having  power 
over  this  world-epoch  and  Christ  over  the  next.  The  devil  here 
assumes  very  much  the  characteristics  of  the  punishing  and  just 
God  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  the  prospect  is  even  held  out  of 
his  ultimate  pardon.  All  these  efforts  at  reconciliation  show 
how  clearly  the  problem  of  evil  was  realized  in  these  Gnostic 
and  half-Gnostic  sects,  and  how  deeply  they  meditated  on  the 
subject;  it  was  not  altogether  without  reason  that  in  the  ranks 
of  its  opponents  Gnosticism  was  judged  to  have  arisen  out  of  the 
question,  ir&Btv  TO  KO.KOV; 

This  dualism  had  not  its  origin  in  Hellenic  soil,  neither  is  it 
related  to  that  dualism  which  to  a  certain  extent  existed  also  in 
late  Greek  religion.  For  the  lower  and  imperfect  world,  which 
in  that  system  too  is  conceived  and  assumed,  is  the  .nebulous 
world  of  the  non-existent  and  the  formless,  which  is  the 

1  Cf.  the  same  idea  of  the  fall  of  mankind  in  the  pagan  Gnosticism 
of  "Poimandres";  see  Reitzenstein,  Poimandres  (1904);  and  the 
position  of  the  Primal  Man  (Urmensch)  among  the  Manichaeans  is 
similar. 


necessary  accompaniment  of  that  which  exists,  as  shadow  is  of 
light. 

In  Gnosticism,  on  the  contrary,  the  world  of  evil  is  full  of 
active  energy  and  hostile  powers.  It  is  an  Oriental  (Iranian) 
dualism  which  here  finds  expression,  though  in  one  point,  it  is 
true,  the  mark  of  Greek  influence  is  quite  clear.  When  Gnosticism 
recognizes  in  this  corporeal  and  material  world  the  true  seat  of 
evil,  consistently  treating  the  bodily  existence  of  mankind  as 
essentially  evil  and  the  separation  of  the  spiritual  from  the 
corporeal  being  as  the  object  of  salvation,  this  is  an  outcome 
of  the  contrast  in  Greek  dualism  between  spirit  and  matter,  soul 
and  body.  For  in  Oriental  (Persian)  dualism  it  is  within  this 
material  world  that  the  good  and  evil  powers  are  at  war,  and  this 
world  beneath  the  stars  is  by  no  means  conceived  as  entirely 
subject  to  the  influence  of  evil.  Gnosticism  has  combined  the 
two,  the  Greek  opposition  between  spirit  and  matter,  and  the 
sharp  Zoroastrian  dualism,  which,  where  the  Greek  mind  con- 
ceived of  a  higher  and  a  lower  world,  saw  instead  two  hostile 
worlds,  standing  in  contrast  to  each  other  like  light  and  darkness. 
And  out  of  the  combination  of  these  two  dualisms  arose  the 
teaching  of  Gnosticism,  with  its  thoroughgoing  pessimism  and 
fundamental  asceticism. 

Another  characteristic  feature  of  the  Gnostic  conception  of 
the  universe  is  the  r61e  played  in  almost  all  Gnostic  systems 
by  the  seven  world-creating  powers.  There  are  indeed  certain 
exceptions;  for  instance,  in  the  systems  of  the  Valentinian  schools 
there  is  the  figure  of  the  one  Demiurge  who  takes  the  place  of 
the  Seven.  But  how  widespread  was  the  idea  of  seven  powers, 
who  created  this  lower  material  world  and  rule  over  it,  has 
been  clearly  proved,  especially  by  the  systematic  examination 
of  the  subject  by  Anz  (Ursprung  des  Gnoslicismus) .  These 
Seven,  then,  are  in  most  systems  half-evil,  half-hostile  powers; 
they  are  frequently  characterized  as  "  angels,"  and  are  reckoned 
as  the  last  and  lowest  emanations  of  the  Godhead;  below  them 
— and  frequently  considered  as  derived  from  them — comes  the 
world  of  the  actually  devilish  powers.  On  the  other  hand,  among 
the  speculations  of  the  Mandaeans,  we  find  a  different  and  perhaps 
more  primitive  conception  of  the  Seven,  according  to  which 
they,  together  with  their  mother  Namrus  (Ruha)  and  their 
father  (Ur),  belong  entirely  to  the  world  of  darkness.  They 
and  their  family  are  looked  upon  as  captives  of  the  god  of  light 
(Manda-d'hayye,  Hibil-Ziva),  who  pardons  them,  sets  them  on 
chariots  of  light,  and  appoints  them  as  rulers  of  the  world 
(cf.  chiefly  Genza,  in  Traclat  6  and  8;  W.  Brandt,  Mandaische 
Schriften,  125  seq.  and  137  seq.;  Mandaische  Religion,  34  seq., 
&c.).  In  the  Manichaean  system  it  is  related  how  the  helper  of 
the  Primal  Man,  the  spirit  of  life,  captured  the  evil  archontes,  and 
fastened  them  to  the  firmament,  or  according  to  another  account, 
flayed  them,  and  formed  the  firmament  from  their  skin  (F.  C. 
Baur,  Dasmanichdische  Religionssystem,v.  65),  and  this  conception 
is  closely  related  to  the  other,  though  in  this  tradition  the  number 
(seven)  of  the  archontes  is  lost.  Similarly,  the  last  book  of  the 
Pislis-Sophia  contains  the  myth  of  the  capture  of  the  rebellious 
archontes,  whose  leaders  here  appear  as  five  in  number  (Schmidt, 
Koplisch-gnostische  Schriften,  p.  234  seq.).2  There  can  scarcely 
be  any  doubt  as  to  the  origin  of  these  seven  (five)  powers;  they 
are  the  seven  planetary  divinities,  the  sun,  moon  and  five  planets. 

In  the  Mandaean  speculations  the  Seven  are  introduced  with 
the  Babylonian  names  of  the  planets.  The  connexion  of  the 
Seven  with  the  planets  is  also  clearly  established  by  the  exposi- 
tions of  Celsus  and  Origen  (Contra  Celsum,  vi.  2  2  seq.)  and  similarly 
by  the  above-quoted  passage  in  the  Pislis-Sophia,  where  the 
archontes,  who  are  here  mentioned  as  five,  are  identified  with 
the  five  planets  (excluding  the  sun  and  moon).  This  collective 
grouping  of  the  seven  (five)  planetary  divinities  is  derived  from 
the  late  Babylonian  religion,  which  can  definitely  be  indicated 
as  the  home  of  these  ideas  (Zimmern,  Ketiinschriflen  in  dem 
alien  Testament,  ii.  p.  620  seq.;  cf.  particularly  Diodorus  ii.  30). 
And  if  in  the  old  sources  it  is  only  the  first  beginnings  of  this 
development  that  can  be  traced,  we  must  assume  that  at  a  later 

*  These  ideas  may  possibly  be  traced  still  further  back,  and  perhaps 
even  underlie  St  Paul's  exposition  in  Col.  ii.  15. 


GNOSTICISM 


period  the  Babylonian  religion  centred  in  the  adoration  of  the 
seven  planetary  deities.  Very  instructive  in  this  connexion 
is  the  later  (Arabian)  account  of  the  religion  of  the  Mesopotamian 
Sabaeans.  The  religion  of  the  Sabaeans,  evidently  a  later 
offshoot  from  the  stock  of  the  old  Babylonian  religion,  actually 
consists  in  the  cult  of  the  seven  planets  (cf.  the  great  work  of 
Daniel  Chwolsohn,  Die  Ssabier  u.  der  Ssabismus).  But  this 
reference  to  Babylonian  religion  does  not  solve  the  problem 
which  is  here  in  question.  For  in  the  Babylonian  religion  the 
planetary  constellations  are  reckoned  as  the  supreme  deities. 
And  here  the  question  arises,  how  it  came  about  that  in  the 
Gnostic  systems  the  Seven  appear  as  subordinate,  half-daemonic 
powers,  or  even  completely  as  powers  of  darkness.  This  can 
only  be  explained  on  the  assumption  that  some  religion  hostile 
to,  and  stronger  than  the  Babylonian,  has  superimposed  itself 
upon  this,  and  has  degraded  its  principal  deities  into  daemons. 
Which  religion  can  this  have  been  ?  We  are  at  first  inclined  to 
think  of  Christianity  itself,  but  it  is  certainly  most  improbable 
that  at  the  timeof  the  rise  of  Christianity  the  Babylonian  teaching 
about  the  seven  planet-deities  governing  the  world  should  have 
played  so  great  a  part  throughout  all  Syria,  Asia  Minor  and 
Egypt,  that  the  most  varying  sections  of  syncretic  Christianity 
should  over  and  over  again  adopt  this  doctrine  and  work  it  up 
into  their  system.  It  is  far  more  probable  that  the  combination 
which  we  meet  with  in  Gnosticism  is  older  than  Christianity, 
and  was  found  already  in  existence  by  Christianity  and  its  sects. 
We  must  also  reject  the  theory  that  this  degradation  of  the 
planetary  deities  into  daemons  is  due  to  the  influence  of  Hebrew 
monotheism,  for  almost  all  the  Gnostic  sects  take  up  a  definitely 
hostile  attitude  towards  the  Jewish  religion,  and  almost  always 
the  highest  divinity  among  the  Seven  is  actually  the  creator-God 
of  the  Old  Testament.  There  remains,  then,  only  one  religion 
which  can  be  used  as  an  explanation,  namely  the  Persian,  which 
in  fact  fulfils  all  the  necessary  conditions.  The  Persian  religion 
was  at  an  early  period  brought  into  contact  with  the  Babylonian, 
through  the  triumphant  progress  of  Persian  culture  towards 
the  West;  at  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great  it  was  already  the 
prevailing  religion  in  the  Babylonian  plain  (cf.  F.  Cumont, 
Textes  el  monuments  rel.  aux  mysteres  de  Miihra,  i.  5,  8-10,  14, 
223  seq.,  233).  It  was  characterized  by  a  main  belief,  tending 
towards  monotheism,  in  the  Light-deity  Ahuramazda  and  his 
satellites,  who  appeared  in  contrast  with  him  as  powers  of  the 
nature  of  angels. 

A  combination  of  the  Babylonian  with  the  Persian  religion 
could  only  be  effected  by  the  degradation  of  the  Babylonian 
deities  into  half-divine,  half-daemonic  beings,  infinitely  remote 
from  the  supreme  God  of  light  and  of  heaven,  or  even  into 
powers  of  darkness.  Even  the  characteristic  dualism  of  Gnostic- 
ism has  already  proved  to  be  in  part  of  Iranian  origin;  and  now 
it  becomes  clear  how  from  that  mingling  of  late  Greek  and 
Persian  dualism  the  idea  could  arise  that  these  seven  half- 
daemonic  powers  are  the  creators  or  rulers  of  this  material 
world,  which  is  separated  infinitely  from  the  light-world  of  the 
good  God.  Definite  confirmation  of  this  conjecture  is  afforded 
us  by  later  sources  of  the  Iranian  religion,  in  which  we  likewise 
meet  with  the  characteristic  fundamental  doctrine  of  Gnosticism. 
Thus  the  Bundahish  (iii.  25,  v.  i)  is  able  to  inform  us  that  in  the 
primeval  strife  of  Satan  against  the  light-world,  seven  hostile 
powers  were  captured  and  set  as  constellations  in  the  heavens, 
where  they  are  guarded  by  good  star-powers  and  prevented 
from  doing  harm.  Five  of  the  evil  powers  are  the  planets, 
while  here  the  sun  and  moon  are  of  course  not  reckoned  among 
the  evil  powers — for  the  obvious  reason  that  in  the  Persian 
official  religion  they  invariably  appear  as  good  divinities  (cf. 
similar  ideas  in  the  Arabic  treatise  on  Persian  religion  Ulema-i- 
Islam,  Vullers,  Fragmente  iiber  die  Religion  Zoroaslers,  p.  49, 
and  in  other  later  sources  for  Persian  religion,  put  together 
in  Spiegel,  Eranische  Alter  lumskunde,  Bd.  ii.  p.  180).  These 
Persian  fancies  can  hardly  be  borrowed  from  the  Christian 
Gnostic  systems,  their  definiteness  and  much  more  strongly 
dualistic  character  recalling  the  exposition  of  the  Mandaean 
(and  Manichaean)  system,  are  proofs  to  the  contrary.  They  are 


derived  from  the  same  period  in  which  the  underlying  idea 
of  the  Gnostic  systems  also  originated,  namely,  the  time  at  which 
the  ideas  of  the  Persian  and  Babylonian  religions  came  into 
contact,  the  remarkable  results  of  which  have  thus  partly  found 
their  way  into  the  official  documents  of  Parsiism. 

With  this  fundamental  doctrine  of  Gnosticism  is  connected, 
as  Anz  has  shown  in  his  book  which  we  have  so  often  quoted, 
a  side  of  their  religious  practices  to  which  we  have  already 
alluded.  Gnosticism  is  to  a  great  extent  dominated  by  the  idea 
that  it  is  above  all  and  in  the  highest  degree  important  for  the 
Gnostic's  soul  to  be  enabled  to  find  its  way  back  through  the 
lower  worlds  and  spheres  of  heaven  ruled  by  the  Seven  to  the 
kingdom  of  light  of  the  supreme  deity  of  heaven.  Hence,  a 
principal  item  in  their  religious  practice  consisted  in  communica- 
tions about  the  being,  nature  and  names  of  the  Seven  (or  of 
any  other  hostile  daemons  barring  the  way  to  heaven),  the 
formulas  with  which  they  must  be  addressed,  and  the  symbols 
which  must  be  shown  to  them.  But  names,  symbols  and 
formulas  are  not  efficacious  by  themselves:  the  Gnostic  must 
lead  a  life  having  no  part  in  the  lower  world  ruled  by  these 
spirits,  and  by  his  knowledge  he  must  raise  himself  above 
them  to  the  God  of  the  world  of  light.  Throughout  this  mystic 
religious  world  it  was  above  all  the  influence  of  the  late  Greek 
religion,  derived  from  Plato,  that  also  continued  to  operate; 
it  is  filled  with  the  echo  of  the  song,  the  first  note  of  which  was 
sounded  by  the  Platonists,  about  the  heavenly  home  of  the 
soul  and  the  homeward  journey  of  the  wise  to  the  higher  world 
of  light. 

But  the  form  in  which  the  whole  is  set  forth  is  Oriental,  and 
it  must  be  carefully  noted  that  the  Mithras  mysteries,  so  closely 
connected  with  the  Persian  religion,  are  acquainted  with  this 
doctrine  of  the  ascent  of  the  soul  through  the  planetary  spheres 
(Origen,  Contra  Celsum,  vi.  22). 

V.  We  cannot  here  undertake  to  set  forth  and  explain  in  detail 
all  the  complex  varieties  of  the  Gnostic  systems;  but  it  will 
be  useful  to  take  a  nearer  view  of  certain  principal  figures  which 
have  had  an  influence  upon  at  least  one  series  of  Gnostic  systems, 
and  to  examine  their  origins  in  the  history  of  religion.  In 
almost  all  systems  an  important  part  is  played  by  the  Great 
Mother  (/iijrTjp)  who  appears  under  the  most  varied  forms  (cf. 
GREAT  MOTHER  or  THE  GODS).  At  an  early  period,  and  notably 
in  the  older  systems  of  the  Ophites  (a  fairly  exact  account  of 
which  has  been  preserved  for  us  by  Epiphanius  and  Hippolytus) , 
among  the  Gnostics  in  the  narrower  sense  of  the  word,  the  Archon- 
tici,  the  Sethites  (there  are  also  traces  among  the  Naasseni, 
cf.  the  Philosophumena  of  Hippolytus),  the  nrjrrjp  is  the  most 
prominent  figure  in  the  light-world,  elevated  above  the  «/35o/ids, 
and  the  great  mother  of  the  faithful.  The  sect  of  the  Barbelo- 
gnostics  takes  its  name  from  the  female  figure  of  the  Barbelo 
(perhaps  a  corruption  of  HapOivos;  cf.  the  form  Bapflevois  for 
"  virgin  "  in  Epiphanius,  Haer.  xxvi.  i).  But  Gnostic  speculation 
gives  various  accounts  of  the  descent  or  fall  of  this  goddess  of 
heaven.  Thus  the  "  Helena  "  of  the  Simoniani  descends  to  this 
world  in  order  by  means  of  her  beauty  to  provoke  to  sensual 
passion  and  mutual  strife  the  angels  who  rule  the  world,  and 
thus  again  to  deprive  them  of  the  powers  of  light,  stolen  from 
heaven,  by  means  of  which  they  rule  over  the  world.  She  is 
then  held  captive  by  them  in  extreme  degradation.  Similar 
ideas  are  to  be  found  among  the  "  Gnostics  "  of  Epiphanius. 
The  kindred  idea  of  the  light-maiden,  who,  by  exciting  the  sensual 
passions  of  the  rulers  (apxoires),  takes  from  them  those  powers 
of  light  which  still  remain  to  them,  has  also  a  central  place 
in  the  Manichaean  scheme  of  salvation  (F.  C.  Baur,  Das  mani- 
chiiische  Religionssyslem,  pp.  219,  315,  321).  The  light-maiden 
also  plays  a  prominent  part  in  the  Pistis-Sophia  (cf.  the  index 
to  the  translation  by  C.  Schmidt).  With  this  figure  of  the  mother- 
goddess  who  descends  into  the  lower  world  seems  to  be  closely 
connected  the  idea  of  the  fallen  Sophia,  which  is  so  widespread 
among  the  Gnostic  systems.  This  Sophia  then  is  certainly 
no  longer  the  dominating  figure  of  the  light-world,  she  is  a  lower 
aeon  at  the  extreme  limit  of  the  world  of  light,  who  sinks  down 
into  matter  (Barbelognostics,  the  anonymous  Gnostic  of  Irenaeus, 


J56 


GNOSTICISM 


Bardesanes,  Pislis-Sophia) ,  or  turns  in  presumptuous  love  to- 
wards the  supreme  God  (BvOos),  and  thus  brings  the  Fall  into 
the  world  of  the  aeons  (Valentinians).  This  Sophia  then  appears 
as  the  mother  of  the  "  seven  "  gods  (see  above). 

The  origin  of  this  figure  is  not  far  to  seek.  It  is  certainly 
not  derived  from  the  Persian  religious  system,  to  the  spirit  of 
which  it  is  entirely  opposed.  Neither  would  it  be  correct  to 
identify  her  entirely  with  the  great  goddess  Ishtar  of  the  old 
Babylonian  religion.  But  there  can  hardly  be  any  doubt  that 
the  figure  of  the  great  mother-goddess  or  goddess  of  heaven, 
who  was  worshipped  throughout  Asia  under  various  forms  and 
names  (Astarte,  Beltis,  Atargatis,  Cybele,  the  Syrian  Aphrodite), 
was  the  prototype  of  the  juijrrjp  of  the  Gnostics  (cf.  GREAT 
MOTHER  OF  THE  GODS).  The  character  of  the  great* goddess  of 
heaven  is  still  in  many  places  fairly  exactly  preserved  in  the 
Gnostic  speculations.  Hence  we  are  able  to  understand  how  the 
Gnostic  urirnp,  the  Sophia,  appears  as  the  mother  of  the  Heb- 
domas  (ej35o/ias).  The  great  goddess  of  heaven  is  the  mother  of 
the  stars.  Particularly  instructive  in  this  connexion  is  the  fact 
that  in  those  very  sects,  in  the  systems  of  which  the  figure  of  the 
Wrrip  plays  a  special  part,  unbridled  prostitution  appears  as  a 
distinct  and  essential  part  of  the  cult  (cf.  the  accounts  of  par- 
ticular branches  of  the  Gnostics,  Nicolaitans,  Philionites,  Bor- 
borites,  &c.  in  Epiphanius,  Haer.  xxv.,  xxvi.).  The  meaning  of 
this  cult  is,  of  course,  reinterpreted  in  the  Gnostic  sense:  by  this 
unbridled  prostitution  the  Gnostic  sects  desired  to  prevent  the 
sexual  propagation  of  mankind,  the  origin  of  all  evil.  But  the 
connexion  is  clear,  and  hence  it  also  explained  the  curious  Gnostic 
myth  mentioned  above,  namely  that  the  nijrrip  (the  light-maiden) 
by  appearing  to  the  archontes  (apxocres),  the  lower  powers  of 
this  world,  inflames  them  to  sexual  lusts,  in  order  to  take  from 
them  that  share  of  light  which  they  have  stolen  from  the  upper 
world.  This  is  a  Gnostic  interpretation  of  the  various  myths  of 
the  great  mother-goddess's  many  loves  and  love-adventures  with 
other  gods  and  heroes.  And  when  the  pagan  legend  of  the  Syrian 
Astarte  tells  how  she  lived  for  ten  years  in  Tyre  as  a  prostitute, 
this  directly  recalls  the  Gnostic  myth  of  how  Simon  found 
Helena  in  a  brothel  in  Tyre  (Epiphanius,  Ancoralus,  c.  104). 
From  the  same  group  of  myths  must  be  derived  the  idea  of  the 
goddess  who  descends  to  the  under-world,  and  is  there  taken 
prisoner  against  her  will  by  the  lower  powers;  the  direct  proto- 
type of  this  myth  is  to  be  found,  e.g.  in  Ishtar's  journey  to  hell. 
And  finally,  just  as  the  mother-goddess  of  south-western  Asia 
stands  in  particularly  intimate  connexion  with  the  youthful 
god  of  spring  (Tammuz,  Adonis,  Attis),  so  we  ought  perhaps  to 
compare  here  as  a  parallel  the  relation  of  Sophia  with  the  Soter 
in  certain  Gnostic  systems  (see  below). 

Another  characteristic  figure  of  Gnosticism  is  that  of  the 
Primal  Man  (wpuros  avdponros).  In  many  systems,  certainly, 
it  has  already  been  forced  quite  into  the  background.  But  on 
closer  examination  we  can  clearly  see  that  it  has  a  wide  influence 
on  Gnosticism.  Thus  in  the  system  of  the  Naasseni  (see  Hip- 
poly  tus,  Philosophumena),  and  in  certain  related  sects  there 
enumerated,  the  Primal  Man  has  a  central  and  predominant 
position.  Again,  in  the  text  on  which  are  based  the  pseudo- 
Clementine  writings  (Recognitions,  i.  16,  32,  45-47,  52,  ii.  47;  and 
Homilies,  Hi.  17  seq.  xviii.  14),  as  in  the  closely  related  system 
of  the  Ebionites  in  Epiphanius  (Haer.  xxx.  3-16;  cf.  liii.  i),  we 
meet  with  the  man  who  existed  before  the  world,  the  prophet 
who  goes  through  the  world  in  various  forms,  and  finally  reveals 
himself  in  Christ.  Among  the  Barbelognostics  (Irenaeus  i. 
29.  3),  the  Primal  Man  (Adamas,  homo  perfectus  et  verus)  and 
Gnosis  appear  as  a  pair  of  aeons,  occupying  a  prominent  place 
in  the  whole  series.  In  the  Valentinian  systems  the  pair  of 
aeons,  Anthropos  and  Ekklesia,  occupy  the  third  or  fourth 
place  within  the  Oydods,  but  incidentally  we  learn  that  with 
some  representatives  of  this  school  the  Anthropos  took  a  still 
more  prominent  place  (first  or  second;  Hilgenfeld,  Ketzer- 
geschichte,  p.  294  seq.).  And  even  in  the  Pistis-Sophia  the 
Primal  Man  "  leu  "  is  frequently  alluded  to  as  the  King  of  the 
Luminaries  (cf.  index  to  C.  Schmidt's  translation).  We  also 
meet  with  speculations  of  this  kind  about  man  in  the  circles 


of  non-Christian  Gnosis.  Thus  in  the  Poimandres  of  Hermes 
man  is  the  most  prominent  figure  in  the  speculation;  numerous 
pagan  and  half-pagan  parallels  (the  "  Gnostics  "  of  Plotinus, 
Zosimus,  Bitys)  have  been  collected  by  Reitzenstein  in  his 
work  Poimandres  (pp.  81-116).  Reitzenstein  has  shown  (p. 
81  seq.)  that  very  probably  the  system  of  the  Naasseni  described 
by  Hippolytus  was  originally  derived  from  purely  pagan  circles, 
which  are  probably  connected  in  some  way  with  the  mysteries 
of  the  Attis  cult.  The  figure  in  the  Mandaean  system  most 
closely  corresponding  to  the  Primal  Man,  though  this  figure 
also  actually  occurs  in  another  part  of  the  system  (cf.  the  figure 
of  Adakas  Mana;  Brandt,  Mandaische  Religion,  p.  36  seq.)  is 
that  of  Manda  d'hayye  (yvuxns  rr\s  fo»?s;  cf.  the  pair  of  aeons, 
Adamas  and  Gnosis,  among  the  Barbelognostics,  in  Irenaeus 
i.  29.  3).  Finally,  in  the  Manichaean  system,  as  is  well  known, 
the  Primal  Man  again  assumes  the  predominant  place  (Baur, 
Manich.  Religionssystem,  49  seq.). 

This  figure  of  the  Primal  Man  can  particularly  be  compared 
with  that  of  the  Gnostic  Sophia.  Wherever  this  figure  has  not 
become  quite  obscure,  it  represents  that  divine  power  which, 
whether  simply  owing  to  a  fall,  or  as  the  hero  who  makes  war 
on,  and  is  partly  vanquished  by  darkness,  descends  into  the 
darkness  of  the  material  world,  and  with  whose  descent  begins 
the  great  drama  of  the  world's  development.  From  this  power 
are  derived  those  portions  of  light  existing  and  held  prisoner 
in  this  lower  world.  And  as  he  has  raised  himself  again  out  of 
the  material  world,  or  has  been  set  free  by  higher  powers,  so 
shall  also  the  members  of  the  Primal  Man,  the  portions  of 
light  still  imprisoned  in  matter,  be  set  free. 

The  question  of  the  derivation  of  the  myth  of  the  Primal 
Man  is  still  one  of  the  unsolved  problems  of  religious  history. 
It  is  worthy  of  notice  that  according  to  the  old  Persian  myth 
also,  the  development  of  the  world  begins  with  the  slaying  of 
the  primal  man  Gayomart  by  Angra-Mainyu  (Ahriman); 
further,  that  the  Primal  Man  ("son  of  man  "  =  man)  also 
plays  a  part  in  Jewish  apocalyptic  literature  (Daniel,  Enoch, 
iv.  Ezra),  whence  this  figure  passes  into  the  Gospels;  and  again, 
that  the  dogma  of  Christ's  descent  into  hell  is  directly  connected 
with  this  myth.  But  these  parallels  do  not  carry  us  much  further. 
Even  the  Persian  myth  is  entirely  obscure,  and  has  hitherto 
defied  interpretation.  It  is  certainly  true  that  in  some  way 
an  essential  part  in  the  formation  of  the  myth  has  been  played 
by  the  sun-god,  who  daily  descends  into  darkness,  to  rise  from 
it  again  victoriously.  But  how  to  explain  the  combination  of 
.the  figure  of  the  sun-god  with  that  of  the  Primal  Man  is  an 
unsolved  riddle.  The  meaning  of  this  figure  in  the  Gnostic 
speculations  is,  however,  clear.  It  answers  the  question:  how 
did  the  portions  of  light  to  be  found  in  this  lower  world,  among 
which  certainly  belong  the  souls  of  the  Gnostics,  enter  into  it? 

A  parallel  myth  to  that  of  the  Primal  Man  are  the  accounts 
to  be  found  in  most  of  the  Gnostic  systems  of  the  creation  of 
the  first  man.  In  all  these  accounts  the  idea  is  expressed  that 
so  far  as  his  body  is  concerned  man  is  the  work  of  the  angels 
who  created  the  world.  So  e.g.  Satornil  relates  (Irenaeus  i. 
24.  i)  that  a  brilliant  vision  appeared  from  above  to  the  world- 
creating  angels;  they  were  unable  to  hold  it  fast,  but  formed 
man  after  its  image.  And  as  the  man  thus  formed  was  unable 
to  move,  but  could  only  crawl  like  a  worm,  the  supreme  Power 
put  into  him  a  spark  of  life,  and  man  came  into  existence. 
Imaginations  of  the  same  sort  are  also  to  be  found,  e.g.  in  the 
genuine  fragments  of  Valentinus  (Hilgenfeld,  Ketzergeschichte, 
p.  293),  the  Gnostics  of  Irenaeus  i.  30.  6,  the  Mandaeans 
(Brandt,  Religion  der  Mandaer,  p.  36),  and  the  Manichaeans 
(Baur,  Religionssystem,  p.  118  seq.).  The  Naasseni  (Hippolytus, 
Philosophumena,  v.  7)  expressly  characterize  the  myth  •  as 
Chaldean  (cf.  the  passage  from  Zosimus,  in  Reitzenstein's 
Poimandres,  p.  104).  Clearly  then  the  question  which  the  myth 
of  the  Primal  Man  is  intended  to  answer  in  relation  to  the 
whole  universe  is  answered  in  relation  to  the  nature  of  man  by 
this  account  of  the  coming  into  being  of  the  first  man,  which 
may,  moreover,  have  been  influenced  by  the  account  in  the  Old 
Testament.  That  question  is:  how  does  it  happen  that  in  this 


GNOSTICISM 


157 


inferior  body  of  man,  fallen  a  prey  to  corruption,  there  dwells 
a  higher  spark  of  the  divine  Being,  or  in  other  words,  how  are 
we  to  explain  the  double  nature  of  man? 

VI.  Of  all  the  fundamental  ideas  of  Gnosticism  of  which  we 
have  so  far  treated,  it  can  with  some  certainty  be  assumed  that 
they  were  in  existence  before  the  rise  of  Christianity  and  the 
influence  of  Christian  ideas  on  the  development  of  Gnosticism. 
The  main  question  with  which  we  have  now  to  deal  is  that  of 
whether  the  dominant  figure  of  the  Saviour  (Sorri^p)  in  Gnosticism 
is  of  specifically  Christian  derivation,  or  whether  this  can  also 
be  explained  apart  from  the  assumption  of  Christian  influence. 
And  here  it  must  be  premised  that,  intimately  as  the  conception 
of  salvation  is  bound  up  with  the  Gnostic  religion,  the  idea  of 
salvation  accomplished  in  a  definite  historical  moment  to  a 
certain  extent  remained  foreign  to  it.     Indeed,  nearly  all   the 
Christian  Gnostic  systems  clearly  exhibit  the  great  difficulty 
with  which  they  had  to  contend  in  order  to  reconcile  the  idea 
of  an  historical  redeemer,  actually  occurring  in  the  form  of  a 
definite  person,  with  their  conceptions  of  salvation.  In  Gnosticism 
salvation  always  lies  at  the  root  of  all  existence  and  all  history. 
The  fundamental  conception  varies  greatly.     At  one  time  the 
Primal  Man,  who  sank  down  into  matter,  has  freed  himself 
and  risen  out  of  it  again,  and  like  him  his  members  will  rise  out 
of  darkness  into  the  light  (Poimandres);  at  another  time  the 
Primal  Man  who  was  conquered  by  the  powers  of  darkness 
has  been  saved  by  the  powers  of  light,  and  thus  too  all  his  race 
will  be  saved  (Manichaeism) ;  at  another  time  the  fallen  Sophia 
is  purified  by  her  passions  and  sorrows  and  has  found  her  Syzygos, 
the  Soter,  and  wedded  him,  and  thus  all  the  souls  of  the  Gnostics 
who  still  languish  in  matter  will  become  the  brides  of  the  angels 
of  the  Soter  (Valentin us).    In  fact  salvation,  as  conceived  in 
Gnosticism,  is  always  a  myth,  a  history  of  bygone  events,  an 
allegory  or  figure,  but  not  an  historical  event.     And  this  decision 
is  not  affected  by  the  fact  that  in  certain  Gnostic  sects  figured 
historical  personages  such  as  Simon   Magus  and   Menander. 
The  Gnostic  ideas  of  salvation  were  in  the  later  schools  and  sects 
transferred  to  these  persons  whom  we  must  consider  as  rather 
obscure  charlatans  and  miracle-mongers,  just  as  in  other  cases 
they  were  transferred  to  the  person  of  Christ.     The  "  Helena  " 
of  the  Simonian  system  was  certainly  not  an  historical  but  a 
mythical  figure.    This  explains  the  laborious  and  artificial  way 
in  which  the  person  of  Jesus  is  connected  in  many  Gnostic  systems 
with  the  original  Gnostic  conception  of  redemption.     In  this 
patchwork  the  joins  are  everywhere  still  clearly  to  be  recognized. 
Thus,  e.g.  in  the  Valentinian  system,  the  myth  of  the  fallen 
Sophia  and  the  Soter,  of  their  ultimate  union,  their  marriage 
and  their  70  sons  (Irenaeus  i.  4.   5;  Hippolytus,  Philos.  vi. 
34),  has  absolutely  nothing  to  do  with  the  Christian  conceptions 
of  salvation.  The  subject  is  here  that  of  a  high  goddess  of  heaven 
(she  has  70  sons)  whose  friend  and  lover  finds  her  in  the  misery 
of  deepest  degradation,  frees  her,  and  bears  her  home  as  his 
bride.     To  this  myth  the  idea  of  salvation  through  the  earthly 
Christ  can  only  be  attached  with  difficulty.    And  it  was  openly 
maintained  that  the  Soter  only  existed  for  the  Gnostic,  the 
Saviour  Jesus  who  appeared  on  earth  only  for  the  "  Psychicus  " 
(Irenaeus  i.  6.  i). 

VII.  Thus  the  essential  part  of  most  of  the  conceptions  of 
what  we  call  Gnosticism  was  already  in  existence  and  fully 
developed  before  the  rise  of  Christianity.   But  the  fundamental 
ideas 'of  Gnosticism  and  of  early  Christianity  had  a  kind  of 
magnetic  attraction   for  each  other.     What  drew  these  two 
forces  together  was  the  energy  exerted  by  the  universal  idea  of 
salvation    in    both    systems.     Christian    Gnosticism    actually 
introduced  only  one  new  figure  into  the  already  existing  Gnostic 
theories,  namely  that  of  the  historical  Saviour  Jesus  Christ. 
This  figure  afforded,  as  it  were,  a  new  point  of  crystallization 
for  the  existing  Gnostic  ideas,  which  now  grouped  themselves 
round  this  point  in  all  their  manifold  diversity.    Thus  there 
came  into  the  fluctuating  mass  a  strong  movement  and  formative 
impulse,  and  the  individual  systems  and  sects  sprang  up  like 
mushrooms  from  this  soil. 

It  must  now  be  our  task  to  make  plain  the  position  of  Gnosti- 


cism within  the  Christian  religion,  and  its  significance  for  the 
development  of  the  latter.  Above  all  the  Gnostics  represented 
and  developed  the  distinctly  anti-Jewish  tendency  in  Christianity. 
Paul  was  the  apostle  whom  they  reverenced,  and  his  spiritual 
influence  on  them  is  quite  unmistakable.  The  Gnostic  Marcion 
has  been  rightly  characterized  as  a  direct  disciple  of  Paul. 
Paul's  battle  against  the  law  and  the  narrow  national  conception 
of  Christianity  found  a  willing  following  in  a  movement,  the 
syncretic  origin  of  which  directed  it  towards  a  universal  religion. 
St  Paul's  ideas  were  here  developed  to  their  extremest  conse- 
quences, and  in  an  entirely  one-sided  fashion  such  as  was  far 
from  being  in  his  intention.  In  nearly  all  the  Gnostic  systems 
the  doctrine  of  the  seven  world-creating  spirits  is  given  an 
anti- Jewish  tendency,  the  god  of  the  Jews  and  of  the  Old 
Testament  appearing  as  the  highest  of  the  seven.  The  demiurge 
of  the  Valentinians  always  clearly  bears  the  features  of  the  Old 
Testament  creator-God. 

The  Old  Testament  was  absolutely  rejected  by  most 
of  the  Gnostics.  Even  the  so-called  Judaeo-Christian  Gnostics 
(Cerinthus),  the  Ebionite  (Essenian)  sect  of  the  Pseudo- 
Clementine  writings  (the  Elkesaites),  take  up  an  inconsistent 
attitude  towards  Jewish  antiquity  and  the  Old  Testament. 
In  this  repect  the  opposition  to  Gnosticism  led  to  a  reactionary 
movement.  If  the  growing  Christian  Church,  in  quite  a  different 
fashion  from  Paul,  laid  stress  on  the  literal  authority  of  the  Old 
Testament,  interpreted,  it  is  true,  allegorically;  if  it  took  up  a 
much  more  friendly  and  definite  attitude  towards  the  Old 
Testament,  and  gave  wider  scope  to  the  legal  conception  of 
religion,  this  must  be  in  part  ascribed  to  the  involuntary  reaction 
upon  it  of  Gnosticism. 

The  attitude  of  Gnosticism  to  the  Old  Testament  and  to  the 
creator-god  proclaimed  in  it  had  its  deeper  roots,  as  we  have 
already  seen,  in  the  dualism  by  which  it  was  dominated.  With 
this  dualism  and  the  recognition  of  the  worthlessness  and 
absolutely  vicious  nature  of  the  material  world  is  combined  a 
decided  spiritualism.  The  conception  of  a  resurrection  of  the 
body,  of  a  further  existence  for  the  body  after  death,  was  unattain- 
able by  almost  all  of  the  Gnostics,  with  the  possible  exception  of 
a  few  Gnostic  sects  dominated  by  Judaeo-Christian  tendencies. 
With  the  dualistic  philosophy  is  further  connected  an  attitude 
of  absolute  indifference  towards  this  lower  and  material  world, 
and  the  practice  of  asceticism.  Marriage  and  sexual  propagation 
are  considered  either  as  absolute  Evil  or  as  altogether  worthless, 
and  carnal  pleasure  is  frequently  looked  upon  as  forbidden. 
Then  again  asceticism  sometimes  changes  into  wild  libertinism. 
Here  again  Gnosticism  has  exercised  an  influence  on  the  develop- 
ment of  the  Church  by  way  of  contrast  and  opposition.  If  here 
a  return  was  made  to  the  old  material -view  of  the  resurrection 
(the  apostolic  dpaoracriJ  TI}S  crap/ais),  entirely  abandoning  the 
more  spiritual  conception  which  had  been  arrived  at  as  a  com- 
promise by  Paul,  this  is  probably  the  result  of  a  reaction  from 
the  views  of  Gnosticism.  It  was  just  at  this  point,  too,  that 
Gnosticism  started  a  development  which  was  followed  later  by 
the  Catholic  Church.  In  spite  of  the  rejection  of  the  ascetic 
attitude  of  the  Gnostics,  as  a  blasphemy  against  the  Creator, 
a  part  of  this  ascetic  principle  became  at  a  later  date  dominant 
throughout  all  Christendom.  And  it  is  interesting  to  observe 
how,  e.g.,  St  Augustine,  though  desperately  combating  the 
dualism  of  the  Manichaeans,  yet  afterwards  introduced  a  number 
of  dualistic  ideas  into  Christianity,  which  are  distinguishable 
from  those  of  Manichaeism  only  by  a  very  keen  eye,  and  even 
then  with  difficulty. 

The  Gnostic  religion  also  anticipated  other  tendencies.  As 
we  have  seen,  it  is  above  all  things  a  religion  of  sacraments  and 
mysteries.  Through  its  syncretic  origin  Gnosticism  introduced 
for  the  first  time  into  Christianity  a  whole  mass  of  sacramental, 
mystical  ideas,  which  had  hitherto  existed  in  it  only  in  its 
earliest  phases.  But  in  the  long  run  even  genuine  Christianity 
has  been  unable  to  free  itself  from  the  magic  of  the  sacraments; 
and  the  Eastern  Church  especially  has  taken  the  same  direction 
as  Gnosticism.  Gnosticism  was  also  the  pioneer  of  the  Christian 
Church  in  the  strong  emphasis  laid  on  the  idea  of  salvation  in 


iS8 


GNOSTICISM 


religion.  And  since  the  Gnostics  were  compelled  to  draw  the 
figure  of  the  Saviour  into  a  world  of  quite  alien  myths,  their 
Christology  became  so  complicated  in  character  that  it  frequently 
recalls  the  Christology  of  the  later  dogmatic  of  the  Greek  Fathers. 

Finally,  it  was  Gnosticism  which  gave  the  most  decided 
impulse  to  the  consolidation  of  the  Christian  Church  as  a  church. 
Gnosticism  itself  is  a  free,  naturally-growing  religion,  the  religion 
of  isolated  minds,  of  separate  little  circles  and  minute  sects. 
The  homogeneity  of  wide  circles,  the  sense  of  responsibility 
engendered  by  it,  and  continuity  with  the  past  are  almost 
entirely  lacking  in  it.  It  is  based  upon  revelation,  which  even 
at  the  present  time  is  imparted  to  the  individual,  upon  the  more 
or  less  convincing  force  of  the  religious  imagination  and  specula- 
tions of  a  few  leaders,  upon  the  voluntary  and  unstable  grouping 
of  the  schools  round  the  master.  Its  adherents  feel  themselves 
to  be  the  isolated,  the  few,  the  free  and  the  enlightened,  as 
opposed  to  the  sluggish  and  inert  masses  of  mankind  degraded 
into  matter,  or  the  initiated  as  opposed  to  the  uninitiated,  the 
Gnostics  as  opposed  to  the  "  Hylici  "  (v\iKoi);  at  most  in  the 
later  and  more  moderate  schools  a  middle  place  was  given  to 
the  adherents  of  the  Church  as  Psychici  (^uxiwi). 

This  freely-growing  Gnostic  religiosity  aroused  in  the  Church 
an  increasingly  strong  movement  towards  unity  and  a  firm 
and  inelastic  organization,  towards  authority  and  tradition.  An 
organized  hierarchy,  a  definitive  canon  of  the  Holy  Scriptures, 
a  confession  of  faith  and  rule  of  faith,  and  unbending  doctrinal 
discipline,  these  were  the  means  employed.  A  part  was  also 
played  in  this  movement  by  a  free  theology  which  arose  within 
the  Church,  itself  a  kind  of  Gnosticism  which  aimed  at  holding 
fast  whatever  was  good  in  the  Gnostic  movement,  and  obtaining 
its  recognition  within  the  limits  of  the  Church  (Clement  of 
Alexandria,  Origen).  But  the  mightiest  forces,  to  which  in  the 
end  this  theology  too  had  absolutely  to  give  way,  were  outward 
organization  and  tradition. 

It  must  be  considered  as  an  unqualified  advantage  for  the 
further  development  of  Christianity,  as  a  universal  religion,  that 
at  its  very  outset  it  prevailed  against  the  great  movement  of 
Gnosticism.  In  spite  of  the  fact  that  in  a  few  of  its  later  repre- 
sentatives Gnosticism  assumed  a  more  refined  and  spiritual 
aspect,  and  even  produced  blossoms  of  a  true  and  beautiful  piety, 
it  is  fundamentally  and  essentially  an  unstable  religious  syn- 
cretism, a  religion  in  which  the  determining  forces  were  a  fantastic 
oriental  imagination  and  a  sacramentalism  which  degenerated 
into  the  wildest  superstitions,  a  weak  dualism  fluctuating 
unsteadily  between  asceticism  and  libertinism.  Indirectly,  how- 
ever, Gnosticism  was  certainly  one  of  the  most  powerful  factors 
in  the  development  of  Christianity  in  the  ist  century. 

VIII.  This  sketch  may  be  completed  by  a  short  review  of  the 
various  separate  sects  and  their  probable  connexion  with  each 
other.  As  a  point  of  departure  for  the  history  of  the  develop- 
ment of  Gnosticism  may  be  taken  the  numerous  little  sects 
which  were  apparently  first  included  under  the  name  of  "  Gnos- 
tics "  in  the  narrower  sense.  Among  these  probably  belong  the 
Ophites  of  Celsus  (in  Origen),  the  many  little  sects  included  by 
Epiphanius  under  the  name  of  Nicolaitans  and  Gnostics  (Haer. 
25.  26);  the  Archontici  (Epiphanius,  Haer.  xl.),  Sethites  (Cain- 
ites)  should  also  here  be  mentioned,  and  finally  the  Carpocratians. 
Common  to  all  these  is  the  dominant  position  assumed  by  the 
"Seven"  (headed  by  laldabaoth);  the  heavenly  world  lying 
above  the  spheres  of  the  Seven  is  occupied  by  comparatively 
few  figures,  among  which  the  most  important  part  is  played  by 
the  firj-njp,  who  is  sometimes  enthroned  as  the  supreme 
goddess  in  heaven,  but  in  a  few  systems  has  already  descended 
from  there  into  matter,  been  taken  prisoner,  &c.  Numerous 
little  groups  are  distinguished  from  the  mass,  sometimes  by  one 
peculiarity,  sometimes  by  another.  On  the  one  hand  we  have 
sects  with  a  strongly  ascetic  tendency,  on  the  other  we  find  some 
characterized  by  unbridled  libertinism;  in  some  the  most 
abandoned  prostitution  has  come  to  be  the  most  sacred  mystery; 
in  others  again  appears  the  worship  of  serpents,  which  here 
appears  to  be  connected  in  various  and  often  very  loose  ways 
with  the  other  ideas  of  these  Gnostics — hence  the  names  of  the 


"  Ophites,"  "  Naasseni."  To  this  class  also  fundamentally 
belong  the  Simoniani,  who  have  included  the  probably  historical 
figure  of  Simon  Magus  in  a  system  which  seems  to  be  closely 
connected  with  those  we  have  mentioned,  especially  if  we  look 
upon  the  "  Helena  "  of  this  system  as  a  mythical  figure.  A 
particular  branch  of  the  "  Gnostic  "  sects  is  represented  by  those 
systems  in  which  the  figure  of  Sophia  sinking  down  into  matter 
already  appears.  To  these  belong  the  Barbelognostics  (in  the 
description  given  by  Irenaeus  the  figure  of  the  Spirit  takes  the 
place  of  that  of  Sophia),  and  the  Gnostics  whom  Irenaeus  (i.  30) 
describes  (cf.  Epiphanius,  Haer.  xxvi.).  And  here  may  best  be 
included  Bardesanes,  a  famous  leader  of  a  Gnostic  school  of 
the  end  of  the  2nd  century.  Most  scholars,  it  is  true,  following 
an  old  tradition,  reckon  Bardesanes  among  the  Valentinians. 
But  from  the  little  we  know  of  Bardesanes,  his  system  bears  no 
trace  of  relationship  with  the  complicated  Valentinian  system, 
but  is  rather  completely  derived  from  the  ordinary  Gnosticism, 
and  is  distinguished  from  it  apparently  only  by  its  more  strongly 
dualistic  character.  The  systems  of  Valentinus  and  his  disciples 
must  be  considered  as  a  further  development  of  what  we  have 
just  characterized  as  the  popular  Gnosticism,  and  especially  of 
that  branch  of  it  to  which  the  figure  of  Sophia  is  already  known. 
In  them  above  all  the  world  of  the  higher  aeons  is  further  ex- 
tended and  filled  with  a  throng  of  varied  figures.  They  also 
exhibit  a  variation  from  the  characteristic  dualism  of  Gnosticism 
into  monism,  in  their  conception  of  the  fall  of  Sophia  and  their 
derivation  of  matter  from  the  passions  of  the  fallen  Sophia.  The 
figures  of  the  Seven  have  here  entirely  disappeared,  the  remem- 
brance of  them  being  merely  preserved  in  the  name  of  the 
AT^IOUPYOS  («)35o/ids).  In  general,  Valentinianism  displays  a 
particular  resemblance  to  the  dominant  ideas  of  the  Church, 
both  in  its  complicated  Christology,  its  triple  division  of  mankind 
into  irvevfia.Ti.Koi,  \f/vxtKol  and  iiXixot,  and  its  far-fetched 
interpretation  of  texts.1  A  quite  different  position  from  those 
mentioned  above  is  taken  by  Basilides  (?.».).  From  what  little 
we  know  of  him  he  was  an  uncompromising  dualist.  Both  the 
systems  which  are  handed  down  under  his  name  by  Irenaeus  and 
Hippolytus,  that  of  emanations  and  the  monistic-evolutionary 
system,  represent  further  developments  of  his  ideas  with  a 
tendency  away  from  dualism  towards  monism.  Characteristic- 
ally, in  these  Basilidian  systems  the  figure  of  the  "  Mother  "  or 
of  Sophia  does  not  appear.  This  peculiarity  the  Basilidian 
system  shares  with  that  of  Satornil  of  Antioch,  which  has  only 
come  down  to  us  in  a  very  fragmentary  state,  and  in  other 
respects  recalls  in  many  ways  the  popular  Gnosticism.  By 
itself,  on  the  other  hand,  stands  the  system  preserved  for  us  by 
Hippolytus  in  the  Philosophumena  under  the  name  of  the 
Naasseni,  with  its  central  figure  of  "  the  Man,"  which,  as  we 
have  seen,  is  very  closely  related  with  certain  specifically  pagan 
Gnostic  speculations  which  have  come  down  to  us  (in  the  Poi- 
mandres,  in  Zosimus  and  Plotinus,  Ennead  ii.  9).  With  the 
Naasseni,  moreover,  are  related  also  the  other  sects  of  which 
Hippolytus  alone  gives  us  a  notice  in  his  Philosophumena 
(Docetae,  Perates,  Sethiani,  the  adherents  of  Justin,  the  Gnostic 
of  Monoimos).  Finally,  apart  from  all  other  Gnostics  stands 
Marcion.  With  him,  as  far  as  we  are  able  to  conclude  from  the 
scanty  notices  of  him,  the  manifold  Gnostic  speculations  are 
reduced  essentially  to  the  one  problem  of  the  good  and  the  just 
God,  the  God  of  the  Christians  and  the  God  of  the  Old  Testament. 
Between  these  two  powers  Marcion  affirms  a  sharp  and,  as  it 
appears,  originally  irreconcilable  dualism  which  with  him  rests 
moreover  on  a  speculative  basis.  Thanks  to  the  noble  simplicity 
and  specifically  religious  character  of  his  ideas,  Marcion  was 
able  to  found  not  only  schools,  but  a  community,  a  church  of 
his  own,  which  gave  trouble  to  the  Church  longer  than  any 
other  Gnostic  sect.  Among  his  disciples  the  speculative  and 
fantastic  element  of  Gnosticism  again  became  more  apparent. 
As  we  have  already  intimated,  Gnosticism  had  such  a  power 

1  For  the  disciples  of  Valentinus,  especially  Marcus,  after  whom 
was  named  a  separate  sect,  the  Marcosians,  with  their  Pythagorean 
theories  of  numbers  and  their  strong  tincture  of  the  mystical,  magic, 
and  sacramental,  see  VALENTINUS  AND  VALENTINIANS. 


GNU— GOA 


J59 


of  attraction  that  it  now  drew  within  its  limits  even  Judaeo- 
Christian  sects.  Among  these  we  must  mention  the  Judaeo- 
Christian  Gnostic  Cerinthus,  also  the  Gnostic  Ebionites,  ol 
whom  Epiphanius  (Haer.)  gives  us  an  account,  and  whose  writings 
are  to  be  found  in  a  recension  in  the  collected  works  of  the 
Pseudo-Clementine  Recognitions  and  Homilies;  to  the  same  class 
belong  the  Elkesaites  with  their  mystical  scripture,  the  Elxai 
extracts  of  which  are  given  by  Hippolytus  in  the  Philos.  (ix.  13). 
Later  evidence  of  the  decadence  of  Gnosticism  occurs  in  the 
Pistis-Sophia  and  the  Coptic  Gnostic  writings  discovered  and 
edited  by  Schmidt.  In  these  confused  records  of  human  imagina- 
tion gone  mad,  we  possess  a  veritable  herbarium  of  all  possible 
Gnostic  ideas,  which  were  once  active  and  now  rest  peacefully 
side  by  side.  None  the  less,  the  stream  of  the  Gnostic  religion 
is  not  yet  dried  up,  but  continues  on  its  way;  and  it  is  beyond 
a  doubt  that  the  later  Mandaeanism  and  the  great  religious 
movement  of  Mani  are  most  closely  connected  with  Gnosticism. 
These  manifestations  are  all  the  more  characteristic  since  in 
them  we  meet  with  a  Gnosticism  which  remained  essentially 
more  untouched  by  Christian  influences  than  the  Gnostic 
systems  of  the  2nd  century  A.D.  Thus  these  systems  throw  an 
important  light  on  the  past,  and  a  true  perception  of  the  nature 
and  purpose  of  Gnosticism  is  not  to  be  obtained  without  taking 
them  into  consideration. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — A.  Neander,  Genetische  Entwicklung  d.  vornehm- 
slen  gnostischen  Systeme  (Berlin,  1818);  F.  Chr.  Baur,  Die  christl. 
Gnosis  in  ihrer  geschichtl.  Entwicklung  (Tubingen,  1835);  E.  W. 
M  oiler,  Gesch.  der  Kosmologie  in  der  griechischen  Kirche  bis  Origenes 
(Halle,  1860);  R.  A.  Lipsius,  Der  Gnosticismus  (Leipzig,  1860; 
originally  in  Ersch  and  Gruber's  Encyclopddie) ;  H.  L.  Mansel, 
The  Gnostic  Heresies  of  the  ist  and  2nd  Centuries  (London,  1875); 
K.  Kepler,  Uber  Gnosis  und  altbabylonische  Religion,  a  lecture 
delivered  at  the  Congress  of  Orientalists  (Berlin,  1881);  A.  Hilgen- 
feld,  Ketzergeschichte  des  Urchristentums  (Leipzig,  188.4);  and  in 
Ztschr.  fur  wissenschafli.  Theol,  1890,  i.  "Der  Gnosticismus"; 
A.  Harnack,  Dogmengeschichte,  i.  271  seq.  (cf.  the  corresponding 
sections  of  the  Dogmengeschichten  of  Loofs  and  Seeberg);  W.  Anz, 
"  Zur  Frage  nach  dem  Ursprung  des  Gnosticismus,"  Texte  u.  Unter- 
suchungen,  xv.  4  (Leipzig,  1897);  R.  Liechtenhahn,  Die  Offenbarung 
im  Gnosticismus  (Gottingen,  1901);  C.  Schmidt,  "  Plotins  Stellung 
zum  Gnosticismus  u.  kirchl.  Christentum "  Texte  u.  Untersuch. 
xx.  4  (1902) ;  E.  de  Faye,  Introduction  a  I' etude  du  Gnosticisme  (Paris, 
1903);  R.  Reitzenstem,  Poimandres  (Leipzig,  1904);  G.  Kriiger, 
article  "  Gnosticismus  "  in  Herzog-Hauck's  Realencyklopadie  (3rd 
ed.)  vi.  728  ff. ;  Bousset,  "  Hauptprobleme  der  Gnosis,"  Forschungen 
z.  Relig.  u.  Lit.  d.  alien  u.  neuen  Testaments,  10  (1907) ;  T.  Wendland, 
Hellenistisch-romische  Kultur  in  ihren  Beziehungen  zu  Judentum 
und  Christentum  (1907),  p.  161  seq.  See  further  among  important 
monographs  on  the  individual  Gnostic  systems,  R.  A.  Lipsius, 
"  Die  pphitischen  Systeme,"  Ztschr.  f.  wissensch.  Theologie  (1863); 
G.  Heinrici,  Die  valentinianische  Gnosis  u.  d.  Heilige  Schrift  (Berlin, 
1871);  A.  Merx,  Bardesanes  von  Edessa  (Halle,  1863);  A.  Hilgenfeld, 
Bardesanes,  der  letzte  Gnostiker  (Leipzig,  1864);  A.  Harnack,  "  Cber 
das  gnostische  Buch  Pistis-Sophia,"  Texte  u.  Untersuch.  vii.  2; 
C.  Schmidt,  "  Gnostische  Schriften,"  Texte  u.  Untersuch.  viii.  I,  2; 
and  also  the  works  mentioned  under  §  II.  of  this  article.  (W.  Bo.) 


White-tailed  Gnu,  or  Black  Wildebeest  (Connochaetes  gnu). 


GNU,  the  Hottentot  name  for  the  large  white-tailed  South 
African  antelope  (q.v.),  now  nearly  extinct,  know  to  the  Boers 
as  the  black  wildebeest,  and  to  naturalists  as  Connochaetes  (or 
Catoblepas)  gnu.  A  second  and  larger  species  is  the  brindled 
gnu  or  blue  wildebeest  (C.  taurinus  or  Catoblepas  gorgon),  also 
known  by  the  Bechuana  name  kokon  or  kokoon;  and  there  are 
several  East  African  forms  more  or  less  closely  related  to  the 
latter  which  have  received  distinct  names. 

GO,  or  GO-BANG  (Jap.  Go-ban,  board  for  playing  Go),  a  popular 
table  game.  It  is  of  great  antiquity,  having  been  invented  in 
Japan,  according  to  tradition,  by  the  emperor  Yao,  2350  B.C., 
but  it  is  probably  of  Chinese  origin.  According  to  Falkener  the 
first  historical  mention  of  it  was  made  about  the  year  300  B.C., 
but  there  is  abundant  evidence  that  it  was  a  popular  game 
long  before  that  period.  The  original  Japanese  Go  is  played  on 
a  board  divided  into  squares  by  19  horizontal  and  19  vertical 
lines,  making  361  intersections,  upon  which  the  flat  round  men, 
181  white  and  181  black,  are  placed  one  by  one  as  the  game 
proceeds.  The  men  are  placed  by  the  two  players  on  any  inter- 
sections (me)  that  may  seem  advantageous,  the  object  being  to 
surround  with  one's  men  as  many  unoccupied  intersections  as 
possible,  the  player  enclosing  the  greater  number  of  vacant 
points  being  the  winner.  Completely  surrounded  men  are 
captured  and  removed  from  the  board.  This  game  is  played  in 
England  upon  a  board  divided  into  361  squares,  the  men  being 
placed  upon  these  instead  of  upon  the  intersections. 

A  much  simpler  variety  of  Go,  mostly  played  by  foreigners, 
has  for  its  object  to  get  five  men  into  line.  This  may  have  been 
the  earliest  form  of  the  game,  as  the  word  go  means  five.  Except 
in  Japan  it  is  often  played  on  an  ordinary  draughts-board,  and 
the  winner  is  he  who  first  gets  five  men  into  line,  either  vertically, 
horizontally  or  diagonally. 

See  Go-Bang,  by  A.  Howard  Cady,  in  Spalding's  Home  Library 
(New  York,  i8g6);Games  Ancient  and  Oriental,  by  Edward  Falkener 
(London,  1892);  Das  japan.-chinesische  Spiel  Go,  by  O.  Korschelt 
(Yokohama,  1881);  Das  Nationalspiel  der  Japanesen,  by  G.  Schurie 
(Leipzig,  1888). 

GOA,  the  name  of  the  past  and  present  capitals  of  Portuguese 
India,  and  of  the  surrounding  territory  more  exactly  described 
as  Goa  settlement,  which  is  situated  on  the  western  coast  of 
India,  between  15°  44'  and  14°  53'  N.,  and  between  73°  45'  and 
74°  26'  E.  Pop.  (1900)  475,513,  area  1301  sq.  m. 

Goa  Settlement. — With  Damaun  (q.v.)  and  Diu  (q.v.)  Goa 
settlement  forms  a  single  administrative  province  ruled  by  a 
governor-general,  and  a  single  ecclesiastical  province  subject 
to  the  archbishop  of  Goa;  for  judicial  purposes  the  province 
includes  Macao  in  China,  and  Timor  in  the  Malay  Archipelago. 
It  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  river  Terakhul  or  Araundem, 
which  divides  it  from  the  Sawantwari  state,  E.  by  the  Western 
Ghats,  S.  by  Kanara  district,  and  W.  by  the  Arabian  Sea.  It 
comprises  the  three  districts  of  Ilhas,  Bardez  and  Salsette, 
conquered  early  in  the  i6th  century  and  therefore  known  as  the 
Velhas  Conquistas  (Old  Conquests),  seven  districts  acquired 
later  and  known  as  the  Novas  Conquistas,  and  the  island  of 
Anjidiv  or  Anjadiva.  The  settlement,  which  has  a  coast-line 
of  62  m.,  is  a  hilly  region,  especially  the  Novas  Conquistas;  its 
distinguishing  features  are  the  Western  Ghats,  though  the  highest 
summits  nowhere  reach  an  altitude  of  4000  ft.,  and  the  island 
of  Goa.  Numerous  short  but  navigable  rivers  water  the  lowlands 
skirting  the  coast.  The  two  largest  rivers  are  the  Mandavi  and 
:he  Juari,  which  together  encircle  the  island  of  Goa  (Ilhas), 
icing  connected  on  the  landward  side  by  a  creek.  The  island 
[native  name  TisvadI,  Tissuvaddy,  Tissuary)  is  a  triangular 
;erritory,  the  apex  of  which,  called  the  cabo  or  cape,  is  a  rocky 
icadland  separating  the  harbour  of  Goa  into  two  anchorages — 
Agoada  or  Aguada  at  the  mouth  of  the  Mandavi,  on  the  north, 
and  Mormugao  or  Marmagao  at  the  mouth  of  the  Juari,  on  the 
south.  The  northern  haven  is  exposed  to  the  full  force  of  the 
south-west  monsoon,  and  is  liable  to  silt  up  during  the  rains. 
The  southern,  sheltered  by  the  promontory  of  Salsette,  is  always 
open,  but  is  less  used,  owing  to  its  greater  distance  from  the  city 
of  Goa,  which  is  built  on  the  island.  A  railway  connects  Mor- 
magao,  south  of  the  Juari  estuary,  with  Castle  Rock  on  the 


i6o 


GOA 


Western  Ghats.  Goa  imports  textiles  and  foodstuffs,  and  exports 
coco-nuts,  areca-nuts,  spices,  fish,  poultry  and  timber.  Its 
trade  is  carried  on  almost  entirely  with  Bombay,  Madras, 
Kathiawar  and  Portugal.  Manganese  is'mined  in  large  quantities, 
some  iron  is  obtained,  and  other  products  are  salt,  palm-spirit, 
betel  and  bananas. 

Cities  of  Goa. — i.  The  ancient  Hindu  city  of  Goa,  of  which 
hardly  a  fragment  survives,  was  built  at  the  southernmost  point 
of  the  island,  and  was  famous  in  early  Hindu  legend  and  history 
for  its  learning,  wealth  and  beauty.  In  the  Puranas  and  certain 
inscriptions  its  name  appears  as  Gove,  Govapurl,  Gomant,  &c. ; 
the  medieval  Arabian  geographers  knew  it  as  Sindabur  or  Sanda- 
bur,  and  the  Portuguese  as  Goa  Velha.  It  was  ruled  by  the 
Kadamba  dynasty  from  the  2nd  century  A.D.  to  1312,  and  by 
Mahommedan  invaders  of  the  Deccan  from  1312  until  about 
1370,  during  which  period  it  was  visited  and  described  by  Ibn 
Batuta.  It  was  then  annexed  to  the  Hindu  kingdom  of 
Vijayanagar,  of  which,  according  to  Ferishta,  it  still  formed  part 
in  1469,  when  it  was  conquered  by  the  Bahmani  sultan  of  the 
Deccan;  but  two  of  the  best  Portuguese  chroniclers  state  that 
it  became  independent  in  1440,  when  the  second  city  (Old  Goa) 
was  founded. 

2.  Old  Goa  is,  for  the  most  part,  a  city  of  ruins  without 
inhabitants  other  than  ecclesiastics  and  their  dependents.     The 
chief  surviving  buildings  are  the  cathedral,  founded  by  Albu- 
querque in  1511  to  commemorate  his  entry  into  Goa  on  St 
Catherine's  day  1510,  and  rebuilt  in  1623,  and  still  used  for 
public  worship;  the  convent  of  St  Francis  (1517),  a  converted 
mosque  rebuilt  in  1661,  with  a  portal  of  carved  black  stone, 
which  is  the  only  relic  of  Portuguese  architecture  in  India  dating 
from  the  first  quarter  of  the  i6th  century;  the  chapel  of  St 
Catherine   (1551);  the  church  of  Bom  Jesus   (1594-1603),  a 
superb  example  of  Renaissance  architecture  as  developed  by  the 
Jesuits,   containing   the   magnificent   shrine  and   tomb   of   St 
Francis  Xavier  (see  XAVIER,  FRANCISCO  DE)  ;  and  the  1 7th-century 
convents  of  St  Monica  and  St  Cajetan.    The  college  of  St  Paul 
(see  below)  is  in  ruins. 

3.  Panjim,  Pangim  or  New  Goa  originally  a  suburb  of  Old 
Goa,  is,  like  the  parent  city,  built  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Mandavi 
estuary,  in  15°  30'  N.  and  73°  33'  E.     Pop.  (1901)  9500.     It  is 
a  modern  port  with  few  pretensions  to  architectural  beauty. 
Ships  of  the  largest  size  can  anchor  in  the  river,  but  only  small 
vessels  can  load  or  discharge  at  the  quay.     Panjim  became  the 
residence  of  the  viceroy  in  1759  and  the  capital  of  Portuguese 
India  in  1843.     It  possesses  a  lyceum,  a  school  for  teachers,  a 
seminary,  a  technical  school  and  an  experimental  agricultural 
station. 

Political  History. — With  the  subdivision  of  the  Bahmani 
kingdom,  after  1482,  Goa  passed  into  the  power  of  Yusuf  Adil 
Shah,  king  of  Bijapur,  who  was  its  ruler  when  the  Portuguese 
first  reached  India.  At  this  time  Goa  was  important  as  the 
starting-point  of  pilgrims  from  India  to  Mecca,  as  a  mart  with 
no  rival  except  Calicut  on  the  west  coast,  and  especially  as  the 
centre  of  the  import  trade  in  horses  (Gulf  Arabs)  from  Hormuz, 
the  control  of  which  was  a  vital  matter  to  the  kingdoms  warring 
in  the  Deccan.  It  was  easily  defensible  by  any  power  with 
command  of  the  sea,  as  the  encircling  rivers  could  only  be  forded 
at  one  spot,  and  had  been  deliberately  stocked  with  crocodiles. 
It  was  attacked  on  the  loth  of  February  1510  by  the  Portuguese 
under  Albuquerque.  As  a  Hindu  ascetic  had  foretold  its  downfall 
and  the  garrison  of  Ottoman  mercenaries  was  outnumbered, 
the  city  surrendered  without  a  struggle,  and  Albuquerque  entered 
it  in  triumph,  while  the  Hindu  townsfolk  strewed  filagree  flowers 
of  gold  and  silver  before  his  feet.  Three  months  later  Yusuf 
Adil  Shah  returned  with  60,000  troops,  forced  the  passage  of  the 
ford,  and  blockaded  the  Portuguese  in  their  ships  from  May  to 
August,  when  the  cessation  of  the  monsoon  enabled  them  to  put 
to  sea.  In  November  Albuquerque  returned  with  a  larger  force, 
and  after  overcoming  a  desperate  resistance,  recaptured  the  city, 
permitted  his  soldiers  to  plunder  it  for  three  days,  and  massacred 
the  entire  Mahommedan  population. 

Goa  was  the  first  territorial  possession  of  the  Portuguese  in 


Asia.  Albuquerque  intended  it  to  be  a  colony  and  a  naval  base, 
as  distinct  from  the  fortified  factories  which  had  been  established 
in  certain  Indian  seaports.  He  encouraged  his  men  to  marry 
native  women,  and  to  settle  in  Goa  as  farmers,  retail  traders  or 
artisans.  These  married  men  soon  became  a  privileged  caste, 
and  Goa  acquired  a  large  Eurasian  population.  Albuquerque 
and  his  successors  left  almost  untouched  the  customs  and  con- 
stitutions of  the  30  village  communities  on  the  island,  only 
abolishing  the  rite  of  suttee.  A  register  of  these  customs  (Foral 
de  usos  e  costumes)  was  published  in  1526,  and  is  an  historical 
document  of  much  value;  an  abstract  of  it  is  given  in  R.  S. 
Whiteway's  Rise  of  the  Portuguese  Empire  in  India  (London, 
1898). 

Goa  became  the  capital  of  the  whole  Portuguese  empire  in  the 
East.  It  was  granted  the  same  civic  privileges  as  Lisbon.  Its 
senate  or  municipal  chamber  maintained  direct  communications 
with  the  king  and  paid  a  special  representative  to  attend  to  its 
interests  at  court.  In  1563  the  governor  even  proposed  to  make 
Goa  the  seat  of  a  parliament,  in  which  all  parts  of  the  Portuguese 
east  were  to  be  represented;  this  was  vetoed  by  the  king. 

In  1542  St  Francis  Xavier  mentions  the  architectural  splendour 
of  the  city;  but  it  reached  the  climax  of  its  prosperity  between 
1575  and  1625.  Goa  Dourada,  or  Golden  Goa,  was  then  the 
wonder  of  all  travellers,  and  there  was  a  Portuguese  proverb, 
"  He  who  has  seen  Goa  need  not  see  Lisbon."  Merchandise  from 
all  parts  of  the  East  was  displayed  in  its  bazaar,  and  separate 
streets  were  set  aside  for  the  sale  of  different  classes  of  goods — 
Bahrein  pearls  and  coral,  Chinese  porcelain  and  silk,  Portuguese 
velvet  and  piece-goods,  drugs  and  spices  from  the  Malay  Archi- 
pelago. In  the  main  street  slaves  were  sold  by  auction.  The 
houses  of  the  rich  were  surrounded  by  gardens,  and  palm  groves; 
they  were  built  of  stone  and  painted  red  or  white.  Instead  of 
glass,  their  balconied  windows  had  thin  polished  oyster-shells  set 
in  lattice-work. 

The  social  life  of  Goa  was  brilliant,  as  befitted  the  headquarters 
of  the  viceregal  court,  the  army  and  navy,  and  the  church;  but 
the  luxury  and  ostentation  of  all  classes  had  become  a  byword 
before  the  end  of  the  i6th  century.  Almost  all  manual  labour  was 
done  by  slaves;  common  soldiers  assumed  high-sounding  titles, 
and  it  was  even  customary  for  the  poor  noblemen  who  congregated 
together  in  boarding-houses  to  subscribe  for  a  few  silken  cloaks,  a 
silken  umbrella  and  a  common  man-servant,  so  that  each  could 
take  his  turn  to  promenade  the  streets,  fashionably  attired  and 
with  a  proper  escort.  There  were  huge  gambling  saloons, 
licensed  by  the  municipality,  where  determined  players  lodged 
for  weeks  together;  and  every  form  of  vice,  except  drunkenness, 
was  practised  by  both  sexes,  although  European  women  were 
forced  to  lead  a  kind  of  zenana  life,  and  never  ventured  unveiled 
into  the  streets;  they  even  attended  at  church  in  their  palanquins, 
so  as  to  avoid  observation. 

The  appearance  of  the  Dutch  in  Indian  waters  was  followed  by 
the  gradual  ruin  of  Goa.  In  1603  and  1639  the  city  was  blockaded 
by  Dutch  fleets,  though  never  captured,  and  in  1635  it  was 
ravaged  by  an  epidemic.  Its  trade  was  gradually  monopolized 
by  the  Jesuits.  Thevenot  in  1666,  Baldaeus  in  1672,  Fryer  in 
1675  describe  its  ever-increasing  poverty  and  decay.  In  1683  only 
the  timely  appearance  of  a  Mogul  army  saved  it  from  capture  by 
a  horde  of  Mahratta  raiders,  and  in  1739  the  whole  territory  was 
attacked  by  the  same  enemies,  and  only  saved  by  the  unexpected 
arrival  of  a  new  viceroy  with  a  fleet.  This  peril  was  always 
imminent  until  1759,  when  a  peace  with  the  Mahrattas  was  con- 
cluded. In  the  same  year  the  proposal  to  remove  the  seat  of 
government  to  Panjim  was  carried  out ;  it  had  been  discussed  as 
early  as  1684.  Between  1695  and  1775  the  population  dwindled 
from  20,000  to  1600,  and  in  1835  Goa  was  only  inhabited  by  a  few 
priests,  monks  and  nuns. 

Ecclesiastical  History. — Some  Dominican  friars  came  out  to 
Goa  in  1510,  but  no  large  missionary  enterprise  was  undertaken 
before  the  arrival  of  the  Franciscans  in  1517.  From  their  head- 
quarters in  Goa  the  Franciscan  preachers  visited  many  parts  of 
western  India,  and  even  journeyed  to  Ceylon,  Pegu  and  the 
Malay  Archipelago.  For  nearly  twenty-five  years  they  carried  on 


GOAL— GOAT 


161 


the  work  of  evangelization  almost  alone,  with  such  success  that  in 
1 534  Pope  Paul  III.  made  Goa  a  bishopric,  with  spiritual  jurisdic- 
tion over  all  Portuguese  possessions  between  China  and  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope,  though  itself  suffragan  to  the  archbishopric  of 
Funchal  in  Madeira.  A  Franciscan  friar,  Joao  de  Albuquerque, 
came  to  Goa  as  its  first  bishop  in  1538.  In  1542  St  Francis 
Xavier  came  to  Goa,  and  took  over  the  Franciscan  college  of 
Santa  Fe,  for  the  training  of  native  missionaries;  this  was  re- 
named the  College  of  St  Paul,  and  became  the  headquarters  of  all 
Jesuit  missions  in  the  East,  where  the  Jesuits  were  commonly 
styled  Paulislas.  By  a  Bull  dated  the  4th  of  February  1557 
Goa  was  made  an  archbishopric,  with  jurisdiction  over  the  sees  of 
Malacca  and  Cochin,  to  which  were  added  Macao  (1575)1  Japan 
(1588),  Angamale  or  Cranganore  (1600),  Meliapur  (Mylapur) 
(1606),  Peking  and  Nanking  (1610),  together  with  the  bishopric  of 
Mozambique,  which  included  the  entire  coast  of  East  Africa.  In 
1606  the  archbishop  received  the  title  of  Primate  of  the  East,  and 
the  king  of  Portugal  was  named  Patron  of  the  Catholic  Missions 
in  the  East ;  his  right  of  patronage  was  limited  by  the  Concordat 
of  1857  to  Goa,  Malacca,  Macao  and  certain  parts  of  British  India. 
The  Inquisition  was  introduced  into  Goa  in  1560:  a  vivid 
account  of  its  proceedings  is  given  by  C.  Dellon,  Relation  de 
['inquisition  de  Goa  (1688).  Five  ecclesiastical  councils,  which 
dealt  with  matters  of  discipline,  were  held  at  Goa — in  1567, 
1575,  1585,  1592  and  1606;  the  archbishop  of  Goa  also  presided 
over  the  more  important  synod  of  Diamper  (Udayamperur, 
about  12  m.  S.E.  of  Cochin),  which  in  1599  condemned  as 
heretical  the  tenets  and  liturgy  of  the  Indian  Nestorians,  or 
Christians  of  St  Thomas  (?.».).  In  1675  Fryer  described  Goa  as 
"  a  Rome  in  India,  both  for  absoluteness  and  fabrics,"  and 
Hamilton  states  that  early  in  the  i8th  century  the  number  of 
ecclesiastics  in  the  settlement  had  reached  the  extraordinary 
total  of  30,000.  But  the  Jesuits  were  expelled  in  1759  ,  and  by 
1800  Goa  had  lost  much  even  of  its  ecclesiastical  importance. 
The  Inquisition  was  abolished  in  1814  and  the  religious  orders 
were  secularized  in  1835. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — J.  N.  da  Fonseca,  An  Historical  and  Archaeo- 
logical Sketch  of  Goa  (Bombay,  1878)  is  a  minute  study  of  the  city 
from  the  earliest  times,  illustrated.  For  the  early  history  of  Portu- 
guese rule  the  chief  authorities  are  The  Commentaries  .  .  .  of 
Dalboquerque  (Hakluyt  Society's  translation,  London,  1877),  the 
Cartas  of  Albuquerque  (Lisbon,  1884),  the  Historic.  .  .  .  da  India 
of  F.  L.  de  Castanheda  (Lisbon,  1833,  written  before  1552),  the 
Lendas  da  India  of  G.  Correa  (Lisbon,  1860,  written  1514-1566), 
and  the  Decadas  da  India  of  Joao  de  Barros  and  D.  do  Couto  (Lisbon, 
1778-1788,  written  about  1530-1616).  Couto's  Soldado  pratico 
(Lisbon,  1790)  and  S.  Botelho's  Cartasand  Tombo,  written  1547-1554, 
published  in  "Subsidies  "  of  the  Lisbon  Academy  (1868),  are  valuable 
studies  of  military  life  and  administration.  The  Archive  Portuguez 
oriental  (6  parts,  New  Goa,  1857-1877)  is  a  most  useful  collection 
of  documents  dating  from  1515;  part  2  contains  the  privileges,  &c. 
of  the  city  of  Goa,  and  part  4  contains  the  minutes  of  the  ecclesiasti- 
cal councils  and  of  the  synod  of  Diamper.  The  social  life  of  Goa  has 
been  graphically  described  by  many  writers;  see  especially  the 
travels  of  Varthema  (c.  1505),  Linschoten  (c.  1580),  Pyrard  (1608) 
in  the  Hakluyt  Society's  translations;  J.  Mocquet,  Voyages  (Paris, 
1830,  written  1608-1610);  P.  Baldaeus,  in  Churchill's  Voyages, 
vol.  3  (London,  1732);  J.  Fryer,  A  New  Account  of  East  India 
and  Persia  (London,  1698);  A.  de  Mandelslo,  Voyages  (London, 
1669) ;  Les  Voyages  de  M.  de  Thevenot  aux  Indes  Orientates  (Amster- 
dam, 1779),  and  A.  Hamilton,  A  New  Account  of  the  East  Indies 
(London,  1774).  For  Goa  in  the  2oth  century  see  The  Imperial 
Gazetteer  of  India.  (K.  G.  J.) 

GOAL,  originally  an  object  set  up  as  the  place  where  a  race 
ends,  the  winning-post,  and  so  used  figuratively  of  the  end  to 
which  any  effort  is  directed.  It  is  thus  used  to  translate  the 
Lat.  mela,  the  boundary  pillar,  set  one  at  each  end  of  the  circus 
to  mark  the  turning-point.  The  word  was  quite  early  used  in 
various  games  for  the  two  posts,  with  or  without  a  cross-bar, 
through  or  over  which  the  ball  has  to  be  driven  to  score  a  point 
towards  winning  the  game.  The  New  English  Dictionary  quotes 
the  use  in  Richard  Stanyhurst's  Description  of  Ireland  (1577); 
but  the  word  gol  in  the  sense  of  a  boundary  appears  as  early  as  the 
beginning  of  the  I4th  century  in  the  religious  poems  of  William  de 
Shoreham  (c.  1315).  The  origin  of  the  word  is  obscure.  It  is 
usually  taken  to  be  derived  from  a  French  word  gaule,  meaning  a 
pole  or  stick,  but  this  meaning  does  not  appear  in  the  English 

xii.  6 


usage,  nor  does  the  usual  English  meaning  appear  in  the  French. 
There  is  an  O.  Eng.  gailan,  to  hinder,  which  may  point  to  a  lost 
gal,  barrier,  but  there  is  no  evidence  in  other  Teutonic  languages 
for  such  a  word. 

GOALPARA,  a  town  and  district  of  British  India,  in  the 
Brahmaputra  valley  division  of  eastern  Bengal  and  Assam. 
The  town  (pop.  6287)  overlooks  the  Brahmaputra.  It  was  the 
frontier  outpost  of  the  Mahommedan  power,  and  has  long  been  a 
flourishing  seat  of  river  trade.  The  civil  station  is  built  on  the 
summit  of  a  small  hill  commanding  a  magnificent  view  of  the 
valley  of  the  Brahmaputra,  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  snowy 
ranges  of  the  Himalayas  and  on  the  south  by  the  Garo  hills. 
The  native  town  is  built  on  the  western  slope  of  the  hill,  and  the 
lower  portion  is  subject  to  inundation  from  the  marshy  land 
which  extends  in  every  direction.  It  has  declined  in  importance 
since  the  district  headquarters  were  removed  to  Dhubri  in  1879, 
and  it  suffered  severely  from  the  earthquake  of  the  i2th  of  June 
1897. 

The  DISTRICT  comprises  an  area  of  3961  sq.  m.  It  is  situated 
along  the  Brahmaputra,  at  the  corner  where  the  river  takes  its 
southerly  course  from  Assam  into  Bengal.  The  scenery  is 
striking.  Along  the  banks  of  the  river  grow  clumps  of  cane  and 
reed;  farther  back  stretch  fields  of  rice  cultivation,  broken  only 
by  the  fruit  trees  surrounding  the  villages,  and  in  the  background 
rise  the  forest-clad  hills  overtopped  by  the  white  peaks  of  the 
Himalayas.  The  soil  of  the  hills  is  of  a  red  ochreous  earth, 
with  blocks  of  granite  and  sandstone  interspersed;  that  of  the 
plains  is  of  alluvial  formation.  Earthquakes  are  common  and 
occasionally  severe  shocks  have  been  experienced.  The  Brahma- 
putra annually  inundates  vast  tracts  of  country.  Numerous 
extensive  forests  yield  valuable  timber.  Wild  animals  of  all 
kinds  are  found.  In  1901  the  population  was  462,083,  showing 
an  increase  of  2%  in  the  decade.  Rice  forms  the  staple  crop. 
Mustard  and  jute  are  also  largely  grown.  The  manufactures 
consist  of  the  making  of  brass  and  iron  utensils  and  of  gold  and 
silver  ornaments,  weaving  of  silk  cloth,  basket-work  and  pottery. 
The  cultivation  of  tea  has  been  introduced  but  does  not  flourish 
anywhere  in  the  district.  Local  trade  is  in  the  hands  of  Marwari 
merchants,  and  is  carried  on  at  the  bazars,  weekly  hats  or  markets 
and  periodical  fairs.  The  chief  exports  are  mustard-seed,  jute, 
cotton,  timber,  lac,  silk  cloth,  india-rubber  and  tea;  the  imports, 
Bengal  rice,  European  piece  goods,  salt,  hardware,  oil  and 
tobacco. 

Dhubri  (pop.  3737),  the  administrative  headquarters  of  the 
district,  stands  on  the  Brahmaputra  where  that  river  takes  its 
great  bend  south.  It  is  the  termination  of  the  emigration  road 
from  North  Bengal  and  of  the  river  steamers  that  connect  with 
the  North  Bengal  railway.  It  is  also  served  by  the  eastern 
Bengal  State  railway. 

GOAT  (a  common  Teut.  word;  O.  Eng.  gat,  Goth,  gaits,  Mod. 
Ger.  Geiss,  cognate  with  Lat.  haedus,  a  kid),  properly  the  name  of 
the  well-known  domesticated  European  ruminant  (Capra  hircus), 
which  has  for  all  time  been  regarded  as  the  emblem  of  everything 
that  is  evil,  in  contradistinction  to  the  sheep,  which  is  the  symbol 
of  excellence  and  purity.  Although  the  more  typical  goats  are 
markedly  distinct  from  sheep,  there  is,  both  as  regards  wild  and 
domesticated  forms,  an  almost  complete  gradation  from  goats 
to  sheep,  so  that  it  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  define  either  group. 
The  position  of  the  genus  Capra  (to  all  the  members  of  which, 
as  well  as  some  allied  species,  the  name  "  goat  "  in  its  wider  sense 
is  applicable)  in  the  family  Bovidae  is  indicated  in  the  article 
BOVIDAE,  and  some  of  the  distinctions  between  goats  and  sheep 
are  mentioned  in  the  article  SHEEP.  Here  then  it  will  suffice 
to  mention  that  goats  are  characterized  by  the  strong  and  offen- 
sive odour  of  the  males,  which  are  furnished  with  a  beard  on 
the  chin;  while  as  a  general  rule  glands  are  present  between  the 
middle  toes  of  the  fore  feet  only. 

Goats,  in  the  wild  state,  are  an  exclusively  old-world  group, 
of  which  the  more  typical  forms  are  confined  to  Europe  and 
south-western  and  central  Asia,  although  there  are  two  outlying 
species  in  northern  Africa.  The  wild  goat,  or  pasang,  is  repre- 
sented in  Europe  in  the  Cyclades  and  Crete  by  rather  small  races, 


GOAT 


more  or  less  mingled  with  domesticated  breeds,  the  Cretan 
animal  being  distinguished  as  Capra  hircus  creticus;  but  the 
large  typical  race  C.  h.  aegagrus  is  met  with  in  the  mountains  of 
Asia  Minor  and  Persia,  whence  it  extends  to  Sind,  where  it  is 
represented  by  a  somewhat  different  race  known  as  C.  h.  blylhi. 
The  horns  of  the  old  bucks  are  of  great  length  and  beauty,  and 
characterized  by  their  bold  scimitar-like  backward  sweep  and 
sharp  front  edge,  interrupted  at  irregular  intervals  by  knots  or 
bosses.  Domesticated  goats  have  run  wild  in  many  islands, 
such  as  the  Hebrides,  Shetland,  Canaries,  Azores,  Ascension  and 
Juan  Fernandez.  Some  of  these  reverted  breeds  have  developed 
horns  of  considerable  size,  although  not  showing  that  regularity 
of  curve  distinctive  of  the  wild  race.  In  the  Azores  the  horns  are 
remarkably  upright  and  straight,  whence  the  name  of  "  antelope- 
goat  "  which  has  been  given  to  these  animals.  The  concretions 
known  as  bezoar-stones,  formerly  much  used  in  medicine  and  as 
antidotes  of  poison,  are  obtained  from  the  stomach  of  the  wild 
goat. 

Although  there  have  in  all  probability  been  more  or  less 
important  local  crosses  with  other  wild  species,  there  can  be 
no  doubt  that  domesticated  goats  generally  are  descended  from 
the  wild  goat.  It  is  true  that  many  tame  goats  show  spirally 
twisted  horns  recalling  those  of  the  under-mentioned  Asiatic 
markhor;  but  in  nearly  all  such  instances  it  will  be  found  that 
the  spiral  twists  in  the  opposite  direction.  Among  the  domesti- 
cated breeds  the  following  are  some  of  the  more  "important. 

Firstly,  we  have  the  common  or  European  goats,  of  which 
there  are  several  more  or  less  well-marked  breeds,  differing 
from  each  other  in  length  of  hair,  in  colour  and  slightly  in  the 
configuration  of  the  horns.  The  ears  are  more  or  less  upright, 
sometimes  horizontal,  but  never  actually  pendent,  as  in  some 
Asiatic  breeds.  The  horns  are  rather  flat  at  the  base  and  not 
unfrequently  corrugated;  they  rise  vertically  from  the  head, 
curving  to  the  rear,  and  are  more  or  less  laterally  inclined. 
The  colour  varies  from  dirty  white  to  dark-brown,  but  when 
pure-bred  is  never  black,  which  indicates  eastern  blood.  Most 
European  countries  possess  more  than  one  description  of  the 
common  goat.  In  the  British  Islts  there  are  two  distinct  types, 
one  short  and  the  other  long  haired.  In  the  former  the  hair  is 
thick  and  close,  with  frequently  an  under-coat  resembling  wool. 
The  horns  are  large  in  the  male,  and  of  moderate  size  in  the  female, 
flat  at  the  base  and  inclining  outwards.  The  head  is  short  and 
tapering,  the  forehead  flat  and  wide,  and  the  nose  small;  while 
the  legs  are  strong,  thick  and  well  covered  with  hair.  The  colour 
varies  from  white  or  grey  to  black,  but  is  frequently  fawn,  with 
a  dark  line  down  the  spine  and  another  across  the  shoulders. 
The  other  variety  has  a  shaggy  coat,  generally  reddish-black, 
though  sometimes  grey  or  pied  and  occasionally  white.  The  head 
is  long,  heavy  and  ugly,  the  nose  coarse  and  prominent,  with  the 
horns  situated  close  together,  often  continuing  parallel  almost 
to  the  extremities,  being  also  large,  corrugated  and  pointed. 
The  legs  are  long  and  the  sides  flat,  the  animal  itself  being  gener- 
ally gaunt  and  thin.  This  breed  is  peculiar  to  Ireland,  the 
Welsh  being  of  a  similar  type,  but  more  often  white.  The  short- 
haired  goat  is  the  English  goat  proper.  Both  British  breeds, 
as  well  as  those  from  abroad,  are  frequently  ornamented  with 
two  tassel-like  appendages,  hanging  near  together  under  the 
throat.  It  has  been  supposed  by  many  that  these  are  traceable 
to  foreign  blood;  but  although  there  are  foreign  breeds  that 
possess  them,  they  appear  to  pertain  quite  as  much  to  the  English 
native  breeds  as  to  those  of  distant  countries,  the  peculiarity 
being  mentioned  in  very  old  works  on  the  goats  of  the  British 
Islands.  The  milk-produce  in  the  common  goat  as  well  as  other 
kinds  varies  greatly  with  individuals.  Irish  goats  often  yield  a 
quantity  of  milk,  but  the  quality  is  poor.  The  goats  of  France 
are  similar  to  those  of  Britain,  varying  in  length  of  hair,  colour 
and  character  of  horns.  The  Norway  breed  is  frequently  white 
with  long  hair;  it  is  rather  small  in  size,  with  small  bones,  a 
short  rounded  body,  head  small  with  a  prominent  forehead,  and 
short,  straight,  corrugated  horns.  The  facial  line  is  concave. 
The  horns  of  the  males  are  very  large,  and  curve  round  after  the 
manner  of  the  wild  goat,  with  a  tuft  of  hair  between  and  in  front. 


The  Maltese  goat  has  the  ears  long,  wide  and  hanging  down  . 
below  the  jaw.    The  hair  is  long  and  cream-coloured.    The  breed 
is  usually  hornless. 

The  Syrian  goat  is  met  with  in  various  parts  of  the  East,  in 
Lower  Egypt,  on  the  shores  of  the  Indian  Ocean  and  in  Mada- 
gascar. The  hair  and  ears  are  excessively  long,  the  latter  so 
much  so  that  they  are  sometimes  clipped  to  prevent  their  being 
torn  by  stones  or  thorny  shrubs.  The  horns  are  somewhat  erect 
and  spiral,  with  an  outward  bend. 

The  Angora  goat  is  often  confounded  with  the  Kashmir,  but 
is  in  reality  quite  distinct.  The  principal  feature  of  this  breed, 
of  which  there  are  two  or  three  varieties,  is  the  length  and 
quantity  of  the  hair,  which  has  a  particularly  soft  and  silky 
texture,  covering  the  whole  body  and  a  great  part  of  the  legs 
with  close  matted  ringlets.  The  horns  of  the  male  differ  from 
those  of  the  female,  being  directed  vertically  and  in  shape  spiral, 
whilst  in  the  female  they  have  a  horizontal  tendency,  somewhat 
like  those  of  a  ram.  The  coat  is  composed  of  two  kinds  of  hair, 
the  one  short  and  coarse  and  of  the  character  of  hair,  which  lies 
close  to  the  skin,  the  other  long  and  curly  and  of  the  nature  of 
wool,  forming  the  outer  covering.  Both  are  used  by  the  manu- 
facturer, but  the  exterior  portion,  which  makes  up  by  far  the 
greater  bulk,  is  much  the  more  valuable.  The  process  of  shearing 
takes  place  in  early  spring,  the  average  amount  of  wool  yielded 


FIG.  i. — Male  Angora  Goat. 

by  each  animal  being  about  25   Ib.     The  best  quality  comes 
from  castrated  males,  females  producing  the  next  best. 

The  breed  was  introduced  at  the  Cape  about  1864.  The 
Angora  is  a  bad  milker  and  an  indifferent  mother,  but  its  flesh 
is  better  than  that  of  any  other  breed,  and  in  its  native  country 
is  preferred  to  mutton.  The  kids  are  born  small,  but  grow  fast, 
and  arrive  early  at  maturity.  The  Kashmir,  or  rather  Tibet, 
goat  has  a  delicate  head,  with  semi-pendulous  ears,  which  are 
both  long  and  wide.  The  hair  varies  in  length,  and  is  coarse 
and  of  different  colours  according  to  the  individual.  The  horns 
are  very  erect,  and  sometimes  slightly  spiral,  inclining  inwards 
and  to  such  an  extent  in  some  cases  as  to  cross.  The  coat  is 
composed,  as  in  the  Angora,  of  two  materials;  but  in  this 
breed  it  is  the  under-coat  that  partakes  of  the  nature  of  wool  and 
is  valued  as  an  article  of  commerce.  This  under-coat,  or  pushm, 
which  is  of  a  uniform  greyish-white  tint,  whatever  the  colour 
of  the  hair  may  be,  is  beautifully  soft  and  silky,  and  of  a  fluffy 
description  resembling  down.  It  makes  its  appearance  in  the 
autumn,  and  continues  to  grow  until  the  following  spring,  when, 
if  not  removed,  it  falls  off  naturally;  its  collection  then 
commences,  occupying  from  eight  to  ten  days.  The  animal 
undergoes  during  that  time  a  process  of  combing  by  which  all 
the  wool  and  a  portion  of  the  hair,  which  of  necessity  comes 
with  it,  is  removed.  The  latter  is  afterwards  carefully  separated, 
when  the  fleece  in  a  good  specimen  weighs  about  half  a  pound. 
This  is  the  material  of  which  the  far-famed  and  costly  shawls 
are  made,  which  at  one  time  had  such  a  demand  that,  it  is  stated, 
16,000  looms  were  kept  in  constant  woik  at  Kashmir  in  their 
manufacture.  Those  goats  having  a  short,  neat  head,  long,  thin, 
ears,  a  delicate  skin,  small  bones,  and  a  long  heavy  coat,  are 
for  this  purpose  deemed  the  best.  There  are  several  varieties 


GOATSUCKER 


163 


possessing  this  valuable  quality,  but  those  of  Kashmir,  Tibet 
and  Mongolia  are  the  most  esteemed. 

The  Nubian  goat,  which  is  met  with  in  Nubia,  Upper  Egypt 
and  Abyssinia,  differs  greatly  in  appearance  from  those  previously 
described.  The  coat  of  the  female  is  extremely  short,  almost 
like  that  of  a  race-horse,  and  the  legs  are  long.  This  breed 
therefore  stands  considerably  higher  than  the  common  goat. 
One  of  its  peculiarities  is  the  convex  profile  of  the  face,  the 
forehead  being  prominent  and  the  nostrils  sunk  in,  the  nose  itself 
extremely  small,  and  the  lower  lip  projecting  from  the  upper. 
The  ears  are  long,  broad  and  thin,  and  hang  down  by  the  side 


FIG.  2. — Nubian  Goat. 

of  the  head  like  a  lop-eared  rabbit.  The  horns  are  black,  slightly 
twisted  and  very  short,  flat  at  the  base,  pointed  at  the  tips, 
and  recumbent  on  the  head.  Among  goats  met  with  in  England 
a  good  many  show  signs  of  a  more  or  less  remote  cross  with  this 
breed,  derived  probably  from  specimens  brought  from  the  East 
on  board  ships  for  supplying  milk  during  the  voyage. 

The  Theban  goat,  of  the  Sudan,  which  is  hornless,  displays 
the  characteristic  features  of  the  last  in  an  exaggerated  degree, 
and  in  the  form  of  the  head  and  skull  is  very  sheep-like. 

The  Nepal  goat  appears  to  be  a  variety  of  the  Nubian  breed, 
having  the  same  arched  facial  line,  pendulous  ears  and  long 
legs.  The  horns,  however,  are  more  spiral.  The  colour  of  the 
hair,  which  is  longer  than  in  the  Nubian,  is  black,  grey  or  white, 
with  black  blotches. 

Lastly  the  Guinea  goat  is  a  dwarf  breed  originally  from  the 
coast  whence  its  name  is  derived.  There  are  three  varieties. 
Besides  the  commonest  Capra  recuna,  there  is  a  rarer  breed, 
Capra  depressa,  inhabiting  the  Mauritius  and  the  islands  of 
Bourbon  and  Madagascar.  The  other  variety  is  met  with  along 
the  White  Nile,  in  Lower  Egypt,  and  at  various  points  on  the 
African  coast  of  the  Mediterranean. 

As  regards  wild  goats  other  than  the  representatives  of  Capra 
hircus,  the  members  of  the  ibex-group  are  noticed  under  IBEX, 
while  another  distinctive  type  receives  mention  under  MARKHOR. 
The  ibex  are  connected  with  the  wild  goat  by  means  of  Capra 
nubiana,  in  which  the  front  edge  of  the  horns  is  thinner  than  in 
either  the  European  C.  ibex  or  the  Asiatic  C.  sibirica;  while 
the  Spanish  C.  pyrenaica  shows  how  the  ibex-type  of  horn  may 
pass  into  the  spirally  twisted  one  distinctive  of  the  markhor, 
C./alconeri.  In  the  article  IBEX  mention  is  made  of  the  Caucasus 
ibex,  or  tur,  C.  caucasica,  as  an  aberrant  member  of  that  group; 
but  beside  this  animal  the  Caucasus  is  the  home  of  another  very 
remarkable  goat,  or  tur,  known  as  C.  pallasi.  In  this  ruminant, 
which  is  of  a  dark-brown  colour,  the  relatively  smooth  black 
horns  diverge  outwards  in  a  manner  resembling  those  of  the 
bharal  among  the  sheep  rather  than  in  goat-fashion;  and,  in 
fact,  this  tur,  which  has  only  a  very  short  beard,  is  so  bharal-like 
that  it  is  commonly  called  by  sportsmen  the  Caucasian  bharal. 


It  is  one  of  the  species  which  render  it  so  difficult  to  give  a  precise 
definition  of  either  sheep  or  goats. 

The  short-horned  Asiatic  goats  of  the  genus  Hemitragus 
receive  mention  in  the  article  TAHR;  but  it  may  be  added  that 
fossil  species  of  the  same  genus  are  known  from  the  Lower 
Pliocene  formations  of  India,  which  have  also  yielded  remains 
of  a  goat  allied  to  the  markhor  of  the  Himalayas.  The  Rocky 
Mountain  goat  (q.v.)  of  America  has  no  claim  to  be  regarded  as  a 
member  of  the  goat-group. 

For  full  descriptions  of  the  various  wild  species,  see  R.  Lydekker, 
Wild  Oxen,  Sheep,  and  Goats  (London,  1898).  (R.  L.*) 

GOATSUCKER,  a  bird  from  very  ancient  times  absurdly 
believed  to  have  the  habit  implied  by  the  common  name  it  bears 
in  many  European  tongues  besides  English — as  testified  by 
the  Gr.  a.iyo6r]\a.s,  the  Lat.  caprimulgus,  Ital.  succiacapre, 
Span,  chotacabras,  Fr.  teltechevre,  and  Ger.  Zeigenmelker : 
The  common  goatsucker  (Caprimulgus  europaeus,  Linn.),  is 
admittedly  the  type  of  a  very  peculiar  and  distinct  family, 
Caprimulgidae,  a  group  remarkable  for  the  flat  head,  enormously 
wide  mouth,  large  eyes,  and  soft,  pencilled  plumage  of  its  members, 
which  vary  in  size  from  a  lark  to  a  crow.  Its  position  has  been 
variously  assigned  by  systematists.  Though  now  judiciously 
removed  from  the  Passeres,  in  which  Linnaeus  placed  all  the 
species  known  to  him,  Huxley  considered  it  to  form,  with  two 
other  families — the  swifts  (Cypselidae)  and  humming-birds 
(Trochttidae) — the  division  Cypselomorphae  of  his  larger  group 
Aegithognathae,  which  is  equivalent  in  the  main  to  the  Linnaean 
Passeres.  There  are  two  ways  of  regarding  the  Caprimulgidae- 
one  including  the  genus  Podargus  and  its  allies,  the  other  recogniz- 
ing them  as  a  distinct  family,  Podargidae.  As  a  matter  of 
convenience  we  shall  here  comprehend  these  last  in  the  Capri — 
mulgidat,  which  will  then  contain  two  subfamilies,  Caprimulginae 
and  Podarginae;  for  what,  according  to  older  authors,  constitutes 
a  third,  though  represented  only  by  Steatornis,  the  singular 
oil-bird,  or  guacharo,  certainly  seems  to  require  separation  as  an 
independent  family  (see  GUACHARO). 

Some  of  the  differences  between  the  Caprimulginae  and 
Podarginae  have  been  pointed  out  by  Sclater  (Pi-oc.  Zool.  Soc., 
1 866,  p.  1 23) ,  and  are  very  obvious.  In  the  former,  the  outer  toes 
have  four  phalanges  only,  thus  presenting  a  very  uncommon 
character  among  birds,  and  the  middle  claws  are  pectinated; 
while  in  the  latter  the  normal  number  of  five  phalanges  is  found, 


Common  Goatsucker. 

and  the  claws  are  smooth,  and  other  distinctions  more  recondite 
have  also  been  indicated  by  him  (torn.  cit.  p.  582).  The  Capri- 
mulginae may  be  further  divided  into  those  having  the  gape 
thickly  beset  by  strong  bristles,  and  those  in  which  there  are  few 
such  bristles  or  none — the  former  containing  the  genera  Capri- 
mulgus, Antrostomus,  Nyctidromus  and  others,  and  the  latter 
Podargus,  Chordiles,  Lyncornis  and  a  few  more. 

The  common  goatsucker  of  Europe  (C.  europaeus)  arrives 
late  in  spring  from  its  winter-retreat  in  Africa,  and  its  presence 
is  soon  made  known  by  its  habit  of  chasing  its  prey,  consisting 
chiefly  of  moths  and  cockchafers,  in  the  evening-twilight.  As 


164 


GOATSUCKER 


the  season  advances  the  song  of  the  cock,  from  its  singularity, 
attracts  attention  amid  all  rural  sounds.  This  song  seems  to  be 
always  uttered  when  the  bird  is  at  rest,  though  the  contrary  has 
been  asserted,  and  is  the  continuous  repetition  of  a  single  burring 
note,  as  of  a  thin  lath  fixed  at  one  end  and  in  a  state  of  vibration 
at  the  other,  and  loud  enough  to  reach  in  still  weather  a  distance 
of  half-a-mile  or  more.  On  the  wing,  while  toying  with  its  mate, 
or  performing  its  rapid  evolutions  round  the  trees  where  it 
finds  its  food,  it  has  the  habit  of  occasionally  producing  another 
and  equally  extraordinary  sound,  sudden  and  short,  but  some- 
what resembling  that  made  by  swinging  a  thong  in  the  air, 
though  whether  this  noise  proceeds  from  its  mouth  is  not  ascer- 
tained. In  general  its  flight  is  silent,  but  at  times  when  disturbed 
from  its  repose,  its  wings  may  be  heard  to  smite  together.  The 
goatsucker,  or,  to  use  perhaps  its  commoner  English  name, 
nightjar,1  passes  the  day  in  slumber,  crouching  on  the  ground 
or  perching  on  a  tree — in  the  latter  case  sitting  not  across  the 
branch  but  lengthways,  with  its  head  lower  than  its  body.  In 
hot  weather,  however,  its  song  may  sometimes  be  heard  by  day 
and  even  at  noontide,  but  it  is  then  uttered,  as  it  were,  drowsily, 
and  without  the  vigour  that  characterizes  its  crepuscular  or 
nocturnal  performance.  Towards  evening  the  bird  becomes 
active,  and  it  seems  to  pursue  its  prey  throughout  the  night 
uninterruptedly,  or  only  occasionally  pausing  for  a  few  seconds 
to  alight  on  a  bare  spot — a  pathway  or  road — and  then  resuming 
its  career.  It  is  one  of  the  few  birds  that  absolutely  make  no 
nest,  but  lays  its  pair  of  beautifully-marbled  eggs  on  the  ground, 
generally  where  the  herbage  is  short,  and  often  actually  on  the 
soil.  So  light  is  it  that  the  act  of  brooding,  even  where  there  is 
some  vegetable  growth,  produces  no  visible  depression  of  the 
grass,  moss  or  lichens  on  which  the  eggs  rest,  and  the  finest 
sand  equally  fails  to  exhibit  a  trace  of  the  parental  act.  Yet 
scarcely  any  bird  shows  greater  local  attachment,  and  the 
precise  site  chosen  one  year  is  almost  certain  to  be  occupied 
the  next.  The  young,  covered  when  hatched  with  dark-spotted 
down,  are  not  easily  found,  nor  are  they  more  easily  discovered 
on  becoming  fledged,  for  their  plumage  almost  entirely  resembles 
that  of  the  adults,  being  a  mixture  of  reddish-brown,  grey  and 
black,  blended  and  mottled  in  a  manner  that  passes  description. 
They  soon  attain  their  full  size  and  power  of  flight,  and  then  take 
to  the  same  manner  of  life  as  their  parents.  In  autumn  all 
leave  their  summer  haunts  for  the  south,  but  the  exact  time  of 
their  departure  has  hardly  been  ascertained.  The  habits  of  the 
nightjar,  as  thus  described,  seem  to  be  more  or  less  essentially 
those  of  the  whole  subfamily — the  differences  observable  being 
apparently  less  than  are  found  in  other  groups  of  birds.of  similar 
extent. 

A  second  species  of  goatsucker  (C.  ruficollis),  which  is  some- 
what larger,  and  has  the  neck  distinctly  marked  with  rufous, 
is  a  summer  visitant  to  the  south-western  parts  of  Europe,  and 
especially  to  Spain  and  Portugal.  The  occurrence  of  a  single 
example  of  this  bird  at  Killingworth,  near  Newcastle-on-Tyne, 
in  October  1856,  has  been  recorded  by  Mr  Hancock  (Ibis,  1862, 
p.  39) ;  but  the  season  of  its  appearance  argues  the  probability  of 
its  being  but  a  casual  straggler  from  its  proper  home.  Many  other 
species  of  Caprimulgus  inhabit  Africa,  Asia  and  their  islands, 
while  one  (C.  macrurus]  is  found  in  Australia.  Very  nearly  allied 
to  this  genus  is  Anlroslomus,  an  American  group  containing 
many  species,  of  which  the  chuck-will's- widow  (4.  carolinensis) 
and  the  whip-poor-will  (A.  vociferus)  of  the  eastern  United  States 
(the  latter  also  reaching  Canada)  are  familiar  examples.  Both 
these  birds  take  their  common  name  from  the  cry  they  utter, 
and  their  habits  seem  to  be  almost  identical  with  those  of  the 
old  world  goatsuckers.  Passing  over  some  other  forms  which 
need  not  here  be  mentioned,  the  genus  Nyctidromus,  though 
consisting  of  only  one  species  (N.  albicollis)  which  inhabits 
Central  and  part  of  South  America,  requires  remark,  since  it  has 
tarsi  of  sufficient  length  to  enable  it  to  run  swiftly  on  the  ground, 
while  the  legs  of  most  birds  of  the  family  are  so  short  that  they  can 

1  Other  English  namjs  of  the  bird  are  evejar,  fern-owl,  churn-owl 
and  wheel-bird — the  last  from  the  bird's  song  resembling  the  noise 
made  by  a  spinning-wheel  in  motion. 


make  but  a  shuffling  progress.  Heleothreptes,  with  the  unique 
form  of  wing  possessed  by  the  male,  needs  mention.  Notice 
must  also  be  taken  of  two  African  species,  referred  by  some 
ornithologists  to  as  many  genera  (Macrodipteryx  and  Cos- 
metornis),  though  probably  one  genus  would  suffice  for  both. 
The  males  of  each  of  them  are  characterized  by  the  wonderful 
development  of  the  ninth  primary  in  either  wing,  which  reaches 
in  fully  adult  specimens  the  extraordinary  length  of  17  in.  or 
more.  The  former  of  these  birds,  the  Caprimulgus  macrodipterus 
of  Adam  Afzelius,  is  considered  to  belong  to  the  west  coast  of 
Africa,  and  the  shaft  of  the  elongated  remiges  is  bare  for  the 
greater  part  of  its  length,  retaining  the  web,  in  a  spatulate  form, 
only  near  the  tip.  The  latter,  to  which  the  specific  name  of 
vexillarius  was  given  by  John  Gould,  has  been  found  on  the 
east  coast  of  that  continent,  and  is  reported  to  have  occurred  in 
Madagascar  and  Socotra.  In  this  the  remigial  streamers  do 
not  lose  their  barbs,  and  as  a  few  of  the  next  quills  are  also  to 
some  extent  elongated,  the  bird,  when  flying,  is  said  to  look  as 
though  it  had  four  wings.  Specimens  of  both  are  rare  in  collec- 
tions, and  no  traveller  seems  to  have  had  the  opportunity  of 
studying  the  habits  of  either  so  as  to  suggest  a  reason  for  this 
marvellous  sexual  development. 

The  second  group  of  Caprimulginae,  those  which  are  but 
poorly  or  not  at  all  furnished  with  rictal  bristles,  contains  about 
five  genera,  of  which  we  may  particularize  Lyncornis  of  the  old 
world  and  Chordiles  of  the  new.  The  species  of  the  former  are 
remarkable  for  the  tuft  of  feathers  which  springs  from  each  side 
of  the  head,  above  and  behind  the  ears,  so  as  to  give  the  bird  an 
appearance  like  some  of  the  "  horned  "  owls — those  of  the  genus 
Scops,  for  example;  and  remarkable  as  it  is  to  find  certain  forms 
of  two  families,  so  distinct  as  are  the  Strigidae  and  the  Capri- 
mulgidae,  resembling  each  other  in  this  singular  external  feature, 
it  is  yet  more  remarkable  to  note  that  in  some  groups  of  the 
latter,  as  in  some  of  the  former,  a  very  curious  kind  of  dimorphism 
takes  place.  In  either  case  this  has  been  frequently  asserted 
to  be  sexual,  but  on  that  point  doubt  may  fairly  be  entertained. 
Certain  it  is  that  in  some  groups  of  goatsuckers,  as  in  some  groups 
of  owls,  individuals  of  the  same  species  are  found  in  plumage  of 
two  entirely  different  hues — rufous  and  grey.  The  only  explana- 
tion as  yet  offered  of  this  fact  is  that  the  difference  is  sexual, 
but  evidence  to  that  effect  is  conflicting.  It  must  not,  however, 
be  supposed  that  this  common  feature,  any  more  than  that  of 
the  existence  of  tufted  forms  in  each  group,  indicates  any  close 
relationship  between  them.  The  resemblances  may  be  due  to 
the  same  causes,  concerning  which  future  observers  may  possibly 
enlighten  us,  but  at  present  we  must  regard  them  as  analogies, 
not  homologies.  The  species  of  Lyncornis  inhabit  the  Malay 
Archipelago,  one,  however,  occurring  also  in  China.  Of  Chordiles 
the  best-known  species  is  the  night-hawk  of  North  America 
(C.  virginianus  or  C.  popetue),  which  has  a  wide  range  from 
Canada  to  Brazil.  Others  are  found  in  the  Antilles  and  in  South 
America.  The  general  habits  of  all  these  birds  agree  with  those 
of  the  typical  goatsuckers. 

We  have  next  to  consider  the  birds  forming  the  genus  Podargus 
and  those  allied  to  it,  whether  they  be  regarded  as  a  distinct 
family,  or  as  a  subfamily  of  Caprimulgidae.  As  above  stated, 
they  have  feet  constructed  as  those  of  birds  normally  are,  and 
their  sternum  seems  to  present  the  constant  though  compara- 
tively trivial  difference  of  having  its  posterior  margin  elongated 
into  two  pairs  of  processes,  while  only  one  pair  is  found  in  the 
true  goatsuckers.  Podargus  includes  the  bird  (P.  cuvieri)  known 
from  its  cry  as  morepork  to  the  Tasmanians,2  and  several  other 
species,  the  number  of  which  is  doubtful,  from  Australia  and 
New  Guinea.  They  have  comparatively  powerful  bills,  and  it 
would  seem  feed  to  some  extent  on  fruits  and  berries,  though  they 
mainly  subsist  on  insects,  chiefly  Cicadae  and  Phasmidae.  They 
also  differ  from  the  true  goatsuckers  in  having  the  outer  toes 
partially  reversible,  and  they  build  a  flat  nest  on  the  horizontal 
branch  of  a  tree  for  the  reception  of  their  eggs,  which  are  of  a 
spotless  white.  Apparently  allied  to  Podargus,  but  differing 

*  In  New  Zealand,  however,  this  name  is  given  to  an  owl  (Sceloglaux 

novae-zclandiae) . 


GOBAT— GOBI 


165 


among  other  respects  in  its  mode  of  nidification,  is  Aegotheks, 
which  belongs  also  to  the  Australian  sub-region;  and  farther 
to  the  northward,  extending  throughout  the  Malay  Archipelago 
and  into  India,  comes  Batrachostomus,  wherein  we  again  meet 
with  species  having  aural  tufts  somewhat  like  Lyncornis.  The 
Podarginae  are  thought  by  some  to  be  represented  in  the  new 
world  by  the  genus  Nyctibius,  of  which  several  species  occur 
from  the  Antilles  and  Central  America  to  Brazil.  Finally,  it  may 
be  stated  that  none  of  the  Caprimulgidae  seem  to  occur  in 
Polynesia  or  in  New  Zealand,  though  there  is  scarcely  any  other 
part  of  the  world  suited  to  their  habits  in  which  members  of  the 
family  are  not  found.  (A.  N.) 

GOBAT,  SAMUEL  (1799-1879),  bishop  of  Jerusalem,  was  born 
at  Cremine,  Bern,  Switzerland,  on  the  26th  of  January  1799. 
After  serving  in  the  mission  house  at  Basel  from  1823  to  1826, 
he  went  to  Paris  and  London,  whence,  having  acquired  some 
knowledge  of  Arabic  and  Ethiopic,  he  went  out  to  Abyssinia 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Church  Missionary  Society.  The 
unsettled  state  of  the  country  and  his  own  ill  health  prevented 
his  making  much  headway;  he  returned  to  Europe  in  1835  and 
from  1839  to  1842  lived  in  Malta,  where  he  supervised  an  Arabic 
translation  of  the  Bible.  In  1846  he  was  consecrated  Protestant 
bishop  of  Jerusalem,  under  the  agreement  between  the  British 
and  Prussian  governments  (1841)  for  the  establishment  of  a 
joint  bishopric  for  Lutherans  and  Anglicans  in  the  Holy  Land. 
He  carried  on  a  vigorous  mission  as  bishop  for  over  thirty  years, 
his  diocesan  school  and  orphanage  on  Mount  Zion  being  specially 
noteworthy.  He  died  on  the  nth  of  May  1879. 

A  record  of  his  life,  largely  autobiographical,  was  published  at 
Basel  in  1884,  and  an  English  translation  at  London  in  the  same  year. 

60BEL,  JEAN  BAPTISTE  JOSEPH  (1727-1794),  French 
ecclesiastic  and  politician,  was  born  at  Thann,  in  Alsace,  on  the 
ist  of  September  1727.  He  studied  theology  in  the  German 
College  at  Rome,  and  then  became  successively  a  member  of 
the  chapter  of  Porrentruy,  bishop  in  partibus  of  Lydda,  and 
finally  suffragan  of  Basel  for  that  part  of  the  diocese  situated 
in  French  territory.  His  political  life  began  when  he  was  elected 
deputy  to  the  states-general  of  1789  by  the  clergy  of  the  bailliage 
of  Huningue.  The  turning-point  of  his  life  was  his  action  in 
taking  the  oath  of  the  civil  constitution  of  the  clergy  (Jan.  3rd, 
1791);  in  favour  of  which  he  had  declared  himself  since  the  sth 
of  May  1790.  The  civil  constitution  of  the  clergy  gave  the 
appointment  of  priests  to  the  electoral  assemblies,  and  since 
taking  the  oath  Gobel  had  become  so  popular  that  he  was  elected 
bishop  in  several  dioceses.  He  chose  Paris,  and  in  spite  of  the 
difficulties  which  he  had  to  encounter  before  he  could  enter  into 
possession,  was  consecrated  on  the  27th  of  March  1791  by  eight 
bishops,  including  Talleyrand.  On  the  Sth  of  November  1792, 
Gobel  was  appointed  administrator  of  Paris.  He  was  careful 
to  flatter  the  politicians  by  professing  anti-clerical  opinions, 
declaring  himself,  among  other  things,  opposed  to  the  celibacy 
of  the  clergy;  and  on  the  I7th  Brumaire  in  the  year  II.  (7th 
November  1793),  he  came  before  the  bar  of  the  Convention,  and, 
in  a  famous  scene,  resigned  his  episcopal  functions,  proclaiming 
that  he  did  so  for  love  of  the  people,  and  through  respect  for 
their  wishes.  The  followers  of  Hebert,  who  were  then  pursuing 
their  anti-Christian  policy,  claimed  Gobel  as  one  of  themselves; 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  Robespierre  looked  upon  him  as  an 
atheist,  though  apostasy  cannot  strictly  speaking  be  laid  to  the 
charge  of  the  ex-bishop,  nor  did  he  ever  make  any  actual  pro- 
fession of  atheism.  Robespierre,  however,  found  him  an  obstacle 
to  his  religious  schemes,  and  involved  him  in  the  fate  of  the 
Hebertists.  Gobel  was  condemned  to  death,  with  Chaumette, 
Hebert  and  Anacharsis  Cloots,  and  was  guillotined  on  the  I2th 
of  April  1794. 

See  E.  Charavay,  Assembtee  electorate  de  Paris  (Paris,  1890) ; 
H.  Monin,  La  Chanson  el  l'£glise  sous  la  Revolution  (Paris,  1892); 
A.  Aulard,  "  La  Culte  de  la  raison  "  in  the  review,  La  Revolution 
Frangaise  (1891).  For  a  bibliography  of  documents  relating  to 
his  episcopate  see  "  Episcopal  de  Gobel  "  in  vol.  iii.  (1900)  of 
M.  Tourneux's  Bibliographie  de  I'histoire  de  Paris  pendant  la  Rev.  Fr. 

GOBELIN,  the  name  of  a  family  of  dyers,  who  in  all  probability 
came  originally  from  Reims,  and  who  in  the  middle  of  the 


century  established  themselves  in  the  Faubourg  Saint  Marcel, 
Paris,  on  the  banks  of  the  Bievre.  The  first  head  of  the  firm 
was  named  Jehan  (d.  1476).  He  discovered  a  peculiar  kind  of 
scarlet  dyestuff,  and  he  expended  so  much  money  on  his 
establishment  that  it  was  named  by  the  common  people  la  folie 
Gobelin.  To  the  dye-works  there  was  added  in  the  i6th  century 
a  manufactory  of  tapestry  (?.».).  So  rapidly  did  the  wealth 
of  the  family  increase,  that  in  the  third  or  fourth  generation 
some  of  them  forsook  their  trade  and  purchased  titles  of  nobility. 
More  than  one  of  their  number  held  offices  of  state,  among 
others  Balthasar,  who  became  successively  treasurer  general  of 
artillery,  treasurer  extraordinary  of  war,  councillor  secretary  of 
the  king,  chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  councillor  of  state  and 
president  of  the  chamber  of  accounts,  and  who  in  1601  received 
from  Henry  IV.  the  lands  and  lordship  of  Briecomte-Robert. 
He  died  in  1603.  The  name  of  the  Gobelins  as  dyers  cannot  be 
found  later  than  the  end  of  the  i7th  century.  In  1662  the  works 
in  the  Faubourg  Saint  Marcel,  with  the  adjoining  grounds,  were 
purchased  by  Colbert  on  behalf  of  Louis  XIV.,  and  transformed 
into  a  general  upholstery  manufactory,  in  which  designs  both 
in  tapestry  and  in  all  kinds  of  furniture  were  executed  under  the 
superintendence  of  the  royal  painter,  Le  Brun.  On  account  of 
the  pecuniary  embarrassments  of  Louis  XIV.,  the  establishment 
was  closed  in  1694,  but  it  was  reopened  in  1697  for  the  manu- 
facture of  tapestry,  chiefly  for  royal  use  and  for  presentation. 
During  the  Revolution  and  the  reign  of  Napoleon  the  manufacture 
was  suspended,  but  it  was  revived  by  the  Bourbons,  and  in  1826 
the  manufacture  of  carpets  was  added  to  that  of  tapestry.  In 
1871  the  building  was  partly  burned  by  the  Communists.  The 
manufacture  is  still  carried  on  under  the  state. 

See  Lacordaire,  Notice  historique  sur  les  manufactures  imperiales 
de  tapisserie  des  Gobelin  et  de  tapis  de  la  Savonnerie,  prefedee  du  cata- 
logue des  tapisseries  qui  y  sent  exposes  (Paris,  1853);  Genspach, 
Repertoire  detaille  des  tapisseries  executees  aux  Gobelins,  1662-1892 
(Paris,  1893);  Guiffrey,  Histoire  de  la  tapisserie  en  France  (Paris, 
1878-1885).  The  two  last-named  authors  were  directors  of  the 
manufactory. 

GOBI  (for  which  alternative  Chinese  names  are  SHA-MO, 
"  sand  desert,"  and  HAN-HAI,  "  dry  sea  "),  a  term  which  in  its 
widest  significance  means  the  long  stretch  of  desert  country  that 
extends  from  the  foot  of  the  Pamirs,  in  about  77°  E.,  eastward 
to  the  Great  Khingan  Mountains,  in  ii6°-ii8°  E.,  on  the  border 
of  Manchuria,  and  from  the  foothills  of  the  Altai,  the  Sayan 
and  the  Yablonoi  Mountains  on  the  N.  to  the  Astin-tagh  or 
Altyn-tagh  and  the  Nan-shan,  the  northernmost  constituent 
ranges  of  the  Kuen-lun  Mountains,  on  the  south.  By  conven- 
tional usage  a  relatively  small  area  on  the  east  side  of  the  Great 
Khingan,  between  the  upper  waters  of  the  Sungari  and  the  upper 
waters  of  the  Liao-ho,  is  also  reckoned  to  belong  to  the  Gobi. 
On  the  other  hand,  geographers  and  Asiatic  explorers  prefer  to 
regard  the  W.  extremity  of  the  Gobi  region  (as  defined  above), 
namely,  the  basin  of  the  Tarim  in  E.  Turkestan,  as  forming  a 
separate  and  independent  desert,  to  which  they  have  given  the 
name  of  Takla-makan.  The  latter  restriction  governs  the  present 
article,  which  accordingly  excludes  the  Takla-makan,  leaving  it 
for  separate  treatment.  The  desert  of  Gobi  as  a  whole  is  only 
very  imperfectly  known,  information  being  confined  to  the 
observations  which  individual  travellers  have  made  from  their 
respective  itineraries  across  the  desert.  Amongst  the  explorers 
to  whom  we  owe  such  knowledge  as  we  possess  about  the  Gobi, 
the  most  important  have  been  Marco  Polo  (1273-1275),  Gerbillon 
(1688-1698),  Ijsbrand  Ides  (1692-1694),  Lange  (1727-1728  and 
1736),  Fuss  and  Bunge  (1830-1831),  Fritsche  (1868-1873), 
Pavlinov  and  Matusovski  (1870),  Ney  Elias  (1872-1873),  N.  M. 
Przhevalsky  (1870-1872  and  1876-1877),  Zosnovsky  (1875), 
M.  V.  Pjevtsov  (1878),  G.  N.  Potanin  (1877  and  1884-1886), 
Count  Szechenyi  and  L.  von  Loczy  (1870-1880),  the  brothers 
Grum-Grzhimailo  (1889-1890),  P.  K.  Kozlov  (1893-1894  and 
1899-1900),  V.  I.  Roborovsky  (1894),  V.  A.  Obruchev  (1894- 
1896),  Futterer  and  Holderer  (1896),  C.  E.  Bonin  (1896 and  1899), 
Sven  Hedin  (1897  and  1900-1901),  K.  Bogdanovich  (1898), 
Ladyghin  (1899-1900)  and  Katsnakov  (1899-1900). 

Geographically  the  Gobi  (a  Mongol  word  meaning  "  desert  ") 


1 66 


GOBI 


is  the  deeper  part  of  the  gigantic  depression  which  fills  the 
interior  of  the  lower  terrace  of  the  vast  Mongolian  plateau,  and 
measures  over  1000  m.  from  S.W.  to  N.E.  and  450  to  600  m. 
from  N.  to  S.,  being  widest  in  the  west,  along  the  line  joining 
the  Baghrash-kol  and  the  Lop-nor  (87°-89°  E.).  Owing  to  the 
immense  area  covered,  and  the  piecemeal  character  of  the 
information,  no  general  description  can  be  made  applicable  to 
the  whole  of  the  Gobi.  It  will  be  more  convenient,  therefore,  to 
describe  its  principal  distinctive  sections  seriatim,  beginning  in 
the  west. 

Ghashiun-Gobi  and  Kuruk-tagh. — The  Yulduz  valley  or  valley  of 
the  Khaidyk-gol  (83°-86°  E.,  43°  N.)  is  enclosed  by  two  prominent 
members  of  the  Tian-shan  system,  namely  the  Chol-tagh  and  the 
Kuruk-tagh,  running  parallel  and  close  to  one  another.  As  they  pro- 
ceed eastward  they  diverge,  sweeping  back  on  N.  and  S.  respectively 
so  as  to  leave  room  for  the  Baghrash-kol.  These  two  ranges  mark 
the  northern  and  the  southern  edges  respectively  of  a  great  swelling, 
which  extends  eastward  for  nearly  twenty  degrees  of  longitude.  On 
its  northern  side  the  Chol-tagh  descends  steeply,  anditsfootisfringed 
by  a  string  of  deep  depressions,  ranging  from  Lukchun  (425  ft.  below 
the  level  of  the  sea)  to  Hami  (2800  ft.  above  sea-level).  To  the  south 
of  the  Kuruk-tagh  lie  the  desert  of  Lop,  the  desert  of  Kum-tagh,  and 
the  valley  of  the  Bulunzir-gol.  To  this  great  swelling,  which  arches 
up  between  the  two  border-ranges  of  the  Chol-tagh  and  Kuruk-tagh, 
the  Mongols  give  the  name  of  Ghashiun-Gobi  or  Salt  Desert.  It  is 
some  80  to  100  m.  across  from  N.  to  S.,  and  is  traversed  by  a  number 
of  minor  parallel  ranges,  ridges  and  chains  of  hills,  and  down  its 
middle  runs  a  broad  stony  valley,  25  to  50  m.  wide,  at  an  elevation  of 
3000  to  4500  ft.  The  Chol-tagh,  which  reaches  an  average  altitude 
of  6000  ft.,  is  absolutely  sterile,  and  its  northern  foot  rests  upon  a 
narrow  belt  of  barren  sand,  which  leads  down  to  the  depressions 
mentioned  above. 

The  Kuruk-tagh  is  the  greatly  disintegrated,  denuded  and  wasted 
relic  of  a  mountain  range  which  formerly  was  of  incomparably 
greater  magnitude.  In  the  west,  between  Baghrash-kol  and  the 
Tarim,  it  consists  of  two,  possibly  of  three,  principal  ranges,  which, 
although  broken  in  continuity,  run  generally  parallel  to  one  another, 
and  embrace  between  them  numerous  minor  chains  of  heights. 
These  minor  ranges,  together  with  the  principal  ranges,  divide  the 
region  into  a  series  of  long,  narrow  valleys,  mostly  parallel  to  one 
another  and  to  the  enclosing  mountain  chains,  which  descend  like 
terraced  steps,  on  the  one  side  towards  the  depression  of  Lukchun 
and  on  the  other  towards  the  desert  of  Lop.  In  many  cases  these 
latitudinal  valleys  are  barred  transversely  by  ridges  or  spurs, 
generally  elevations  en  masse  of  the  bottom  of  the  valley.  Where 
such  elevations  exist,  there  is  generally  found,  on  the  E.  side  of  the 
transverse  ridge,  a  cauldron-shaped  depression,  which  some  time 
or  other  has  been  the  bottom  of  a  former  lake,  but  is  now  nearly  a 
dry  salt-basin.  The  surface  configuration  is  in  fact  markedly 
similar  to  that  which  occurs  in  the  inter-mont  latitudinal  valleys  of 
the  Kuen-lun.  The  hydrography  of  the  Ghashiun-Gobi  and  the 
Kuruk-tagh  is  determined  by  these  chequered  arrangements  of  the 
latitudinal  valleys.  Most  of  the  principal  streams,  instead  of  flowing 
straight  down  these  valleys,  cross  them  diagonally  and  only  turn 
west  after  they  have  cut  their  way  through  one  or  more  of  the  trans- 
verse barrier  ranges.1  To  the  highest  range  on  the  great  swelling 
Grum-Grzhimailo  gives  the  name  of  Tuge-tau,  its  altitude  being 
9000  ft.  above  the  level  of  the  sea  and  some  4000  ft.  above  the  crown 
of  the  swelling  itself.  This  range  he  considers  to  belong  to  the  Chol- 
tagh  system,  whereas  Sven  Hedin  would  assign  it  to  the  Kuruk-tagh. 
This  last,  which  is  pretty  certainly  identical  with  the  range  of  Khara- 
teken-ula  (also  known  as  the  Kyzyl-sanghir,  Sinir,  and  Singher 
Mountains),  that  overlooks  the  southern  shore  of  the  Baghrash-kol, 
though  parted  from  it  by  the  drift-sand  desert  of  Ak-bel-kum  (White 
Pass  Sands),  has  at  first  a  W.N.W.  to  E.S.E.  strike,  but  it  gradually 
curves  round  like  a  scimitar  towards  the  E.N.E.  and  at  the  same 
time  gradually  decreases  in  elevation.  In  91  °  E.,  while  the  principal 
range  of  the  Kuruk-tagh  system  wheels  to  the  E.N.E.,  four  of  its 
subsidiary  ranges  terminate,  or  rather  die  away  somewhat  suddenly, 
on  the  brink  of  a  long  narrow  depression  (in  which  Sven  Hedin  sees 
aN.E.  bay  of  the  former  great  Central  Asian  lake  of  Lop-nor),  having 
over  against  them  the  Echeloned  terminals  of  similar  subordinate 
ranges  of  the  Pe-shan  (Bey-san)  system  (see  below).  The  Kuruk-tagh 
is  throughout  a  relatively  low,  but  almost  completely  barren  range, 
being  entirely  destitute  of  animal  life,  save  for  hares,  antelopes  and 
wild  camels,  which  frequent  its  few  small,  widely  scattered  oases. 
The  vegetation,  which  is  confined  to  these  same  relatively  favoured 
spots,  is  of  the  scantiest  and  is  mainly  confined  to  bushes  of  saxaul 
(Anabasis  A  m  modendron) ,  reeds  (kamish),  tamarisks,  poplars, 
Kalidium  and  Ephedra. 

Desert  of  Lop. — This  section  of  the  Gobi  extends  south-eastward 
from  the  foot  of  the  Kuruk-tagh  as  far  as  the  present  terminal  basin 
of  the  Tarim,  namely  Kara-koshun  (Przhevalsky's  Lop-nor),  and  is  an 
almost  perfectly  horizontal  expanse,  for,  while  the  Baghrash-kol 
in  the  N.  lies  at  an  altitude  of  2940  ft.,  the  Kara-koshun,  over  200  m. 


1  Cf.  G.  E.  Grum-Grzhimailo,  Opisaniye  Puteshestviya,  i.  381-417. 


to  the  S.,  is  only  300  ft.  lower.  The  characteristic  features  of  this 
almost  dead  level  or  but  slightly  undulating  region  are:  (i.)  broad, 
unbroken  expanses  of  clay  intermingled  with  sand,  the  clay  (shor) 
being  indurated  and  saliferous  and  often  arranged  in  terraces;  (ii.) 
hard,  level,  clay  expanses,  more  or  less  thickly  sprinkled  with  fine 
gravel  (say),  the  clay  being  mostly  of  a  yellow  or  yellow-grey  colour; 
(iii.)  benches,  flattened  ridges  and  tabular  masses  of  consolidated 
clay  (jardangs'),  arranged  in  distinctly  defined  laminae,  three  stories 
being  sometimes  superimposed  one  upon  the  other,  and  their  vertical 
faces  being  abraded,  and  often  undercut,  by  the  wind,  while  the 
formations  themselves  are  separated  by  parallel  gullies  or  wind- 
furrows,  6  to  20  ft.  deep,  all  sculptured  in  the  direction  of  the  pre- 
vailing wind,  that  is,  from  N.E.  to  S.W. ;  and  (iv.)  the  absence  of 
drift-sand  and  sand-dunes,  except  in  the  south,  towards  the  out- 
lying foothills  of  the  Astin-tagh.  Perhaps  the  most  striking  character- 
istic, after  the  jardangs  or  clay  terraces,  is  the  fact  that  the  whole 
of  this  region  is  not  only  swept  bare  of  sand  by  the  terrific  sand- 
storms (burans)  of  the  spring  months,  the  particles  of  sand  with 
which  the  wind  is  laden  acting  like  a  sand-blast,  but  the  actual 
substantive  materials  of  the  desert  itself  are  abraded,  filed,  eroded 
and  carried  bodily  away  into  the  network  of  lakes  in  which  the  Tarin, 
loses  itself,  or  are  even  blown  across  the  lower,  constantly  shifting 
watercourses  of  that  river  and  deposited  on  or  among  the  gigantic 
dunes  which  choke  the  eastern  end  of  the  desert  of  Takla-makan. 
Numerous  indications,  such  as  salt-stained  depressions  of  a  lacustrine 
appearance,  traces  of  former  lacustrine  shore-lines,  more  or  less 
parallel  and  concentric,  the  presence  in  places  of  vast  quantities  of 
fresh-water  mollusc  shells  (species  of  Limnaea  and  Planorbis),  the 
existence  of  belts  of  dead  poplars,  patches  of  dead  tamarisks  and 
extensive  beds  of  withered  reeds,  all  these  always  on  top  of  the 
jardangs,  never  in  the  wind-etched  furrows,  together  with  a  few 
scrubby  poplars  and  Elaeagnus,  still  struggling  hard  not  to  die,  the 
presence  of  ripple  marks  of  aqueous  origin  on  the  leeward  sides  of  the 
clay  terraces  and  in  other  wind-sheltered  situations,  all  testify  to 
the  former  existence  in  this  region  of  more  or  less  extensive  fresh- 
water lakes,  now  of  course  completely  desiccated.  During  the 
prevalence  of  the  spring  storms  the  atmosphere  that  overhangs 
the  immediate  surface  ofthe  desert  is  so  heavily  charged  with  dust 
as  to  be  a  veritable  pall  of  desolation.  Except  for  the  wild  camel 
which  frequents  the  reed  oases  on  the  N.  edge  of  the  desert,  animal 
life  is  even  less  abundant  than  in  the  Ghashiun-Gobi,  and  the  same 
is  true  as  regards  the  vegetation. 

Desert  of  Kum-tagh. — This  section  lies  E.S.E.  of  the  desert  of  Lop, 
on  the  other  side  of  the  Kara-koshun  and  its  more  or  less  temporary 
continuations,  and  reaches  north-eastwards  as  far  as  the  vicinity  of 
the  town  of  Sa-chow  and  the  lake  of  Kara-nor  or  Kala-chi.  Its 
southern  rim  is  marked  by  a  labyrinth  of  hills,  dotted  in  groups  and 
irregular  clusters,  but  evidently  survivals  of  two  parallel  ranges 
which  are  now  worn  down  as  it  were  to  mere  fragments  of  their 
former  skeletal  structure.  Between  these  and  the  Astin-tagh  inter- 
venes a  broad  latitudinal  valley,  seamed  with  watercourses  which 
come  down  from  the  foothills  of  the  Astin-tagh  and  beside  which 
scrubby  desert  plants  of  the  usual  character  maintain  a  precarious 
existence,  water  reaching  them  in  some  instances  at  intervals  of  years 
only.  This  part  of  the  desert  has  a  general  slope  N.W.  towards  the 
relative  depression  of  the  Kara-koshun.  A  noticeable  feature  of  the 
Kum-tagh  is  the  presence  of  large  accumulations  of  drift-sand, 
especially  along  the  foot  of  the  crumbling  desert  ranges,  where  it 
rises  into  dunes  sometimes  as  much  as  250  ft.  in  height  and  climbs 
half-way  up  the  flanks  of  ranges  themselves.  The  prevailing  winds 
in  this  region  would  appear  to  blow  from  the  W.  and  N.W.  during 
the  summer,  winter  and  autumn,  though  in  spring,  when  they  certainly 
are  more  violent,  they  no  doubt  come  from  the  N.E.,  as  in  the  desert 
of  Lop.  Anyway,  the  arrangement  of  the  sand  here  "  agrees  per- 
fectly with  the  law  laid  down  by  Potanin,  that  in  the  basins  of  Central 
Asia  the  sand  is  heaped  up  in  greater  mass  on  the  south,  all  along 
the  bordering  mountain  ranges  where  the  floor  of  the  depressions 
lies  at  the  highest  level."2  The  country  to  the  north  of  the  desert 
ranges  is  thus  summarily  described  by  Sven  Hedin  :3  "  The  first  zone 
of  drift-sand  is  succeeded  by  a  region  which  exhibits  proofs  of  wind- 
modelling  on  an  extraordinarily  energetic  and  well  developed  scale, 
the  results  corresponding  to  the  jardangs  and  the  wind-eroded 
gullies  of  the  desert  of  Lop.  Both  sets  of  phenomena  lie  parallel 
to  one  another;  from  this  we  may  infer  that  the  winds  which  prevail 
in  the  two  deserts  are  the  same.  Next  comes,  sharply  demarcated 
from  the  zone  just  described,  a  more  or  less  thin  kamish  steppe 
growing  on  level  ground ;  and  this  in  turn  is  followed  by  another  very 

narrow  belt  of  sand,  immediately  south  of  Achik-kuduk 

Finally  in  the  extreme  north  we  have  the  characteristic  and  sharply 
defined  belt  of  kamish  steppe,  stretching  from  E.N.E.  to  W.S.W. 
and  bounded  on  N.  and  S.  by  high,  sharp-cut  clay  terraces.  .  .  . 
At  the  points  where  we  measured  them  the  northern  terrace  was 
113  ft.  high  and  the  southern  85!  ft.  ...  Both  terraces  belong  to 
the  same  level,  and  would  appear  to  correspond  to  the  shore  lines  of  a 
big  bay  of  the  last  surviving  remnant  of  the  Central  Asian  Mediter- 
ranean. At  the  point  where  I  crossed  it  the  depression  was  6  to  7  m. 
wide,  and  thus  resembled  a  flat  valley  or  immense  river-bed." 

1  Quoted  in  Sven  Hedin,  Scientific  Results,  ii.  499. 
3  Op.  cit.  ii.  499-500. 


GOBI 


167 


Desert  of  Hami  and  the  Pe-shan  Mountains. — This  section  occupies 
the  space  between  the  Tian-shan  system  on  the  N.  and  the  Nan-shan 
Mountains  on  the  S.,  and  is  connected  on  the  W.  with  the  desert  of 
Lop.  The  classic  account  is  that  of  Przhevalsky,  who  crossed  the 
desert  from  Hami  (or  Khami)  to  Su-chow  (not  Sa-chow)  in  the  summer 
of  1879.  In  the  middle  this  desert  rises  into  a  vast  swelling,  80  m. 
across,  which  reaches  an  average  elevation  of  5000  ft.  and  a  maximum 
elevation  of  5500  ft.  On  its  northern  and  southern  borders  it  is 
overtopped  by  two  divisions  of  the  Bey-san  (  =  Pe-shan)  Mountains, 
neither  of  which  attains  any  great  relative  altitude.  Between  the 
northern  division  and  the  Karlyk-tagh  range  or  E.  Tian-shan 
intervenes  a  somewhat  undulating  barren  plain,  3900  ft.  in  altitude 
and  40  m.  from  N.  to  S.,  sloping  downwards  from  both  N.  and  S. 
towards  the  middle,  where  lies  the  oasis  of  Hami  (2800  ft.).  Similarly 
from  the  southern  division  of  the  Bey-san  a  second  plain  slopes  down 
for  looo  ft.  to  the  valley  of  the  river  Bulunzir  or  Su-lai-ho,  which 
comes  out  of  China,  from  the  south  side  of  the  Great  Wall,  and  finally 
empties  itself  into  the  lake  of  Kalachi  or  Kara-nor.  From  the 
Bulunzir  the  same  plain  continues  southwards  at  a  level  of  3700  ft. 
to  the  foot  of  the  Nan-shan  Mountains.  The  total  breadth  of  the 
desert  from  N.  to  S.  is  here  200  m.  Its  general  character  is  that  of  an 
undulating  plain,  dotted  over  with  occasional  elevations  of  clay, 
which  present  the  appearance  of  walls,  table-topped  mounds  and 
broken  towers  (jardangs),  the  surface  of  the  plain  being  strewn  with 
gravel  and  absolutely  destitute  of  vegetation.  Generally  speaking, 
the  Bey-san  ranges  consist  of  isolated  hills  or  groups  of  hills,  of  low 
relative  elevation  (100  to  300  ft.),  scattered  without  any  regard  to 
order  over  the  arch  of  the  swelling.  They  nowhere  rise  into  well- 
defined  peaks.  Their  axis  runs  from  W.S.W.  to  E.N.E.  But  whereas 
Przhevalsky  and  Sven  Hedin  consider  them  to  be  a  continuation  of 
the  Kuruk-tagh,  though  the  latter  regards  them  as  separated  from 
the  Kuruk-tagh  by  a  well-marked  bay  of  the  former  Central  Asian 
Mediterranean  (Lop-nor),  Futterer  declares  they  are  a  continuation 
of  the  Chol-tagh.  The  swelling  or  undulating  plain  between  these 
two  ranges  of  the  Bey-san  measures  about  70  m.  across  and  is 
traversed  by  several  stretches  of  high  ground  having  generally  an 
east-west  direction.1  Futterer,  who  crossed  the  same  desert  twenty 
years  after  Przhevalsky,  agrees  generally  in  his  description  of  it, 
but  supplements  the  account  of  the  latter  explorer  with  several 
particulars.  He  observes  that  the  ranges  in  this  part  of  the  Gobi 
are  much  worn  down  and  wasted,  like  the  Kuruk-tagh  farther  west 
and  the  tablelands  of  S.E.  Mongolia  farther  east,  through  the  effects 
of  century-long  insolation,  wind  erosion,  great  and  sudden  changes 
of  temperature,  chemical  action  and  occasional  water  erosion. 
Vast  areas  towards  the  N.  consist  of  expanses  of  gently  sloping  (at 
a  mean  slope  of  3°)  clay,  intermingled  with  gravel.  He  points  out 
also  that  the  greatest  accumulations  of  sand  and  other  products  of 
aerial  denudation  do  not  occur  in  the  deepest  parts  of  the  depressions 
but  at  the  outlets  of  the  valleys  and  glens,  and  along  the  foot  of  the 
ranges  which  flank  the  depressions  on  the  S.  Wherever  water  has 
been,  desert  scrub  is  found,  such  as  tamarisks,  Dodartia  orientalis, 
Agriophyllum  gobicum,  Calligonium  sinnex,  and  Lycium  ruthenicum, 
but  all  with  their  roots  elevated  on  little  mounds  in  the  same  way 
as  the  tamarisks  grow  in  the  Takla-makan  and  desert  of  Lop. 

Farther  east,  towards  central  Mongolia,  the  relations,  says  Futterer, 
are  the  same  as  along  the  Hami-Su-chow  route,  except  that  the  ranges 
have  lower  and  broader  crests,  and  the  detached  hills  are  more 
denuded  and  more  disintegrated.  Between  the  ranges  occur  broad, 
flat,  cauldron-shaped  valleys  and  basins,  almost  destitute  of  life 
except  for  a  few  hares  and  a  few  birds,  such  as  the  crow  and  the 
pheasant,  and  with  scanty  vegetation,  but  no  great  accumulations 
of  drift-sand.  The  rocks  are  severely  weathered  on  the  surface,  a 
thick  layer  of  the  coarser  products  of  denudation  covers  the  flat  parts 
and  climbs  a  good  way  up  the  flanks  of  the  mountain  ranges,  but  all 
the  finer  material,  sand  and  clay  has  been  blown  away  partly  S.E.  into 
Ordos,  partly  into  the  Chinese  provinces  of  Shen-si  and  Shan-si,  where 
it  is  deposited  as  loess,  and  partly  W.,  where  it  chokes  all  the  southern 
parts  of  the  basin  of  the  Tarim.  In  these  central  parts  of  the  Gobi, 
as  indeed  in  all  other  parts  except  the  desert  of  Lop  and  Ordos,  the 
prevailing  winds  blow  from  the  W.  and  N.W.  These  winds  are  warm 
in  summer,  and  it  is  they  which  in  the  desert  of  Hami  bring  the  fierce 
sandstorms  or  burans.  The  wind  does  blow  also  from  the  N.E.,  but 
it  is  then  cold  and  often  brings  snow,  though  it  speedily  clears  the 
air  of  the  everlasting  dust  haze.  In  summer  great  heat  is  encountered 
here  on  the  relatively  low  (3000-4600  ft.),  gravelly  expanses  (say) 
on  the  N.  and  on  those  of  the  S.  (4000-5000  ft.) ;  but  on  the  higher 
swelling  between,  which  in  the  Pe-shan  ranges  ascends  to  7550  ft., 
there  is  great  cold  even  in  summer,  and  a  wide  daily  range  of  tempera- 
ture. Above  the  broad  and  deep  accumulations  of  the  products  of 
denudation  which  have  been  brought  down  by  the  rivers  from  the 
Tian-shan  ranges  (e.g.  the  Karlyk-tagh)  on  the  N.  and  from  the  Nan- 
shan  on  the  S.,  and  have  filled  up  the  cauldron-shaped  valleys,  there 
rises  a  broad  swelling,  built  up  of  granitic  rocks,  crystalline  schists 
and  metamorphosed  sedimentary  rocks  of  both  Archaic  and  Palaeo- 
zoic age,  all  greatly  folded  and  tilted  up,  and  shot  through  with 
numerous  irruptions  of  volcanic  rocks,  predominantly  porphyritic 
anddioritic.  On  this  swelling  rise  four  more  or  less  parallel  mountain 

1  Przhevalsky,  Iz  Zayana  cherez  Hami  v  Tibet  na  Vershovya 
Sholtoy  Reki,  pp.  84-91. 


ranges  of  the  Pe-shan  system,  together  with  a  fifth  chain  of  hills 
farther  S.,  all  having  a  strike  from  W.N.W.  to  E.N.E.  The  range 
farthest  N.  rises  to  1000  ft.  above  the  desert  and  7550  ft.  above 
sea-level,  the  next  two  ranges  reach  1300  ft.  above  the  general  level 
of  the  desert,  and  the  range  farthest  south  1475  ft.  or  an  absolute 
altitude  of  7200  ft.,  while  the  fifth  chain  of  hills  does  not  exceed 
650  ft.  in  relative  elevation.  AH  these  ranges  decrease  in  altitude 
from  W.  to  E.  In  the  depressions  which  border  the  Pe-shan  swelling 
on  N.  and  S.  are  found  the  sedimentary  deposits  of  the  Tertiary 
sea  of  the  Han-hai;  but  no  traces  of  those  deposits  have  been  found 
on  the  swelling  itself  at  altitudes  of  5600  to  5700  ft.  Hence,  Futterer 
infers,  in  recent  geological  times  no  large  sea  has  occupied  the  central 
part  of  the  Gobi.  Beyond  an  occasional  visit  from  a  band  of  nomad 
Mongols,  this  region  of  the  Pe-shan  swelling  is  entirely  uninhabited.2 
And  yet  it  was  from  this  very  region,  avers  G.  E.  Grum-Grzhimailo, 
that  the  Yue-chi,  a  nomad  race  akin  to  the  Tibetans,  proceeded 
when,  towards  the  middle  of  the  2nd  century  B.C.,  they  moved 
westwards  and  settled  near  Lake  Issyk-kul ;  and  from  here  proceeded 
also  the  Shanshani,  or  people  who  some  two  thousand  years  ago 
founded  the  state  of  Shanshan  or  Lou-Ian,  ruins  of  the  chief  town  of 
which  Sven  Hedin  discovered  in  the  desert  of  Lop  in  1901.  Here, 
says  the  Russian  explorer,  the  Huns  gathered  strength,  as  also  did 
the  Tukiu  (Turks)  in  the  6th  century,  and  the  Uighur  tribes  and  the 
rulers  of  the  Tangut  kingdom.  But  after  Jenghiz  Khan  in  the  I2th 
century  drew  away  the  peoples  of  this  region,  and  no  others  came 
to  take  their  place,  the  country  went  put  of  cultivation  and  eventu- 
ally became  the  barren  desert  it  now  is.8 

Ala-shan. — This  division  of  the  great  desert,  known  also  as  the 
Hsi-tau  and  the  Little  Gobi,  fills  the  space  between  the  great  N. 
loop  of  the  Hwang-ho  or  Yellow  river  on  the  E.,  the  Edzin-gol  on 
the  W.,and  the  Nan-shan  Mountains  on  theS.W.,  where  it  is  separated 
from  the  Chinese  province  of  Kan-suh  by  the  narrow  ro,cky  chain 
of  Lung-shan  (Ala-shan),  10,500  to  11,600  ft.  in  altitude.  It  belongs 
to  the  middle  basin  of  the  three  great  depressions  into  which  Potanin 
divides  the  Gobi  as  a  whole.  "  Topographically,"  says  Przhevalsky, 
"  it  is  a  perfectly  level  plain,  which  in  all  probability  once  formed  the 
bed  of  a  huge  lake  or  inland  sea."  The  data  upon  which  he  bases  this 
conclusion  are  the  level  area  of  the  region  as  a  whole,  the  hard  saline 
clay  and  the  sand-strewn  surface,  and  lastly  the  salt  lakes  which 
occupy  its  lowest  parts.  For  hundreds  of  miles  there  is  nothing  to  be 
seen  but  bare  sands;  in  some  places  they  continue  so  far  without 
a  break  that  the  Mongols  call  them  Tyngheri  (i.e.  sky).  These  vast 
expanses  are  absolutely  waterless,  nor  do  any  oases  relieve  the  un- 
broken stretches  of  yellow  sand  which  alternate  with  equally  vast 
areas  of  saline  clay  or,  nearer  the  foot  of  the  mountains,  with  barren 
shingle.  Although  on  the  whole  a  level  country  with  a  general 
altitude  of  3300  to  5000  ft.,  this  section,  like  most  other  parts  of  the 
Gobi,  is  crowned  by  a  chequered  network  of  hills  and  broken  ranges 
going  up  1000  ft.  higher.  The  vegetation  is  confined  to  a  few 
varieties  of  bushes  and  a  dozen  kinds  of  grasses,  the  most  conspicuous 
being  saxaul  and  Agriophyllum  gobicum*  (a  grass).  The  others 
include  prickly  convolvulus,  field  wormwood,  acacia,  Inula  ammo- 
phila,  Sophora  flavescens,  Convolvulus  Ammani,  Peganum  and 
Astragalus,  but  all  dwarfed,  deformed  and  starved.  The  fauna 
consists  of  little  else  except  antelopes,  the  wolf,  fox,  hare,  hedge- 
hog, marten,  numerous  lizards  and  a  few  birds,  e.g.  the  sand- 
grouse,  lark,  stonechat,  sparrow,  crane,  Podoces  Hendersoni,  Otocorys 
albigula  and  Galerita  crislata."  The  only  human  inhabitants  of 
Ala-shan  are  the  Torgod  Mongols. 

Ordos. — East  of  the  desert  of  Ala-shan,  and  only  separated  from 
it  by  the  Hwang-ho,  is  the  desert  of  Ordos  or  Ho-tau,  "  a  level 
steppe,  partly  bordered  by  low  hills.  The  soil  is  altogether  sandy 
or  a  mixture  of  clay  and  sand,  ill  adapted  for  agriculture.  The 
absolute  height  of  this  country  is  between  3000  and  3500  ft.,  so  that 
Ordos  forms  an  intermediate  step  in  the  descent  to  China  from  the 
Gobi,  separated  from  the  latter  by  the  mountain  ranges  lying  on 
the  N.  and  E.  of  the  Hwang-ho  or  Yellow  river."*  Towards  the 
south  Ordos  rises  to  an  altitude  of  over  5000  ft.,  and  in  the  W.,  along 
the  right  bank  of  the  Hwang-ho,  the  Arbus  or  Arbiso  Mountains, 
which  overtop  the  steppe  by  some  3000  ft.,  serve  to  link  the  Ala-shan 
Mountains  with  the  In-shan.  The  northern  part  of  the  great  loop 
of  the  river  is  filled  with  the  sands  of  Kuzupchi,  a  succession  of  dunes, 
40  to  50  ft.  high.  Amongst  them  in  scattered  patches  grow  the  shrub 
Hedysarum  and  the  trees  Calligonium  Tragopyrum  and  Pugionium 
cornutum.  In  some  places  these  sand-dunes  approach  close  to  the 
great  river,  in  others  they  are  parted  from  it  by  a  belt  of  sand, 
intermingled  with  clay,  which  terminates  in  a  steep  escarpment, 
50  ft.  and  in  some  localities  loo  ft.  above  the  river.  This  belt  is 
studded  with  little  mounds  (7  to  10  ft.  high),  mostly  overgrown  with 
wormwood  (Artemisia  campestris)  and  the  Siberian  pea-tree  (Cara- 
gana) ;  and  here  too  grows  one  of  the  most  characteristic  plants 
of  Ordos,  the  liquorice  root  (Glycyrrhiza  uralensis).  Eventually 


*  Futterer,  Durch  Asien,  i.  pp.  206-211. 

'  G.    E.    Grum-Grzhimailo,    Opisanie  Pttleshestviya  v   Sapadniy 
Kitai,  ii.  p.  127. 

4  Its  seeds  are  pounded  by  the  Mongols  to  flour  and  mixed  with 
their  tea. 

5  Przhevalsky,  Mongolia(Eng.  trans,  ed.  by  Sir  H.  Yule). 

*  Przhevalsky,  op.  cit.  p.  183. 


i68 


GOBI 


the  sand-dunes  cross  over  to  the  left  bank  of  the  Hwang-ho,  and 
are  threaded  by  the  beds  of  dry  watercourses,  while  the  level  spaces 
amongst  them  are  studded  with  little  mounds  (3  to  6  ft.  high), 
on  which  grow  stunted  Nitraria  Scoberi  and  Zygophyllum.  Ordos, 
which  was  anciently  known  as  Ho-nan  ("  the  country  south  of  the 
river  ")  and  still  farther  back  in  time  as  Ho-tau,  was  occupied  by  the 
Hiong-nu  in  the  1st  and  2nd  centuries  A.D.,  but  was  almost  de- 
populated during  and  after  the  Dungan  revolt  of  1869.  North  of  the 
big  loop  of  the  Hwang-ho  Ordos  is  separated  from  the  central  Gobi 
by  a  succession  of  mountain  chains,  the  Kara-naryn-ula,  the  Sheiten- 
ula,  and  the  In-shan  Mountains,  which  link  on  to  the  south  end  of  the 
Great  Khingan  Mountains.  The  In-shan  Mountains,  which  stretch 
from  108°  to  1 12°  E.,  have  a  wild  Alpine  character  and  are  dis- 
tinguished from  other  mountains  in  the  S.E.  of  Mongolia  by  an 
abundance  of  both  water  and  vegetation.  In  one  of  their  constituent 
ranges,  the  bold  Munni-ula,  70  m.  long  and  nearly  20  m.  wide,  they 
attain  elevations  of  7500  to  8500  ft.,  and  have  steep  flanks,  slashed 
with  rugged  gorges  and  narrow  glens.  Forests  begin  on  them  at 
5300  ft.  and  wild  flowers  grow  in  great  profusion  and  variety  in 
summer,  though  with  a  striking  lack  of  brilliancy  in  colouring. 
In  this  same  border  range  there  is  also  a  much  greater  abundance 
and  variety  of  animal  life,  especially  amongst  the  avifauna. 

Eastern  Gobi. — Here  the  surface  is  extremely  diversified,  although 
there  are  no  great  differences  in  vertical  elevation.  Between  Urga 
(48°N.  and  io7°E.)  and  the  little  lake  of  Iren-dubasu-nor  (i  1 1  "50'  E. 
and  43°  45'  N.)  the  surface  is  greatly  eroded,  and  consists  of  broad 
flat  depressions  and  basins  separated  by  groups  of  flat-topped 
mountains  of  relatively  low  elevation  (500  to  600  ft.),  through 
which  archaic  rocks  crop  out  as  crags  and  isolated  rugged  masses. 
The  floors  of  the  depressions  lie  mostly  between  2900  and  3200  ft. 
above  sea-level.  Farther  south,  between  Iren-dubasu-nor  and  the 
Hwang-ho  comes  a  region  of  broad  tablelands  alternating  with 
flat  plains,  the  latter  ranging  at  altitudes  of  3300  to  3600  ft.  and 
the  former  at  3500  to  4000  ft.  The  slopes  of  the  plateaus  are  more 
or  less  steep,  and  are  sometimes  penetrated  by  "  bays  "  of  the  low- 
lands. As  the  border-range  of  the  Khingan  is  approached  the 
country  steadily  rises  up  to  4500  ft.  and  then  to  5350  ft.  Here 
small  lakes  frequently  fill  the  depressions,  though  the  water  in  them 
is  generally  salt  or  brackish.  And  both  here,  and  for  200  m.  south 
of  Urga, streams  are  frequent, and  grassgrowsmoreorlessabundantly. 
There  is,  however,  through  all  the  central  parts,  until  the  bordering 
mountains  are  reached,  an  utter  absence  of  trees  and  shrubs.  Clay 
and  sand  are  the  predominant  formations,  the  watercourses,  especi- 
ally in  the  north,  being  frequently  excavated  6  to  8  ft.  deep,  and  in 
many  places  in  the  flat,  dry  valleys  or  depressions  farther  south 
beds  of  loess,  15  to  20  ft.  thick,  are  exposed.  West  of  the  route 
from  Urga  to  Kalgan  the  country  presents  approximately  the  same 
general  features,  except  that  the  mountains  are  not  so  irregularly 
scattered  in  groups  but  have  more  strongly  defined  strikes,  mostly 
E.  to  W.,  W.N.W.  to  E.S.E.,  and  W.S.W.  to  E.N.E.  The  altitudes 
too  are  higher,  those  of  the  lowlands  ranging  from  3300  to  5600  ft., 
and  those  of  the  ranges  from  650  to  1650  ft.  higher,  though  in  a  few 
cases  they  reach  altitudes  of  8000  ft.  above  sea-level.  The  elevations 
do  not,  however,  as  a  rule  form  continuous  chains,  but  make  up  a 
congeries  of  short  ridges  and  groups  rising  from  a  common  base  and 
intersected  by  a  labyrinth  of  ravines,  gullies,  glens  and  basins. 
But  the  tablelands,  built  up  of  the  horizontal  red  deposits  of  the 
Han-hai  (Obruchev's  Gobi  formation)  which  are  characteristic  of 
the  southern  parts  of  eastern  Mongolia,  are  absent  here  or  occur 
only  in  one  locality,  near  the  Shara-muren  river,  and  are  then  greatly 
intersected  by  gullies  or  dry  watercourses.1  Here  there  is,  however, 
a  great  dearth  of  water,  no  streams,  no  lakes,  no  wells,  and  precipita- 
tion falls  but  seldom.  The  prevailing  winds  blow  from  the  W.  and 
N.W.  and  the  pall  of  dust  overhangs  the  country  as  in  the  Takla- 
makan  and  the  desert  of  Lop.  Characteristic  of  the  flora  are  wild 
garlic,  Kalidium  gracile,  wormwood,  saxaul,  Nitraria  Scoberi, 
Caragana,  Eptie.dra,  saltwort  and  dirisun  (Lasiagrostis  splendens). 

This  great  dtsert  country  of  Gobi  is  crossed  by  several  trade  routes, 
some  of  which  have  been  in  use  for  thousands  of  years.  Among  the 
most  important  are  those  from  Kalgan  on  the  frontier  of  China  to 
Urga  (600  m.),  from  Su-chow  (in  Kan-suh)  to  Hami  (420  m.)  from 
Hami  to  Peking  (1300  m.),  from  Kwei-hwa-cheng  (or  Kuku-khoto) 
to  Hami  and  Barkul,  and  from  Lanchow  (in  Kan-suh)  to  Hami. 

Climate  — The  climate  of  the  Gobi  is  one  of  great  extremes,  com- 
bined with  rapid  changes  of  temperature,  not  only  at  all  seasons  of 
the  year  but  even  within  24  hours  (as  much  as  58°F.).  For  instance, 
at  Urga  (3770  ft.)  the  annual  mean  is  27>5°F.,  the  January  mean 
-15-7  ,  and  the  July  mean  63-5°,  the  extremes  being  100-5°  ar>d 
-44-5°;  while  at  Sivantse  (3905  ft.)  the  annual  mean  is  37°,  the 
January  mean  2-3°,  and  the  July  mean  66-3°,  the  range  being  from 
a  recorded  maximum  of  93°  to  a  recorded  minimum  01-53°.  Even 
in  southern  Mongolia  the  thermometer  goes  down  as  low  as  —27°, 
and  in  Ala-shanit  rises  day  after  day  in  July  as  high  3399°.  Although 
the  south-east  monsoons  reach  the  S.E.  parts  of  the  Gobi,  the  air 
generally  throughout  this  region  is  characterized  by  extreme  dryness, 
especially  during  the  winter.  Hence  the  icy  sandstorms  and  snow- 
storms of  spring  and  early  summer.  The  rainfall  at  Urga  for  the  year 
amounts  to  only  9-7  in. 

1  Obruchev,  in  Izvestia  of  Russ.  Geogr.  Soc.  (1895). 


Sands  of  the  Gobi  Deserts. — With  regard  to  the  origin  of  the  masses 
of  sand  out  of  which  the  dunes  and  chains  of  dunes  (barkhans)  are 
built  up  in  the  several  deserts  of  the  Gobi,  opinions  differ.  While 
some  explorers  consider  them  to  be  the  product  of  marine,  or  at  any 
rate  lacustrine,  denudation  (the  Central  Asian  Mediterranean), 
others — and  this  is  not  only  the  more  reasonable  view,  but  it  is  the 
view  which  is  gaining  most  ground — consider  that  they  are  the  pro- 
ducts of  the  aerial  denudation  of  the  border  ranges  (e.g.  Nan-shan, 
Karlyk-tagh,  &c.),  and  more  especially  of  the  terribly  wasted  ranges 
and  chains  of  hills,  which,  like  the  gaunt  fragments  of  montane 
skeletal  remains,  lie  littered  all  over  the  swelling  uplands  and 
tablelands  of  the  Gobi,  and  that  they  have  been  transported  by  the 
prevailing  winds  to  the  localities  in  which  they  are  now  accumulated, 
the  winds  obeying  similar  transportation  laws  to  the  rivers  and 
streams  which  carry  down  sediment  in  moister  parts  of  the  world. 
Potanin  points  out  2  that  "  there  is  a  certain  amount  of  regularity 
observable  in  the  distribution  of  the  sandy  deserts  over  the  vast 
uplands  of  central  Asia.  Two  agencies  are  represented  in  the  dis- 
tribution of  the  sands,  though  what  they  really  are  is  not  quite  clear; 
and  of  these  two  agencies  one  prevails  in  the  north-west,  the  other 
in  the  south-east,  so  that  the  whole  of  Central  Asia  may  be  divided 
into  two  regions,  the  dividing  line  between  them  being  drawn  from 
north-east  to  south-west,  from  Urga  via  the  eastern  end  of  the 
Tian-shan  to  the  city  of  Kashgar.  North-west  of  this  line  the  sandy 
masses  are  broken  up  into  detached  and  disconnected  areas,  and  are 
almost  without  exception  heaped  up  around  the  lakes,  and  con- 
sequently in  the  lowest  parts  of  the  several  districts  in  which  they 
exist.  Moreover,  we  find  also  that  these  sandy  tracts  always  occur 
on  the  western  or  south-western  shores  of  the  lakes;  this  is  the  case 
with  the  lakes  of  Balkash,  Ala-kul,  Ebi-nor,  Ayar-nor  (or  Telli-nor), 
Orku-nor,  Zaisan-nor,  Ulungur-nor,  Ubsa-nor,  Durga-nor  and 
Kara-nor  lying  E.  of  Kirghiz-nor.  South-east  of  the  line  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  sand  is  quite  different.  In  that  part  of  Asia  we  have 
three  gigantic  but  disconnected  basins.  The  first,  lying  farthest  east, 
is  embraced  on  the  one  side  by  the  ramifications  of  the  Kentei  and 
Khangai  Mountains  and  on  the  other  by  the  In-shan  Mountains. 
The  seco.id  or  middle  division  is  contained  between  the  Altai  of  the 
Gobi  and  the  Ala-shan.  The  third  basin,  in  the  west,  lies  between 
the  Tian-shan  and  the  border  ranges  of  western  Tibet.  .  .  .  The 
deepest  parts  of  each  of  these  three  depressions  occur  near  their 
northern  borders;  towards  their  southern  boundaries  they  are  all 
alike  very  much  higher.  .  .  .  However,  the  sandy  deserts  are  not 
found  in  the  low-lying  tracts  but  occur  on  the  higher  uplands  which 
foot  the  southern  mountain  ranges,  the  In-shan  and  the  Nan-shan. 
Our  maps  show  an  immense  expanse  of  sand  south  of  the  Tarim 
in  the  western  basin;  beginning  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  city 
of  Yarkent  (Yarkand),  it  extends  eastwards  past  the  towns  of  Khotan, 
Keriya  and  Cherchen  to  Sa-chow.  Along  this  stretch  there  is  only 
one  locality  which  forms  an  exception  to  the  rule  we  have  indicated, 
namely,  the  region  round  the  lake  of  Lop-nor.  In  the  middle  basin  the 
widest  expanse  of  sand  occurs  between  the  Edzin-gol  and  the  range 
of  Ala-shan.  On  the  south  it  extends  nearly  as  far  as  a  line  drawn 
through  the  towns  of  Lian-chow,  Kan-chow  and  Kao-tai  at  the  foot 
of  the  Nan-shan;  but  on  the  south  it  does  not  approach  anything 
like  so  far  as  the  latitude  (42°  N.)  of  the  lake  of  Ghashiun-nor.  Still 
farther  east  come  the  sandy  deserts  of  Ordos,  extending  south- 
eastward as  far  as  the  mountain  range  which  separates  Ordos 
from  the  (Chinese)  provinces  of  Shan-si  and  Shen-si.  In  th&eastern 
basin  drift-sand  is  encountered  between  the  district  of  tide  in  the 
north  (44°  30'  N.)  and  the  foot  of  the  In-shan  in  the  south."  In 
two  regions,  if  not  in  three,  the  sands  have  overwhelmed  large 
tracts  of  once  cultivated  country,  and  even  buried  the  cities  in 
which  men  formerly  dwelt.  These  regions  are  the  southern  parts 
of  the  desert  of  Takla-makan  (where  Sven  Hedin  and  M.  A.  Stein  5 
have  discovered  the  ruins  under  the  desert  sands),  along  the  N. 
foot  of  the  Nan-shan,  and  probably  in  part  (other  agencies  having 
helped)  in  the  north  of  the  desert  of  Lop,  where  Sven  Hedin 
discovered  the  ruins  of  Lou-Ian  and  of  other  towns  or  villages. 
For  these  vast  accumulations  of  sand  are  constantly  in  movement ; 
though  the  movement  is  slow,  it  has  nevertheless  been  calcu- 
lated that  in  the  south  of  the  Takla-makan  the  sand-dunes  travel 
bodily  at  the  rate  of  roughly  something  like  160  ft.  in  the  course  of  a 
year.  The  shape  and  arrangement  of  the  individual  sand-dunes, 
and  of  the  barkhans,  generally  indicate  from  which  direction  the 
predominant  winds  blow.  On  the  windward  side  of  the  dune  the 
slope  is  long  and  gentle,  while  the  leeward  side  is  steep  and  in  outline 
concave  like  a  horse-shoe.  The  dunes  vary  in  height  from  30  up  to 
300  ft.,  and  in  some  places  mount  as  it  were  upon  one  another's 
shoulders,  and  in  some  localities  it  is  even  said  that  a  third  tier  is 
sometimes  superimposed. 

AUTHORITIES. — See  N.  M.  Przhevalsky,  Mongolia,  the  Tangut 
Country,  &c.  (Eng.  trans.,  ed.  by  Sir  H.  Yule,  London,  1876)',  and 
From  Kulja  across  the  Tian  Shan  to  Lob  Nor  (Eng.  trans,  by  Delmar 
Morgan,  London,  1879);  G.  N.  Potanin,  Tangutsko-Tibetskaya 
Okraina  Kitaya  i  Centralnaya  Mongoliya,  1884-1886  (1893,  &c.); 
M.  V.  Pjevtsov,  Sketch  of  a  Journey  to  Mongolia  (in  Russian,  Omsk, 

2  In   Tangutsko-Tibetskaya  Okraina  Kitaya  i  Centralnaya  Mon- 
goliya, i.  pp.  96,  &c. 

3  See  Sand-buried  Cities  of  Khotan  (London,  1902). 


GOBLET— GODALMING 


169 


1883);  G.  E.  Grum-Grzhimailo,  Opisanie  Puteshestviya  v  Sapadniy 
Kitai  (1898-1899);  V.  A.  Obruchev,  Centralnaya  Asiya,  Severniy 
Kitai  i  Nan-schan,  1802-1894  (1900-1901);  V.  I.  Roborovsky  and 
P.  K.  Kozlov,  Trudy  Ekspeditsiy  Imp.  Russ.  Geog.  Obshchestva  Po 
Centralnoy  Asiy,  1803-1895  (1900,  &c.);  Roborovsky,  Trudy 
Tibetskoi  Ekspeditsiy,  1889-1890;  Sven  Hedin,  Scientific  Results 
of  a  Journey  in  Central  Asia,  1809-1902  (6  vols.,  1905-1907) ; 
Futterer,  Dvrch  Asien  (1901,  &c.);  K.  Bogdanovich,  Geologicheskiya 
Isledovaniya  v  Vostochnom  Turkestane  and  Trudiy  Tibetskoy  Ekspe- 
ditsiy, 1809-1890;  L.  von  Loczy,  Die  wissenschaftlichen  Ergebnisse 
der  Reise  des  Grafen  Szechenyi  vn  Ostasien,  1877-1880  (1883);  Ney 
Elias,  in  Journ.  Roy.  Geog.  Soc.  (1873) ;  C.  W.  Campbell's  "  Journeys 
in  Mongolia,"  in  Geographical  Journal  (Nov.  1903) ;  Pozdnievym, 
Mongolia,  and  the  Mongols  (in  Russian,  St  Petersburg,  1897  &c.) ; 
Deniker's  summary  of  Kozlov's  latest  journeys  in  La  Geographic 
(1901,  &c.) ;  F.  von  Richthofen,  China  (1877).  (J.  T.  BE.) 

GOBLET,  REN£  (1828-1905),  French  politician,  was  born  at 
Aire-sur-la-Lys,  in  the  Pas  de  Calais,  on  the  26th  of  November 
1828,  and  was  educated  for  the  law.  Under  the  Second  Empire, 
he  helped  to  found  a  Liberal  journal,  Le  Progr'es  de  la  Somme, 
and  in  July  1871  was  sent  by  the  department  of  the  Somme  to 
the  National  Assembly,  where  he  took  his  place  on  the  extreme 
left.  He  failed  to  secure  election  in  1876,  but  next  year  was 
returned  for  Amiens.  He  held  a  minor  government  office  in 
1879,  and  in  1882  became  minister  of  the  interior  in  the  Freycinet 
cabinet.  He  was  minister  of  education,  fine  arts  and  religion  in 
Henri  Brisson's  first  cabinet  in  1885,  and  again  under  Freycinet 
in  1886,  when  he  greatly  increased  his  reputation  by  an  able 
defence  of  the  government's  education  proposals.  Meanwhile 
his  extreme  independence  and  excessive  candour  had  alienated 
him  from  many  of  his  party,  and  all  through  his  life  he  was 
frequently  in  conflict  with  his  political  associates,  from  Gambetta 
downwards.  On  the  fall  of  the  Freycinet  cabinet  in  December 
he  formed  a  cabinet  in  which  he  reserved  for  himself  the  portfolios 
of  the  interior  and  of  religion.  The  Goblet  cabinet  was  unpopular 
from  the  outset,  and  it  was  with  difficulty  that  anybody  could 
be  found  to  accept  the  ministry  of  foreign  affairs,  which  was 
finally  given  to  M.  Flourens.  Then  came  what  is  known  as  the 
Schnaebele  incident,  the  arrest  on  the  German  frontier  of  a 
French  official  named  Schnaebele,  which  caused  immense  excite- 
ment in  France.  For  some  days  Goblet  took  no  definite  decision, 
but  left  Flourens,  who  stood  for  peace,  to  fight  it  out  with 
General  Boulanger,  then  minister  of  war,  who  was  for  the 
despatch  of  an  ultimatum.  Although  he  finally  intervened  on 
the  side  of  Flourens,  and  peace  was  preserved,  his  weakness  in 
face  of  the  Boulangist  propaganda  became  a  national  danger. 
Defeated  on  the  budget  in  May  1887,  his  government  resigned; 
but  he  returned  to  office  next  year  as  foreign  minister  in  the 
radical  administration  of  Charles  Floquet.  He  was  defeated  at 
the  polls  by  a  Boulangist  candidate  in  1889,  and  sat  in  the  senate 
from  1891  to  1893,  when  he  returned  to  the  popular  chamber. 
In  association  with  MM.  E.  Lockroy,  Ferdinand  Sarrien  and 
P.  L.  Peytral  he  drew  up  a  republican  programme  which  they 
put  forward  in  the  Petite  Republique  fran$aise.  At  the  elections 
of  1898  he  was  defeated,  and  thenceforward  took  little  part  in 
public  affairs.  He  died  in  Paris  on  the  I3th  of  September 
1905- 

GOBLET,  a  large  type  of  drinking-vessel,  particularly  one 
shaped  like  a  cup,  without  handles,  and  mounted  on  a  shank 
with  a  foot.  The  word  is  derived  from  the  O.  Fr.  gobelel,  diminu- 
tive of  gobel,  gobeau,  which  Skeat  takes  to  be  formed  from  Low 
Lat.  cupellus,  cup,  diminutive  of  cupa,  tub,  cask  (see  DRINKING- 
VESSELS). 

GOBY.  The  gobies  (Gobius)  are  small  fishes  readily  recognized 
by  their  ventrals  (the  fins  on  the  lower  surface  of  the  chest)  being 
united  into  one  fin,  forming  a  suctorial  disk,  by  which  these  fishes 
are  enabled  to  attach  themselves  in  every  possible  position  to  a 
rock  or  other  firm  substances.  They  are  essentially  coast-fishes, 
inhabiting  nearly  all  seas,  but  disappearing  towards  the  Arctic 
and  Antarctic  Oceans.  Many  enter,  or  live  exclusively  in,  such 
fresh  waters  as  are  at  no  great  distance  from  the  sea.  Nearly  500 
different  kinds  are  known.  The  largest  British  species,  Gobius 
capita,  occurring  in  the  rock-pools  of  Cornwall,  measures  10 
in.  Gobius  alcocki,  from  brackish  and  fresh  waters  of  Lower 
Bengal,  is  one  of  the  very  smallest  of  fishes,  not  measuring  over 


1 6  millimetres  ( =  7  lines).  The  males  are  usually  more  brilliantly 
coloured  than  the  females,  and  guard  the  eggs,  which  are  often 
placed  in  a  sort  of  nest  made  of  the  shell  of  some  bivalve  or  of  the 
carapace  of  a  crab,  with  the  convexity  turned  upwards  and 


FIG.  i. — Gobius  lentiginosus.  FIG.  2. — United 

Ventrals  of  Goby. 

covered  with  sand,  the  eggs  being  stuck  to  the  inner  surface  of 
this  roof. 

Close  allies  of  the  gobies  are  the  walking  fish  or  jumping  fish 
(Periophthalmus),  of  which  various  species  are  found  in  great 


FIG.  3. — Periophthalmus  koelreuteri. 

numbers  on  the  mud  flats  at  the  mouths  of  rivers  in  the  tropics, 
skipping  about  by  means  of  the  muscular,  scaly  base  of  their 
pectoral  fins,  with  the  head  raised  and  bearing  a  pair  of  strongly 
projecting  versatile  eyes  close  together. 

GOCH,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  Prussian  Rhine  province,  on 
the  Niers,  8  m.  S.  of  Cleves  at  the  junction  of  the  railways  Cologne- 
Zevenaar  and  Boxtel-Wesel.  Pop.  (1905)  10,232.  It  has  a 
Protestant  and  a  Roman  Catholic  church  and  manufactures  of 
brushes,  plush  goods,  cigars  and  margarine.  In  the  middle  ages 
it  was  the  seat  of  a  large  trade  in  linen.  Goch  became  a  town  in 
1231  and  belonged  to  the  dukes  of  Gelderland  and  later  to  the 
dukes  of  Cleves. 

GOD,  the  common  Teutonic  word  for  a  personal  object  pf 
religious  worship.  It  is  thus,  like  the  Gr.  6tos  and  Lat.  dens, 
applied  to  all  those  superhuman  beings  of  the  heathen  mythologies 
who  exercise  power  over  nature  and  man  and  are  often  identified 
with  some  particular  sphere  of  activity;  and  also  to  the  visible 
material  objects,  whether  an  image  of  the  supernatural  being  or  a 
tree,  pillar,  &c.  used  as  a  symbol,  an  idol.  The  word  "  god,"  on 
the  conversion  of  the  Teutonic  races  to  Christianity,  was 
adopted  as  the  name  of  the  one  Supreme  Being,  the  Creator  of  the 
universe,  and  of  the  Persons  of  the  Trinity.  The  New  English 
Dictionary  points  out  that  whereas  the  old  Teutonic  type  of  the 
word  is  neuter,  corresponding  to  the  Latin  numen,  in  the  Christian 
applications  it  becomes  masculine,  and  that  even  where  the 
earlier  neuter  form  is  still  kept,  as  in  Gothic  and  Old  Norwegian, 
the  construction  is  masculine.  Popular  etymology  has  connected 
the  word  with  "  good  ";  this  is  exemplified  by  the  corruption  of 
"  God  be  with  you  "  into  "  good-bye."  "  God  "  is  a  word 
common  to  all  Teutonic  languages.  In  Gothic  it  is  Gulh;  Dutch 
has  the  same  form  as  English;  Danish  and  Swedish  have  Gud, 
German  Gott.  According  to  the  New  English  Dictionary,  the 
original  may  be  found  in  two  Aryan  roots,  both  of  the  form  gheu, 
one  of  which  means  "  to  invoke,"  the  other  "  to  pour  "  (cf.  Gr. 
X&w) ;  the  last  is  used  of  sacrificial  offerings.  The  word  would 
thus  mean  the  object  either  of  religious  invocation  or  of  religious 
worship  by  sacrifice.  It  has  been  also  suggested  that  the  word 
might  mean  a  "  molten  image  "  from  the  sense  of  "  pour." 

See  RELIGION;  HEBREW  RELIGION;  THEISM,  &c. 

GODALMING,  a  market-town  and  municipal  borough  in  the 
Guildford  parliamentary  division  of  Surrey,  England,  34  m.  S.W. 
of  London  by  the  London  &  South-Western  railway.  Pop.  (1901) 
8748.  It  is  beautifully  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Wey, 


170 

which  is  navigable  thence  to  the  Thames,  and  on  the  high  road 
between  London  and  Portsmouth.  Steep  hills,  finely  wooded, 
enclose  the  valley.  The  chief  public  buildings  are  the  church  of 
SS.  Peter  and  Paul,  a  cruciform  building  of  mixed  architecture, 
but  principally  Early  English  and  Perpendicular;  the  town-hall, 
Victoria  hall,  and  market-house,  and  a  technical  institute  and 
school  of  science  and  art.  Charterhouse  School,  one  of  the 
principal  English  public  schools,  originally  founded  in  1611,  was 
transferred  from  Charterhouse  Square,  London,  to  Godalming  in 
1872.  It  stands  within  grounds  92  acres  in  extent,  half  a  mile 
north  of  Godalming,  and  consists  of  spacious  buildings  in  Gothic 
style,  with  a  chapel,  library  and  hall,  besides  boarding-houses, 
masters'  houses  and  sanatoria.  (See  CHARTERHOUSE.)  Godalming 
has  manufactures  of  paper,  leather,  parchment  and  hosiery,  and 
some  trade  in  corn,  malt,  bark,  hoops  and  timber;  and  the 
Bargate  stone,  of  which  the  parish  church  is  built,  is  still  quarried. 
The  borough  is  under  a  mayor,  6  aldermen  and  18  councillors. 
Area,  812  acres. 

Godalming  (Godelminge)  belonged  to  King  Alfred,  and  was  a 
royal  manor  at  the  time  of  Domesday.  The  manor  belonged  to 
the  see  of  Salisbury  in  the  middle  ages,  but  reverted  to  the  crown 
in  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.  Godalming  was  incorporated  by 
Elizabeth  in  1574,  when  the  borough  originated.  The  charter 
was  confirmed  by  James  1.  in  1620,  and  a  fresh  charter  was 
granted  by  Charles  II.  in  1666.  The  borough  was  never  repre- 
sented in  parliament.  The  bishopof  Salisbury  in  1300  received  the 
grant  of  a  weekly  market  to  be  held  on  Mondays:  the  day  was 
altered  to  Wednesday  by  Elizabeth's  charter.  The  bishop's 
grant  included  a  fair  at  the  feast  of  St  Peter  and  St  Paul  (29th  of 
June).  Another  fair  at  Candlemas  (2nd  of  February)  was  granted 
by  Elizabeth.  The  market  is  still  held.  The  making  of  cloth, 
particularly  Hampshire  kerseys,  was  the  staple  industry  of 
Godalming  in  the  middle  ages,  but  it  began  to  decay  early  in  the 
1 7th  century  and  by  1850  was  practically  extinct.  As  in  other 
cases,  dyeing  was  subsidiary  to  the  cloth  industry.  Tanning, 
introduced  in  the  isth  century,  survives.  The  present  manu- 
facture of  fleecy  hosiery  dates  from  the  end  of  the  i8th  century. 

GODARD,  BENJAMIN  LOUIS  PAUL  (1849-1895),  French 
composer,  was  born  in  Paris,  on  the  i8th  of  August  1849.  He 
studied  at  the  Conservatoire,  and  competed  for  the  Prix  de 
Rome  without  success  in  1866  and  1867.  He  began  by  publishing 
a  number  of  songs,  many  of  which  are  charming,  such  as  "  Je 
ne  veux  pas  d'autres  choses,"  "  Ninon,"  "  Chanson  de  Florian," 
also  a  quantity  of  piano  pieces,  some  chamber  music,  including 
several  violin  sonatas,  a  trio  for  piano  and  strings,  a  quartet  for 
strings,  a  violin  concerto  and  a  second  work  of  the  same  kind 
entitled  "  Concerto  Romantique."  Godard's  chance  arrived  in 
the  year  1878,  when  with  his  dramatic  cantata,  Le  Tasse,  he  shared 
with  M.  Theodore  Dubois  the  honour  of  winning  the  musical 
competition  instituted  by  the  city  of  Paris.  From  that  time 
until  his  death  Godard  composed  a  surprisingly  large  number  of 
works,  including  four  operas,  Pedro  de  Zalamea,  produced  at 
Antwerp  in  1884;  Jocelyn,  given  in  Paris  at  the  Theatre  du 
Chateau  d'Eau,  in  1888;  Dante,  played  at  the  Opera  Comique 
two  years  later;  and  La  Vivandiere,  left  unfinished  and  partly 
scored  by  another  hand.  This  last  work  was  heard  at  the  Opera 
Comique  in  1895,  and  has  been  played  in  England  by  the  Carl 
Rosa  Opera  Company.  His  other  works  include  the  "  Symphonic 
legendaire,"  "  Symphonic  gothique,"  "  Diane  "  and  various 
orchestral  works.  Godard's  productivity  was  enormous,  and  his 
compositions  are,  for  this  reason  only,  decidedly  unequal.  He 
was  at  his  best  in  works  of  smaller  dimensions,  and  has  left  many 
exquisite  songs.  Among  his  more  ambitious  works  the  "  Sym- 
phonic legendaire  "  may  be  singled  out  as  being  one  of  the  most 
distinctive.  He  had  a  decided  individuality,  and  his  premature 
death  at  Cannes  on  the  xoth  of  January  1895  was  a  loss  to 
French  art. 

GODAVARI,  a  river  of  central  and  western  India.  It  flows 
across  the  Deccan  from  the  Western  to  the  Eastern  Ghats;  its 
total  length  is  900  m.;  the  estimated  area  of  its  drainage  basin, 
112,200  sq.  m.  Its  traditional  source  is  on  the  side  of  a  hill 
behind  the  village  of  Trimbak  in  Nasik  district,  Bombay,  where 


GODARD— GODAVARI 


the  water  runs  into  a  reservoir  from  the  lips  of  an  image.  But 
according  to  popular  legend  it  proceeds  from  the  same  ultimate 
source  as  the  Ganges,  though  underground.  Its  course  is  gener- 
ally south-easterly.  After  passing  through  Nasik  district,  it 
crosses  into  the  dominions  of  the  nizam  of  Hyderabad.  When 
it  again  strikes  British  territory  it  is  joined  by  the  Pranhita, 
with  its  tributaries  the  Wardha,  the  Penganga  and  Wainganga. 
For  some  distance  it  flows  between  the  nizam's  dominions  and 
the  Upper  Godavari  district,  and  receives  the  Indravati,  the  Tal 
and  the  Sabari.  The  stream  has  here  a  channel  varying  from 
i  to  2  m.  in  breadth,  occasionally  broken  by  alluvial  islands. 
Parallel  to  the  river  stretch  long  ranges  of  hills.  Below  the 
junction  of  the  Sabari  the  channel  begins  to  contract.  The 
flanking  hills  gradually  close  in  on  both  sides,  and  the  result  is 
a  magnificent  gorge  only  200  yds.  wide  through  which  the  water 
flows  into  the  plain  of  the  delta,  about  60  m.  from  the  sea.  The 
head  of  the  delta  is  at  the  village  of  Dowlaishweram,  where  the 
main  stream  is  crossed  by  the  irrigation  anicut.  The  river  has 
seven  mouths,  the  largest  being  the  Gautami  Godavari.  The 
Godavari  is  regarded  as  peculiarly  sacred,  and  once  every  twelve 
years  the  great  bathing  festival  called  Pushkaram  is  held  on  its 
banks  at  Rajahmundry. 

The  upper  waters  of  the  Godavari  are  scarcely  utilized  for 
irrigation,  but  the  entire  delta  has  been  turned  into  a  garden  of 
perennial  crops  by  means  of  the  anicut  at  Dowlaishweram, 
constructed  by  Sir  Arthur  Cotton,  from  which  three  main  canals 
are  drawn  off.  The  river  channel  here  is  3!  m.  wide.  The  anicut 
is  a  substantial  mass  of  stone,  bedded  in  lime  cement,  about 
2j  m.  long,  130  ft.  broad  at  the  base,  and  12  ft.  high.  The 
stream  is  thus  pent  back  so  as  to  supply  a  volume  of  3000  cubic  ft. 
of  water  per  second  during  its  low  season,  and  1 2,000  cubic  ft. 
at  time  of  flood.  The  main  canals  have  a  total  length  of  493  m., 
irrigating  662,000  acres,  and  all  navigable;  and  there  are  1929  m. 
of  distributary  channels.  In  1864  water-communication  was 
opened  between  the  deltas  of  the  Godavari  and  Kistna.  Rocky 
barriers  and  rapids  obstruct  navigation  in  the  upper  portion  of 
the  Godavari.  Attempts  have  been  made  to  construct  canals 
round  these  barriers  with  little  success,  and  the  undertaking  has 
been  abandoned. 

GODAVARI,  a  district  of  British  India,  in  the  north-east 
of  the  Madras  presidency.  It  was  remodelled  in  1907-1908, 
when  part  of  it  was  transferred  to  Kistna  district.  Its  present 
area  is  5634  sq.  m.  Its  territory  now  lies  mainly  east  of 
the  Godavari  river,  including  the  entire  delta,  with  a  long 
narrow  strip  extending  up  its  valley.  The  apex  of  the  delta 
is  at  Dowlaishweram,  where  a  great  dam  renders  the  waters 
available  for  irrigation.  Between  this  point  and  the  coast 
there  is  a  vast  extent  of  rice  fields.  Farther  inland,  and 
enclosing  the  valley  of  the  great  river,  are  low  hills,  steep  and 
forest-clad.  The  north-eastern  part,  known  as  the  Agency 
tract,  is  occupied  by  spurs  of  the  Eastern  Ghats.  The  coast  is 
low,  sandy  and  swampy,  the  sea  very  shallow,  so  that  vessels 
must  lie  nearly  5  m.  from  Cocanada,  the  chief  port.  The  Sabari 
is  the  principal  tributary  of  the  Godavari  within  the  district. 
The  Godavari  often  rises  in  destructive  floods.  The  population 
of  the  present  area  in  1901  was  1,445,961.  In  the  old  district 
the  increase  during  the  last  decade  was  1 1  %.  The  chief  towns 
are  Cocanada  and  Rajahmundry.  The  forests  are  of  great  value; 
coal  is  known,  and  graphite  is  worked.  The  population  is 
principally  occupied  in  agriculture,  the  principal  crops  being 
rice,  oil-seeds,  tobacco  and  sugar.  The  cigars  known  in  England 
as  Lunkas  are  partly  made  from  tobacco  grown  on  lankas  or 
islands  in  the  river  Godavari.  Sugar  (from  the  juice  of  the 
palmyra  palm)  and  rum  are  made  by  European  processes  at 
Samalkot.  The  administrative  headquarters  are  now  at  Coca- 
nada, the  chief  seaport;  but  Rajahmundry,  at  the  head  of  the 
delta,  is  the  old  capital.  A  large  but  decreasing  trade  is  conducted 
at  Cocanada,  rice  being  shipped  to  Mauritius  and  Ceylon,  and 
cotton  and  oil-seeds  to  Europe.  Rice-cleaning  mills  have  been 
established  here  and  at  other  places.  The  district  is  traversed 
by  the  main  line  of  the  East  Coast  railway,  with  a  branch  to 
Cocanada;  the  iron  girder  bridge  of  forty-two  spans  over  the 


GODEFROY— GODET 


Godavari  river  near  Rajahmundry  was  opened  in  1900.  There 
is  a  government  college  at  Rajahmundry,  with  a  training  college 
attached,  and  an  aided  college  at  Cocanada. 

The  Godavari  district  formed  part  of  the  Andhra  division  of 
Dravida,  the  north-west  portion  being  subject  to  the  Orissa 
kings,  and  the  south-western  belonging  to  the  Vengi  kingdom. 
For  centuries  it  was  the  battlefield  on  which  various  chiefs 
fought  for  independence  with  varying  success  till  the  beginning 
of  the  i6th  century,  when  the  whole  country  may  be  said  to  have 
passed  under  Mahommedan  power.  At  the  conclusion  of  the 
struggle  with  the  French  in  the  Carnatic,  Godavari  with  the 
Northern  Circars  was  conquered  by  the  English,  and  finally 
ceded  by  imperial  sanad  in  1765.  The  district  was  constituted 
in  1859,  by  the  redistribution  of  the  territory  comprising  the 
former  districts  of  Guntur,  Rajahmundry  and  Masulipatam, 
into  what  are  now  the  Kistna  and  Godavari  districts. 

See  H.  Morris,  District  Manual  (1878) ;  District  Gazetteer  (1906). 

GODEFROY  (GOTHOFREDUS),  a  French  noble  family,  which 
numbered  among  its  members  several  distinguished  jurists  and 
historians.  The  family  claimed  descent  from  Symon  Godefroy, 
who  was  born  at  Mons  about  1320  and  was  lord  of  Sapigneulx 
near  Berry-au-bac,  now  in  the  department  of  Aisne. 

DENIS  GODEFROY  (Dionysius  Gothofredus)  (1549-1622), 
jurist,  son  of  Leon  Godefroy,  lord  of  Guignecourt,  was  born  in 
Paris  on  the  lyth  of  October  1549.  He  was  educated  at  the 
College  de  Navarre,  and  studied  law  at  Louvain,  Cologne  and 
Heidelberg,  returning  to  Paris  in  1573.  He  embraced  the 
reformed  religion,  and  in  1579  left  Paris,  where  his  abilities  and 
connexions  promised  a  brilliant  career,  to  establish  himself  at 
Geneva.  He  became  professor  of  law  there,  received  the  freedom 
of  the  city  in  1580,  and  in  1587  became  a  member  of  the  Council 
of  the  Two  Hundred.  Henry  IV.  induced  him  to  return  to  France 
by  making  him  grand  bailli  of  Gex,but  no  sooner  had  he  installed 
himself  than  the  town  was  sacked  and  his  library  burnt  by  the 
troops  of  the  duke  of  Savoy.  In  1591  he  became  professor  of 
Roman  law  at  Strassburg,  where  he  remained  until  April  1600, 
when  in  response  to  an  invitation  from  Frederick  IV.,  elector 
palatine,  he  removed  to  Heidelberg.  The  difficulties  of  his 
position  led  to  his  return  to  Strassburg  for  a  short  time,  but  in 
November  1604  he  definitely  settled  at  Heidelberg.  He  was 
made  head  of  the  faculty  of  law  in  the  university,  and  was  from 
time  to  time  employed  on  missions  to  the  French  court.  His 
repeated  refusal  of  offers  of  advancement  in  his  own  country 
was  due  to  his  Calvinism.  He  died  at  Strassburg  on  the  7th  of 
September  1622,  having  left  Heidelberg  before  the  city  was 
sacked  by  the  imperial  troops  in  1621.  His  most  important  work 
was  the  "Corpus  juris  civilis,  originally  published  at  Geneva  in 
1583,  which  went  through  some  twenty  editions,  the  most 
valuable  of  them  being  that  printed  by  the  Elzevirs  at  Amster- 
dam in  1633  and  the  Leipzig  edition  of  1740. 

Lists  of  his  other  learned  works  may  be  found  in  Senebier's  Hist, 
lilt,  de  Geneve,  vol.  ii.,  and  in  NiceVon's  Memoires,  vol.  xvii.  Some  of 
his  correspondence  with  his  learned  friends,  with  his  kinsman 
President  de  Thou,  Isaac  Casaubon,  Jean  Jacques  Grynaeus  and 
others,  is  preserved  in  the  libraries  of  the  British  Museum,  of  Basel 
and  Paris. 

His  eldest  son,  THEODORE  GODEFROY  (1580-1649),  was  born 
at  Geneva  on  the  uth  of  July  1580.  He  abjured  Calvinism, 
and  was  called  to  the  bar  in  Paris.  He  became  historiographer 
of  France  in  1613,  and  was  employed  from  time  to  time  on 
diplomatic  missions.  He  was  employed  at  the  congress  of 
Miinster,  where  he  remained  after  the  signing  of  peace  in  1648 
as  charg6  d'affaires  until  his  death  on  the  sth  of  October  of  the 
next  year.  His  most  important  work  is  Le  Ceremonial  de  France 
.  .  .  (1619),  a  work  which  became  a  classic  on  the  subject  of 
royal  ceremonial,  and  was  re-edited  by  his  son  in  an  enlarged 
edition  in  1649. 

Besides  his  printed  works  he  made  vast  collections  of  historical 
material  which  remains  in  MS.  and  fills  the  greater  part  of  the 
Godefroy  collection  of  over  five  hundred  portfolios  in  the  Library 
of  the  Institute  in  Paris.  These  were  catalogued  by  Ludovic 
Lalanne  in  the  Annuaire  Bulletin  (1865-1866  and  1892)  of  the 
SocMe  de  I'histoire  de  France. 


The  second  son  of  Denis,  JACQUES  GODEFROY  (1587-1652), 
jurist,  was  born  at  Geneva  on  the  I3th  of  September  1587.  He 
was  sent  to  France  in  1611,  and  studied  law  and  history  at 
Bourges  and  Paris.  He  remained  faithful  to  the  Calvinist 
persuasion,  and  soon  returned  to  Geneva,  where  he  became  active 
in  public  affairs.  He  was  secretary  of  state  from  1632  to  1636, 
and  syndic  or  chief  magistrate  in  1637,  1641,  1645  and  1649. 
He  died  on  the  23rd  of  June  1652.  In  addition  to  his  civic  and 
political  work  he  lectured  on  law,  and  produced,  after  thirty 
years  of  labour,  his  edition  of  the  Codex  Theodosianus.  This 
code  formed  the  principal,  though  not  the  only,  source  of  the 
legal  systems  of  the  countries  formed  from  the  Western  Empire. 
Godefroy's  edition  was  enriched  with  a  multitude  of  important 
notes  and  historical  comments,  and  became  a  standard  authority 
on  the  decadent  period  of  the  Western  Empire.  It  was  only 
printed  thirteen  years  after  his  death  under  the  care  of  his 
friend  Antoine  Marville  at  Lyons(4vols.  1665), and  was  reprinted 
at  Leipzig  (6  vols.)  in  1736-1745.  Of  his  numerous  other  works 
the  most  important  was  the  reconstruction  of  the  twelve  tables 
of  early  Roman  law. 

See  also  the  dictionary  of  Moreri,  Nic6ron's  M6moires  (vol.  17) 
and  a  notice  in  the  Bibliothkqut  universelle  de  Geneve  (Dec.  1837). 

DENIS  GODEFROY  (1615-1681),  eldest  son  of  Th6odore, 
succeeded  his  father  as  historiographer  of  France,  and  re-edited 
various  chronicles  which  had  been  published  by  him.  He  was 
entrusted  by  Colbert  with  the  care  and  investigation  of  the 
records  concerning  the  Low  Countries  preserved  at  Lille,  where 
great  part  of  his  life  was  spent.  He  was  also  the  historian  of 
the  reigns  of  Charles  VII.  and  Charles  VIII. 

Other  members  of  the  family  who  attained  distinction  in  the 
same  branch  of  learning  were  the  two  sons  of  Denis  Godefroi — 
Denis  (1653-1719),  also  an  historian,  and  Jean,  sieur  d'Aumont 
(1656-1732),  who  edited  the  letters  of  Louis  XII.,  the  memoirs 
of  Marguerite  de  Valois,  of  Castelnau  and  Pierre  de  1'Estoile, 
and  left  some  useful  material  for  the  history  of  the  Low  Countries; 
Jean  Baptiste  Achille  Godefroy,  sieur  de  Maillart  (1697-1759), 
and  Denis  Joseph  Godefroy,  sieur  de  Maillart  (1740-1819),  son 
and  grandson  of  Jean  Godefroy,  who  were  both  officials  at 
Lille,  and  left  valuable  historical  documents  which  have  remained 
in  MS. 

For  further  details  see  Les  Savants  Godefroy  (Paris,  1873)  by  the 
marquis  de  Godefroy-M6nilglaise,  son  of  Denis  Joseph  Godefroy. 

GODESBERG,  a  spa  of  Germany,  in  the  Prussian  Rhine  province, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  almost  opposite  Konigswinter, 
and  4  m.  S.  of  Bonn,  on  the  railway  to  Coblenz.  It  is  a  fashion- 
able summer  resort,  and  contains  numerous  pretty  villas,  the 
residences  of  merchants  from  Cologne,  Elberfeld,  Crefeld  and 
other  Rhenish  manufacturing  centres.  It  has  an  Evangelical 
and  three  Roman  Catholic  churches,  a  synagogue  and  several 
educational  establishments.  Its  chalybeate  springs  annually 
attract  a  large  number  of  visitors,  and  the  pump-room,  baths 
and  public  grounds  are  arranged  on  a  sumptuous  scale.  On  a 
conical  basalt  hill,  close  by,  are  the  ruins,  surmounted  by  a 
picturesque  round  tower,  of  Godesberg  castle.  Built  by  Arch- 
bishop Dietrich  I.  of  Cologne  in  the  I3th  century,  it  was  destroyed 
by  the  Bavarians  in  1583. 

See  Dennert,  Godesberg,  eine  Perle  des  Rheins  (Godesberg,  1900). 

GODET,  FREDERIC  LOUIS  (1812-1900),  Swiss  Protestant 
theologian,  was  born  at  Neuchatel  on  the  25th  of  October  1812. 
After  studying  theology  at  Neuchatel,  Bonn  and  Berlin,  he  was 
in  1850  appointed  professor  of  theology  at  Neuchatel.  From 
1851  to  1866  he  also  held  a  pastorate.  In  1873  he  became  one 
of  the  founders  of  the  free  Evangelical  Church  of  Neuchatel,  and 
professor  in  its  theological  faculty.  He  died  there  on  the  29th  of 
October  1900.  A  conservative  scholar,  Godet  was  the  author 
of  some  of  the  most  noteworthy  French  commentaries  published 
in  recent  times. 

His  commentaries  are  on  the  Gospel  of  St  John  (2  vols.,  1863-1865; 
3rd  ed.,  1881-1888;  Eng.  trans.  1886,  &c.);  St  Luke  (2  vols.,  1871; 
3rd  ed.,  1888;  Eng.  trans.  1875,  &c.);  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  (2 
vols.,  1879-1880;  2nd  ed.,  1883-1890;  Eng.  trans.,  1880,  &c.); 
Corinthians  (2  vols.,  1886-1887;  Eng.  trans.  1886,  &c.).  His  other 


172  GODFREY,  SIR  E.  B.— GODFREY  OF  BOUILLON 


works  include  £.tudes  bibliques  (2  vols.,  1873-1874;  4th  ed.,  1889 
Eng.  trans.  1875  f-).  and  Introduction  au  Nouveau  Testament  (1893  (. 
Eng.  trans.,  1894,  &c.);  Lectures  in  Defence  of  the  Christian  Faith 
(Eng.  trans.  4th  ed.,  1900). 

GODFREY,    SIR    EDMUND    BERRY    (1621-1678),    English 
magistrate  and  politician,  younger  son   of  Thomas   Godfrey 
(1586-1664),  a  member  of  an  old  Kentish  family,  was  born  on 
the  23rd  of  December  1621.    He  was  educated  at  Westminster 
school  and  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  and  after  entering  Gray's 
Inn  became  a  dealer  in  wood.    His  business  prospered.    He  was 
made  a  justice  of  the  peace  for  the  city  of  Westminster,  and  in 
September  1666  was  knighted  as  a  reward  for  his  services  as 
magistrate  and  citizen  during  the  great  plague  in  London;  but 
in  1669  he  was  imprisoned  for  a  few  days  for  instituting  the 
arrest  of  the  king's  physician,  Sir  Alexander  Fraizer  (d.  1681), 
who  owed  him  money.  The  tragic  events  in  Godfrey's  life  began 
in  September  1678  when  Titus  Gates  and  two  other  men  appeared 
before  him  with  written  Information  about  the  Popish  Plot,  and 
swore  to  the  truth  of  their  statements.     During  the  intense 
excitement  which  followed  the  magistrate  expressed  a  fear  that 
his  life  was  in  danger,  but  took  no  extra  precautions  for  safety. 
On  the  1 2th  of  October  he  did  not  return  home  as  usual,  and  on 
the  1 7th  his  body  was  found  on  Primrose  Hill,  Hampstead. 
Medical  and  other  evidence  made  it  certain  that  he  had  been 
murdered,  and  the  excited  populace  regarded  the  deed  as  the 
work  of  the  Roman  Catholics.    Two  committees  investigated 
the  occurrence  without  definite  result,  but  in  December  1678 
a  certain  Miles  Prance,  who  had  been  arrested  for  conspiracy, 
confessed  that  he  had  shared  in  the  murder.     According  to 
Prance  the  deed  was  instigated  by  some  Roman  Catholic  priests, 
three  of  whom  witnessed  the  murder,  and  was  committed  in  the 
courtyard  of  Somerset  House,  where  Godfrey  was  strangled  by 
Robert  Green,  Lawrence  Hill  and  Henry  Berry,  the  body  being 
afterwards  taken  to  Hampstead.   The  three  men  were  promptly 
arrested;  the  evidence  of  the  informer  William  Bedloe,  although 
contradictory,  was  similar  on  a  few  points  to  that  of  Prance,  and 
in  February  1679  they  were  hanged.   Soon  afterwards,  however, 
some  doubt  was  cast  upon  this  story;  a  war  of  words  ensued 
between  Prance  and  others,  and  it  was  freely  asserted  that 
Godfrey  had  committed  suicide.  Later  the  falsehood  of  Prance's 
confession  was  proved  and  Prance  pleaded  guilty  to  perjury; 
but  the  fact  remains  that  Godfrey  was  murdered.     Godfrey 
was  an  excellent  magistrate,  and  was  very  charitable  both  in 
public  and  in  private  life.    Mr  John  Pollock,  in  the  Popish  Plot 
(London,  1903),  confirms  the  view  that  the  three  men,  Green, 
Hill  and   Berry,   were   wrongfully  executed,   and   thinks   the 
murder   was   committed   by   some  Jesuits   aided   by   Prance. 
Godfrey  was  feared  by  the  Jesuits  because  he  knew,  through 
Gates,  that  on  the  24th  of  April  1678  a  Jesuit  congregation  had 
met  at  the  residence  of  the  duke  of  York  to  concert  plans  for  the 
king's  murder.    He  concludes  thus:  "  The  success  of  Godfrey's 
murder  as  a  political  move  is  indubitable.    The  duke  of  York 
was  the  pivot  of  the  Roman  Catholic  scheme  in  England,  and 
Godfrey's  death  saved  both  from  utter  ruin."  On  the  other  hand 
Mr  Alfred  Marks  in  his  Who  killed  Sir  E.  B.  Godfrey?  (1905) 
maintains  that  suicide  was  the  cause  of  Godfrey's  death. 

See  the  article  GATES,  TITUS,  also  R.  Tuke,  Memoirs  of  the  Life 
and  Death  of  Sir  Edmondbury  Godfrey  (London,  1682);  and  G. 
Burnet,  History  of  my  Own  Time;  The  Reign  of  Charles  II.,  edited  by 
O.  Airy  (Oxford,  1900). 

GODFREY  OF  BOUILLON  (c.  1060-1100),  a  leader  in  the  First 
Crusade,  was  the  second  son  of  Eustace  II.,  count  of  Boulogne, 
by  his  marriage  with  Ida,  daughter  of  Duke  Godfrey  II.  of 
Lower  Lorraine.  He  was  designated  by  Duke  Godfrey  as  his 
successor;  but  the  emperor  Henry  IV.  gave  him  only  the  mark 
of  Antwerp,  in  which  the  lordship  of  Bouillon  was  included 
(1076).  He  fought  for  Henry,  however,  both  on  the  Elster  and 
in  the  siege  of  Rome;  and  he  was  invested  in  1082  with  the  duchy 
of  Lower  Lorraine.  Lorraine  had  been  penetrated  by  Cluniac 
influences,  and  Godfrey  would  seem  to  have  been  a  man  of 
notable  piety.  Accordingly,  though  he  had  himself  served  as 
an  imperialist,  and  though  the  Germans  in  general  had  little 
'  sympathy  with  the  Crusaders  (subsannabant . . .  quasi  delirantes), 


Godfrey,  nevertheless,  when  the  call  came  "  to  follow  Christ," 
almost  literally  sold  all  that  he  had,  and  foHowed.  Along  with 
his  brothers  Eustace  and  Baldwin  (the  future  Baldwin  I.  of 
Jerusalem)  he  led  a  German  contingent,  some  40,000  strong, 
along'"Charlemagne's  road,"  through  Hungary  to  Constantinople' 
starting  in  August  1096,  and  arriving  at  Constantinople,  after 
some  difficulties  in  Hungary,  in  November.  He  was  the  first 
of  the  crusading  princes  to  arrive,  and  on  him  fell  the  duty  of 
deciding  what  the  relations  of  the  princes  to  the  eastern  emperor 
Alexius  were  to  be.  Eventually,  after  several  disputes  and 
some  fighting,  he  did  homage  to  Alexius  in  January  1097;  and 
his  example  was  followed  by  the  other  princes.  From  this  time 
until  the  beginning  of  1099  Godfrey  appears  as  one  of  the 
minor  princes,  plodding  onwards,  and  steadily  fighting,  while 
men  like  Bohemund  and  Raymund,  Baldwin  and  Tancred  were 
determining  the  course  of  events. 

In  1099  he  came  once  more  to  the  front.  The  mass  of  the 
crusaders  became  weary  of  the  political  factions  which  divided 
some  of  their  leaders;  and  Godfrey,  who  was  more  of  a  pilgrim 
than  a  politician,  becomes  the  natural  representative  of  this 
feeling.  He  was  thus  able  to  force  the  reluctant  Raymund  to 
march  southward  to  Jerusalem;  and  he  took  a  prominent 
part  in  the  siege,  his  division  being  the  first  to  enter  when  the 
city  was  captured.  It  was  natural  therefore  that,  when  Raymund 
of  Provence  refused  the  offered  dignity,  Godfrey  should  be  elected 
ruler  of  Jerusalem  (July  22,  1099).  He  assumed  the  title  not  of 
king,  but  of  "  advocate  "  1  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre.  The  new 
dignity  proved  still  more  onerous  than  honourable;  and  during 
his  short  reign  of  a  year  Godfrey  had  to  combat  the  Arabs  of 
Egypt,  and  the  opposition  of  Raymund  and  the  patriarch 
Dagobert.  He  was  successful  in  repelling  the  Egyptian  attack 
at  the  battle  of  Ascalon  (August  1099);  but  he  failed,  owing  to 
Raymund's  obstinacy  and  greed,  to  acquire  the  town  of  Ascalon 
after  the  battle.  Left  alone,  at  the  end  of  the  autumn,  with  an 
army  of  some  2000  men,  Godfrey  was  yet  able,  in  the  spring  of 
1 100,  probably  with  the  aid  of  new  pilgrims,  to  exact  tribute 
from  towns  like  Acre,  Ascalon,  Arsuf  and  Caesarea.  But  already, 
at  the  end  of  1099  Dagobert,  archbishop  of  Pisa,  had  been 
substituted  as  patriarch  for  Arnulf  (who  had  been  acting  as  vicar) 
by  the  influence  of  Bohemund;  and  Dagobert,  whose  vassal 
Godfrey  had  at  once  piously  acknowledged  himself,  seems  to 
have  forced  him  to  an  agreement  in  April  1 100,  by  which  he 
promised  Jerusalem  and  Jaffa  to  the  patriarch,  in  case  he  should 
acquire  in  their  place  Cairo  or  some  other  town,  or  should  die 
without  issue.  Thus  were  the  foundations  of  a  theocracy  laid 
in  Jerusalem;  and  when  Godfrey  died  (July  uoo)  he  left  the 
question  to  be  decided,  whether  a  theocracy  or  a  monarchy 
should  be  the  government  of  the  Holy  Land. 

Because  he  had  been  the  first  ruler  in  Jerusalem  Godfrey 
was  idolized  in  later  saga.  He  was  depicted  as  the  leader  of 
the  crusades,  the  king  of  Jerusalem,  the  legislator  who  laid 
down  the  assizes  of  Jerusalem.  He  was  none  of  these  things. 
Bohemund  was  the  leader  of  the  crusades;  Baldwin  was  first 
king;  the  assizes  were  the  result  of  a  gradual  development. 
In  still  other  ways  was  the  figure  of  Godfrey  idealized  by  the 
grateful  tradition  of  later  days;  but  in  reality  he  would  seem  to 
have  been  a  quiet,  pious,  hard-fighting  knight,  who  was  chosen 
to  rule  in  Jerusalem  because  he  had  no  dangerous  qualities, 
and  no  obvious  defects. 

LITERATURE. — The  narrative  of  Albert  of  Aix  may  be  regarded 
as  presenting  the  Lotharingian  point  of  view,  as  the  Gesta  presents 
the  Norman,  and  Raymund  of  Agiles  the  Provencal.  The  career 
of  Godfrey  has  been  discussed  in  modern  times  by  R.  Rohricht, 
Die  Deutschen  im  heiligen  Lande,  Band  ii.,  and  Geschichte  des  ersten 
Kreuzzuges,  passim  (Innsbruck,  1901).  (E.  BR.) 

Romances. — Godfrey  was  the  principal  hero  of  two  French 
chansons  de  geste  dealing  with  the  Crusade,  theChansond'Antioche 
>d.  P.  Paris,  2  vols.,  1848)  and  the  Chanson  de  Jerusalem  (ed. 
C.  Hippeau,  1868),  and  other  poems,  containing  less  historical 

1  An  "  advocate  "  was  a  layman  who  had  been  invested  with  part 
of  an  ecclesiastic  estate,  on  condition  that  he  defended  the  rest,  and 
exercised  the  blood-ban  in  lieu  of  the  ecclesiastical  owner  (see 
ADVOCATE,  sec.  Advocatus  ecclesiae). 


GODFREY  OF  VITERBO— GODIVA 


material,  were  subsequently  added.  In  addition  the  parentage 
and  early  exploits  of  Godfrey  were  made  the  subject  of  legend. 
His  grandfather  was  said  to  be  Helias,  knight  of  the  Swan,  one 
of  the  brothers  whose  adventures  are  well  known,  though  with 
some  variation,  in  the  familiar  fairytale  of  "The  Seven  Swans." 
Helias,  drawn  by  the  swan,  one  day  disembarked  at  Nijmwegen, 
and  reconquered  her  territory  for  the  duchess  of  Bouillon. 
Marrying  her  daughter  he  exacted  a  promise  that  his  wife  should 
not  inquire  into  his  origin.  The  tale,  which  is  almost  identical 
with  the  Lohengrin  legend,  belongs  to  the  class  of  the  Cupid  and 
Psyche  narratives.  See  LOHENGRIN. 

See  also  C.  Hippeau,  Le  Chevalier  au  cygne  (Paris,  2  vols.,  1874- 
1877);  H.  Pigeonneau,  Le  Cycle  de  la  croisade  et  de  la  famille  de 
BoMi'Won(i877);  W.Golther, "  Lohengrin,"  in  Roman.  Forsch.  (vol.  v., 
1889);  Hist.  IM.  de  la  France,  vol.  xxii.  pp.  350-402;  the  English 
romance  of  Helyas,  Knyghte  of  the  Swanne  was  printed  by  W.  Copland 
about  1550. 

GODFREY  OF  VITERBO  (c.  II2O-C.  1196),  chronicler,  was 
probably  an  Italian  by  birth,  although  some  authorities  assert 
that  he  was  a  Saxon.  He  evidently  passed  some  of  his  early  life 
at  Viterbo,  where  also  he  spent  his  concluding  days,  but  he  was 
educated  at  Bamberg,  gaining  a  good  knowledge  of  Latin. 
About  1 140  he  became  chaplain  to  the  German  king,  Conrad  III. ; 
but  the  greater  part  of  his  life  was  spent  as  secretary  (notarius) 
in  the  service  of  the  emperor  Frederick  I.,  who  appears  to  have 
thoroughly  trusted  him,  and  who  employed  him  on  many 
diplomatic  errands.  Incessantly  occupied,  he  visited  Sicily, 
France  and  Spain,  in  addition  to  many  of  the  German  cities,  in 
the  emperor's  interests,  and  was  by  his  side  during  several  of 
the  Italian  campaigns.  Both  before  and  after  Frederick's  death 
in  1190  he  enjoyed  the  favour  of  his  son,  the  emperor  Henry  VI., 
for  whom  he  wrote  his  Speculum  regum,  a  work  of  very  little 
value.  Godfrey  also  wrote  Memoria  seculorum,  or  Liber  memo- 
rialis,  a  chronicle  dedicated  to  Henry  VI.,  which  professes  to 
record  the  history  of  the  world  from  the  creation  until  1185. 
It  is  written  partly  in  prose  and  partly  in  verse.  A  revision  of 
this  work  was  drawn  up  by  Godfrey  himself  as  Pantheon,  or 
Universitatis  libri  qui  chronici  appellantur.  The  author  borrowed 
from  Otto  of  Freising,  but  the  earlier  part  of  his  chronicle  is  full 
of  imaginary  occurrences.  Pantheon  was  first  printed  in  1559, 
and  extracts  from  it  are  published  by  L.  A.  Muratori  in  the 
Rerum  Italicaium  scriptores,  tome  vii.  (Milan,  1725).  The  only 
part  of  Godfrey's  work  which  is  valuable  is  the  Gesta  Friderici  I., 
verses  relating  events  in  the  emperor's  career  from  1155  to  1180. 
Concerned  mainly  with  affairs  in  Italy,  the  poem  tells  of  the  sieges 
of  Milan,  of  Frederick's  flight  to  Pavia  in  1167,  of  the  treaty  with 
Pope  Alexander  III.  at  Venice,  and  of  other  stirring  episodes 
with  which  the  author  was  intimately  acquainted,  and  many  of 
which  he  had  witnessed.  Attached  to  the  Gesta  Friderici  is  the 
Gesta  Heinrici  VI.,  a  shorter  poem  which  is  often  attributed  to 
Godfrey,  although  W.  Wattenbach  and  other  authorities  think 
it  was  not  written  by  him.  The  Memoria  seculorum  was  very 
popular  during  the  middle  ages,  and  has  been  continued  by 
several  writers. 

Godfrey's  works  are  found  in  the  Monumenta  Germaniae  historica, 
Band  xxii.  (Hanover,  1872).  The  Gesta  Friderici  I.  et  Heinrici  VI. 
is  published  separately  with  an  introduction  by  G.  Waitz  (Hanover, 
1872).  See  also  H.  Ulmann,  Gotfried  von  Viterbo  (Gottingen,  1863), 
and  W.  Wattenbach,  Deutschlands  Geschichtsquellen,  Band  ii. 
(Berlin,  1894).  (A.  W.  H.*) 

GODHRA,  a  town  of  British  India,  administrative  head- 
quarters of  the  Panch  Mahals  district  of  Bombay,  and  also  of 
the  Rewa  Kantha  political  agency;  situated  52  m.  N.E.  of 
Baroda  on  the  railway  from  Anand  to  Ratlam.  Pop.  (1901) 
20,915.  It  has  a  trade  in  timber  from  the  neighbouring  forests. 

GODIN,  JEAN  BAPTISTE  ANDRfi  (1817-1888),  French 
socialist,  was  born  on  the  26th  of  January  1817  at  Esqueheries 
(Aisne).  The  son  of  an  artisan,  he  entered  an  iron- works  at  an 
early  age,  and  at  seventeen  made  a  tour  of  France  as  journeyman. 
Returning  to  Esqueheries  in  1837,  he  started  a  small  factory  for 
the  manufacture  of  castings  for  heating-stoves.  The  business 
increased  rapidly,  and  for  the  purpose  of  railway  facilities  was 
transferred  to  Guise  in  1846.  At  the  time  of  Godin's  death  in 
1 888  the  annual  output  was  over  four  millions  of  francs  (£  1 60,000) , 


and  in  1908  the  employees  numbered  over  2000  and  the  output 
was  over  £280,000.  An  ardent  disciple  of  Fourier,  he  advanced 
a  considerable  sum  of  money  towards  the  disastrous  Fourierist 
experiment  of  V.  P.  Considerant  (q.v.)  in  Texas.  He  profited, 
however,  by  its  failure,  and  in  1859  started  the  familistere  or 
community  settlement  of  Guise  on  more  carefully  laid  plans. 
It  comprises,  in  addition  to  the  workshops,  three  large  buildings, 
four  storeys  high,  capable  of  housing  all  the  work-people,  each 
family  having  two  or  three  rooms.  Attached  to  each  building 
is  a  vast  central  court,  covered  with  a  glass  roof,  under  which  the 
children  can  play  in  all  weathers.  There  are  also  creches, 
nurseries,  hospital,  refreshment  rooms  and  recreation  rooms  of 
various  kinds,  stores  for  the  purchase1  of  groceries,  drapery  and 
every  necessity,  and  a  large  theatre  for  concerts  and  dramatic 
entertainments.  In  1880  the  whole  was  turned  into  a  co-opera- 
tive society,  with  provision  by  which  it  eventually  became  the 
property  of  the  workers.  In  1871  Godin  was  elected  deputy  for 
Aisne,  but  retired  in  1876  to  devote  himself  to  the  management 
of  the  familistere.  In  1882  he  was  created  a  knight  of  the  legion 
of  honour. 

Godin  was  the  author  of  Solutions  sociales  (1871);  Les  Socialistes 
et  les  droits  du  travail  (1874);  Mutualite  sociale  (1880);  La  Re- 
publique  du  travail  et  la  reforme  parlementaire  (1889).  See  Bernardot, 
Le  Familistere  de  Guise  et  son  fondateur  (Paris,  1887);  Fischer, 
Die  Familistere  Godin's  (Berlin,  1890);  Lestelle,  Etude  sur  le  familis- 
tere de  Guise  (Paris,  1904);  D.  F.  P.,  Le  Familistere  illustre,  resultats 
de  vingt  ans  d' association,  1880-1900  (Eng.  trans.,  Twenty-eight  years 
of  co-partnership  at  Guise,  by  A.  Williams,  1908). 

GODIVA,  a  Saxon  lady,  who,  according  to  the  legend,  rode 
naked  through  the  streets  of  Coventry  to  gain  from  her  husband 
a  remission  of  the  oppressive  toll  imposed  on  his  tenants.  The 
story  is  that  she  was  the  beautiful  wife  of  Leofric,  earl  of  Mercia 
and  lord  of  Coventry.  The  people  of  that  city  suffering  griev- 
ously under  the  earl's  oppressive  taxation,  Lady  Godiva  appealed 
again  and  again  to  her  husband,  who  obstinately  refused  to  remit 
the  tolls.  At  last,  weary  of  her  entreaties,  he  said  he  would  grant 
her  request  if  she  would  ride  naked  through  the  streets  of  the 
town.  Lady  Godiva  took  him  at  his  word,  and  after  issuing  a 
proclamation  that  all  persons  should  keep  within  doors  or  shut 
their  windows,  she  rode  through,  clothed  only  in  her  long  hair. 
One  person  disobeyed  her  proclamation,  a  tailor,  ever  afterwards 
known  as  Peeping  Tom.  He  bored  a  hole  in  his  shutters  that  he 
might  see  Godiva  pass,  and  is  said  to  have  been  struck  blind. 
Her  husband  kept  his  word  and  abolished  the  obnoxious  taxes. 

The  oldest  form  of  the  legend  makes  Godiva  pass  through 
Coventry  market  from  one  end  to  the  other  when  the  people 
were  assembled,  attended  only  by  two  soldiers,  her  long  hair 
down  so  that  none  saw  her,  "  apparentibus  cruribus  tamen 
candidissimis."  This  version  is  given  in  Flares  historiarum  by 
Roger  of  Wendover,  who  quoted  from  an  earlier  writer.  The 
later  story,  with  its  episode  of  Peeping  Tom,  has  been  evolved 
by  later  chroniclers.  Whether  the  lady  Godiva  of  this  story  is 
the  Godiva  or  Godgifu  of  history  is  undecided.  That  a  lady  of 
this  name  existed  in  the  early  part  of  the  nth  century  is  certain, 
as  evidenced  by  several  ancient  documents,  such  as  the  Stow 
charter,  the  Spalding  charter  and  the  Domesday  survey,  though 
the  spelling  of  the  name  varies  considerably.  It  would  appear 
from  Liber  Eliensis  (end  of  i2th  century)  that  she  was  a  widow 
when  Leofric  married  her  in  1040.  In  or  about  that  year  she 
aided  in  the  founding  of  a  monastery  at  Stow,  Lincolnshire. 
In  1043  she  persuaded  her  husband  to  build  and  endow  a  Bene- 
dictine monastery  at  Coventry.  Her  mark,  "  »J«  Ego  Godiva 
Comitissa  diu  istud  desideravi,"  was  found  on  the  charter  given 
by  her  brother,  Thorold  of  Bucknall — sheriff  of  Lincolnshire — 
to  the  Benedictine  monastery  of  Spalding  in  1051;  and  she  is 
commemorated  as  benefactress  of  other  monasteries  at  Leo- 
minster,  Chester,  Wenlock,  Worcester  and  Evesham.  She 
probably  died  a  few  years  before  the  Domesday  survey  (1085- 
1086),  and  was  buried  in  one  of  the  porches  of  the  abbey  church. 
Dugdale  (1656)  says  that  a  window,  with  representations  of 
Leofric  and  Godiva,  was  placed  in  Trinity  Church,  Coventry, 
about  the  time  of  Richard  II.  The  Godiva  procession,  a  com- 
memoration of  the  legendary  ride  instituted  on  the  3ist  of  May 


174 


GODKIN— GODOLPHIN 


1678  as  part  of  Coventry  fair,  was  celebrated  at  intervals  until 
1826.  From  1848  to  1887  it  was  revived,  and  recently  further 
attempts  have  been  made  to  popularize  the  pageant.  The 
wooden  effigy  of  Peeping  Tom  which,  since  1812,  has  looked 
out  on  the  world  from  a  house  at  the  north-west  corner  of 
Hertford  Street,  Coventry,  represents  a  man  in  armour,  and 
was  probably  an  image  of  St  George.  It  was  removed  from 
another  part  of  tHe  town  to  its  present  position. 

GODKIN,  EDWIN  LAWRENCE  (1831-1902),  American 
publicist,  was  born  in  Moyne,  county  Wicklow,  Ireland,  on  the 
2nd  of  October  1831.  His  father,  James  Godkin,  was  a  Presby- 
terian minister  and  a  journalist,  and  the  son,  after  graduating 
in  1851  at  Queen's  College,  Belfast,  and  studying  law  in  London, 
was  in  1853-1855  war  correspondent  for  the  London  Daily  News 
in  Turkey  and  Russia,  being  present  at  the  capture  of  Sevastopol, 
and  late  in  1856  went  to  America  and  wrote  letters  to  the  same 
journal,  giving  his  impressions  of  a  tour  of  the  southern  states  of 
the  American  Union.  He  studied  law  in  New  York  City,  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1859,  travelled  in  Europe  in  1860-1862, 
wrote  for  the  London  News  and  the  New  York  Times  in  1862- 
1865,  and  in  1865  founded  in  New  York  City  the  Nation,  a 
weekly  projected  by  him  long  before,  for  which  Charles  Eliot 
Norton  gained  friends  in  Boston  and  James  Miller  McKim  (1810- 
1874)  in  Philadelphia,  and  which  Godkin  edited  until  the  end  of 
the  year  1899.  In  1881  he  sold  the  Nation  to  the  New  York 
Evening  Post,  and  became  an  associate  editor  of  the  Post,  of 
which  he  was  editor-in-chief  in  1883-1899,  succeeding  Carl 
Schurz.  In  the  'eighties  he  engaged  in  a  controversy  with 
Goldwin  Smith  over  the  Irish  question.  Under  his  leadership  the 
Post  broke  with  the  Republican  party  in  the  presidential  cam- 
paign of  1884,  when  Godkin's  opposition  to  Elaine  did  much  to 
create  the  so-called  Mugwump  party  (see  MUGWUMP),  and  his 
organ  became  thoroughly  independent,  as  was  seen  when  it 
attacked  the  Venezuelan  policy  of  President  Cleveland,  who  had 
in  so  many  ways  approximated  the  ideal  of  the  Post  and  Nation. 
He  consistently  advocated  currency  reform,  the  gold  basis,  a  tariff 
for  revenue  only,  and  civil  service  reform,  rendering  the  greatest 
aid  to  the  last  cause.  His  attacks  on  Tammany  Hall  were 
so  frequent  and  so  virulent  that  in  1894  he  was  sued  for  libel 
because  of  biographical  sketches  of  certain  leaders  in  that 
organization — cases  which  never  came  up  for  trial.  His  opposi- 
tion to  the  war  with  Spain  and  to  imperialism  was  able  and 
forcible.  He  retired  from  his  editorial  duties  on  the  3oth  of 
December  1899,  and  sketched  his  career  in  the  Evening  Post 
of  that  date.  Although  he  recovered  from  a  severe  apoplectic 
stroke  early  in  1900,  his  health  was  shattered,  and  he  died  in 
Greenway,  Devonshire,  England,  on  the  2ist  of  May  1902. 
Godkin  shaped  the  lofty  and  independent  policy  of  the  Post 
and  the  Nation,  which  had  a  small  but  influential  and  intellectual 
class  of  readers.  But  as  editor  he  had  none  of  the  personal 
magnetism  of  Greeley,  for  instance,  and  his  superiority  to  the 
influence  of  popular  feeling  made  Charles  Dudley  Warner  style 
the  Nation  the  "  weekly  judgment  day."  He  was  an  economist 
of  the  school  of  Mill,  urged  the  necessity  of  the  abstraction 
called  "  economic  man,"  and  insisted  that  socialism  put  in 
practice  would  not  improve  social  and  economic  conditions 
in  general.  In  politics  he  was  an  enemy  of  sentimentalism  and 
loose  theories  in  government.  He  published  A  History  of 
Hungary,  A.D.  300-1850  (1856),  Government  (1871,  in  the 
American  Science  Series),  Reflections  and  Comments  (1895), 
Problems  of  Modern  Democracy  (1896)  and  Unforeseen  Tendencies 
of  Democracy  (1898). 

See  Life  and  Letters  of  E.  L.  Godkin,  edited  by  Rollo  Ogden  (2  vols., 
New  York,  1907). 

GODMANCHESTER,  a  muriicipal  borough  in  the  southern 
parliamentary  division  of  Huntingdonshire,  England,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Ouse,  i  m.  S.S.E.  of  Huntingdon,  on  a  branch 
of  the  Great  Eastern  railway.  Pop.  (1901)  2017.  It  has  a 
beautiful  Perpendicular  church  (St  Mary's)  and  an  agricultural 
trade,  with  flour  mills.  The  town  is  governed  by  a  mayor,  4 
aldermen  and  12  councillors.  Area,  4907  acres. 

A  Romano-British  village  occupied  the  site  of  Godmanchester. 


The  town  (Gumencestre,  Gomecestre)  belonged  to  the  king  before 
the  Conquest  and  at  the  time  of  the  Domesday  survey.  In  1213 
King  John  granted  the  manor  to  the  men  of  the  town  at  a  fee- 
farm  of  £120  yearly,  and  confirmation  charters  were  granted 
by  several  succeeding  kings,  Richard  II.  in  1391-1392  adding 
exemption  from  toll,  pannage,  &c.  James  I.  granted  an  in- 
corporation charter  in  1605  under  the  title  of  bailiffs,  assistants 
and  commonalty,  but  under  the  Municipal  Reform  Act  of  1835 
the  corporation  was  changed  to  a  mayor,  4  aldermen  and  12 
councillors.  Godmanchester  was  formerly  included  for  parlia- 
mentary purposes  in  the  borough  of  Huntingdon,  which  has 
ceased  to  be  separately  represented  since  1885.  The  incorpora- 
tion charter  of  1605  recites  that  the  burgesses  are  chiefly  engaged 
in  agriculture,  and  grants  them  a  fair,  which  still  continues 
every  year  on  Tuesday  in  Easter  week. 

See  Victoria  County  History,  Huntingdon;  Robert  Fox,  The 
History  of  Godmanchester  (1831). 

GODOLLO,  a  market  town  of  Hungary,  in  the  county  of  Pest- 
Pilis-Solt-Kiskun,  23  m.  N.E.  of  Budapest  by  rail.  Pop.  (1900) 
5875.  Godollo  is  the  summer  residence  of  the  Hungarian  royal 
family,  and  the  royal  castle,  built  in  the  second  half  of  the  i8th 
century  by  Prince  Anton  Grassalkovich,  was,  with  the  beautiful 
domain,  presented  by  the  Hungarian  nation  to  King  Francis 
Joseph  I.  after  the  coronation  in  1867.  In  its  park  there  are  a 
great  number  of  stags  and  wild  boars.  Godollo  is  a  favourite 
summer  resort  of  the  inhabitants  of  Budapest.  In  its  vicinity 
is  the  famous  place  of  pilgrimage  Maria-Besnyo,  with  a  fine 
Franciscan  monastery,  which  contains  the  tombs  of  the  Grassal- 
kovich family. 

GODOLPHIN,  SIDNEY  GODOLPHIN,  EARL  or  (c.  1645- 
1712),  was  a  cadet  of  an  ancient  family  of  Cornwall.  At  the 
Restoration  he  was  introduced  into  the  royal  household  by 
Charles  II.,  with  whom  he  had  previously  become  a  favourite, 
and  he  also  at  the  same  period  entered  the  House  of  Commons  as 
member  for  Helston.  Although  he  very  seldom  addressed  the 
House,  and,  when  he  did  so,  only  in  the  briefest  manner,  he 
gradually  acquired  a  reputation  as  its  chief  if  not  its  only  financial 
authority.  In  March  1679  he  was  appointed  a  member  of  the 
privy  council,  and  in  the  September  following  he  was  promoted, 
along  with  Viscount  Hyde  (afterwards  earl  of  Rochester)  and 
the  earl  of  Sunderland,  to  the  chief  management  of  affairs. 
Though  he  voted  for  the  Exclusion  Bill  in  1680,  he  was  continued 
in  office  after  the  dismissal  of  Sunderland,  and  in  September 
1684  he  was  created  Baron  Godolphin  of  Rialton,  and  succeeded 
Rochester  as  first  lord  of  the  treasury.  After  the  accession  of 
James  II.  he  was  made  chamberlain  to  the  queen,  and,  along 
with  Rochester  and  Sunderland,  enjoyed  the  king's  special 
confidence.  In  1687  he  was  named  commissioner  of  the  treasury. 
He  was  one  of  the  council  of  five  appointed  by  King  James  to 
represent  him  in  London,  when  he  went  to  join  the  army  after 
the  landing  of  William,  prince  of  Orange,  in  England,  and,  along 
with  Halifax  and  Nottingham,  he  was  afterwards  appointed  a 
commissioner  to  treat  with  the  prince.  On  the  accession  of 
William,  though  he  only  obtained  the  third  seat  at  the  treasury 
board,  he  had  virtually  the  chief  control  of  affairs.  He  retired 
in  March  1690,  but  was  recalled  on  the  November  following 
and  appointed  first  lord.  While  holding  this  office  he  for  several 
years  continued,  in  conjunction  with  Marlborough,  a  treacherous 
intercourse  with  James  II.,  and  is  said  even  to  have  anticipated 
Marlborough  in  disclosing  to  James  intelligence  regarding  the 
intended  expedition  against  Brest.  Godolphin  was  not  only  a 
Tory  by  inheritance,  but  had  a  romantic  admiration  for  the  wife 
of  James  II.  He  also  wished  to  be  safe  whatever  happened, 
and  his  treachery  in  this  case  was  mostly  due  to  caution.  After 
Fenwick's  confession  in  1696  regarding  the  attempted  assassina- 
tion of  William  III.,  Godolphin,  who  was  compromised,  was  in- 
duced to  tender  his  resignation;  but  when  the  Tories  came  into 
power  in  1700,  he  was  again  appointed  lord  treasurer  and 
retained  office  for  about  a  year.  Though  not  a  favourite  with 
Queen  Anne,  he  was,  after  her  accession,  appointed  to  his  old 
office,  on  the  strong  recommendation  of  Marlborough.  He  also 
in  1704  received  the  honour  of  knighthood,  and  in  December 


GODOY 


175 


706  he  was  created  Viscount  Rialton  and  earl  of  Godolphin. 
Though  a  Tory  he  had  an  active  share  in  the  intrigues  which 
gradually  led  to  the  predominance  of  the  Whigs  in  alliance 
with  Marlborough.  The  influence  of  the  Marlboroughs  with  the 
qusen  was,  however,  gradually  supplanted  by  that  of  Mrs 
Masham  and  Harley,  earl  of  Oxford,  and  with  the  fortunes  of 
the  Marlboroughs  those  of  Godolphin  were  indissolubly  united. 
The  services  of  both  were  so  appreciated  by  the  nation  that 
they  were  able  for  a  time  to  regard  the  loss  of  the  queen's  favour 
with  indifference,  and  even  in  1708  to  procure  the  expulsion  of 
Harley  from  office;  but  after  the  Tory  reaction  which  followed 
the  impeachment  of  Dr  Sacheverel,  who  abused  Godolphin  under 
the  name  of  Volpone,  the  queen  made  use  of  the  opportunity 
to  take  the  initiatory  step  towards  delivering  herself  from 
the  irksome  thraldom  of  Marlborough  by  abruptly  dismissing 
Godolphin  from  office  on  the  7th  of  August  1710.  He  died  on 
the  isth  of  September  1712. 

Godolphin  owed  his  rise  to  power  and  his  continuance  in  it 
under  four  sovereigns  chiefly  to  his  exceptional  mastery  of  financial 
matters;  for  if  latterly  he  was  in  some  degree  indebted  for  his 
promotion  to  the  support  of  Marlborough'  he  received  that 
support  mainly  because  Marlborough  recognized  that  for  the 
prosecution  of  England's  foreign  wars  his  financial  abilities  were 
an  indispensable  necessity.  He  was  cool,  reserved  and  cautious, 
but  his  prudence  was  less  associated  with  high  sagacity  than 
traceable  to  the  weakness  of  his  personal  antipathies  and  pre- 
judices, and  his  freedom  from  political  predilections.  Perhaps 
it  was  his  unlikeness  to  Marlborough  in  that  moral  characteristic 
which  so  tainted  Marlborough's  greatness  that  rendered  possible 
between  them  a  friendship  so  intimate  and  undisturbed:  he 
was,  it  would  appear,  exceptionally  devoid  of  the  passion  of 
avarice;  and  so  little  advantage  did  he  take  of  his  opportunities 
of  aggrandizement  that,  though  his  style  of  living  was  un- 
ostentatious,— and  in  connexion  with  his  favourite  pastimes 
of  horse-racing,  card-playing  and  cock-fighting  he  gained 
perhaps  more  than  he  lost, — all  that  he  left  behind  him  did  not, 
according  to  the  duchess  of  Marlborough,  amount  to  more  than 

j£l  2,000. 

Godolpnin  married  Margaret  Blagge,  the  pious  lady  whose 
life  was  written  by  Evelyn,  on  the  1 6th  of  May  1 67  5,  and  married 
again  after  her  death  in  1678.  His  son  and  successor,  Francis 
(1678-1766),  held  various  offices  at  court,  and  was  lord  privy 
seal  from  1735  to  1740.  He  married  Henrietta  Churchill  (d. 
1 733L  daughter  of  the  duke  of  Marlborough,  who  in  1722  became 
in  her  own  right  duchess  of  Marlborough.  He  died  without  male 
issue  in  January  1766,  when  the  earldom  became  extinct,  and 
the  estates  passed  to  Thomas  Osborne,  4th  duke  of  Leeds,  the 
husband  of  the  earl's  daughter  Mary,  whose  descendant  is  the 
present  representative  of  the  Godolphins. 

A  life  of  Godolphin  was  published  in  1888  in  London  by  the  Hon. 
H.  Elliot. 

GODOY,    ALVAREZ  DE  FARIA,  RIOS  SANCHEZ  Y  ZARZOSA, 

MANUEL  DE  (1767-1851),  duke  of  El  Alcudia  and  prince  of  the 
Peace,  Spanish  royal  favourite  and  minister,  was  born  at  Badajoz 
on  the  1 2th  of  May  1767.  His  father,  Don  Jose  de  Godoy,  was 
the  head  of  a  very  ancient  but  impoverished  family  of  nobles 
in  Estremadura.  His  mother,  whose  maiden  name  was  Maria 
Antonia  Alvarez  de  Faria,  belonged  to  a  Portuguese  noble  family. 
Manuel  boasts  in  his  memoirs  that  he  had  the  best  masters,  but 
it  is  certain  that  he  received  only  the  very  slight  education 
usually  given  at  that  time  to  the  sons  of  provincial  nobles. 
In  1784  he  entered  the  Guardia  de  Corps,  a  body  of  gentlemen 
who  acted  as  the  immediate  body-guard  of  the  king.  His  well- 
built  and  stalwart  person,  his  handsome  foolish  face,  together 
with  a  certain  geniality  of  character  which  he  must  have 
possessed,  earned  him  the  favour  of  Maria  Luisa  of  Parma,  the 
princess  of  Asturias,  a  coarse,  passionate  woman  who  was  much 
neglected  by  her  husband,  who  on  his  part  cared  for  nothing  but 
hunting. 

When  King  Charles  III.  died  in  1788,  Godoy 's  fortune  was 
soon  made.  The  princess  of  Asturias,  now  queen,  understood 
how  to  manage  her  husband  Charles  IV.  Godoy  says  in  his 


memoirs  that  the  king,  who  had  been  carefully  kept  apart  from 
affairs  during  his  father's  life,  and  who  disliked  his  father's 
favourite  minister  Floridablanca,  wished  to  have  a  creature  of 
his  own.  This  statement  is  no  doubt  true  as  far  as  it  goes.  But 
it  requires  to  be  completed  by  the  further  detail  that  the  queen 
put  her  lover  in  her  husband's  way,  and  that  the  king  was  guided 
by  them,  when  he  thought  he  was  ruling  for  himself  through 
a  subservient  minister.  In  some  respects  King  Charles  was 
obstinate,  and  Godoy  is  probably  right  in  saying  that  he  never 
was  an  absolute  "  viceroy,"  and  that  he  could  not  always  secure 
the  removal  of  colleagues  whom  he  knew  to  be  his  enemies. 
He  could  only  rule  by  obeying.  Godoy  adopted  without  scruple 
this  method  of  pushing  his  fortunes.  When  the  king  was  set  on  a 
particular  course,  he  followed  it;  the  execution  was  left  to  him 
and  the  queen.  His  pliability  endeared  him  to  his  master, 
whose  lasting  affection  he  earned.  In  practice  he  commonly 
succeeded  in  inspiring  the  wishes  which  he  then  proceeded  to 
gratify.  From  the  very  beginning  of  the  new  reign  he  was 
promoted  in  the  army  with  scandalous  rapidity,  made  duke  of 
El  Alcudia,  and  in  1792  minister  under  the  premiership  of 
Aranda,  whom  he  succeeded  in  displacing  by  the  close  of  the 
year. 

His  official  life  is  fairly  divided  by  himself  into  three  periods. 
From  1792  to  1798  he  was  premier.  In  the  latter  year  his  un- 
popularity and  the  intrigues  of  the  French  government,  which 
had  taken  a  dislike  to  him,  led  to  his  temporary  retirement, 
without,  however,  any  diminution  of  the  king's  personal  favour. 
He  asserts  that  he  had  no  wish  to  return  to  office,  but  letters 
sent  by  him  to  the  queen  show  that  he  begged  for  employment. 
They  are  written  in  a  very  unpleasant  mixture  of  gush  and 
vulgar  familiarity.  In  1801  he  returned  to  office,  and  until 
1807  he  was  the  executant  of  the  disastrous  policy  of  the  court. 
The  third  period  of  his  public  life  is  the  last  year,  1807-1808, 
when  he  was  desperately  striving  for  his  place  between  the 
aggressive  intervention  of  Napoleon  on  the  one  hand,  and  the 
growing  hatred  of  the  nation,  organized  behind,  and  about,  the 
prince  of  Asturias,  Ferdinand.  On  the  i7th  of  March  i8o§  a 
popular  outbreak  at  Aranjuez  drove  him  into  hiding.  When 
driven  out  by  hunger  and  thirst  he  was  recognized  and  arrested. 
By  Ferdinand's  order  he  was  kept  in  prison,  till  Napoleon 
demanded  that  he  should  be  sent  to  Bayonne.  Here  he  rejoined 
his  master  and  mistress.  He  remained  with  them  till  Charles  IV. 
died  at  Rome  in  1819,  having  survived  his  queen.  The  rest  of 
Godoy's  life  was  spent  in  poverty  and  obscurity.  After  the 
death  of  Ferdinand  VII.,  in  1833,  he  returned  to  Madrid,  and 
endeavoured  to  secure  the  restoration  of  his  property  confiscated 
in  1808.  Part  of  it  was  the  estate  of  the  Soto  de  Roma,  granted 
by  the  cortes  to  the  duke  of  Wellington.  He  failed,  and  during 
his  last  years  lived  on  a  small  pension  granted  him  by  Louis 
Philippe.  He  died  in  Paris  on  the  4th  of  October  1851. 

As  a  favourite  Godoy  is  remarkable  for  the  length  of  his 
hold  on  the  affection  of  his  sovereigns,  and  for  its  completeness. 
Latterly  he  was  supported  rather  by  the  husband  than  by  the 
wife.  He  got  rid  of  Aranda  by  adopting,  in  order  to  please  the 
king,  a  policy  which  tended  to  bring  on  war  with  France.  When 
the  war  proved  disastrous,  he  made  the  peace  of  Basel,  and  was 
created  prince  of  the  Peace  for  his  services.  Then  he  helped  to 
make  war  with  England,  and  the  disasters  which  followed  only 
made  him  dearer  to  the  king.  Indeed  it  became  a  main  object 
with  Charles  IV.  to  protect  "  Manuelito  "  from  popular  hatred, 
and  if  possible  secure  him  a  principality.  The  queen  endured 
his  infidelities  to  her,  which  were  flagrant.  The  king  arranged 
a  marriage  for  him  with  Dona  Teresa  de  Bourbon,  daughter  of  the 
infante  Don  Luis  by  a  morganatic  marriage,  though  he  was 
probably  already  married  to  Dona  Josefa  Tud6,  and  certainly 
continued  to  live  with  her.  Godoy,  in  his  memoirs,  lays  claim 
to  have  done  much  for  Spanish  agriculture  and  industry,  but 
he  did  little  more  than  issue  proclamations  and  appoint  officers. 
His  intentions  may  have  been  good,  but  the  policy  of  his  govern- 
ment was  financially  ruinous.  In  his  private  life  he  was  not 
only  profligate  and  profuse,  but  childishly  ostentatious.  The 
best  that  can  be  said  for  him  is  that  he  was  good-natured,  and 


GODROON— GODWIN,  MARY 


did  his  best  to  restrain  the  Inquisition  and  the  purely  reactionary 
parties. 

AUTHORITIES. — Godoy's  Memoirs  were  published  in  Spanish, 
English  and  French  in  1836.  A  general  account  of  his  career  will 
be  found  in  the  Memoires  sur  la  Revolution  d'Espagne,  by  the  Abb6 
de  Pradt  (1816). 

GODROON,  or  GADROON  (Fr.  godron,  of  unknown  etymology), 
in  architecture,  a  convex  decoration  (said  to  be  derived  from 
raised  work  on  linen)  applied  in  France  to  varieties  of  the  bead 
and  reel,  in  which  the  bead  is  often  carved  with  ornament. 
In  England  the  term  is  constantly  used  by  auctioneers  to  describe 
the  raised  convex  decorations  under  the  bowl  of  stone  or  terra- 
cotta vases.  The  godroons  radiate  from  the  vertical  support 
of  the  vase  and  rise  half-way  up  the  bowl. 

GODWIN,  FRANCIS  (1562-1633),  English  divine,  son  of 
Thomas  Godwin,  bishop  of  Bath  and  Wells,  was  born  at  Hanning- 
ton,  Northamptonshire,  in  1562.  He  was  elected  student  of 
Christ  Church,  Oxford,  in  1578,  took  his  bachelor's  degree  in 
1580,  and  that  of  master  in  1583.  After  holding  two  Somerset- 
shire livings  he  was  in  1587  appointed  subdean  of  Exeter.  In 
1590  he  accompanied  William  Camden  on  an  antiquarian  tour 
through  Wales.  He  was  created  bachelor  of  divinity  in  1 593 ,  and 
doctor  in  1595.  In  1601  he  published  his  Catalogue  of  the  Bishops 
of  England  since  the  first  planting  of  the  Christian  Religion  in  this 
Island,  a  work  which  procured  him  in  the  same  year  the  bishopric 
of  Llandaff.  A  second  edition  appeared  in  1615,  and  in  1616  he 
published  an  edition  in  Latin  with  a  dedication  to  King  James, 
who  in  the  following  year  conferred  upon  him  the  bishopric  of 
Hereford.  The  work  was  republished,  with  a  continuation  by 
William  Richardson,  in  1743.  In  161 6  Godwin  published  Rerum 
Anglicarum,  Henrico  VIII.,  Edwardo  VI.  et  Maria  regnantibus, 
Annales,  which  was  afterwards  translated  and  published  by  his 
son  Morgan  under  the  title  A  nnales  of  England  ( 1 630) .  He  is  also 
the  author  of  a  somewhat  remarkable  story,  published  posthum- 
ously in  1638,  and  entitled  The  Man  in  the  Moone,  or  a  Discourse 
of  a  Voyage  thither,  by  Domingo  Consoles,  written  apparently 
some  time  between  the  years  1599  and  1603.  In  this  production 
Godwin  not  only  declares  himself  a  believer  in  the  Copernican 
system,  but  adopts  so  far  the  principles  of  the  law  of  gravitation 
as  to  suppose  that  the  earth's  attraction  diminishes  with  the 
distance.  The  work,  which  displays  considerable  fancy  and  wit, 
was  translated  into  French,  and  was  imitated  in  several  important 
particulars  by  Cyrano  de  Bergerac,  from  whom  (if  not  from 
Godwin  direct)  Swift  obtained  valuable  hints  in  writing  of 
Gulliver's  voyage  to  Laputa.  Another  work  of  Godwin's,  Nuncius 
inanimatus  Utopiae,  originally  published  in  1629  and  again  in 
1657,  seems  to  have  been  the  prototype  of  John  Wilkins's 
Mercury,  or  the  Secret  and  Swift  Messenger,  which  appeared  in 
1641.  He  died,  after  a  lingering  illness,  in  April  1633. 

GODWIN,  MARY  WOLLSTONECRAFT  (1759-1797),  English 
miscellaneous  writer,  was  born  at  Hoxton,  on  the  27th  of  April 
1759.  Her  family  was  of  Irish  extraction,  and  Mary's  grand- 
father, who  was  a  respectable  manufacturer  in  Spitalfields, 
realized  the  property  which  his  son  squandered.  Her  mother, 
Elizabeth  Dixon,  was  Irish,  and  of  good  family.  Her  father, 
Edward  John  Wollstonecraft,  after  dissipating  the  greater  part  of 
his  patrimony,  tried  to  earn  a  living  by  farming,  which  only 
plunged  him  into  deeper  difficulties,  and  he  led  a  wandering, 
shifty  life.  The  family  roamed  from  Hoxton  to  Edmonton,  to 
Essex,  to  Beverley  in  Yorkshire,  to  Laugharne,  Pembrokeshire, 
and  back  to  London  again. 

After  Mrs  Wollstonecraft 's  death  in  1780,  soon  followed  by  her 
husband's  second  marriage,  the  three  daughters,  Mary,  Everina 
and  Eliza,  sought  to  earn  their  own  livelihood.  The  sisters 
were  all  clever  women — Mary  and  Eliza  far  above  the  average 
—but  their  opportunities  of  culture  had  been  few.  Mary, 
the  eldest,  went  in  the  first  instance  to  live  with  her  friend 
Fanny  Blood,  a  girl  of  her  own  age,  whose  father,  like 
Wollstonecraft,  was  addicted  to  drink  and  dissipation.  As  long 
as  she  lived  with  the  Bloods,  Mary  helped  Mrs  Blood  to  earn 
money  by  taking  in  needlework,  while  Fanny  painted  in  water- 
colours.  Everina  went  to  live  with  her  brother  Edward,  and 


Eliza  made  a  hasty  and,  as  it  proved,  unhappy  marriage  with  a 
Mr  Bishop.  A  legal  separation  was  afterwards  obtained,  and  the 
sisters,  together  with  Fanny  Blood,  took  a  house,  first  at  Islington, 
afterwards  at  Newington  Green,  and  opened  a  school,  which  was 
carried  on  with  indifferent  success  for  nearly  two  years.  During 
their  residence  at  Newington  Green,  Mary  was  introduced  to  Dr 
Johnson,  who,  as  Godwin  tells  us,  "  treated  her  with  particular 
kindness  and  attention." 

In  1 785  Fanny  Blood  married  Hugh  Skeys,  a  merchant,  and  went 
with  him  to  Lisbon,  where  she  died  in  childbed  after  sending  for 
Mary  to  nurse  her.  "The  lossof  Fanny,  "as  she  said  in  a  letter  to 
Mrs  Skeys's  brother,  George  Blood, "  was  sufficient  of  itself  to  have 
cast  a  cloud  over  my  brightest  days.  ...  I  have  lost  all  relish  for 
pleasure,  and  life  seems  a  burden  almost  too  heavy  to  be  endured." 
Her  first  novel,  Mary,  a  Fiction  (1788),  was  intended  to  com- 
memorate her  friendship  with  Fanny.  After  closing  the  school  at 
Newington  Green,  Mary  became  governess  in  the  family  of  Lord 
Kingsborough,  in  Ireland.  Her  pupils  were  much  attached  to  her, 
especially  Margaret  King,  afterwards  Lady  Mountcashel;  and 
indeed,  Lady  Kingsborough  gave  the  reason  for  dismissing  her 
after  one  year's  service  that  the  children  loved  their  governess 
better  than  their  mother.  Mary  now  resolved  to  devote  herself 
to  literary  work,  and  she  was  encouraged  by  Johnson,  the 
publisher  in  St  Paul's  churchyard,  for  whom  she  acted  as  literary 
adviser.  She  also  undertook  translations,  chiefly  from  the  French. 
The  Elements  of  Morality  (1790)  from  the  German  of  Salzmann, 
illustrated  by  Blake,  an  old-fashioned  book  for  children,  and 
Lavater's  Physiognomy  were  among  her  translations.  Her 
Original  Stories  from  Real  Life  were  published  in  1791,  and,  with 
illustrations  by  Blake,  in  1796.  In  1792  appeared  A  Vindication 
of  the  Rights  of  Woman,  the  work  with  which  her  name  is  always 
associated. 

It  is  not  among  the  least  oddities  of  this  book  that  it  is  dedicated 
to  M.  Talleyrand  Perigord,  late  bishop  of  Autun.  Mary  Wollstone- 
craft still  believed  him  to  be  sincere,  and  working  in  the  same 
direction  as  herself.  In  the  dedication  she  states  the  "  main 
argument  "  of  the  work,  "  built  on  this  simple  principle  that,  if 
woman  be  not  prepared  by  education  to  become  the  companion 
of  man,  she  will  stop  the  progress  of  knowledge,  for  truth  must 
be  common  to  all,  or  it  will  be  inefficacious  with  respect  to  its 
influence  or  general  practice."  In  carrying  out  this  argument  she 
used  great  plainness  of  speech,  and  it  was  this  that  caused  all,  or 
nearly  all,  the  outcry.  For  she  did  not  attack  the  institution  of 
marriage,  nor  assail  orthodox  religion;  her  book  was  really  a  plea 
for  equality  of  education,  passing  into  one  for  state  education  and 
for  the  joint  education  of  the  sexes.  It  was  a  protest  against  the 
assumption  that  woman  was  only  the  plaything  of  man,  and  she 
asserted  that  intellectual  companionship  was  the  chief,  as  it  is 
the  lasting,  happiness  of  marriage.  She  thus  directly  opposed  the 
teaching  of  Rousseau,  of  whom  she  was  in  other  respects  an 
ardent  disciple. 

Mrs  Wollstonecraft,  as  she  now  styled  herself,  desired  to  watch 
the  progress  of  the  Revolution  in  France,  and  went  to  Paris  in 
1792.  Godwin,  in  his  memoir  of  his  wife,  considers  that  the 
change  of  residence  may  have  been  prompted  by  the  discovery 
that  she  was  becoming  attached  to  Henry  Fuseli,  but  there  is 
little  to  confirm  this  surmise;  indeed,  it  was  first  proposed  that 
she  should  go  to  Paris  in  company  with  him  and  his  wife,  nor 
was  there  any  subsequent  breach  in  their  friendship.  She  re- 
mained in  Paris  during  the  Reign  of  Terror,  when  communication 
with  England  was  difficult  or  almost  impossible.  Some  time  in 
the  spring  or  summer  of  1 793  Captain  Gilbert  Imlay,  an  American, 
became  acquainted  with  Mary — an  acquaintance  which  ended  in 
a  more  intimate  connexion.  There  was  no  legal  ceremony  of 
marriage,  and  it  is  doubtful  whether  such  a  marriage  would  have 
been  valid  at  the  time;  but  she  passed  as  Imlay 's  wife,  and 
Imlay  himself  terms  her  in  a  legal  document,  "  Mary  Imlay,  my 
best  friend  and  wife."  In  August  1 793  Imlay  was  called  to  Havre 
on  business,  and  was  absent  for  some  months,  during  which 
time  most  of  the  letters  published  after  her  death  by  Godwin 
were  written.  Towards  the  end  of  the  year  she  joined  Imlay  at 
Havre,  and  there  in  the  spring  of  1 794  she  gave  birth  to  a  girl, 


GODWIN,  W. 


177 


who  received  the  name  of  Fanny,  in  memory  of  the  dear  friend  of 
her  youth.  In  this  year  she  published  the  first  volume  of  a  never 
completed  Historical  and  Moral  View  of  the  French  Revolution. 
Imlay  became  involved  in  a  multitude  of  speculations,  and  his 
affection  for  Mary  and  their  child  was  already  waning.  He  left 
Mary  for  some  months  at  Havre.  In  June  1795,  after  joining 
him  in  England,  Mary  left  for  Norway  on  business  for  Imlay. 
Her  letters  from  Norway,  divested  of  all  personal  details,  were 
afterwards  published.  She  returned  to  England  late  in  1795, 
and  found  letters  awaiting  her  from  Imlay,  intimating  his  inten- 
tion to  separate  from  her,  and  offering  to  settle  an  annuity  on  her 
and  her  child.  For  herself  she  rejected  this  offer  with  scorn: 
"  From  you,"  she  wrote,  "  I  will  not  receive  anything  more.  I 
am  not  sufficiently  humbled  to  depend  on  your  beneficence." 
They  met  again,  and  for  a  short  time  lived  together,  until  the 
discovery  that  he  was  carrying  on  an  intrigue  under  her  own 
roof  drove  her  to  despair,  and  she  attempted  to  drown  herself 
by  leaping  from  Putney  bridge,  but  was  rescued  by  watermen. 
Imlay  now  completely  deserted  her,  although  she  continued  to 
bear  his  name. 

In  1796,  when  Mary  Wollstonecraft  was  living  in  London, 
supporting  herself  and  her  child  by  working,  as  before,  for  Mr 
Johnson,  she  met  William  Godwin.  A  friendship  sprang  up 
between  them, — a  friendship,  as  he  himself  says,  which  "  melted 
into  love."  Godwin  states  that  "  ideas  which  he  is  now  willing 
to  denominate  prejudices  made  him  by  no  means  willing  to 
conform  to  the  ceremony  of  marriage  ";  but  these  prejudices 
were  overcome,  and  they  were  married  at  St  Pancras  church  on 
the  29th  of  March  1797.  And  now  Mary  had  a  season  of  real 
calm  in  her  stormy  existence.  Godwin,  for  once  only  in  his  life, 
was  stirred  by  passion,  and  his  admiration  for  his  wife  equalled 
his  affection.  But  their  happiness  was  of  short  duration.  The 
birth  of  her  daughter  Mary,  afterwards  the  wife  of  Percy  Bysshe 
Shelley,  on  the  3oth  of  August  1797,  proved  fatal,  and  Mrs 
Godwin  died  on  the  icth  of  September  following.  She  was 
buried  in  the  churchyard  of  Old  St  Pancras,  but  her  remains 
were  afterwards  removed -by  Sir  Percy  Shelley  to  the  churchyard 
of  St  Peter's,  Bournemouth. 

Her  principal  published  works  are  as  follows: — Thoughts  on  the 
Education  of  Daughters,.  .  .  (1787)  ;  The  Female  Reader  (selections) 
(1789);  Original  Stories  from  Real  Life  (1791);  An  Historical  and 
Moral  View  of  the  Origin  and  Progress  of  the  French  Revolution,  and 
the  effects  it  has  produced  in  Europe,  vol.  i.  (no  more  published) 
(1790);  Vindication  of  the  Rights  of  Woman  (1792);  Vindication 
of  the  Rights  of  Man  (1793);  Mary,  a  Fiction  (1788);  Letters  written 
during  a  Short  Residence  in  Sweden,  Norway  and  Denmark  (1796); 
Posthumous  Works  (4  vols.,  1798).  It  is  impossible  to  trace  the  many 
articles  contributed  by  her  to  periodical  literature. 

A  memoir  of  her  life  was  published  by  Godwin  in  1798.  A  large 
portion  of  C.  Kegan  Paul's  work,  William  Godwin,  his  Friends  and 
Contemporaries,  was  devoted  to  her,  and  an  edition  of  the  Letters  to 
Imlay  (1879),  of  which  the  first  edition  was  published  by  Godwin, 
is  prefaced  by  a  somewhat  fuller  memoir.  See  also  E.  Dowden, 
The  French  Revolution  and  English  Literature  (1897)  pp.  82  et  seq.; 
E.  R.  Pennell,  Mary  Wollstonecraft  Godwin  (1885),  in  the  Eminent 
Women  Series;  E.  R.  Clough,  A  Study  of  Mary  Wollstonecraft  and 
the  Rights  of  Woman  (1898) ;  an  edition  of  her  Original  Stories  (1906), 
with  William  Blake's  illustrations  and  an  introduction  by  E.  V. 
Lucas;  and  the  Love  Letters  of  Mary  Wollstonecraft  to  Gilbert  Imlay 
(1908),  with  an  introduction  by  Roger  Ingpen. 

GODWIN,  WILLIAM  (1756-1836),  English  political  and 
miscellaneous  writer,  son  of  a  Nonconformist  minister,  was  born 
on  the  3rd  of  March  1756,  at  Wisbeach  in  Cambridgeshire.  His 
family  came  on  both  sides  of  middle-class  people,  and  it  was 
probably  only  as  a  joke  that  Godwin,  a  stern  political  reformer 
and  philosophical  radical,  attempted  to  trace  his  pedigree  to  a 
time  before  the  Norman  conquest  and  the  great  earl  Godwine. 
Both  parents  were  strict  Calvinists.  The  father  died  young,  and 
never  inspired  love  or  much  regret  in  his  son;  but  in  spite  of 
wide  differences  of  opinion,  tender  affection  always  subsisted 
between  William  Godwin  and  his  mother,  until  her  death  at  an 
advanced  age. 

William  Godwin  was  educated  for  his  father's  profession  at 
Hoxton  Academy,  where  he  was  under  Andrew  Kippis  the 
biographer  and  Dr  Abraham  Rees  of  the  Cyclopaedia,  and  was 
at  first  more  Calvinistic  than  his  teachers,  becoming  a  Sande- 


manian,  or  follower  of  John  Glas  (?.».),  whom  he  describes  as 
"  a  celebrated  north-country  apostle  who,  after  Calvin  had 
damned  ninety-nine  in  a  hundred  of  mankind,  has  contrived  a 
scheme  for  damning  ninety-nine  in  a  hundred  of  the  followers 
of  Calvin."  He  then  acted  as  a  minister  at  Ware,  Stowmarket 
and  Beaconsfield.  At  Stowmarket-  the  teachings  of  the  French 
philosophers  were  brought  before  him  by  a  friend,  Joseph  Fawcet, 
who  held  strong  republican  opinions.  He  came  to  London  in 
1782,  still  nominally  a  minister,  to  regenerate  society  with  his 
pen — a  real  enthusiast,  who  shrank  theoretically  from  no  con- 
clusions from  the  premises  which  he  laid  down.  He  adopted 
the  principles  of  the  Encyclopaedists,  and  his  own  aim  was  the 
complete  overthrow  of  all  existing  institutions,  political,  social 
and  religious.  He  believed,  however,  that  calm  discussion  was 
the  only  thing  needful  to  carry  every  change,  and  from  the 
beginning  to  the  end  of  his  career  he  deprecated  every  approach 
to  violence.  He  was  a  philosophic  radical  in  the  strictest  sense 
of  the  term. 

His  first  published  work  was  an  anonymous  Life  of  Lord 
Chatham  (1783).  Under  the  inappropriate  title  Sketches  of 
History  (1784)  he  published  under  his  own  name  six  sermons 
on  the  characters  of  Aaron,  Hazael  and  Jesus,  in  which,  though 
writing  in  the  character  of  an  orthodox  Calvinist,  he  enunciates 
the  proposition  "  God  Himself  has  no  right  to  be  a  tyrant." 
Introduced  by  Andrew  Kippis,  he  began  to  write  in  1785  for  the 
Annual  Register  and  other  periodicals,  producing  also  three 
novels  now  forgotten.  The  "  Sketches  of  English  History  " 
written  for  the  Annual  Register  from  1785  onward  still  deserve 
study.  He  joined  a  club  called  the  "  Revolutionists,"  and 
associated  much  with  Lord  Stanhope,  Home  Tooke  and  Hoi- 
croft.  His  clerical  character  was  now  completely  dropped. 

In  1793  Godwin  published  his  great  work  on  political  science, 
The  Inquiry  concerning  Political  Justice,  and  its  Influence  on  ' 
General  Virtue  and  Happiness.  Although  this  work  is  little 
known  and  less  read  now,  it  marks  a  phase  in  English  thought. 
Godwin  could  never  have  been  himself  a  worker  on  the  active 
stage  of  life.  But  he  was  none  the  less  a  power  behind  the 
workers,  and  for  its  political  effect,  Political  Justice  takes  its 
place  with  Milton's  Areopagitica,  with  Locke's  Essay  on  Educa- 
tion and  with  Rousseau's  Emile.  By  the  words  "  political 
justice  "  the  author  meant  "  the  adoption  of  any  principle  of 
morality  and  truth  into  the  practice  of  a  community,"  and  the 
work  was  therefore  an  inquiry  into  the  principles  of  society,  of 
government  and  of  morals.  For  many  years  Godwin  had  been 
"  satisfied  that  monarchy  was  a  species  of  government  unavoid- 
ably corrupt,"  and  from  desiring  a  government  of  the  simplest 
construction,  he  gradually  came  to  consider  that  "government 
.by  its  very  nature  counteracts  the  improvement  of  original 
mind."  Believing  in  the  perfectibility  of  the  race,  that  there  are 
no  innate  principles,  and  therefore  no  original  propensity  to  evil, 
he  considered  that  "  our  virtues  and  our  vices  may  be  traced 
to  the  incidents  which  make  the  history  of  our  lives,  and  if  these 
incidents  could  be  divested  of  every  improper  tendency,  vice 
would  be  extirpated  from  the  world."  All  control  of  man  by  man 
was  more  or  less  intolerable,  and  the  day  would  come  when  each 
man,  doing  what  seems  right  in  his  own  eyes,  would  also  be 
doing  what  is  in  fact  best  for  the  community,  because  all  will  be 
guided  by  principles  of  pure  reason.  But  all  was  to  be  done  by 
discussion,  and  matured  change  resulting  from  discussion. 
Hence,  while  Godwin  thoroughly  approved  of  the  philosophic 
schemes  of  the  precursors  of  the  Revolution,  he  was  as  far 
removed  as  Burke  himself  from  agreeing  with  the  way  in  which 
they  were  carried  out.  So  logical  and  uncompromising  a  thinker 
as  Godwin  could  not  go  far  in  the  discussion  of  abstract  questions 
without  exciting  the  most  lively  opposition  in  matters  of  detailed 
opinion.  An  affectionate  son,  and  ever  ready  to  give  of  his 
hard-earned  income, to  more  than  one  ne'er-do-well  brother,  he 
maintained  that  natural  relationship 'had  no  claim  on  man,  nor 
was  gratitude  to  parents  or  benefactors  any  part  of  justice  or 
virtue.  In  a  day  when  the  penal  code  was  still  extremely  severe, 
he  argued  gravely  against  all  punishments,  not  only  that  of 
death.  Property  was  to  belong  to  him  who  most  wanted  it; 


i78 


GODWIN-AUSTEN 


accumulated  property  was  a  monstrous  injustice.  Hence 
marriage,  which  is  law,  is  the  worst  of  all  laws,  and  as  property 
the  worst  of  all  properties.  A  man  so  passionless  as  Godwin 
could  venture  thus  to  argue  without  suspicion  that  he  did  so  only 
to  gratify  his  wayward  desires.  Portions  of  this  treatise,  and 
only  portions,  found  ready  acceptance  in  those  minds  which  were 
prepared  to  receive  them.  Perhaps  no  one  received  the  whole 
teaching  of  the  book.  But  it  gave  cohesion  and  voice  to  philo- 
sophic radicalism;  it  was  the  manifesto  of  a  school  without 
which  liberalism  of  the  present  day  had  not  been.  Godwin 
himself  in  after  days  modified  his  communistic  views,  but  his 
strong  feeling  for  individualism,  his  hatred  of  all  restrictions  on 
liberty,  his  trust  in  man,  his  faith  in  the  power  of  reason  remained ; 
it  was  a  manifesto  which  enunciated  principles  modifying  action, 
even  when  not  wholly  ruling  it. 

In  May  1 794  Godwin  published  the  novel  of  Caleb  Williams, 
or  Things  as  they  are,  a  book  of  which  the  political  object  is 
overlooked  by  many  readers  in  the  strong  interest  of  the  story. 
The  book  was  dramatized  by  the  younger  Colman  as  The  Iron 
Chest.  It  is  one  of  the  few  novels  of  that  time  which  may  be  said 
still  to  live.1  A  theorist  who  lived  mainly  in  his  study,  Godwin 
yet  came  forward  boldly  to  stand  by  prisoners  arraigned  of  high 
treason  in  that  same  year — 1794.  The  danger  to  persons  so 
charged  was  then  great,  and  he  deliberately  put  himself  into 
this  same  danger  for  his  friends.  But  when  his  own  trial  was 
discussed  in  the  privy  council,  Pitt  sensibly  held  that  Political 
Justice,  the  work  on  which  the  charge  could  best  have  been 
founded,  was  priced  at  three  guineas,  and  could  never  do  much 
harm  among  those  who  had  not  three  shillings  to  spare. 

From  this  time  Godwin  became  a  notable  figure  in  London 
society,  and  there  was  scarcely  an  important  person  in  politics, 
on  the  Liberal  side,  in  literature,  art  or  science,  who  does  not 
appear  familiarly  in  the  pages  of  Godwin's  singular  diary.  For 
forty-eight  years,  beginning  in  1788,  and  continuing  to  the  very 
end  of  his  life,  Godwin  kept  a  record  of  every  day,  of  the  work 
he  did,  the  books  he  read,  the  friends  he  saw.  Condensed  in  the 
highest  degree,  the  diary  is  yet  easy  to  read  when  the  style  is 
once  mastered,  and  it  is  a  great  help  to  the  understanding  of  his 
cold,  methodical,  unimpassioned  character.  He  carried  his 
method  into  every  detail  of  life,  and  lived  on  his  earnings  with 
extreme  frugality.  Until  he  made  a  large  sum  by  the  publication 
of  Political  Justice,  he  lived  on  an  average  of  £120  a  year. 

In  1797,  the  intervening  years  having  been  spent  in  strenuous 
literary  labour,  Godwin  married  Mary  Wollstonecraft  (see 
GODWIN,  MARY  WOLLSTONECRAFT).  Since  both  held  the  same 
views  regarding  the  slavery  of  marriage,  and  since  they  only 
married  .at  all  for  the  sake  of  possible  offspring,  the  marriage 
was  concealed  for  some  time,  and  the  happiness  of  the  avowed 
married  life  was  very  brief;  his  wife's  death  on  the  loth  of 
September  left  Godwin  prostrated  by  affliction,  and  with  a 
charge  for  which  he  was  wholly  unfit — his  infant  daughter  Mary, 
and  her  stepsister,  Fanny  Imlay,  who  from  that  time  bore  the 
name  of  Godwin.  His  unfitness  for  the  cares  of  a  family,  far 
more  than  love,  led  him  to  contract  a  second  marriage  with 
Mary  Jane  Clairmont  in  1801.  She  was  a  widow  with  two 
children,  one  of  whom,  Clara  Mary  Jane  Clairmont,  became  the 
mistress  of  Lord  Byron.  The  second  Mrs  Godwin  was  energetic 
and  painstaking,  but  a  harsh  stepmother;  and  it  may  be 
doubted  whether  the  children  were  not  worse  off  under  her  care 
than  they  would  have  been  under  Godwin's  neglect. 

The  second  novel  which  proceeded  from  Godwin's  pen  was 
called  Si  Leon,  and  published  in  1 799.  It  is  chiefly  remarkable 
for  the  beautiful  portrait  of  Marguerite,  the  heroine,  drawn  from 
the  character  of  his  own  wife.  His  opinions  underwent  a  change 
in  the  direction  of  theism,  influenced,  he  says,  by  his  acquaintance 
with  Coleridge.  He  also  became  known  to  Wordsworth  and 
Lamb.  Study  of  the  Elizabethan  dramatists  led  to  the  produc- 
tion in  1800  of  the  Tragedy  of  Antonio.  Kemble  brought  it  out 
at  Drury  Lane,  but  the  failure  of  this  attempt  made  him  refuse 

1  For  an  analysis  of  Caleb  Williams  see  the  chapter  on  "  Theorists 
of  Revolution  "  in  Professor  E.  Dowden's  The  French  Revolution 
and  English  Literature  (1897). 


Abbas,  King  of  Persia,  which  Godwin  offered  him  in  the  next 
year.  He  was  more  successful  with  his  Life  of  Chaucer,  for  which 
he  received  £600. 

The  events  of  Godwin's  life  were  few.  Under  the  advice  of 
the  second  Mrs  Godwin,  and  with  her  active  co-operation,  he 
carried  on  business  as  a  bookseller  under  the  pseudonym  of 
Edward  Baldwin,  publishing  several  useful  school  books  and 
books  for  children,  among  them  Charles  and  Mary  Lamb's  Tales 
from  Shakespeare.  But  the  speculation  was  unsuccessful,  and 
for  many  years  Godwin  struggled  with  constant  pecuniary 
difficulties,  for  which  more  than  one  subscription  was  raised 
by  the  leaders  of  the  Liberal  party  and  by  literary  men.  He 
became  bankrupt  in  1822,  but  during  the  following  years  he 
accomplished  one  of  his  best  pieces  of  work,  The  History  of  the 
Commonwealth,  founded  on  pamphlets  and  original  documents, 
which  still  retains  considerable  value.  In  1833  the  government 
of  Earl  Grey  conferred  upon  him  the  office  known  as  yeoman 
usher  of  the  exchequer,  to  which  were  attached  apartments  in 
Palace  Yard,  where  he  died  on  the  7th  of  April  1836. 

In  his  own  time,  by  his  writings  and  by  his  conversation, 
Godwin  had  a  great  power  of  influencing  men,  and  especially 
young  men.  Though  his  character  would  seem,  from  much 
which  is  found  in  his  writings,  and  from  anecdotes  told  by  those 
who  still  remember  him,  to  have  been  unsympathetic,  it  was  not 
so  understood  by  enthusiastic  young  people,  who  hung  on  his 
words  as  those  of  a  prophet.  The  most  remarkable  of  these  was 
Percy  Bysshe  Shelley,  who  in  the  glowing  dawn  of  his  genius 
turned  to  Godwin  as  his  teacher  and  guide.  The  last  of  the  long 
series  of  young  men  who  sat  at  Godwin's  feet  was  Edward  Lytton 
Bulwer,  afterwards  Lord  Lytton,  whose  early  romances  were 
formed  after  those  of  Godwin,  and  who,  in  Eugene  Aram,  suc- 
ceeded to  the  story  as  arranged,  and  the  plan  to  a  considerable 
extent  sketched  out,  by  Godwin,  whose  age  and  failing  health 
prevented  him  from  completing  it.  Godwin's  character  appears 
in  the  worst  light  in  connexion  with  Shelley.  His  early  corre- 
spondence with  Shelley,  which  began  in  1811,  is  remarkable  for 
its  genuine  good  sense  and  kindness;  but  when  Shelley  carried 
out  the  principles  of  the  author  of  Political  Justice  in  eloping 
with  Mary  Godwin,  Godwin  assumed  a  hostile  attitude  that 
would  have  been  unjustifiable  in  a  man  of  ordinary  views,  and 
was  ridiculous  in  the  light  of  his  professions.  He  was  not,  more- 
over, too  proud  to  accept  £1000  from  his  son-in-law,  and  after 
the  reconciliation  following  on  Shelley's  marriage  in  1816,  he 
continued  to  demand  money  until  Shelley's  death.  His  character 
had  no  doubt  suffered  under  his  long  embarrassments  and  his 
unhappy  marriage. 

Godwin's  more  important  works  are — The  Inquiry  concerning 
Political  Justice,  and  its  Influence  on  General  Virtue  and  Happiness 
(1793);  Things  as  they  are,  or  the  Adventures  of  Caleb  Williams 
(1794);  The  Inquirer,  a  series  of  Essays  (1797);  Memoirs  of  the 
A  uthor  of  the  Rights  of  Woman  ( 1 798) ;  St  Leon,  a  Tale  of  the  Sixteenth 
Century  (1799);  Antonio,  a  Tragedy  (1800);  The  Life  of  Chaucer 
(1803);  Fleetwood,  a  Novel  (1805);  Faulkner,  a  Tragedy  (1807); 
Essay  on  Sepulchres  (1809);  Lives  of  Edward  and  John  Philips,  the 
Nephews  of  Milton  (1815) ;  Mandemlle,  a  Tale  of  the  Times  of  Crom- 
well (1817);  Of  Population,  an  answer  to  Malthus  (1820);  History 
of  the  Commonwealth  (1824-1828);  Cloudesley,  a  Novel  (1830); 
Thoughts  on  Man,  a  series  of  Essays  (1831) ;  Lives  of  the  Necromancers 
(1834).  A  volume  of  essays  was  also  collected  from  his  papers  and 
published  in  1873,  as  left  for  publication  by  his  daughter  Mrs  Shelley. 
Many  other  short  and  anonymous  works  proceeded  from  his  ever 
busy  pen,  but  many  are  irrecoverable,  and  all  are  forgotten.  Godwin's 
life  was  published  in  1876  in  two  volumes,  under  the  title  William 
Godwin,  his  Friends  and  Contemporaries,  by  C.  Kegan  Paul.  The 
best  estimate  of  his  literary  position  is  that  given  by  Sir  Leslie 
Stephen  in  his  English  Thought  in  the  i8th  Century  (ii.  264-281 ;  ed., 
1902).  See  also  the  article  on  William  Godwin  in  W.  Hailitt's 
The  Spirit  of  the  Age  (1825),  and  "  Godwin  and  Shelley  "  in  Sir  L. 
Stephen's  Hours  in  a  Library  (vol.  iii.,  ed.  1892). 

GODWIN-AUSTEN,  ROBERT  ALFRED  CLOYNE  (1808-1884), 
English  geologist,  the  eldest  son  of  Sir  Henry  E.  Austen,  was 
born  on  the  i7th  of  March  1808.  He  was  educated  at  Oriel 
College,  Oxford,  of  which  he  became  a  fellow  in  1830.  He 
afterwards  entered  Lincoln's  Inn.  In  1833  he  married  the  only 
daughter  and  heiress  of  General  Sir  Henry  T.  Godwin,  K.C.B., 
and  he  took  the  additional  name  of  Godwin  by  Royal  licence 


GODWINE— GODWIT 


179 


in  1854.  At  Oxford  as  a  pupil  of  William  Buckland  he  became 
deeply  interested  in  geology,  and  soon  afterwards  becoming 
acquainted  with  De  la  Beche,  he  was  inspired  by  that  great 
master,  and  assisted  him  by  making  a  geological  map  of  the 
neighbourhood  of  Newton  Abbot,  which  was  embodied  in  the 
Geological  Survey  map.  He  also  published  an  elaborate  memoir 
"On  the  Geology  of  the  South-East  of  Devonshire"  (Trans. 
Geol.  Soc.  ser.  2,  vol.  viii.).  His  attention  was  next  directed  to 
the  Cretaceous  rocks  of  Surrey,  his  home-county,  his  estates 
being  situated  at  Chilworth  and  Shalford  near  Guildford.  Later 
he  dealt  with  the  superficial  accumulations  bordering  the  English 
Channel,  and  with  the  erratic  boulders  of  Selsea.  In  1855  he 
brought  before  the  Geological  Society  of  London  his  celebrated 
paper  "  On  the  possible  Extension  of  the  Coal-Measures  beneath 
the  South-Eastern  part  of  England,"  in  which  he  pointed  out 
on  well-considered  theoretical  grounds  the  likelihood  of  coal- 
measures  being  some  day  reached  in  that  area.  In  this  article 
he  also  advocated  the  freshwater  origin  of  the  Old  Red  Sand- 
stone, and  discussed  the  relations  of  that  formation,  and  "of  the 
Devonian,  to  the  Silurian  and  Carboniferous.  He  was  elected 
F.R.S.  in  1849,  and  in  1862  he  was  awarded  the  Wollaston  medal 
by  the  Geological  Society  of  London,  on  which  occasion  he  was 
styled  by  Sir  R.  I.  Murchison  "  pre-eminently  the  physical 
geographer  of  bygone  periods."  He  died  at  Shalford  House 
near  Guildford  on  the  25th  of  November  1884. 

His  son,  Lieut. -Colonel  HENRY  HAVERSHAM  GODWIN-AUSTEN 
(b.  1834),  entered  the  army  in  r8si,  and  served  for  many  years 
on  the  Trigonometrical  Survey  of  India,  retiring  in  1877.  He 
gave  much  attention  to  geology,  but  is  more  especially  dis- 
tinguished for  his  researches  on  the  natural  history  of  India 
and  as  the  author  of  The  Land  and  Freshwater  Mollusca  of  India 
(1882-1887). 

GODWINE  (d.  1053),  son  of  Wulfnoth,  earl  of  the  West- 
Saxons,  the  leading  Englishman  in  the  first  half  of  the  nth 
century.  His  birth  and  origin  are  utterly  uncertain;  but  he 
rose  to  power  early  in  Canute's  reign  and  was  an  earl  in  1018. 
He  received  in  marriage  Gytha,  a  connexion  of  the  king's,  and 
in  1020  became  earl  of  the  West-Saxons.  On  the  death  of  Canute 
in  1035  he  joined  with  Queen  Emma  in  supporting  the  claim 
of  Hardicanute,  the  son  of  Canute  and  Emma,  to  the  crown  of 
his  father,  in  opposition  to  Leofric  and  the  northern  party  who 
supported  Harold  Harefoot  (see  HARDICANUTE).  While  together 
they  held  Wessex  for  Hardicanute,  the  anheling  Alfred,  son  of 
Emma  by  her  former  husband  ^Ethelred  II.,  landed  in  England 
in  the  hope  of  winning  back  his  father's  crown;  but  falling  into 
the  hands  of  Godwine,  he  and  his  followers  were  cruelly  done  to 
death.  On  the  death  of  Hardicanute  in  1042  Godwine  was 
foremost  in  promoting  the  election  of  Edward  (the  Confessor) 
to  the  vacant  throne.  He  was  now  the  first  man  in  the  kingdom, 
though  his  power  was  still  balanced  by  that  of  the  other  great 
earls,  Leofric  of  Mercia  and  Siward  of  Northumberland.  His 
sons  Sweyn  and  Harold  were  promoted  to  earldoms;  and  his 
daughter  Eadgyth  was  married  to  the  king  (1045).  His  policy 
was  strongly  national  in  opposition  to  the  marked  Normanizing 
tendencies  of  the  king.  Between  him  and  Edward's  foreign 
favourites,  particularly  Robert  of  Jumieges,  there  was  deadly 
feud.  The  appointment  of  Robert  to  the  archbishopric  of  Canter- 
bury in  1051  marks  the  decline  of  Godwine's  power;  and  in  the 
same  year  a  series  of  outrages  committed  by  one  of  the  king's 
foreign  favourites  led  to  a  breach  between  the  king  and  the  earl, 
which  culminated  in  the  exile  of  the  latter  with  all  his  family  (see 
EDWARD  THE  CONFESSOR).  But  next  year  Godwine  returned  in 
triumph;  and  at  a  great  meeting  held  outside  London  he  and 
his  family  were  restored  to  all  their  offices  and  possessions, 
and  the  archbishop  and  many  other  Normans  were  banished. 
In  the  following  year  Godwine  was  smitten  with  a  fit  at  the 
king's  table,  and  died  three  days  later  on  the  isth  of  April  1053. 

Godwine  appears  to  have  had  seven  sons,  three  of  whom — 
King  Harold,  Gyrth  and  Leofwine — were  killed  at  Hastings; 
two  others,  Wulfnoth  and  JEligur,  are  of  little  importance; 
another  was  Earl  Tostig  (?.».).  The  eldest  son  was  Sweyn,  or 
Swegen  (d.  1052),  who  was  outlawed  for  seducing  Eadgifu 


abbess  of  Leominster.  After  fighting  for  the  king  of  Denmark 
he  returned  to  England  in  1049,  when  his  murder  of  his  cousin 
Beorn  compelled  him  to  leave  England  for  the  second  time. 
In  1050,  however,  he  regained  his  earldom,  and  in  1051  he  shared 
his  father's  exile.  To  atone  for  the  murder  of  Beorn,  Sweyn 
went  on  a  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem,  and  on  the  return  journey 
he  died  on  the  2pth  of  September  1052,  meeting  his  death, 
according  to  one  account,  at  the  hands  of  the  Saracens. 

GODWIT,  a  word  of  unknown  origin,  the  name  commonly 
applied  to  a  marsh-bird  in  great  repute,  when  fattened,  for  the 
table,  and  formerly  abundant  in  the  fens  of  Norfolk,  the  Isle 
of  Ely  and  Lincolnshire.  In  Turner's  days  (1544)  it  was  worth 
three  times  as  much  as  a  snipe,  and  at  the  same  peroid  Belon 
said  of  it — "  C'est  vn  Oyseau  es  delices  des  Franfoys."  Casaubon, 
who  Latinized  its  name  "  Dei  ingenium  (Ephemerides,  igth 
September  1611),  was  told  by  the  "  ornitholrophaeus  "  he  visited 
at  Wisbech  that  in  London  it  fetched  twenty  pence.  Its  fame 
as  a  delicacy  is  perpetuated  by  many  later  writers,  Ben  Jonson 
among  them,  and  Pennant  says  that  in  his  time  (1766)  it  sold  for 
half-a-crown  or  five  shillings.  Under  the  name  godwit  two 
perfectly  distinct  species  of  British  birds  were  included,  but  that 
which  seems  to  have  been  especially  prized  is  known  to  modern 
ornithologists  as  the  black-tailed  godwit,  Limosa  aegocephala, 
formerly  called,  from  its  loud  cry,  a  yarwhelp,1  shrieker  or 
barker,  in  the  districts  it  inhabited.  The  practice  of  netting 
this  bird  in  large  numbers  during  the  spring  and  summer,  coupled 
with  the  gradual  reclamation  of  the  fens,  to  which  it  resorted, 
has  now  rendered  it  but  a  visitor  in  England;  and  it  probably 
ceased  from  breeding  regularly  in  England  in  1824  or  thereabouts, 
though  under  favourable  conditions  it  may  have  occasionally 
laid  its  eggs  for  some  thirty  years  later  or  more  (Stevenson, 
Birds  of  Norfolk,  ii.  250).  This  godwit  is  a  species  of  wide 
range,  reaching  Iceland,  where  it  is  called  Jardraeka  (  =  earth- 
raker),  in  summer,  and  occurring  numerously  in  India  in  winter. 
Its  chief  breeding-quarters  seem  to  extend  from  Holland  east- 
wards to  the  south  of  Russia.  The  second  British  species  is  that 
which  is  known  as  the  bar-tailed  godwit,  L.  lapponica,  and  this 
seems  to  have  never  been  more  than  a  bird  of  double  passage 
in  the  United  Kingdom,  arriving  in  large  flocks  on  the  south 
coast  about  the  I2th  of  May,  and,  after  staying  a  few  days, 
proceeding  to  the  north-eastward.  It  is  known  to  breed  in 
Lapland,  but  its  eggs  are  of  great  rarity.  Towards  autumn 
the  young  visit  the  English  coasts,  and  a  few  of  them  remain, 
together  with  some  of  the  other  species,  in  favourable  situations 
throughout  the  winter.  One  of  the  local  names  by  which  the 
bar-tailed  godwit  is  known  to  the  Norfolk  gunners  is  scamell, 
a  word  which,  in  the  mouth  of  Caliban  (Tempest,  n.  ii.),  has  been 
the  cause  of  much  perplexity  to  Shakespearian  critics. 

The  godwits  belong  to  the  group  Limicolae,  and  are  about  as 
big  as  a  tame  pigeon,  but  possess  long  legs,  and  a  long  bill  with 
a  slight  upward  turn.  It  is  believed  that  in  the  genus  Limosa 
the  female  is  larger  than  the  male.  While  the  winter  plumage 
is  of  a  sober  greyish-brown,  the  breeding-dress  is  marked  by  a 
predominance  of  bright  bay  or  chestnut,  rendering  the  wearer 
a  very  beautiful  object.  The  black-tailed  godwit,  though  varying 
a  good  deal  in  size,  is  constantly  larger  than  the  bar-tailed,  and 
especially  longer  in  the  legs.  The  species  may  be  further  distin- 
guished by  the  former  having  the  proximal  third  of  the  tail-quills 
pure  white,  and  the  distal  two-thirds  black,  with  a  narrow  white 
margin,  while  the  latter  has  the  same  feathers  barred  with 
black  and  white  alternately  for  nearly  their  whole  length. 

America  possesses  two  species  of  the  genus,  the  very  large 
marbled  godwit  or  marlin,  L.  fedoa,  easily  recognized  by  its  size 
and  the  buff  colour  of  its  axillaries,  and  the  smaller  Hudsonian 
godwit,  L.  hudsonica,  which  has  its  axillaries  of  a  deep  black. 
This  last,  though  less  numerous  than  its  congener,  seems  to 
range  over  the  whole  of  the  continent,  breeding  in  the  extreme 
north,  while  it  has  been  obtained  also  in  the  Strait  of  Magellan 
and  the  Falkland  Islands.  The  first  seems  not  to  go  farther 
southward  than  the  Antilles  and  the  Isthmus  of  Panama. 

1  This  name  seems  to  have  survived  in  Whelp  Moor,  near  Brandon, 
in  Suffolk. 


i8o 


GOEBEN— GOES,  D.  DE 


From  Asia,  or  at  least  its  eastern  part,  two  species  have 
been  described.  One  of-  them,  L.  melanuroides,  differs  only 
from  L.  aegocephala  in  its  smaller  size,  and  is  believed  to  breed 
in  Amurland,  wintering  in  the  islands  of  the  Pacific,  New 
Zealand  and  Australia.  The  other,  L.  uropygialis,  is  closely 
allied  to  and  often  mistaken  for  L.  lapponica,  from  which  it 
chiefly  differs  by  having  the  rump  barred  like  the  tail.  This 
was  found  breeding  in  the  extreme  north  of  Siberia  by  Dr  von 
Middendorff,  and  ranges  to  Australia,  whence  it  was,  like  the 
last,  first  described  by  Gould.  (A.  N.) 

GOEBEN,  AUGUST  KARL  VON  (1816-1880),  Prussian 
general  of  infantry,  came  of  old  Hanoverian  stock.  Born  at 
Stade  on  the  loth  of  December  1816,  he  aspired  from  his  earliest 
years  to  the  Prussian  service  rather  than  that  of  his  own  country, 
and  at  the  age  of  seventeen  obtained  a  commission  in  the  24th 
regiment  of  Prussian  infantry.  But  there  was  little  scope  there 
for  the  activities  of  a  young  and  energetic  subaltern,  and,  leaving 
the  service  in  1836,  he  entered  the  Carlist  army  campaigning  in 
Spain.  In  the  five  campaigns  which  he  made  in  the  service  of 
Don  Carlos  he  had  many  and  various  vicissitudes  of  fortune. 
He  had  not  fought  for  two  months  when  he  fell,  severely  wounded, 
into  the  hands  of  the  Spanish  Royal  troops.  After  eight  months' 
detention  he  escaped,  but  it  was  not  long  before  he  was  captured 
again.  This  time  his  imprisonment  was  long  and  painful,  and 
on  two  occasions  he  was  compelled  to  draw  lots  for  his  life  with 
his  fellow-captives.  When  released,  he  served  till  1840  with 
distinction.  In  that  year  he  made  his  way  back,  a  beggar 
without  means  or  clothing,  to  Prussia.  The  Carlist  lieutenant- 
colonel  was  glad  to  be  re-admitted  into  the  Prussian  service  as  a 
second  lieutenant,  but  he  was  still  young,  and  few  subalterns 
could  at  the  age  of  twenty-four  claim  five  years'  meritorious 
war  service.  In  a  few  years  we  find  him  serving  as  captain  on  the 
Great  General  Staff,  and  in  1848  he  had  the  good  fortune  to  be 
transferred  to  the  staff  of  the  IV.  army  corps,  his  immediate 
superior  being  Major  von  Moltke.  The  two  "  coming  men  " 
became  fast  friends,  and  their  mutual  esteem  was  never  disturbed. 
In  the  Baden  insurrection  Goeben  served  with  distinction  on  the 
staff  of  Prince  William,  the  future  emperor.  Staff  and  regimental 
duty  (as  usual  in  the  Prussian  service)  alternated  for  some  years 
after  this,  till  in  1863  he  became  major-general  commanding  the 
26th  infantry  brigade.  In  1860,  it  should  be  mentioned,  he 
was  present  with  the  Spanish  troops  in  Morocco,  and  took  part 
in  the  battle  of  Tetuan. 

In  the  first  of  Prussia's  great  wars  (1864)  he  distinguished 
himself  at  the  head  of  his  brigade  at  Rackebiill  and  Sonderburg. 
In  the  war  of  1866  Lieutenant-General  von  Goeben  commanded 
the  i3th  division,  of  which  his  old  brigade  formed  part,  and, 
in  this  higher  sphere,  once  more  displayed  the  qualities  of  a  born 
leader  and  skilful  tactician.  He  held  almost  independent 
command  with  conspicuous  success  in  the  actions  of  Dermbach, 
Laufach,  Kissingen,  Aschaffenburg,  Gerchsheim,  Tauber- 
Bischofsheim  and  Wiirzburg.  The  mobilization  of  1870  placed 
him  at  the  head  of  the  VIII.  (Rhineland)  army  corps,  forming 
part  of  the  First  Army  under  Steinmetz.  It  was  his  resolute  and 
energetic  leading  that  contributed  mainly  to  the  victory  of 
Spicheren  (6th  August),  and  won  the  only  laurels  gained  on  the 
Prussian  right  wing  at  Gravelotte  ( 1 8th  August) .  Under  Manteuffel 
the  VIII.  corps  took  part  in  the  operations  about  Amiens  and 
Bapaume,  and  on  the  8th  of  January  1871  Goeben  succeeded 
that  general  in  the  command  of  the  First  Army,  with  which  he 
had  served  throughout  the  campaign  as  a  corps  commander. 
A  fortnight  later  he  had  brought  the  war  in  northern  France 
to  a  brilliant  conclusion,  by  the  decisive  victory  of  St  Quentin 
(i8th  and  ipth  January  1871).  The  close  of  the  Franco-German 
War  left  Goeben  one  of  the  most  distinguished  men  in  the 
victorious  army.  He  was  colonel  of  the  28th  infantry,  and  had 
the  grand  cross  of  the  Iron  Cross.  He  commanded  the  VIII. 
corps  at  Coblenz  until  his  death  in  1880. 

General  von  Goeben  left  many  writings.  His  memoirs  are  to 
be  found  in  his  works  Vier  Jahre  in  Spanien  (Hanover,  1841), 
Reise-und  Lagerbriefe  aus  Spanien  und  vom  spanischen  Heere  in 
Marokko  (Hanover,  1863)  and  in  the  Darmstadt  Allgemeine 


Militaneitung.  The  former  French  port  (Queuleu)  at  Metz  was 
renamed  Goeben  after  him,  and  the  28th  infantry  bears  his  name. 
A  statue  of  Goeben  by  Schaper  was  erected  at  Coblenz  in  1884. 

See  G.  Zernin,  Das  Leben  des  Generals  August  von  Coeben  (2  vols., 
Berlin,  1895-1897) ;  H.  Earth,  A.  von  Goeben  (Berlin,  1906) ;  and,  for 
his  share  in  the  war  of  1870-71;  H.  Kunz,  Der  Feldzug  im  N,  und 
N.W.  Frankreichs  1870-1871  (Berlin,  1889),  and  the  I4th  Monograph 
of  the  Great  General  Staff  (1891). 

GOEJE,  MICHAEL  JAN  DE  (1836-1909),  Dutch  orientalist, 
was  born  in  Friesland  in  1836.  He  devoted  himself  at  an  early 
age  to  the  study  of  oriental  languages  and  became  especially 
proficient  in  Arabic,  under  the  guidance  of  Dozy  and  Juynboll, 
to  whom  he  was  afterwards  an  intimate  friend  and  colleague. 
He  took  his  degree  of  doctor  at  Leiden  in  1860,  and  then  studied 
fora  year  in  Oxford,  where  he  examined  and  collated  the  Bodleian 
MSS.  of  IdrisI  (part  being  published  in  1866,  in  collaboration 
with  R.  P.  Dozy,  as  Description  de  I'Afrique  el  de  I'Espagne). 
About  the  same  time  he  wrote  Memoires  de  Vhistoire  el  de  la 
geographic  orientales,  and  edited  Expugnatio  regionum.  'In 
1883,  on  the  death  of  Dozy,  he  became  Arabic  professor  at  Leiden, 
retiring  in  1906.  He  died  on  the  i7th  of  May  1909.  Though 
perhaps  not  a  teacher  of  the  first  order,  he  wielded  a  great 
influence  during  his  long  professoriate  not  only  over  his  pupils, 
but  over  theologians  and  eastern  administrators  who  attended 
his  lectures,  and  his  many  editions  of  Arabic  texts  have  been  of 
the  highest  value  to  scholars,  the  most  important  being  his  great 
edition  of  Tabari.  Though  entirely  averse  from  politics,  he  took 
a  keen  interest  in  the  municipal  affairs  of  Leiden  and  made  a 
special  study  of  elementary  education.  He  took  the  leading  part 
in  the  International  Congress  of  Orientalists  at  Algiers  in  1905. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Institut  de  France,  was  awarded  the 
German  Order  of  Merit,  and  received  an  honorary  doctorate  of 
Cambridge  University.  At  his  death  he  was  president  of  the 
newly  formed  International  Association  of  Academies  of  Science. 
Among  his  chief  works  are  Fragmenta  historicorum  Arabicorum 
(1869-1871);  Diwan  of  Moslim  ibn  al-Walid  (1875);  Bibliotheca 
geographorum  Arabicorum  (1870-1894);  Annals  of  Tabari 
(1879-1901);  edition  of  Ibn  Qutaiba's  biographies  (1904); 
of  the  travels  of  Ibn  Jubaye  (1907,  5th  vol.  of  Gibb  Memorial). 
He  was  also  the  chief  editor  of  the  Encyclopaedia  of  Islam  (vols. 
i.-iii.),  and  contributed  many  articles  to  periodicals.  He  wrote 
for  the  gth'  and  the  present  edition  of  the  Encyclopaedia 
Britannica. 

GOES,  DAMIAO  DE  (1502-1574),  Portuguese  humanist,  was 
born  of  a  patrician  family  at  Alemquer,  in  February  1502. 
Under  King  John  III.  he  was  employed  abroad  for  many  years 
from  1523  on  diplomatic  and  commercial  missions,  and  he 
travelled  over  the  greater  part  of  Europe.  He  was  intimate 
with  the  leading  scholars  of  the  time,  was  acquainted  with  Luther 
and  other  Protestant  divines,  and  in  1532  became  the  pupil  and 
friend  of  Erasmus.  Goes  took  his  degree  at  Padua  in  1538  after 
a  four  years'  course.  In  1 53  7 ,  at  the  instance  of  his  friend  Cardinal 
Sadoleto,  he  undertook  to  mediate  between  the  Church  and  the 
Lutherans,  but  failed  through  the  attitude  of  the  Protestants, 
He  married  in  Flanders  a  rich  and  noble  Dutch  lady,  D.  Joanna 
de  Hargen,  and  settled  at  Louvain,  then  the  literary  centre  of 
the  Low  Countries,  where  he  was  living  in  1542  when  the  French 
besieged  the  town.  He  was  given  the  command  of  the  defending 
forces,  and  saved  Louvain,  but  was  taken  prisoner  and  confined 
for  nine  months  in  France,  till  he  obtained  his  freedom  by  a 
heavy  ransom.  He  was  rewarded,  however,  by  a  grant  of  arms 
from  Charles  V.  He  finally  returned  to  Portugal  in  1545,  with 
a  view  of  becoming  tutor  to  the  king's  son,  but  he  failed  to 
obtain  this  post,  owing  to  the  denunciations  of  Father  Simon 
Rodriguez,  provincial  of  the  Jesuits,  who  accused  Goes  of 
favouring  the  Lutheran  doctrines  and  of  being  a  disciple  of 
Erasmus.  Nevertheless  in  1548  he  was  appointed  chief  keeper 
of  the  archives  and  royal  chronicler,  and  at  once  introduced 
some  much-needed  reforms  into  the  administration  of  his  office. 

In  1558  he  was  given  a  commission  to  write  a  history  of  the 
reign  of  King  Manoel,  a  task  previously  confided  to  Joao  de 
Barros,  but  relinquished  by  him.  It  was  an  onerous  undertaking 
for  a  conscientious  historian,  since  it  was  necessary  to  expose 


GOES,  H.  VAN  DER— GOES 


181 


the  miseries  as  well  as  relate  the  glories  of  the  period,  and  so  to 
offend  some  of  the  most  powerful  families.  Goes  had  already 
written  a  Chronicle  of  Prince  John  (afterwards  John  II.),  and 
when,  after  more  than  eight  years'  labour,  he  produced  the  First 
Part  of  his  Chronicle  of  King  Manoel  (1566),  a  chorus  of  attacks 
greeted  it,  the  edition  was  destroyed,  and  he  was  compelled  to 
issue  a  revised  version.  He  brought  out  the  three  other  parts 
in  1566-1567,  though  chapters  23  to  27  of  the  Third  Part  were 
so  mutilated  by  the  censorship  that  the  printed  text  differs 
'largely  from  the  MS.  Hitherto  Goes,  notwithstanding  his  Liberal- 
ism, had  escaped  the  Inquisition,  though  in  1540  his  Fides, 
religio,  moresque  Aethiopum  had  been  prohibited  by  the  chief 
inquisitor,  Cardinal  D.  Henrique;  but  the  denunciation  of 
Father  Rodriguez  in  1545,  which  had  been  vainly  renewed  in 
1550,  was  now  brought  into  action,  and  in  1571  he  was  arrested 
to  stand  his  trial.  There  seems  to  be  no  doubt  that  the  Inquisi- 
tion made  itself  on  this  occasion,  as  on  others,  the  instrument  of 
private  enmity;  for  eighteen  months  Goes  lay  ill  in  prison,  and 
then  he  was  condemned,  though  he  had  lived  for  thirty  years  as 
a  faithful  Catholic,  and  the  worst  that  could  be  proved  against 
him  was  that  in  his  youth  he  had  spoken  against  Indulgences, 
disbelieved  in  auricular  confession,  and  consorted  with  heretics. 
He  was  sentenced  to  a  term  of  reclusion,  and  his  property  was 
confiscated  to  the  crown.  After  he  had  abjured  his  errors  in 
private,  he  was  sent  at  the  end  of  1572  to  do  penance  at  the 
monastery  of  Batalha.  Later  he  was  allowed  to  return  home 
to  Alemquer,  where  he  died  on  the  3oth  of  January  1574.  He 
was  buried  in  the  church  of  Nossa  Senhora  da  Varzea. 

Damiao  de  Goes  was  a  man  of  wide  culture  and  genial  and 
courtly  manners,  a  skilled  musician  and  a  good  linguist.  He 
wrote  both  Portuguese  and  Latin  with  classic  strength  and 
simplicity,  and  his  style  is  free  from  affectation  and  rhetorical 
ornaments.  His  portrait  by  Albrecht  Diirer  shows  an  open, 
intelligent  face,  and  the  record  of  his  life  proves  him  to  have 
been  upright  and  fearless.  His  prosperity  doubtless  excited 
ill-will,  but  above  all,  his  ideas,  advanced  for  Portugal,  his  foreign 
ways,  outspokenness  and  honesty  contributed  to  the  tragedy 
of  his  end,  at  a  time  when  the  forces  of  ignorant  reaction  held 
the  ascendant.  He  had,  it  may  be  presumed,  given  some  um- 
brage to  the  court  by  condemning,  in  the  Chronicle  of  King 
Manoel,  the  royal  ingratitude  to  distinguished  public  servants, 
though  he  received  a  pension  and  other  rewards  for  that  work, 
and  he  had  certainly  offended  the  nobility  by  his  administration 
of  the  archive  office  and  by  exposing  false  genealogical  claims 
in  his  Nobiliario.  He  paid  the  penalty  for  telling  the  truth,  as 
he  knew  it,  in  an  age  when  an  historian  had  to  choose  between 
flattery  of  the  great  and  silence.  The  Chronicle  of  King  Manoel 
was  the  first  official  history  of  a  Portuguese  reign  to  be  written 
in  a  critical  spirit,  and  Damiao  de  Goes  has  the  honour  of  having 
been  the  first  Portuguese  royal  chronicler  to  deserve  the  name 
of  an  historian. 

His  Portuguese  works  include  Chronica  do  felicissimo  rei  Dom 
Emanuel  (parts  i.  and  ii.,  Lisbon,  1566,  parts  iii.  and  iv.,  ib. 
1567).  Other  editions  appeared  in  Lisbon  in  1619  and  1749  and  in 
Coimbra  in  1790.  Chronica  do  principe  Dom  Joam  (Lisbon,  1558), 
with  subsequent  editions  in  1567  and  1724  in  Lisbon  and  in  1790  in 
Coimbra.  Lima  de  Marco  Tullio  Ciceram  chamado  Catam  Mayor 
(Venice,  1538).  This  is  a  translation  of  Cicero's  De  senectute.  His 
Latin  works,  published  separately,  comprise:  (i)  Legatio  magni  im- 
peratoris  Presbileri  Joannis,  &c.  (Antwerp,  1532) ;  (2)  Legatio  Davidis 
Ethiopiae  regis,  &c.  (Bologna,  1533) ;  (3)  Commentarii  rerum  gestarum 
in  India  (Louvain,  1539);  (4)  Fides,  religio,  moresque  Aethiopum 
(Louvain,  !54o),incorporatingNos.(i)  and  (2)  ;(5)His/>a«z'a(Louvain, 
1542);  (6)  Aliquot  epfstolae  Sadoleti  Bembi  et  aliorum  darissimorum 
virorum,  &c.  (Louvain,  1544);  (7)  Damiani  a  Goes  equitis  Lusitani 
aliquot  opuscula  (Louvain,  1544) ;  (8)  U rbis  Lovaniensis  obsidia(L\sbon, 
I546) ;  (9)  De  bellp  Cambaico  ultimo  (Louvain,  1549) ;  (10)  Urbis  Olisi- 
ponensis  descriptio  (E  vora,  1 554) ;  ( 1 1 )  Epistola  ad  Hieronymum  Car  do- 
sum  (Lisbon,  1556).  Most  of  the  above  went  through  several  editions, 
and  many  were  afterwards  included  with  new  works  in  such  collections 
as  No.  (7),  and  seven  sets  of  Opuscula  appeared,  all  incomplete. 
Nos.  (3),  (4)  and  (5)  suffered  mutilation  in  subsequent  editions, 
at  the  hands  of  the  censors,  because  they  offended  against  religious 
orthodoxy  or  family  pride. 

AUTHORITIES. — (A)  Joaquim  de  Vasconcellos,  Goesiana  (5  vols.), 
with  the  following  sub-titles:  (i)  O  Retrato  de  Albrecht  Diirer 
(Porto,  1879);  (2)  Bibliographia  (Porto,  1879),  which  describes  67 


numbers  of  books  by  Goes;  (3)  As  Variances  das  Chronicas  Portu- 
guezas  (Porto,  1881);  (4)  Damiao  de  Goes:  Nonas  Estudos  (Porto, 
'897) ;  (5)  As  Cartas  Latinas —  in  the  press  (1906).  Snr.  Vasconcellos 
only  printed  a  very  limited  number  of  copies  of  these  studies  for 
distribution  among  friends,  so  that  they  are  rare.  (B)  Guilherme 
J.  C.  Henriques,  Ineditos  Goesianos,  vol.  i.  (Lisbon,  1896),  vol.  ii. 
(containing  the  proceedings  at  the  trial  by  the  Inquisition)  (Lisbon, 
1898).  (C)  A.  P.  Lopes  de  Mendonca,  Damiao  de  Goes  e  a  Inquisifdo 
de  Portugal  (Lisbon,  1859).  (D)  Dr  Sousa  Viterbo,  Damiao  de  Goes 
e  D.  Antonio  Pinheiro  (Coimbra,  1895).  (E)  Dr  Theophilo  Braga, 
Historia  da  Universidade  de  Coimbra  (Lisbon,  1892),  i.  374-380. 
(F)  Menendez  y  Pelayo,  Historia  de  los  Heter.  Espanoles,  ii. 
129-143-  (E.  PR.) 

GOES,  HUGO  VAN  DER  (d.  1482),  a  painter  of  consider- 
able celebrity  at  Ghent,  was  known  to  Vasari,  as  he  is  known  to 
us,  by  a  single  picture  in  a  Florentine  monastery.  At  a  period 
when  the  family  of  the  Medici  had  not  yet  risen  from  the  rank 
of  a  great  mercantile  firm  to  that  of  a  reigning  dynasty,  it  em- 
ployed as  an  agent  at  the  port  of  Bruges  Tommaso  Portinari,  a 
lineal  descendant,  it  was  said,  of  Folco,  the  father  of  Dante's 
Beatrix.  Tommaso,  at  that  time  patron  of  a  chapel  in  the  hospital 
of  Santa  Maria  Nuova  at  Florence,  ordered  an  altar-piece  of 
Hugo  van  der  Goes,  and  commanded  him  to  illustrate  the  sacred 
theme  of  "  Quem  genuit  adoravit."  In  the  centre  of  a  vast 
triptych,  comprising  numerous  figures  of  life  size,  Hugo  repre- 
sented the  Virgin  kneeling  in  adoration  before  the  new-born 
Christ  attended  by  Shepherds  and  Angels.  On  the  wings  he 
portrayed  Tommaso  and  his  two  sons  in  prayer  under  the  pro- 
tection of  Saint  Anthony  and  St  Matthew,  and  Tommaso's 
wife  and  two  daughters  supported  by  St  Margaret  and  St  Mary 
Magdalen.  The  triptych,  which  has  suffered  much  from  decay 
and  restoring,  was  for  over  400  years  at  Santa  Maria  Nuova, 
and  is  now  in  the  Uffizi  Gallery.  Imposing  because  composed 
of  figures  of  unusual  size,  the  altar-piece  is  more  remarkable 
for  portrait  character  than  for  charms  of  ideal  beauty. 

There  are  also  small  pieces  in  public  galleries  which  claim  to 
have  been  executed  by  Van  der  Goes.  One  of  these  pictures  in 
the  National  Gallery  in  London  is  more  nearly  allied  to  the  school 
of  Memling  than  to  the  triptych  of  Santa  Maria  Nuova;  another, 
a  small  and  very  beautiful  "  John  the  Baptist,"  at  the  Pina- 
kothek  of  Munich,  is  really  by  Memling;  whilst  numerous  frag- 
ments of  an  altarpiece  in  the  Belvedere  at  Vienna,  though 
assigned  to  Hugo,  are  by  his  more  gifted  countryman  of  Bruges. 
Van  der  Goes,  however,  was  not  habitually  a  painter  of  easel 
pieces.  He  made  his  reputation  at  Bruges  by  producing  coloured 
hangings  in  distemper.  After  he  settled  at  Ghent,  and  became  a 
master  of  his  gild  in  1465,  he  designed  cartoons  for  glass  windows. 
He  also  made  decorations  for  the  wedding  of  Charles  the  Bold  and 
Margaret  of  York  in  1468,  for  the  festivalsof  the  Rhetoricians  and 
papal  jubilees  on  repeated  occasions,  for  the  solemn  entry  of 
Charles  the  Bold  into  Ghent  in  1470-1471,  and  for  the  funeral  of 
Philip  the  Good  in  1474.  The  labour  which  he  expended  on 
these  occasions  might  well  add  to  his  fame  without  being  the 
less  ephemeral.  About  the  year  1475  he  retired  to  the  monastery 
of  Rouge  Cloitre  near  Ghent,  where  he  took  the  cowl.  There, 
though  he  still  clung  to  his  profession,  he  seems  to  have 
taken  to  drinking,  and  at  one  time  to  have  shown  decided 
symptoms  of  insanity.  But  his  superiors  gradually  cured  him 
of  his  intemperance,  and  he  died  in  the  odour  of  sanctity  in 
1482. 

GOES,  a  town  in  the  province  of  Zeeland,  Holland,  on  the  island 
of  South  Beveland,  nj  m.  by  rail  E.  of  Middelburg.  Pop.  (1900) 
6919.  It  is  connected  by  a  short  canal  with  the  East  Scheldt, 
and  has  a  good  harbour  (1819)  defended  by  a  fort.  The  principal 
buildings  are  the  interesting  Gothic  church  (1423)  and  the 
picturesque  old  town  hall  (restored  1771).  There  are  various 
educational  and  charitable  institutions.  Goes  has  preserved 
for  centuries  its  prosperous  position  as  the  market-town  of  the 
island.  The  chief  industries  are  boat-building,  brewing,  book- 
binding and  cigar-making.  The  town  had  its  origin  in  the 
castle  of  Oostende,  built  here  by  the  noble  family  of  Borssele- 
It  received  a  charter  early  in  the  isth  century  from  the 
countess  Jacoba  of  Holland,  who  frequently  stayed  at  the 
castle. 


182 


GOETHE 


GOETHE,  JOHANN  WOLFGANG  VON  (1749-1832),  German 
poet,  dramatist  and  philosopher,  was  born  at  Frankfort-on-Main 
on  the  zSth  of  August  1749.  He  came,  on  his  father's  side,  of 
Thuringian  stock,  his  great-grandfather,  Hans  Christian  Goethe, 
having  been  a  farrier  at  Artern-on-the-Unstrut,  about  the 
middle  of  the  I7th  century.  Hans  Christian's  son,  Friedrich 
Georg,  was  brought  up  to  the  trade  of  a  tailor,  and  in  this 
capacity  settled  in  Frankfort  in  1686.  A  second  marriage, 
however,  brought  him  into  possession  of  the  Frankfort  inn, 
"  Zum  Weidenhof,"  and  he  ended  his  days  as  a  well-to-do  inn- 
keeper. His  son,  Johann  Kaspar,  the  poet's  father  (1710-1782), 
studied  law  at  Leipzig,  and,  after  going  through  the  prescribed 
courses  of  practical  training  at  Wetzlar,  travelled  in  Italy. 
He  hoped,  on  his  return  to  Frankfort,  to  obtain  an  official 
position  in  the  government  of  the  free  city,  but  his  personal 
influence  with  the  authorities  was  not  sufficiently  strong.  In 
his  disappointment  he  resolved  never  again  to  offer  his  services 
to  his  native  town,  and  retired  into  private  life,  a  course  which 
his  ample  means  facilitated.  In  1742  he  acquired,  as  a  consola- 
tion for  the  public  career  he  had  missed,  the  title  of  kaiserlicher 
Rat,  and  in  1748  married  Katharina  Elisabeth  (1731-1808), 
daughter  of  the  Schullheiss  or  Bur  germeister  of  Frankfort, 
Johann  Wolfgang  Textor.  The  poet  was  the  eldest  son  of  this 
union.  Of  the  later  children  only  one,  Cornelia,  born  in  1750, 
survived  the  years  of  childhood;  she  died  as  the  wife  of  Goethe's 
friend,  J.  G.  Schlosser,  in  1777.  The  best  elements  in  Goethe's 
genius  came  from  his  mother's  side;  of  a  lively,  impulsive 
disposition,  and  gifted  with  remarkable  imaginative  power, 
Frau  Rat  was  the  ideal  mother  of  a  poet;  moreover,  being 
hardly  eighteen  at  the  time  of  her  son's  birth,  she  was  herself 
able  to  be  the  companion  of  his  childhood.  From  his  father, 
whose  stern,  somewhat  pedantic  nature  repelled  warmer  feelings 
on  the  part  of  the  children,  Goethe  inherited  that  "  holy  earnest- 
ness "  and  stability  of  character  which  brought  him  unscathed 
through  temptations  and  passions,  and  held  the  balance  to  his 
all  too  powerful  imagination. 

Unforgettable  is  the  picture  which  the  poet  subsequently 
drew  of  his  childhood  spent  in  the  large  house  with  its  many 
nooks  and  crannies,  in  the  Grosse  Hirschgraben  at  Frankfort. 
Books,  pictures,  objects  of  art,  antiquities,  reminiscences  of 
Rat  Goethe's  visit  to  Italy,  above  all  a  marionette  theatre, 
kindled  the  child's  quick  intellect  and  imagination.  His  training 
was  conducted  in  its  early  stages  by  his  father,  and  was  later 
supplemented  by  tutors.  Meanwhile  the  varied  and  picturesque 
life  of  Frankfort  was  in  itself  an  education.  In  1759,  during  the 
Seven  Years'  War,  the  French,  as  Maria  Theresa's  allies,  occupied 
the  town,  and,  much  to  the  irritation  of  Goethe's  father,  who 
was  a  stanch  partisan  of  Frederick  the  Great,  a  French  lieu- 
tenant, Count  Thoranc,  was  quartered  on  the  Goethe  household. 
The  foreign  occupation  also  led  to  the  establishment  of  a  French 
troupe  of  actors,  and  to  their  performances  the  boy,  through  his 
grandfather's  influence,  had  free  access.  Goethe  has  also  recorded 
his  memories  of  another  picturesque  event,  the  coronation  of  the 
emperor  Joseph  II.  in  the  Frankfort  Romer  or  town  hall  in  1764; 
but  these  memories  were  darkened  by  being  associated  in  his 
mind  with  the  tragic  denouement  of  his  first  love  affair.  The 
object  of  this  passion  was  a  certain  Gretchen,  who  seems  to  have 
taken  advantage  of  the  boy's  interest  in  her  to  further  the 
dishonest  ends  of  one  of  her  friends.  The  discovery  of  the  affair 
and  the  investigation  that  followed  cooled  Goethe's  ardour  and 
caused  him  to  turn  his  attention  seriously  to  the  studies  which 
were  to  prepare  him  for  the  university.  Meanwhile  the  literary 
instinct  had  begun  to  show  itself;  we  hear  of  a  novel  in  letters — 
a  kind  of  linguistic  exercise,  in  which  the  characters  carried  on 
the  correspondence  in  different  languages — of  a  prose  epic  on 
the  subject  of  Joseph,  and  various  religious  poems  of  which  one, 
Die  Hollenfahrt  Christi,  found  its  way  in  a  revised  form  into  the 
poet's  complete  works. 

In  October  1765,  Goethe,  then  a  little  over  sixteen,  left  Frank- 
fort for  Leipzig,  where  a  wider  and,  in  many  respects,  less 
provincial  life  awaited  him.  He  entered  upon  his  university 
studies  with  zeal,  but  his  own  education  in  Frankfort  had  not 


been  the  best  preparation  for  the  scholastic  methods  which  still 
dominated  the  German  universities;  of  his  professors,  only 
Gellert  seems  to  have  won  his  interest,  and  that  interest  was  soon 
exhausted.  The  literary  beginnings  he  had  made  in  Frankfort 
now  seemed  to  him  amateurish  and  trivial;  he  felt  that  he  had 
to  turn  over  a  new  leaf,  and,  under  the  guidance  of  E.  W.  Behrisch, 
a  genial,  original  comrade,  he  learned  the  art  of  writing  those 
light  Anacreontic  lyrics  which  harmonized  with  the  tone  of  polite 
Leipzig  society.  Artificial  as  this  poetry  is,  Goethe  was,  neverthe- 
less, inspired  by  a  real  passion  in  Leipzig,  namely,  for  Anna 
Katharina  Schonkopf,  the  daughter  of  a  wine-merchant  at  whose 
house  he  dined.  She  is  the  "  Annette  "  after  whom  the  recently 
discovered  collection  of  lyrics  was  named,  although  it  must  be 
added  that  neither  these  lyrics  nor  the  Neue  Lieder,  published  in 
1770,  express  very  directly  Goethe's  feelings  for  Kathchen 
Schonkopf.  To  his  Leipzig  student-days  belong  also  two  small 
plays  in  Alexandrines,  Die  Laune  des  Verliebten,  a  pastoral 
comedy  in  one  act,  which  reflects  the  lighter  side  of  the  poet's 
love  affair,  and  Die  Mitschuldigen  (published  in  a  revised  form, 
1769),  a  more  sombre  picture,  in  which  comedy  is  incongruously 
mingled  with  £ragedy.  In  Leipzig  Goethe  also  had  time  for  what 
remained  one  of  the  abiding  interests  of  his  life,  for  art;  he  re- 
garded A.  F.  Oeser  (1717-1799),  the  director  of  the  academy  of 
painting  in  the  Pleissenburg,  who  had  given  him  lessons  in  drawing, 
as  the  teacher  who  in  Leipzig  had  influenced  him  most.  His  art 
studies  were  also  furthered  by  a  short  visit  to  Dresden.  His  stay 
in  Leipzig  came,  however,  to  an  abrupt  conclusion;  the  dis- 
tractions of  student  life  proved  too  much  for  his  strength;  a 
sudden  haemorrhage  supervened,  and  he  lay  long  ill,  first  in 
Leipzig,  and,  after  it  was  possible  to  remove  him,  at  home  in 
Frankfort.  These  months  of  slow  recovery  were  a  time  of  serious 
introspection  for  Goethe.  He  still  corresponded  with  his  Leipzig 
friends,  but  the  tone  of  his  letters  changed ;  life  had  become 
graver  and  more  earnest  for  him.  He  pored  over  books  on  occult 
philosophy;  he  busied  himself  with  alchemy  and  astrology.  A 
friend  of  his  mother's,  Susanne  Katharina  von  Klettenberg,  who 
belonged  to  pietist  circles  in  Frankfort,  turned  the  boy's  thoughts 
to  religious  mysticism.  On  his  recovery  his  father  resolved  that 
he  should  complete  his  legal  studies  at  Strassburg,  a  city  which, 
although  then  outside  the  German  empire,  was,  in  respect  of 
language  and  culture,  wholly  German.  From  the  first  moment 
Goethe  set  foot  in  the  narrow  streets  of  the  Alsatian  capital,  in 
April  1770,  the  whole  current  of  his  thought  seemed  to  change. 
The  Gothic  architecture  of  the  Strassburg  minster  became  to 
him  the  symbol  of  a  national  and  German  ideal,  directly  anta- 
gonistic to  the  French  tastes  and  the  classical  and  rationalistic 
atmosphere  that  prevailed  in  Leipzig.  The  second  moment  of 
importance  in  Goethe's  Strassburg  period  was  his  meeting  with 
Herder,  who  spent  some  weeks  in  Strassburg  undergoing  an  opera- 
tion of  the  eye.  In  this  thinker,  who  was  his  senior  by  five  years, 
Goethe  found  the  master  he  sought;  Herder  taught  him  the 
significance  of  Gothic  architecture,  revealed  to  him  the  charm 
of  nature's  simplicity,  and  inspired  him  with  enthusiasm  for 
Shakespeare  and  the  Volkslied.  Meanwhile  Goethe's  legal  studies 
were  not  neglected,  and  he  found  time  to  add  to  knowledge  of 
other  subjects,  notably  that  of  medicine.  Another  factor  of 
importance  in  Goethe's  Strassburg  life  was  his  love  for  Friederike 
Brion,  the  daughter  of  an  Alsatian  village  pastor  in  Sesenheim. 
Even  more  than  Herder's  precept  and  example,  this  passion  showed 
Goethe  how  trivial  and  artificial  had  been  the  Anacreontic  and 
pastoral  poetry  with  which  he  had  occupied  himself  in  Leipzig ; 
and  the  lyrics  inspired  by  Friederike,  such  as  Kleine  Blumen, 
kleine  Blatter  and  Wie  herrlich  leuchtet  mir  die  Natur !  mark  the 
beginning  of  a  new  epoch  in  German  lyric  poetry.  The  idyll  of 
Sesenheim,  as  described  in  Dichlung  und  Wahrheit,  is  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  love-stories  in  the  literature  of  the  world.  From 
the  first,  however,  it  was  clear  that  Friederike  Brion  could  never 
become  the  wife  of  the  Frankfort  patrician's  son;  an  unhappy 
ending  to  the  romance  was  unavoidable,  and,  as  is  to  be  seen  in 
passionate  outpourings  like  the  Wanderers  Sturmlied.  and  in  the 
bitter  self -accusations  of  Clavigo,  it  left  deep  wounds  on  the  poet's 
sensitive  soul. 


GOETHE 


183 


To  Strassburg  we  owe  Goethe's  first  important  drama,  Gotz 
von  Berlichingen,  or,  as  it  was  called  in  its  earliest  form, 
Geschichte  Gotlfriedens  von  Berlichingen  dramalisiert  (not  published 
until  1831).  Revised  under  the  now  familiar  title,  it  appeared  in 
1773,  after  Goethe's  return  to  Frankfort.  In  estimating  this 
drama  we  must  bear  in  mind  Goethe's  own  Strassburg  life,  and 
the  turbulent  spirit  of  his  own  age,  rather  than  the  historical  facts, 
which  the  poet  found  in  the  autobiography  of  his  hero  published 
in  1731.  The  latter  supplied  only  the  rough  materials;  the  Gotz 
von  Berlichingen  whom  Goethe  drew,  with  his  lofty  ideals  of 
right  and  wrong,  and  his  enthusiasm  for  freedom,  is  a  very 
different  personage  from  the  unscrupulous  robber-knight  of  the 
i6th  century,  the  rough  friend  of  Franz  von  Sickingen  and  of  the 
revolting  peasants.  Still  less  historical  justification  is  to  be  found 
for  the  vacillating  Weisslingen  in  whom  Goethe  executed  poetic 
justice  on  himself  as  the  lover  of  Friederike,  or  in  the  women  of 
the  play,  the  gentle  Maria,  the  heartless  Adelheid.  But  there  is 
genial,  creative  power  in  the  very  subjectivity  of  these  characters, 
and  a  vigorous  dramatic  life,  which  is  irresistible  in  its  appeal. 
With  Gotz  von  Berlichingen,  Shakespeare's  art  first  triumphed  on 
the  German  stage,  and  the  literary  movement  known  as  Sturm 
und  Drang  was  inaugurated. 

Having  received  his  degree  in  Strassburg,  Goethe  returned 
home  in  August  1771,  and  began  his  initiation  into  the  routine  of 
an  advocate's  profession.  In  the  following  year,  in  order  to  gain 
insight  into  another  side  of  his  calling,  he  spent  four  months  at 
Wetzlar,  where  the  imperial  law-courts  were  established.  But 
Goethe's  professional  duties  had  only  a  small  share  in  the  eventful 
years  which  lay  between  his  return  from  Strassburg  and  that  visit 
to  Weimar  at  the  end  of  1775,  which  turned  the  whole  course  of 
his  career,  and  resulted  in  his  permanent  attachment  to  the 
Weimar  court.  Goethe's  life  in  Frankfort  was  a  round  of  stimulat- 
ing literary  intercourse;  in  J.  H.  Merck  (1741-1791),  an  army 
official  in  the  neighbouring  town  of  Darmstadt,  he  found  a  friend 
and  mentor,  whose  irony  and  common-sense  served  as  a  corrective 
to  his  own  exuberance  of  spirits.  Wetzlar  brought  new  friends 
and  another  passion,  that  for  Charlotte  Buff,  the  daughter  of  the 
A  mtmann  there — a  love-story  which  has  been  immortalized  in 
Werthers  Leiden — and  again  the  young  poet's  nature  was  obsessed 
by  a  love  which  was  this  time  strong  enough  to  bring  him  to 
the  brink  of  that  suicide  with  which  the  novel  ends.  A  visit  to 
the  Rhine,  where  new  interests  and  the  attractions  of  Maximiliane 
von  Laroche,  a  daughter  of  Wieland's  friend,  the  novelist  Sophie 
von  Laroche,  brought  partial  healing;  his  intense  preoccupation 
with  literary  work  on  his  return  to  Frankfort  did  the  rest.  In 
1775  Goethe  was  attracted  by  still  another  type  of  woman,  Lili 
Schonemann,  whose  mother  was  the  widow  of  a  wealthy  Frankfort 
banker.  A  formal  betrothal  took  place,  and  the  beauty  of  the 
lyrics  which  Lili  inspired  leaves  no  room  for  doubt  that  here  was 
a  passion  no  less  genuine  than  that  for  Friederike  or  Charlotte. 
But  Goethe — more  worldly  wise  than  on  former  occasions — felt 
instinctively  that  the  gay,  social  world  in  which  Lili  moved  was 
not  really  congenial  to  him.  A  visit  to  Switzerland  in  the 
summer  of  1775  may  not  have  weakened  his  interest  in  her,  but  it 
at  least  allowed  him  to  regard  her  objectively;  and,  without  tragic 
consequences  on  either  side,  the  passion  was  ultimately  allowed  to 
yield  to  the  dictates  of  common-sense.  Goethe's  departure  for 
Weimar  in  November  made  the  final  break  less  difficult. 

The  period  from  1771  to  1775  was,  in  literary  respects,  the 
most  productive  of  the  poet's  life.  It  had  been  inaugurated 
with  Gotz  von  Berlichingen,  and  a  few  months  later  this  tragedy 
was  followed  by  another,  Clavigo,  hardly  less  convincing  in  its 
character-drawing,  and  reflecting  even  more  faithfully  than  the 
former  the  experiences  Goethe  had  gone  through  in  Strassburg. 
Again  poetic  justice  is  effected  on  the  unfortunate  hero  who 
has  chosen  his  own  personal  advancement  in  preference  to  his 
duty  to  the  woman  he  loves;  more  pointedly  than  in  Golz  is 
the  moral  enforced  by  Clavigo's  worldly  friend  Carlos,  that  the 
ground  of  Clavigo's  tragic  end  lies  not  so  much  in  the  defiance 
of  a  moral  law  as  in  the  hero's  vacillation  and  want  of  character. 
With  Die  Leiden  des  jungen  Werlhers  (1774),  the  literary 
precipitate  of  the  author's  own  experiences  in  Wetzlar,  Goethe 


succeeded  in  attracting,  as  no  German  had  done  before  him, 
the  attention  of  Europe.  Once  more  it  was  the  gospel  that  the 
world  belongs  to  the  strong,  which  lay  beneath  the  surface  of 
this  romance.  This,  however,  was  not  the  lesson  which  was 
drawn  from  it  by  Goethe's  contemporaries;  they  shed  tears 
of  sympathy  over  the  lovelorn  youth  whose  burden  becomes 
too  great  for  him  to  bear.  While  Gotz  inaugurated  the  manlier 
side  of  the  Sturm  und  Drang  literature,  Werther  was  responsible 
for  its  sentimental  excesses.  And  to  the  sentimental  rather 
than  to  the  heroic  side  belongs  also  Stella,  "  a  drama  for  lovers," 
in  which  the  poet  again  reproduced,  if  with  less  fidelity  than  in 
Werther,  certain  aspects  of  his  own  love  troubles.  A  lighter 
vein  is  to  be  observed  in  various  dramatic  satires  written  at  this 
time,  such  as  Cotter,  Helden  und  Wieland  (1774),  Hanswursts 
Hochzeit,  Fastnachtsspiel  vom  Paler  Brey,  Salyros,  and  in  the 
Singspiele,  Erwin  und  Elmire  (1775)  and  Claudine  von  Villa 
Bella  (1776);  while  in  the  Frankfurter  Gelehrle  Anzeiger  (1772- 
I773)>  Goethe  drove  home  the  principles  of  the  new  movement 
of  Sturm  und  Drang  in  terse  and  pointed  criticism.  The  exuber- 
ance of  the  young  poet's  genius  is  also  to  be  seen  in  the  many 
unfinished  fragments  of  this  period;  at  one  time  we  find  him 
occupied  with  dramas  on  Caesar  and  Mahomet,  at  another  with 
an  epic  on  Der  ewige  Jude,  and  again  with  a  tragedy  on  Prometheus, 
of  which  a  magnificent  fragment  has  passed  into  his  works. 
Greatest  of  all  the  torsos  of  this  period,  however,  was  the  drama- 
tization of  Faust.  Thanks  to  a  manuscript  copy  of  the  play  in 
its  earliest  form — discovered  as  recently  as  1887 — we  are  now 
able  to  distinguish  how  much  of  this  tragedy  was  the  immediate 
product  of  the  Sturm  und  Drang,  and  to  understand  the  intentions 
with  which  the  young  poet  began  his  masterpiece.  Goethe's 
hero  changed  with  the  author's  riper  experience  and  with  his  new 
conceptions  of  man's  place  and  duties  in  the  world,  but  the 
Gretchen  tragedy  was  taken  over  into  the  finished  poem,  practi- 
cally unaltered,  from  the  earliest  Faust  of  the  Sturm  und  Drang. 
With  these  wonderful  scenes,  the  most  intensely  tragic  in  all 
German  literature,  Goethe's  poetry  in  this  period  reaches  its 
climax.  Still  another  important  work,  however,  was  conceived, 
and  in  large  measure  written  at  this  time,  the  drama  of  Egmont, 
which  was  not  published  until  1788.  This  work  may,  to  some 
extent,  be  regarded  as  supplementary  to  Faust;  it  presents  the 
lighter,  more  cheerful  and  optimistic  side  of  Goethe's  philosophy 
in  these  years;  Graf  Egmont,  the  most  winning  and  fascinating 
of  the  poet's  heroes,  is  endowed  with  that  "  demonic  "  power 
over  the  sympathies  of  men  and  women,  which  Goethe  himself 
possessed  in  so  high  a  degree.  But  Egmont  depends  for  its 
interest  almost  solely  on  two  characters,  Egmont  himself  and 
Klarchen,  Gretchen's  counterpart;  regarded  as  a  drama,  it 
demonstrates  the  futility  of  that  defiance  of  convention  and 
rules  with  which  the  Sturm  und  Drang  set  out.  It  remained  for 
Goethe,  in  the  next  period  of  his  life,  to  construct  on  classic 
models  a  new  vehicle  for  German  dramatic  poetry. 

In  December  1774  the  young  "  hereditary  prince  "  of  Weimar, 
Charles  Augustus,  passing  through  Frankfort  on  his  way  to  Paris, 
came  into  personal  touch  with  Goethe,  and  invited  the  poet  to 
visit  Weimar  when,  in  the  following  year,  he  took  up  the  reins 
of  government.  In  October  1775  the  invitation  was  repeated, 
and  on  the  7th  of  November  of  that  year  Goethe  arrived  in  the 
little  Saxon  capital  which  was  to  remain  his  home  for  the  rest  of 
his  life.  During  the  first  few  months  in  Weimar  the  poet  gave 
himself  up  to  the  pleasures  of  the  moment  as  unreservedly  as 
his  patron;  indeed,  the  Weimar  court  even  looked  upon  him  for 
a  time  as  a  tempter  who  led  the  young  duke  astray.  But  the 
latter,  although  himself  a  mere  stripling,  had  implicit  faith  in 
Goethe,  and  a  firm  conviction  that  his  genius  could  be  utilized 
in  other  fields  besides  literature.  Goethe  was  not  long  in  Weimar 
before  he  was  entrusted  with  responsible  state  duties,  and  events 
soon  justified  the  duke's  confidence.  Goethe  proved  the  soul 
of  the  Weimar  government,  and  a  minister  of  state  of  energy 
and  foresight.  He  interested  himself  in  agriculture,  horticulture 
and  mining,  which  were  of  paramount  importance  to  the  welfare 
of  the  duchy,  and  out  of  these  interests  sprang  his  own  love  for 
the  natural  sciences,  which  took  up  so  much  of  his  time  in  later 


184 


GOETHE 


years.  The  inevitable  love-interest  was  also  not  wanting.  As 
Friederike  had  fitted  into  the  background  of  Goethe's  Strassburg 
life,  Lotte  into  that  of  Wetzlar,  and  Lili  into  the  gaieties  of 
Frankfort,  so  now  Charlotte  von  Stein,  the  wife  of  a  Weimar 
official,  was  the  personification  of  the  more  aristocratic  ideals  of 
Weimar  society.  We  possess  only  the  poet's  share  of  his  corre- 
spondence with  Frau  von  Stein,  but  it  is  possible  to  infer  from 
it  that,  of  all  Goethe's  loves,  this  was  intellectually  the  most 
worthy  of  him.  Frau  von  Stein  was  a  woman  of  refined  literary 
taste  and  culture,  seven  years  older  than  he  and  the  mother  of 
seven  children.  There  was  something  more  spiritual,  something 
that  partook  rather  of  the  passionate  friendships  of  the  i8th 
century  than  of  love  in  Goethe's  relations  with  her.  Frau  von 
Stein  dominated  the  poet's  life  for  twelve  years,  until  his  journey 
to  Italy  in  1786-1788.  Of  other  events  of  this  period  the  most 
notable  were  two  winter  journeys,  the  first  in  1777,  to  the  Harz 
Mountains,  the  second,  two  years  later,  to  Switzerland — journeys 
which  gave  Goethe  scope  for  that  introspection  and  reflection 
for  which  his  Weimar  life  left  him  little  time.  On  the  second  of 
these  journeys  he  revisited  Friederike  in  Sesenheim,  saw  Lili, 
who  had  married  and  settled  in  Strassburg,  and  made  the 
personal  acquaintance  of  Lavater  in  Zurich. 

The  literary  results  of  these  years  cannot  be  compared  with 
those  of  the  preceding  period;  they  are  virtually  limited  to  a 
few  wonderful  lyrics,  such  as  Wanderers  Nachtlied,  An  den  Mond, 
Gesang  der  Geister  ubcr  den  Wassern,  or  ballads,  such  as  Der 
Erlkonig,  a  charming  little  drama,  Die  Geschwister  (1776),  in 
which  the  poet's  relations  to  both  Lili  and  Frau  von  Stein  seem 
to  be  reflected,  a  dramatic  satire,  Der  Triumph  der Empfindsamkeit 
(1778),  and  a  number  of  Singspiele,  Lila  (1777),  Die  Fischerin, 
Scherz,  List  und  Rache,  and  Jery  und  Biitely  (1780).  But  greater 
works  were  in  preparation.  A  religious  epic,  Die  Geheimnisse,  and 
a  tragedy  Elpenor,  did  not,  it  is  true,  advance  much  further 
than  plans;  but  in  1777,  under  the  influence  of  the  theatrical 
experiments  at  the  Weimar  court,  Goethe  conceived  and  in  great 
measure  wrote  a  novel  of  the  theatre,  which  was  to  have  borne 
the  title  Wilhelm  Meisters  theatralische  Sendung;  and  in  1779 
himself  took  part  in  a  representation  before  the  court  at  Etters- 
burg,  of  his  drama  Iphigenie  auf  Tauris.  This  Iphigenie  was, 
however,  in  prose;  in  the  following  year  Goethe  remoulded  it 
in  iambics,  but  it  was  not  until  he  went  to  Rome  that  the  drama 
finally  received  the  form  in  which  we  know  it. 

In  September,  1786  Goethe  set  out  from  Karlsbad — secretly 
and  stealthily,  his  plan  known  only  to  his  servant — on  that 
memorable  journey  to  Italy,  to  which  he  had  looked  forward 
with  such  intense  longing;  he  could  not  cross  the  Alps  quickly 
enough,  so  impatient  was  he  to  set  foot  in  Italy.  He  travelled 
by  way  of  Munich,  the  Brenner  and  Lago  di  Garda  to  Verona 
and  Venice,  and  from  thence  to  Rome,  where  he  arrived  on  the 
29th  of  October  1786.  Here  he  gave  himself  up  unreservedly 
to  the  new  impressions  which  crowded  on  him,  and  he  was  soon 
at  home  among  the  German  artists  in  Rome,  who  welcomed  him 
warmly.  In  the  spring  of  1787  he  extended  his  journey  as  far 
as  Naples  and  Sicily,  returning  to  Rome  in  June  1787,  where  he 
remained  until  his  final  departure  for  Germany  on  the  and  of 
April  1788.  It  is  difficult  to  exaggerate  the  importance  of 
Goethe's  Italian  journey.  He  himself  regarded  it  as  a  kind  of 
climax  to  his  life;  never  before  had  he  attained  such  complete 
understanding  of  his  genius  and  mission  in  the  world ;  it  afforded 
him  a  vantage-ground  from  which  he  could  renew  the  past  and 
make  plans  for  the  future.  In  Weimar  he  had  felt  that  he  was  no 
longer  in  sympathy  with  the  Sturm  und  Drang,  but  it  was  Italy 
which  first  taught  him  clearly  what  might  take  the  place  of  that 
movement  in  German  poetry.  To  the  modern  reader,  who 
may  well  be  impressed  by  Goethe's  extraordinary  receptivity, 
it  may  seem  strange  that  his  interests  in  Italy  were  so  limited; 
for,  after  all,  he  saw  comparatively  little  of  the  art  treasures  of 
Italy.  He  went  to  Rome  in  Winckelmann's  footsteps;  it  was 
the  antique  he  sought,  and  his  interest  in  the  artists  of  the 
Renaissance  was  virtually  restricted  to  their  imitation  of  classic 
models.  This  search  for  the  classic  ideal  is  reflected  in  the  works 
he  completed  or  wrote  under  the  Italian  sky.  The  calm  beauty 


of  Greek  tragedy  is  seen  in  the  new  iambic  version  of  Iphigenie 
auf  Tauris  (1787);  the  classicism  of  the  Renaissance  gives  the 
ground-tone  to  the  wonderful  drama  of  Torquato  Tasso  (1790), 
in  which  the  conflict  of  poetic  genius  with  the  prosaic  world  is 
transmuted  into  imperishable  poetry.  Classic,  too,  in  this 
sense,  were  the  plans  of  a  drama  on  Iphigenie  auf  Delphos  and 
of  an  epic,  Nausikaa.  Most  interesting  of  all,  however,  is  the 
reflection  of  the  classic  spirit  in  works  already  begun  in  earlier 
days,  such  as  Egmont  and  Faust.  The  former  drama  was  finished 
in  Italy  and  appeared  in  1788,  the  latter  was  brought  a  step 
further  forward,  part  of  it  being  published  as  a  Fragment  in  1790. 

Disappointment  in  more  senses  than  one  awaited  Goethe  on 
his  return  to  Weimar.  He  came  back  from  Italy  with  a  new 
philosophy  of  life,  a  philosophy  at  once  classic  and  pagan,  and 
with  very  definite  ideas  of  what  constituted  literary  excellence. 
But  Germany  had  not  advanced;  in  1788  his  countrymen  were 
still  under  the  influence  of  that  Sturm  und  Drang  from  which 
the  poet  had  fled.  The  times  seemed  to  him  more  out  of  joint 
than  ever,  and  he  withdrew  into  himself.  Even  his  relations  to 
the  old  friends  were  changed.  Frau  von  Stein  had  not  known 
of  his  flight  to  Italy  until  she  received  a  letter  from  Rome;  but 
he  looked  forward  to  her  welcome  on  his  return.  The  months 
of  absence,  however,  the  change  he  had  undergone,  and  doubtless 
those  lighter  loves  of  which  the  Romische  Elegien  bear  evidence, 
weakened  the  Weimar  memories;  if  he  left  Weimar  as  Frau  von 
Stein's  lover  he  returned  only  as  her  friend;  and  she  naturally 
resented  the  change.  Goethe,  meanwhile,  satisfied  to  continue 
the  freer  customs  to  which  he  had  adapted  himself  in  Rome, 
found  a  new  mistress  in  Christiane  Vulpius  (1765-1816),  the 
least  interesting  of  all  the  women  who  attracted  him.  But 
Christiane  gradually  filled  up  a  gap  in  the  poet's  life;  she  gave 
him,  quietly,  unobtrusively,  without  making  demands  on  him, 
the  comforts  of  a  home.  She  was  not  accepted  by  court  society; 
it  did  not  matter  to  her  that  even  Goethe's  intimate  friends 
ignored  her;  and  she,  who  had  suited  the  poet's  whim  when  he 
desired  to  shut  himself  off  from  all  that  might  dim  the  recollection 
of  Italy,  became  with  the  years  an  indispensable  helpmate  to 
him.  On  the  birth  in  1789  of  his  son,  Goethe  had  some  thought 
of  legalizing  his  relations  with  Christiane,  but  this  intention  was 
not  realized  until  1806,  when  the  invasion  of  Weimar  by  the 
French  made  him  fear  for  both  life  and  property. 

The  period  of  Goethe's  life  which  succeeded  his  return  from 
Italy  was  restless  and  unsettled;  relieved  of  his  state  duties, 
he  returned  in  1790  to  Venice,  only  to  be  disenchanted  with  the 
Italy  he  had  loved  so  intensely  a  year  or  two  before.  A  journey 
with  the  duke  of  Weimar  to  Breslau  followed,  and  in  1792  he 
accompanied  his  master  on  that  campaign  against  France  which 
ended  so  ingloriously  for  the  German  arms  at  Valmy.  In  later 
years  Goethe  published  his  account  both  of  this  Campagne  in 
Frankreich  and  of  the  Belagerung  von  Mainz,  at  which  he  was 
also  present  in  1793.  His  literary  work  naturally  suffered  under 
these  distractions.  Tasso,  and  the  edition  of  the  Schriften  in 
which  it  was  to  appear,  had  still  to  be  completed  on  his  return 
from  Italy;  the  Romische  Elegien,  perhaps  the  most  Latin  of  all 
his  works,  were  published  in  1795,  and  the  Venetianische  Epi- 
gramme,  the  result  of  the  second  visit  to  Italy,  in  1796.  The 
French  Revolution,  in  which  all  Europe  was  engrossed,  was  in 
Goethe's  eyes  only  another  proof  that  the  passing  of  the  old 
regime  meant  the  abrogation  of  all  law  and  order,  and  he  gave 
voice  to  his  antagonism  to  the  new  democratic  principles  in  the 
dramas  Der  Grosskophta  (1792),  Der  Biirgergeneral  (1793),  and 
in  the  unfinished  fragments  Die  Aufgeregten  and  Das  Madchen 
von  Oberkirch.  The  spirited  translation  of  the  epic  of  Reinecke 
Fucks  (1794)  he  took  up  as  a  relief  and  an  antidote  to  the  social 
disruption  of  the  time.  Two  new  interests,  however,  strengthened 
the  ties  between  Goethe  and  Weimar, — ties  which  the  Italian 
journey  had  threatened  to  sever:  his  appointment  in  1791  as 
director  of  the  ducal  theatre,  a  post  which  he  occupied  for 
twenty-two  years,  and  his  absorption  in  scientific  studies.  In 
1790  he  published  his  important  Versuch,  die  Metamorphose  der 
Pflanzen  zu  erkldreh,  which  was  an  even  more  fundamental 
achievement  for  the  new  science  of  comparative  morphology 


GOETHE 


185 


than  his  discovery  some  six  years  earlier  of  the  existence  of  a 
formation  in  the  human  jaw-bone  analogous  to  the  intermaxillary 
bone  in  apes;  and  in  1791  and  1792  appeared  two  parts  of  his 
Beilrage  zur  Optik. 

Meanwhile,  however,  Goethe  had  again  taken  up  the  novel 
of  the  theatre  which  he  had  begun  years  before,  with  a  view  to 
finishing  it  and  including  it  in  the  edition  of  his  Neue  Schrijlen 
(1792-1800).  Wilhelm  Meisters  theatralische  Sendung  became 
Wilhelm  Meislers  Lehrjahre;  the  novel  of  purely  theatrical 
interests  was  widened  out  to  embrace  the  history  of  a  young 
man's  apprenticeship  to  life.  The  change  of  plan  explains, 
although  it  may  not  exculpate,  the  formlessness  and  loose 
construction  of  the  work,  its  extremes  of  realistic  detail  and 
poetic  allegory.  A  hero,  who  was  probably  originally  intended 
to  demonstrate  the  failure  of  the  vacillating  temperament  when 
brought  face  to  face  with  the  problems  of  art,  proved  ill-adapted 
to  demonstrate  those  precepts  for  the  guidance  of  life  with  which 
the  Lehrjahre  closes;  unstable  of  purpose,  Wilhelm  Meister  is 
not  so  much  an  illustration  of  the  author's  life-philosophy  as  a 
lay-figure  on  which  he  demonstrates  his  views.  Wilhelm  Meister 
is  a  work  of  extraordinary  variety,  ranging  from  the  commonplace 
realism  of  the  troupe  of  strolling  players  to  the  poetic  romanticism 
of  Mignon  and  the  harper;  its  flashes  of  intuitive  criticism  and 
its  weighty  apothegms  add  to  its  value  as  a  Bildungsroman  in 
the  best  sense  of  that  word.  Of  all  Goethe's  works,  this  exerted 
the  most  immediate  and  lasting  influence  on  German  literature; 
it  served  as  a  model  for  the  best  fiction  of  the  next  thirty  years. 

In  completing  Wilhelm  Meister,  Goethe  found  a  sympathetic 
and  encouraging  critic  in  Schiller,  to  whom  he  owed  in  great 
measure  his  renewed  interest  in  poetry.  After  years  of  tentative 
approaches  on  Schiller's  part,  years  in  which  that  poet  concealed 
even  from  himself  his  desire  for  a  friendly  understanding  with 
Goethe,  the  favourable  moment  arrived;  it  was  in  June  1794, 
when  Schiller  was  seeking  collaborators  for  his  new  periodical 
Die  Horen;  and  his  invitation  addressed  to  Goethe  was  the 
beginning  of  a  friendship  which  continued  unbroken  until  the 
younger  poet's  death.  The  friendship  of  Goethe  and  Schiller, 
of  which  their  correspondence  is  a  priceless  record,  had  its 
limitations;  it  was  purely  intellectual  in  character,  a  certain 
barrier  of  personal  reserve  being  maintained  to  the  last.  But 
for  the  literary  life  of  both  poets  the  gain  was  incommensurable. 
As  far  as  actual  work  was  concerned,  Goethe  went  his  own  way 
as  he  had  always  been  accustomed  to  do;  but  the  mere  fact  that 
he  devoted  himself  with  increasing  interest  to  literature  was  due 
to  Schiller's  stimulus.  It  was  Schiller,  too,  who  induced  him  to 
undertake  those  studies  on  the  nature  of  epic  and  dramatic 
poetry  which  resulted  in  the  epic  of  Hermann  und  Dorothea 
and  the  fragment  of  the  Achilleis;  without  the  friendship  there 
would  have  been  no  Xenien  and  no  ballads,  and  it  was  his  younger 
friend's  encouragement  which  induced  Goethe  to  betake  himself 
once  more  to  the  "misty  path"  of  Faust,  and  bring  the  first 
part  of  that  drama  to  a  conclusion. 

Goethe's  share  in  the  Xenien  (1795;  may  be  briefly  dismissed. 
This  collection  of  distichs,  written  in  collaboration  with  Schiller, 
was  prompted  by  the  indifference  and  animosity  of  contemporary 
criticism,  and  its  disregard  for  what  the  two  poets  regarded  as 
the  higher  interests  of  German  poetry.  The  Xenien  succeeded 
as  a  retaliation  on  the  critics,  but  the  masterpieces  which  followed 
them  proved  in  the  long  run  much  more  effective  weapons 
against  the  prevailing  mediocrity.  Prose  works  like  the  Unter- 
haUungcn  deulschcr  Ausgcwanderten  (1795)  were  unworthy  of 
the  poet's  genius,  and  the  translation  of  Bcnvenuto  Cellini's 
Life  (1796-1797)  was  only  a  translation.  But  in  1798  appeared 
Hermann  und  Dorothea,  one  of  Goethe's  most  perfect  poems. 
It  is  indeed  remarkable — when  we  consider  by  how  much  re- 
flection and  theoretic  discussion  the  composition  of  the  poem 
was  preceded  and  accompanied — that  it  should  make  upon  the 
reader  so  simple  and  "naive"  an  impression;  in  this  respect 
it  is  the  triumph  of  an  art  that  conceals  art.  Goethe  has  here 
taken  a  simple  story  of  village  life,  mirrored  in  it  the  most 
pregnant  ideas  of  his  time,  and  presented  it  with  a  skill  which 
may  well  be  called  Homeric;  but  he  has  discriminated  with 


the  insight  of  genius  between  the  Homeric  method  of  reproduc- 
ing the  heroic  life  of  primitive  Greece  and  the  same  method 
as  adapted  to  the  commonplace  happenings  of  18th-century 
Germany.  In  this  respect  he  was  undoubtedly  guided  by  a 
forerunner  who  has  more  right  than  he  to  the  attribute  "naive," 
by  J.  H.  Voss,  the  author  of  Luise.  Hardly  less  imposing  in 
their  calm,  placid  perfection  are  the  poems  with  which,  in 
friendly  rivalry,  Goethe  seconded  the  more  popular  ballads 
of  his  friend;  Der  Zauberlehrling,  Der  Gott  und  die  Bayadere, 
Die  Braut  von  Korinth,  Alexis  und  Dora,  Der  neue  Pausias  and 
Die  schone  Mullerin — a  cycle  of  poems  in  the  style  of  the  Volkslied 
— are  among  the  masterpieces  of  Goethe's  poetry.  On  the  other 
hand,  even  the  friendship  with  Schiller  did  not  help  him 
to  add  to  his  reputation  as  a  dramatist.  Die  natilrliche  Tochtcr 
(1803),  in  which  he  began  to  embody  his  ideas  of  the  Revolution 
on  a  wide  canvas,  proved  impossible  on  the  stage,  and  the 
remaining  dramas,  which  were  to  have  formed  a  trilogy,  were 
never  written.  Goethe's  classic  principles,  when  applied  to 
the  swift,  direct  art  of  the  theatre,  were  doomed  to  failure,  and 
Die  natilrliche  Tochter,  notwithstanding  its  good  theoretic  in- 
tention, remains  the  most  lifeless  and  shadowy  of  all  his  dramas. 
Even  less  in  touch  with  the  living  present  were  the  various 
prologues  and  Festspiele,  such  as  Palaophron  und  Neater pe  (1800), 
Was  wir  bringen  (1802),  which  in  these  years  he  composed  for 
the  Weimar  theatre. 

Goethe's  classicism  brought  him  into  inevitable  antagonism 
with  the  new  Romantic  movement  which  had  been  inaugurated 
in  1798  by  the  Athenaeum,  edited  by  the  brothers  Schlegel. 
The  sharpness  of  the  conflict  was,  however,  blunted  by  the  fact 
that,  without  exception,  the  young  Romantic  writers  looked 
up  to  Goethe  as  its  master;  they  modelled  their  fiction  on 
Wilhelm  Meister;  they  regarded  his  lyrics  as  the  high-water 
mark  of  German  poetry;  Goethe,  Novalis  declared,  was  the 
"  Statthalter  of  poetry  on  earth."  With  regard  to  painting  and 
sculpture,  however,  Goethe  felt  that  a  protest  was  necessary,- 
if  the  insidious  ideas  propounded  in  works  like  Wackenroder's 
Herzensergiessungen  were  not  to  do  irreparable  harm,  by  bringing 
back  the  confusion  of  the  Sturm  und  Drang;  and,  as  a  rejoinder 
to  the  Romantic  theories,  Goethe,  in  conjunction  with  his  friend 
Heinrich  Meyer  (1760-1832),  published  from  1798  to  1800  an 
art  review,  Die  Propylaen.  Again,  in  Winckelmann  und  seine 
Zeit  (1805)  Goethe  vigorously  defended  the  classical  ideals  of 
which  Winckelmann  had  been  the  founder.  But  in  the  end  he 
proved  himself  the  greatest  enemy  to  the  strict  classic  doctrine  by 
the  publication  in  1808  of  the  completed  first  part  of  Faust,  a 
work  which  was  accepted  by  contemporaries  as  a  triumph  of 
Romantic  art.  Fawrfisapatchworkof  many  colours.  With  the 
aid  of  the  vast  body  of  Faust  literature  which  has  sprung  up  in 
recent  years,  and  the  many  new  documents  bearing  on  its  history 
— above  all,  the  so-called  Urfaust,  to  which  reference  has  already 
been  made — we  are.  able  now  to  ascribe  to  their  various  periods 
the  component  parts  of  the  work;  it  is  possible  to  discriminate 
between  the  Sturm  und  Drang  hero  of  the  opening  scenes  and 
of  the  Gretchen  tragedy — the  contemporary  of  Gotz  and  Clavigo 
— and  the  superimposed  Faust  of  calmer  moral  and  intellectual 
ideals— a  Faust  who  corresponds  to  Hermann  and  Wilhelm 
Meister.  In  its  original  form  the  poem  was  the  dramatization 
of  a  specific  and  individualized  story;  in  the  years  of  Goethe's 
friendship  with  Schiller  it  was  extended  to  embody  the  higher 
strivings  of  iSth-century  humanism;  ultimately,  as  we  shall  see, 
it  became,  in  the  second  part,  a  vast  allegory  of  human  life  and 
activity.  Thus  the  elements  of  which  Faust  is  composed  were 
even  more  difficult  to  blend  than  were  those  of  Wilhelm  Meister; 
but  the  very  want  of  uniformity  is  one  source  of  the  perennial 
fascination  of  the  tragedy,  and  has  made  it  in  a  peculiar  degree 
the  national  poem  of  the  German  people,  the  mirror  which 
reflects  the  national  life  and  poetry  from  the  outburst  of  Sturm 
und  Drang  to  the  well-weighed  and  tranquil  classicism  of  Goethe's 
old  age. 

The  third  and  final  period  of  Goethe's  long  life  may  be  said 
to  have  begun  after  Schiller's  death.  He  never  again  lost  touch 
with  literature  as  he  had  done  in  the  years  which  preceded  his 


i86 


GOETHE 


friendship  with  Schiller;  but  he  stood  in  no  active  or  immediate 
connexion  with  the  literary  moTement  of  his  day.  His  life 
moved  on  comparatively  uneventfully.  Even  the  Napoleonic 
regime  of  1806-1813  disturbed  but  little  his  equanimity.  Goethe, 
the  cosmopolitan  Weltburger  of  the  i8th  century,  had  himself  no 
very  intense  feelings  of  patriotism,  and,  having  seen  Germany 
flourish  as  a  group  of  small  states  under  enlightened  despotisms, 
he  had  little  confidence  in  the  dreamers  of  1813  who  hoped 
to  see  the  glories  of  Barbarossa's  empire  revived.  Napoleon, 
moreover,  he  regarded  not  as  the  scourge  of  Europe,  but  as  the 
defender  of  civilization  against  the  barbarism  of  the  Slavs; 
and  in  the  famous  interview  between  the  two  men  at  Erfurt  the 
poet's  admiration  was  reciprocated  by  the  French  conqueror. 
Thus  Goethe  had  no  great  sympathy  for  the  war  of  liberation 
which  kindled  young  hearts  from  one  end  of  Germany  to  the 
other;  and  when  the  national  enthusiasm  rose  to  its  highest 
pitch  he  buried  himself  in  those  optical  and  morphological 
studies,  which,  with  increasing  years,  occupied  more  and  more 
of  his  time  and  interest. 

The  works  and  events  of  the  last  twenty-five  years  of  Goethe's 
life  may  be  briefly  summarized.  In  1805,  as  we  have  seen,  he 
suffered  an  irreparable  loss  in  the  death  of  Schiller;  in  1806, 
Christiane  became  his  legal  wife,  and  to  the  same  year  belongs 
the  magnificent  tribute  to  his  dead  friend,  the  Epilog  zu  Schillers 
Glocke.  Two  new  friendships  about  this  time  kindled  in  the 
poet  something  of  the  juvenile  fire  and  passion  of  younger  days. 
Bettina  von  Arnim  came  into  personal  touch  with  Goethe  in 
1807,  and  her  Briefwechsel  Gocthes  mil  einem  Kinde  (published 
in  1835)  is,  in  its  mingling  of  truth  and  fiction,  one  of  the  most 
delightful  products  of  the  Romantic  mind;  but  the  episode  was 
of  less  importance  for  Goethe's  life  than  Bettina  would  have  us 
believe.  On  the  other  hand,  his  interest  in  Minna  Herzlieb, 
foster-daughter  of  the  publisher  Frommann  in  Jena,  was  of  a 
warmer  nature,  and  has  left  its  traces  on  his  sonnets. 

In  1808,  as  we  have  seen,  appeared  the  first  part  of  Faust,  and 
in  1809  it  was  followed  by  Die  Wahlverwandtschaften.  The  novel, 
hardly  less  than  the  drama,  effected  a  change  in  the  public 
attitude  towards  the  poet.  Since  the  beginning  of  the  century 
the  conviction  had  been  gaining  ground  that  Goethe's  mission 
was  accomplished,  that  the  day  of  his  leadership  was  over; 
but  here  were  two  works  which  not  merely  re-established  his 
ascendancy,  but  proved  that  the  old  poet  was  in  sympathy  with 
the  movement  of  letters,  and  keenly  alive  to  the  change  of  ideas 
which  the  new  century  had  brought  in  its  train.  The  intimate 
psychological  study  of  four  minds,  which  forms  the  subject  of 
the  Wahlverwandtschaften,  was  an  essay  in  a  new  type  of  fiction, 
and  pointed  out  the  way  for  developments  of  the  German  novel 
after  the  stimulus  of  Wilhelm  Meisler  had  exhausted  itself. 
Less  important  than  Die  Wahlverwandtschaften  was  Pandora 
(1810),  the  final  product  of  Goethe's  classicism,  and  the  most 
uncompromisingly  classical  and  allegorical  of  all  his  works. 
And  in  1810,  too,  appeared  his  treatise  on  Farbenlehre.  In  the 
following  year  the  first  volume  of  his  autobiography  was  pub- 
lished under  the  title  Aus  meinent  Leben,  Dichlung  und  Wahrheit. 
The  second  and  third  volumes  of  this  work  followed  in  1812  and 
1814;  the  fourth,  bringing  the  story  of  his  life  up  to  the  close 
of  the  Frankfort  period  in  1833,  after  his  death.  Goethe  felt, 
even  late  in  life,  too  intimately  bound  up  with  Weimar  to  discuss 
in  detail  his  early  life  there,  and  he  shrank  from  carrying  his 
biography  beyond  the  year  1775.  But  a  number  of  other 
publications — descriptions  of  travel,  such  as  the  Italienische 
Reise  (1816-1817),  the  materials  for  a  continuation  of  Dichtung 
und  Wahrheit  collected  in  Tag-  und  Jahreshefle  (1830) — have  also 
to  be  numbered  among  the  writings  which  Goethe  has  left  us  as 
documents  of  his  life.  Meanwhile  no  less  valuable  biographical 
materials  were  accumulating  in  his  diaries,  his  voluminous 
correspondence  and  his  conversations,  as  recorded  by  J.  P. 
Eckermann,  the  chancellor  Miilier  and  F.  Soret.  Several 
periodical  publications,  Uber  Kunst  und  Altertum  (1816-1832), 
Zur  Naturwissenschaft  iiberhaupt  (1817-1824),  Zur  Morphologic 
(1817-1824),  bear  witness  to  the  extraordinary  breadth  of 
Goethe's  interests  in  these  years.  Art,  science,  literature — little 


escaped  his  ken — and  that  not  merely  in  Germany:  English 
writers,  Byron,  Scott  and  Carlyle,  Italians  like  Manzoni,  French 
scientists  and  poets,  could  all  depend  on  friendly  words  of 
appreciation  and  encouragement  from  Weimar. 

In  West-ostlicher  Diwan  (1819),  a  collection  of  lyrics — matchless 
in  form  and  even  more  concentrated  in  expression  than  those 
of  earlier  days — which  were  suggested  by  a  German  translation 
of  Hafiz,  Goethe  had  another  surprise  in  store  for  his  contem- 
poraries. And,  again,  it  was  an  actual  passion — that  for  Marianne 
von  Willemer,  whom  he  met  in  1814  and  1815 — which  rekindled 
in  him  the  lyric  fire.  Meanwhile  the  years  were  thinning  the 
ranks  of  Weimar  society:  Wieland,  the  last  of  Goethe's  greater 
literary  contemporaries,  died  in  1813,  his  wife  in  1816,  Charlotte 
von  Stein  in  1827  and  Duke  Charles  Augustus  in  1828.  Goethe's 
retirement  from  the  direction  of  the  theatre  in  1817  meant  for 
him  a  break  with  the  literary  life  of  the  day.  In  1822  a  passion 
for  a  young  girl,  Ulrike  von  Levetzow,  whom  he  met  at  Marien- 
bad,  inspired  the  fine  Trilogie  der  Leidenschaft,  and  between 
1821  and  1829  appeared  the  long-expected  and  long-promised 
continuation  of  Wilhelm  Meisler,  Wilhelm  Meisters  Wanderjahre. 
The  latter  work,  however,  was  a  disappointment:  perhaps  it 
could  not  have  been  otherwise.  Goethe  had  lost  the  thread  of 
his  romance  and  it  was  difficult  for  him  to  resume  it.  Problems 
of  the  relation  of  the  individual  to  society  and  industrial  questions 
were  to  have  formed  the  theme  of  the  Wanderjahre;  but  since 
the  French  Revolution  these  problems  had  themselves  entered 
on  a  new  phase  and  demanded  a  method  of  treatment  which  it 
was  not  easy  for  the  old  poet  to  learn.  Thus  his  intentions  were 
only  partially  carried  out,  and  the  volumes  were  filled  out  by 
irrelevant  stories,  which  had  been  written  at  widely  different 
periods. 

But  the  crowning  achievement  of  Goethe's  literary  life  was 
the  completion  of  Faust.  The  poem  had  accompanied  him  from 
early  manhood  to  the  end  and  was  the  repository  for  the  fullest 
"  confession  "  of  his  life;  it  is  the  poetic  epitome  of  his  experience. 
The  second  part  is,  in  form,  far  removed  from  the  impressive 
realism  of  the  Urfaust.  It  is  a  phantasmagory ;  a  drama  the 
actors  in  which  are  not  creatures  of  flesh  and  blood,  but  the 
shadows  of  an  unreal  world  of  allegory.  The  lover  of  Gretchen 
had,  as  far  as  poetic  continuity  is  concerned,  disappeared  with 
the  close  of  the  first  part.  In  the  second  part  it  is  virtually  a  new 
Faust  who,  at  the  hands  of  a  new  Mephistopheles,  goes  out  into 
a  world  that  is  not  ours.  Yet  behind  these  unconvincing  shadows 
of  an  imperial  court  with  its  financial  difficulties,  of  the  classical 
Walpurgisnacht,  of  the  fantastic  creation  of  the  Homunculus, 
the  noble  Helena  episode  and  the  impressive  mystery-scene 
of  the  close,  where  the  centenarian  Faust  finally  triumphs  over 
the  powers  of  evil,  there  lies  a  philosophy  of  life,  a  ripe  wisdom 
born  of  experience,  such  as  no  European  poet  had  given  to  the 
world  since  the  Renaissance.  Faust  has  been  well  called  the 
"  divine  comedy  "  of  18th-century  humanism. 

The  second  part  of  Faust  forms  a  worthy  close  to  the  life  of 
Germany's  greatest  man  of  letters,  who  died  in  Weimar  on  the 
22nd  of  March  1832.  He  was  the  last  of  those  universal  minds 
which  have  been  able  to  compass  all  domains  of  human  activity 
and  knowledge;  for  he  stood  on  the  brink  of  an  era  of  rapidly 
expanding  knowledge  which  has  made  for  ever  impossible  the 
universality  of  interest  and  sympathy  which  distinguished  him. 
As  a  poet,  his  fame  has  undergone  many  vicissitudes  since  his 
death,  ranging  from  the  indifference  of  the  "  Young  German  " 
school  to  the  enthusiastic  admiration  of  the  closing  decades  of 
the  igth  century — an  enthusiasm  to  which  we  owe  the  Weimar 
Goethe-Gesellschaft  (founded  in  1885)  and  a  vast  literature  dealing 
with  the  poet's  life  and  work;  but  the  fact  of  his  being  Germany's 
greatest  poet  and  the  master  of  her  classical  literature  has  never 
been  seriously  put  in  question.  The  intrinsic  value  of  his  poetic 
work,  regarded  apart  from  his  personality,  is  smaller  in  propor- 
tion to  its  bulk  than  is  the  case  with  many  lesser  German  poets 
and  with  the  greatest  poets  of  other  literatures.  But  Goethe 
was  a  type  of  literary  man  hitherto  unrepresented  among  the 
leading  writers  of  the  world's  literature;  he  was  a  poet  whose 
supreme  greatness  lay  in  his  subjectivity.  Only  a  small  fraction 


GOETHE 


187 


of  Goethe's  work  was  written  in  an  impersonal  and  objective 
spirit,  and  sprang  from  what  might  be  called  a  conscious  artistic 
impulse;  by  far  the  larger — and  the  better — part  is  the  im- 
mediate reflex  of  his  feelings  and  experiences. 

It  is  as  a  lyric  poet  that  Goethe's  supremacy  is  least  likely 
to  be  challenged;  he  has  given  his  nation,  whose  highest  literary 
expression  has  in  all  ages  been  essentially  lyric,  its  greatest  songs. 
No  other  German  poet  has  succeeded  in  attuning  feeling,  senti- 
ment and  thought  so  perfectly  to  the  music  of  words  as  he;  none 
has  expressed  so  fully  that  spirituality  in  which  the  quintessence 
of  German  lyrism  lies.  Goethe's  dramas,  on  the  other  hand, 
have  not,  in  the  eyes  of  his  nation,  succeeded  in  holding  their 
own  beside  Schiller's;  but  the  reason  is  rather  because  Goethe, 
from  what  might  be  called  a  wilful  obstinacy,  refused  to  be 
bound  by  the  conventions  of  the  theatre,  than  because  he  was 
deficient  in  the  cunning  of  the  dramatist.  For,  as  an  interpreter 
of  human  character  in  the  drama,  Goethe  is  without  a  rival 
among  modern  poets,  and  there  is  not  one  of  his  plays  that  does 
not  contain  a  few  scenes  or  characters  which  bear  indisputable 
testimony  to  his  mastery.  Faust  is  Germany's  most  national 
drama,  and  it  remains  perhaps  for  the  theatre  of  the  future  to 
prove  itself  capable  of  popularizing  psychological  masterpieces 
like  Tasso  and  Iphigenie.  It  is  as  a  novelist  that  Goethe  has 
suffered  most  by  the  lapse  of  time.  The  Sorrows  of  Werlher  no 
longer  moves  us  to  tears,  and  even  WUhelm  Meister  and  Die 
IVahlverwandtschaften  require  more  understanding  for  the 
conditions  under  which  they  were  written  than  do  Faust  or 
Egmont.  Goethe  could  fill  his  prose  with  rich  wisdom,  but  he 
was  only  the  perfect  artist  in  verse. 

Little  attention  is  nowadays  paid  to  Goethe's  work  in  other 
fields,  work  which  he  himself  in  some  cases  prized  more  highly 
than  his  poetry.  It  is  only  as  an  illustration  of  his  many-sidedness 
and  his  manifold  activity  that  we  now  turn  to  his  work  as  a 
statesman,  as  a  theatre-director,  as  a  practical  political  economist. 
His  art-criticism  is  symptomatic  of  a  phase  of  European  taste 
which  tried  in  vain  to  check  the  growing  individualism  of 
Romanticism.  His  scientific  studies  and  discoveries  awaken 
only  an  historical  interest.  We  marvel  at  the  obstinacy  with 
which  he,  with  inadequate  mathematical  knowledge,  opposed 
the  Newtonian  theory  of  light  and  colour;  and  at  his  champion- 
ship of  "  Neptunism,"  the  theory  of  aqueous  origin,  as  opposed 
to  "  Vulcanism,"  that  of  igneous  origin  of  the  earth's  crust. 
Of  far-reaching  importance  was,  on  the  other  hand,  his  fore- 
shadowing of  the  Darwinian  theory  in  his  works  on  the  meta- 
morphosis of  plants  and  on  animal  morphology.  Indeed,  the 
deduction  to  be  drawn  from  Goethe's  contributions  to  botany 
and  anatomy  is  that  he,  as  no  other  of  his  contemporaries, 
possessed  that  type  of  scientific  mind  which,  in  the  ipth  century, 
has  made  for  progress;  he  was  Darwin's  predecessor  by  virtue 
of  his  enunciation  of  what  has  now  become  one  of  the  common- 
places of  natural  science — organic  evolution.  Modern,  too,  was 
the  outlook  of  the  aging  poet  on  the  changing  social  conditions 
of  the  age,  wonderfully  sympathetic  his  attitude  towards  modern 
industry,  which  steam  was  just  beginning  to  establish  on  a  new 
basis,  and  towards  modern  democracy.  The  Europe  of  his  later 
years  was  very  _  different  from  the  idyllic  and  enlightened 
autocracy  of  the  i8th  century,  in  which  he  had  spent  his  best 
years  and  to  which  he  had  devoted  his  energies;  yet  Goethe 
was  at  home  in  it. 

From  the  philosophic  movement,  in  which  Schiller  and  the 
Romanticists  were  so  deeply  involved,  Goethe  stood  apart. 
Comparatively  early  in  life  he  had  found  in  Spinoza  the  philo- 
sopher who  responded  to  his  needs;  Spinoza  taught  him  to  see 
in  nature  the  "  living  garment  of  God,"  and  more  he  did  not  seek 
or  need  to  know.  As  a  convinced  realist  he  took  his  standpoint 
on  nature  and  experience,  and  could  afford  to  look  on  objectively 
at  the  controversies  of  the  metaphysicians.  Kant  he  by  no 
means  ignored,  and  under  Schiller's  guidance  he  learned  much 
from  him;  but  of  the  younger  thinkers,  only  Schelling,  whose 
mystic '  nature-philosophy  was  a  development  of  Spinoza's 
ideas,  touched  a  sympathetic  chord  in  his  nature.  As  a  moralist 
and  a  guide  to  the  conduct  of  life— an  aspect  of  Goethe's  work 


which  Carlyle,  viewing  him  through  the  coloured  glasses  of 
Fichtean  idealism,  emphasized  and  interpreted  not  always 
justly — Goethe  was  a  powerful  force  on  German  life  in  years  of 
political  and  intellectual  depression.  It  is  difficult  even  still 
to  get  beyond  the  maxims  of  practical  wisdom  he  scattered  so 
liberally  through  his  writings,  the  lessons  to  be  learned  from 
Meister  and  Faust,  or  even  that  calm,  optimistic  fatalism  which 
never  deserted  Goethe,  and  was  so  completely  justified  by  the 
tenor  of  his  life.  If  the  philosophy  of  Sprnoza  provided  the  poet 
with  a  religion  which  made  individual  creeds  and  dogmas 
unnecessary  and  impossible,  so  Leibnitz's  doctrine  of  pre- 
destinism  supplied  the  foundations  for  his  faith  in  the  divine 
mission  of  human  life. 

This  many-sided  activity  is  a  tribute  to  the  greatness  of 
Goethe's  mind  and  personality;  we  may  regard  him  merely  as 
the  embodiment  of  his  particular  age,  or  as  a  poet  "  for  all 
time";  but  with  one  opinion  all  who  have  felt  the  power  of 
Goethe's  genius  are  in  agreement — the  opinion  which  was  con- 
densed in  Napoleon's  often  cited  words,  uttered  after  the  meeting 
at  Erfurt:  Voild  un  hommel  Of  all  modern  men,  Goethe  is 
the  most  universal  type  of  genius.  It  is  the  full,  rich  humanity 
of  his  life  and  personality — not  the  art  behind  which  the  artist 
disappears,  or  the  definite  pronouncements  of  the  thinker  or  the 
teacher — that  constitutes  his  claim  to  a  place  in  the  front  rank 
of  men  of  letters.  His  life  was  his  greatest  work. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — (a)  Collected  Works,  Diaries,  Correspondence, 
Conversations.  The  following  authorized  editions  of  'Goethe's 
writings  appeared  in  the  poet's  lifetime:  Schriften  (8  vols.,  Leipzig, 
1787-1790);  Neue  Schriften  (7  vols.,  Berlin,  1792-1800);  Werke 
(13  vols.,  Stuttgart,  1806-1810);  Werke  (20  vols.,  Stuttgart,  1815- 
1819);  to  which  six  volumes  were  added  in  1820-1822;  Werke 
(Vollstiindige  Ausgabe  letzter  Hand)  (40  vols.,  Stuttgart,  1827-1830). 
Goethe's  Nachgelassene  Werke  appeared  as  a  continuation  of  this 
edition  in  15  volumes  (Stuttgart,  1832-1834),  to  which  five  volumes 
were  added  in  1842.  These  were  followed  by  several  editions  of 
Goethe's  SamtUche  Werke,  mostly  in  forty  volumes,  published  by 
Cotta  of  Stuttgart.  The  first  critical  edition  with  notes  was  published 
by  Hempel,  Berlin,  in  thirty-six  volumes,  1868-1879;  that  in 
Kurschner's  Deutsche  Nationalliteratur,  vols.  82-117  (1882-1897)  is 
also  important.  In  1887  the  monumental  Weimar  edition,  which 
is  now  approaching  completion,  began  to  appear;  it  is  divided 
into  four  sections:  I.  Werke  (c.  56  vols.);  II.  Naturwissenschaftliche 
Werke  (12  vols.);  III.  Tagebiicher  (13  vols.);  IV.  Briefe  (£.45  vols.). 
Of  other  recent  editions  the  most  noteworthy  are:  SamtUche  Werke 
(Jubilaums-Ausgabe),  edited  byE.  von  der  Hellenic  vols.,  Stuttgart, 
1902  ff. ;  Werke,  edited  by  K.  Heinemann  (30  vols.,  Leipzig, 
1900  ff.),  and  the  cheap  edition  of  the  SamtUche  Werke,  edited  by 
L.  Geiger  (44  vols.,  Leipzig,  1901).  There  are  also  innumerable 
editions  of  selected  works;  reference  need  only  be  made  here  to  the 
useful  collection  of  the  early  writings  and  letters  published  by  S. 
Hirzel  with  an  introduction  by  M.  Bernays,  Derjunge  Goethe  (3  vols., 
Leipzig,  1875,  2nd  ed.,  1887).  A  French  translation  of  Goethe's 
(Euvres  completes,  by  J.  Porchat,  appeared  in  9  vols.,  at  Paris,  in 
1 860-1 863.  There  is,  as  yet,  no  uniform  English  edition,  but  Goethe's 
chief  works  have  all  been  frequently  translated  and  a  number  of 
them  will  be  found  in  Bohn's  standard  library. 

The  definitive  edition  of  Goethe's  diaries  and  letters  is  that  forming 
Sections  III.  and  IV.  of  the  Weimar  edition.  Collections  of  selected 
letters  based  on  the  Weimar  edition  have  been  published  by  E.  von 
der  Hellen  (6  vols.,  1901  ff.),  and  by  P.  Stein  (8  vols.,  1902  ff.).  Of 
the  many  separate  collections  of  Goethe's  correspondence  mention 
may  be  made  of  the  Briefwechsel  zwischen  Schiller  und  Goethe,  edited 
by  Goethe  himself  (1828-1829;  4th  ed.,  1881;  also  several  cheap 
reprints.  English  translation  by  L.  D.  Schmitz,  1877-1879); 
Briefwechsel  zwischen  Goethe  und  Zelter  (6  vols.,  1833-1834;  reprint 
in  Reclam's  Universalbibliothek,  1904;  English  translation  by 
A.  D.  Coleridge,  1887);  Bettina  von  Arnim,  Goethes  Briefwechsel 
mil  einem  Kinde  (1835;  4th  ed.,  1890;  English  translation,  1838); 
Briefe  von  und  an  Goethe,  edited  by  F.  W.  Riemer  (1846);  Goethes 
Briefe  an  Frau  von  Stein,  edited  by  A.  Scholl  (1848-1851;  3rd  ed. 
by  J.  Wahle,  1899-1900) ;  Briefwechsel  zwischen  Goethe  und  K.  F.  von 
Reinhard  (1850);  Briefwechsel  zwischen  Goethe  und  Knebel  (2  vols., 
1851);  Briefwechsel  zwischen  Goethe  und  Staatsrat  Schullz  (1853); 
Briefwechsel  des  Herzogs  Karl  August  mil  Goethe  (2  vols.,  1863); 
Briefwechsel  zwischen  Goethe  und  Kaspar  Graf  von  Sternberg  (1866): 
Goethes  naturwissenschaftliche  Korrespondenz,  and  Goethes  Brief- 
wechsel mil  den  Gebrildern  von  Humboldt,  edited  by  F.  T.  Bratranek 
(1874-1876);  Goethes  und  Carlyles  Briefwechsel  (1887),  also  in 
English;  Goethe  und  die  Romanlik,  edited  by  C.  Schuddekopf  and 
O.  Walzel  (2  vols.,  1898-1899);  Goethe  und  Lavater,  edited  by  H. 
Funck  (1901);  Goethe  und  Osterreich,  edited  by  A.  Sauer  (2  vols., 
1902-1903).  Besides  the  correspondence  with  Schiller  and  Zelter, 
Bohn's  library  contains  a  translation  of  Early  and  Miscellaneous 


i88 


GOETHE 


Letters,  by  E.  Bell  (1884).  The  chief  collections  of  Goethe's  con- 
versations are:  J.  P.  Eckermann,  Gesprdche  mil  Goethe  (1836; 
vol.  iii.,  also  containing  conversations  with  Soret,  1848;  7th  ed.  by 
H.  Diintzer,  1899;  also  new  edition  by  L.  Geiger,  1902;  English 
translation  by  J.  Oxenford,  1850).  The  complete  conversations 
with  Soret  have  been  published  in  German  translation  by  C.  A.  H. 
Burkhardt  (1905) ;  Goethes  Unterhaltungen  mil  dent  Kanzler  F.  von 
Mutter  (1870).  Goethe's  collected  Gesprdche  were  published  by 
W.  von  Biedermann  in  10  vols.  (1889-1896). 

(b)  Biography. — Goethe's   autobiography,   Aus   meinem   Leben: 
Dichtung  und  Wahrheit,  appeared  in  three  parts  between  1811  and 
1814,  a  fourth  part,  bringing  the  history  of  his  life  as  far  as  his 
departure  for  Weimar  in   1775,  in   1833   (English  translation  by 
J.  Oxenford,  1846) ;  it  is  supplemented  by  other  biographical  writings, 
as  the  Italienische  Reise,  Aus  einer  Reise  in  die  Schweiz  im  Jahre 
1797;  Aus  einer  Reise  am  Rhein,  Main  und  Neckar  in  den  Jahren 
1814   und  1815,   Tag-  und  Jahreshefle,   &c.,  and  especially  by  his 
diaries  and  correspondence.     The  following  are  the  more  important 
biographies:  H.  Doring,  Goethes  Leben  (1828;  subsequent  editions, 
1833,  1849,  1856);  H.  Viehoff,  Goethes  Leben  (4  vols.,  1847-1854; 
5th  ed.,  1887);  J.  W.  Schafer,  Goethes  Leben  (2  vols.,  1851 ;  3rd  ed., 
1877);  G.  H.  Lewes,  The  Life  and  Works  of  Goethe  (2  vols.,  1855; 
2nd  ed.,   1864;  3rd  ed.,   1875;  cheap  reprint,   1906;  the  German 
translation  by  J.  Freseis  in  its  1 8th  edition,  1900;  a  shorter  biography 
was  published  by  Lewes  in  1873  under  the  title  The  Story  of  Goethe's 
Life);  W.   M6zieres,    W.   Goethe,  les  ceuvres    expliquees  par  la  vie 
(1872-1873);  A.  Bossert,  Goethe  (1872-1873);  K.  Goedeke,  Goethes 
Leben  und  Schriften   (1874;  2nd   ed.,    1877);   H.   Grimm,    Goethe: 
Vorlesungen    (1876;    8th    ed.,    1903;    English    translation,    1880); 
A.   Hayward,  Goethe  (1878);  H.  H.  Boyesen,  Goethe  and  Schiller, 
their  Lives  and  Works   (1879);  H.   Diintzer,  Goethes  Leben   (1880; 
2nd  ed.,  1883;  English  translation,  1883);  A.  Baumgartner,  Goethe, 
sein  Leben  und  seine  Werke  (1885);  J.  Sime,  Life  of  Goethe  (1888); 
K.  Heinemann,  Goethes  Leben  und  Werke  (1889;  3rd  ed.,   1903); 
R.    M.    Meyer,   Goethe   (1894;   3rd   ed.,    1904);   A.    Bielschowsky, 
Goethe,  sein  Leben  und  seine  Werke  (vol.  i.,   1895;  5th  ed.,  1904; 
vol.   ii.,    1903;   English  translation  by  W.   A.   Cooper,    1905  ff.); 
G.  Witkowsky,  Goethe  (1899);  H.  G.  Atkins,  J.  W.  Goethe  (1904); 
P.  Hansen  and  R.  Meyer,  Goethe,  hans  Liv  og  Vaerker  (1906). 

Of  writings  on  special  periods  and  aspects  of  Goethe's  life  the 
more  important  are  as  follows  (the  titles  are  arranged  as  far  as 
possible  in  the  chronological  sequence  of  the  poet's  life) :  H.  Diintzer, 
Goethes  Stammbaum  (1894);  K.  Heinemann,  Goethes  Mutter  (1891; 
6th  ed.,  1900);  P.  Bastier,  La  Mere  de  Goethe  (1902);  Briefe  der 
Frau  Rat  (2  vols.,  2nd  ed.,  1905);  F.  Ewart,  Goethes  Vater  (1899); 
G.  Witkowski,  Cornelia  die  Schwester  Goethes  (1903);  P.  Besson, 
Goethe,  sa  S(eur  et  ses  amies  (1898);  H.  Diintzer,  Frauenbilder  aus 
Goethes  Jugendzeit  (1852);  W.  von  Biedermann,  Goethe  und  Leipzig 
(1865);  P.  F.  Lucius,  Friederike  Brian  (1878;  3rd  ed.,  1904); 
A.  Bielschowsky,  Friederike  Brian  (1880);  F.  E.  von  Durckheim, 
Lili's  Bild  geschichtlich  entworfen  (1879;  2nd  ed.,  1894);  W.  Herbst, 
Goethe  in  Wetzlar  (1881);  A.  Diezmann,  Goethe  und  die  lustige  Zeit 
in  Weimar  (1857;  2nd  ed.,  1901);  H.  Diintzer,  Goethe  und  Karl 
August  (1859-1864;  2nd  ed.,  1888);  also,  by  the  same  author, 
Aus  Goethes  Freundeskreise  (1868)  and  Charlotte  von  Stein  (2  vols., 
1874);  J.  Haarhuus,  Auf  Goethes  Spuren  in  Italien  (1896-1898); 
O.  Harnack,  Zur  Nachgeschichte  der  italienischen  Reise  (1890);  H. 
Grimm,  Schiller  und  Goethe  (Essays,  1858;  3rd  ed.,  1884);  G. 
Berlit,  Goethe  und  Schiller  im  personlichen  Verkehre,  nach  brieflichen 
Mitleilungen  von  H.  Voss  (1895);  E.  Pasqu<5,  Goethes  Theaterleitung 
in  Weimar  (2  vols.,  1863);  C.  A.  H.  Burkhards,  Das  Repertoire  des 
weimarischen  Theaters  unler  Goethes  Leitung  (1891);  J.  Wahle, 
Das  Weimarer  Hof theater  unter  Goethes  Leitung  (1892);  O.  Harnack, 
Goethe  in  der  Epoche  seiner  Vollendung  (2nd  ed.,  1901);  J.  Barbey 
d'Aurevilly,  Goethe  et  Diderot  (1880) ;  A  Fischer,  Goethe  und  Napoleon 
(1899;  2nd  ed.,  1900);  R.  Steig,  Goethe  und  die  Gebruder  Grimm 
(1892). 

(c)  Criticism. — H.  G.  Graef,  Goethe uber  seine  Dichtungen  (1901  ff.) ; 
J.  W.  Braun,  Goethe  im  Urteile  seiner  Zeitgenossen  (3  vols.,  1883- 
1885);  T.   Carlyle,  Essays  on  Goethe   (1828-1832);  X.   Marmier, 
Etudes  sur  Goethe  (1835);  W.  von  Biedermann,  Goethe-  For schungen 
'1879,  1886);  J.  Minor  and  A.  Sauer,  Sludien  zur  Goethe-Philologie 

1880);  H.  Diintzer,  Abhandlungen  zu  Goethes  Leben  und  Werken 
1881);  A.  Scholl,  Goethe  in  Hauptziigen  seines  Lebens  und  Wirkens 
1882);  V.  Hehn,  Gedanken  uber  Goethe  (1884;  4th  ed.,  1900) ; 
W.  Scherer,  Aufsdtze  uber  Goethe  (1886);  J.  R.  Seeley,  Goethe 
reviewed  after  Sixty  Years  (1894);  E.  Dowden,  New  Studies 
in  Literature  (1895);  E.  Rod,  Essai  sur  Goethe  (1898);  A.  Luther, 
Goethe,  seeks  Vortrdge  (1905) ;  R.  Saitschik,  Goethes  Charakter 
(1898);  W.  Bode,  Goethes  Lebenskunst  (1900;  2nd  ed.,  1902);  by 
the  same,  Goethes  Asthetik  (1901);  T.  Vollbehr,  Goethe  und  die 
bildende  Kunst  (1895);  E.  Lichtenberger,  Etudes  sur  les  poesies 
lyriques  de  Goethe  (1878);  T.  Achelis,  Grundzuge  der  Lyrik  Goethes 
(1900);  B.  Litzmann,  Goethes  Lyrik  (1903);  R.  Riemann,  Goethes 
Romantechnik  (1901);  R.  Virchow,  Goethe  ah  Naturforscher  (1861); 

E.  Caro,  La  Philosophic  de  Goethe  (1866;  2nd  ed.,  1870) ;  R.  Steiner, 
Goethes  Weltanschauung  (1897) ;  F.  Siebeck,  Goethe  als  Denker  (1902) ; 

F.  Baldensperger,  Goethe  en  France  (1904);  S.  Waetzoldt,  Goethe 
und  die  Romantik  (1888). 

More  special  treatises  dealing  with   individual  works  are  the 


following:  W.  Scherer,  Aus  Goethes  Fruhzeit  (1879);  R-  Weissen- 
fels,  Goethe  in  Sturm  und  Drang,  vol.  i.  (1894);  W.  Wilmanns, 
Quellenstudien  zu  Goethes  Gotz  von  Berlichingen  (1874) ;  J.  Baechtold, 
Goethes  Gotz  von  Berlichingen  in  dreifacher  Gestalt  (1882);  J.  W.' 
Appell,  Werther  und  seine  Zeit  (1855;  4th  ed.,  1896);  E.  Schmidt, 
Richardson,  Rousseau  und  Goethe  (1875);  M.  Herrmann,  Das  Jahr- 
marktsfest  zu  Plunder sweilen  (1900);  E.  Schmidt,.  Goethes  Faust 
in  ursprunglicher  Gestalt  (1887;  5th  ed.,  1901);  J.  Collin,  Goethes 
Faust  in  seiner  dltesten  Gestalt  (1896);  H.  Hettner,  Goethes  Iphigenie 
in  ihrem  Verhdltnis  zur  Bildungsgeschichte  des  Dichtsrs  (1861;  in 
Kleine  Schriften,  1884);  K.  Fischer,  Goethes  Iphigenie  (1888); 
F.  T.  Bratranek,  Goethes  Egmont  und  Schillers  Wallenstein  (1862); 
C.  Schuchardt,  Goethes  italienische  Reise  (1862);  H.  Diintzer, 
Iphigenie  auf  Tauris;  die  drei  dltesten  Bearbeitungen  (1854);  F. 
Kern,  Goethes  Tasso  (1890);  J.  Schubart,  Die  philosophischen 
Grundgedanken  in  Goethes  Wilhelm  Meisler  (1896);  E.  Boas,  Schiller 
und  Goethe  in  Xenienkampf  (1851);  E.  Schmidt  and  B.  Suphan, 
Xenien  1796,  nach  den  Handschriften  (1893);  W.  von  Humboldt, 
Asthetische  Versuche:  Hermann  und  Dorothea  (1799);  V.  Hthn, 
Uber  Goethes  Hermann  und  Dorothea  (1893);  A.  Fries,  Quellen  und 
Komposition  der  Achilleis  (1901);  K.  Alt,  Studien  zur  Entstehungs- 
geschichte von  Dichtung  und  Wahrheit  (1898);  A.  Jung,  Goethes 
Wanderjahre  und  die  wichtigsten  Fragen  des  I  p.  Jahrhunderts  (1854); 
F.  Kreyssig,  Vorlesungen  uber  Goethes  Faust  (1866);  the  editions  of 
Faust  by  G.  vcn  Loeper  (2  vols.,  1879),  and  K.  J.  Schroer  (2  vols., 
3rd  and  4th  ed.,  1898-1903);  K.  Fischer,  Goethes  Faust  (3  vols., 
1893,  1902,  1903) ;  O.  Pniower,  Goethes  Faust,  Zeugnisse  und  Excurse 
zu  seiner  Entstehungsgeschichte  (1899);  J.  Minor,  Goethes  Faust, 
Entstehungsgeschichte  und  Erkldrung  (2  vols.,  1901). 

(d)  Bibliographical  Works,  Goethe-Societies,  &c. — L.  Unflad,  Die 
Goethe-Liter atur  in  Deutschland  (1878);  S.  Hirzel,  Verzeichnis  einer 
Goethe-Bibliothek  (1884),  to  which  G.  von  Loeper  and  W.  von  Bieder- 
mann have  supplied  supplements.  F.  Strehlke,  Goethes  Briefe: 
Verzeichnis  unter  Angabe  der  Quelle  (1882-1884);  British  Museum 
Catalogue  of  Printed  Books:  Goethe  (1888);  Goedeke's  Grundriss 
zur  Geschichle  der  deutschen  Dichtung  (2nd  ed.,  vol.  iv.  1891);  and 
the  bibliographies  in  the  Goethe- Jahrbuch  (since  1880).  Also  K. 
Hoyer,  Zur  Einfiihrung  in  die  Goethe- Literatur  (1904).  On  Goethe  in 
England  see  E.  Oswald,  jGoethe  in  England  and  America  (1899; 
2nd  ed.,  1909) ;  W.  Heinemann,  A  Bibliographical  List  of  the  English 
Translations  and  Annotated  Editions  of  Goethe's  Faust  (1886). 
Reference  may  also  be  made  here  to  F.  Zarncke's  Verzeichnis  der 
Originalaufnahmen  von  Goethes  Bildnissen  (1888). 

A  Goethe-Gesellschaft  was  founded  at  Weimar  in  1885,  and  numbers 
over  2800  members;  its  publications  include  the  annual  Goethe- 
Jahrbuch  (since  1880),  and  a  series  of  Goethe-Schriften.  A  Goelhe- 
Verein  has  existed  in  Vienna  since  1887,  and  an  English  Goethe 
society,  which  has  also  issued  several  volumes  of  publications,  since 
1886.  (J.  G.  R.) 

Goethe's  Descendants. — Goethe's  only  son,  AUGUST,  born  on 
the  25th  of  December  1789  at  Weimar,  married  in  1817  Ottilie 
von  Pogwisch  (1796-1872),  who  had  come  as  a  child  to  Weimar 
with  her  mother  (nee  Countess  Henckel  von  Donnersmarck). 
The  marriage  was  a  very  unhappy  one,  the  husband  having  no 
qualities  that  could  appeal  to  a  woman  who,  whatever  the 
censorious  might  say  of  her  moral  character,  was  distinguished 
to  the  last  by  a  lively  intellect  and  a  singular  charm.  August 
von  Goethe,  whose  sole  distinction  was  his  birth  and  his  position 
as  grand-ducal  chamberlain,  died  in  Italy,  on  the  2;th  of  October 
1830,  leaving  three  children:  WALTHER  WOLFGANG,  born  on 
April  9,  1818,  died  on  April  15,  1885;  WOLFGANG  MAXIMILIAN, 
born  on  September  1 8,  1820,  died  on  January  20,  1883;  ALMA, 
born  on  October  22,  1827,  died  on  September  29,  1844. 

Of  Walther  von  Goethe  little  need  be  said.  In  youth  he  had 
musical  ambitions,  studied  under  Mendelssohn  and  Weinlig 
at  Leipzig,  under  Loewe  at  Stettin,  and  afterwards  at  Vienna. 
He  published  a  few  songs  of  no  great  merit,  and  had  at  his 
death  no  more  than  the  reputation  among  his  friends  of  a  kindly 
and  accomplished  man. 

Wolfgang  or,  as  he  was  familiarly  called,  Wolf  von  Goethe, 
was  by  far  the  more  gifted  of  the  two  brothers,  and  his  gloomy 
destiny  by  so  much  the  more  tragic.  A  sensitive  and  highly 
imaginative  boy,  he  was  the  favourite  of  his  grandfather,  who 
made  him  his  constant  companion.  This  fact,  instead  of  being 
to  the  boy's  advantage,  was  to  prove  his  bane.  The  exalted 
atmosphere  of  the  great  man's  ideas  was  too  rarefied  for  the 
child's  intellectual  health,  and  a  brain  well  fitted  to  do  excellent 
work  in  the  world  was  ruined  by  the  effort  to  live  up  to  an 
impossible  ideal.  To  maintain  himself  on  the  same  height  as 
his  grandfather,  and  to  make  the  name  of  Goethe  illustrious  in 
his  descendants  also,  became  Wolfgang's  ambition;  and  his 
incapacity  to  realize  this,  very  soon  borne  in  upon  him,  paralyzed 


GOETZ 


189 


his  efforts  and  plunged  him  at  last  into  bitter  revolt  against  his 
fate  and  gloomy  isolation  from  a  world  that  seemed  to  have  no 
tise  for  him  but  as  a  curiosity.  From  the  first,  too,  he  was 
hampered  by  wretched  health;  at  the  age  of  sixteen  he  was 
subjected  to  one  of  those  terrible  attacks  of  neuralgia  which 
were  to  torment  him  to  the  last;  physically  and  mentally  alike 
he  stood  in  tragic  contrast  with  his  grandfather,  in  whose 
gigantic  personality  the  vigour  of  his  race  seems  to  have  been 
exhausted. 

From  1839  to  1845  Wolfgang  studied  law  at  Bonn,  Jena, 
Heidelberg  and  Berlin,  taking  his  degree  of  doctor  juris  at  Heidel- 
berg in  1845.  During  this  period  he  had  made  his  first  literary 
efforts.  His  Studenten- Brief e  (Jena,  1842),  a  medley  of  letters 
and  lyrics,  are  wholly  conventional.  This  was  followed  by  Der 
Mensch  und  die  elementarische  Natur  (Stuttgart  and  Tubingen, 
1845),  in  three  parts  (Beitrage) :  (i)  an  historical  and  philosophical 
dissertation  on  the  relations  of  mankind  and  the  "soul  of  nature," 
largely  influenced  by  Schelling,  (2)  a  dissertation  on  the  juridical 
side  of  the  question,  De  fragmcnto  Vegoiae,  being  the  thesis 
presented  for  his  degree,  (3)  a  lyrical  drama,  Erlinde.  In  this 
last,  as  in  his  other  poetic  attempts,  Wolfgang  showed  a  consider- 
able measure  of  inherited  or  acquired  ability,  in  his  wealth  of 
language  and  his  easy  mastery  of  the  difficulties  of  rhythm  and 
rhyme.  But  this  was  all.  The  work  was  characteristic  of  his 
self-centred  isolation:  ultra-romantic  at  a  time  when  Romanti- 
cism was  already  an  outworn  fashion,  remote  alike  from  the 
spirit  of  the  age  and  from  that  of  Goethe.  The  cold  reception 
it  met  with  shattered  at  a  blow  the  dream  of  Wolfgang's  life; 
henceforth  he  realized  that  to  the  world  he  was  interesting 
mainly  as  "  Goethe's  grandson,"  that  anything  he  might  achieve 
would  be  measured  by  that  terrible  standard,  and  he  hated  the 
legacy  of  his  name. 

The  next  five  years  he  spent  in  Italy  and  at  Vienna,  tormented 
by  facial  neuralgia.  Returning  to  Weimar  in  1850,  he  was  made  a 
chamberlain  by  the  grand-duke,  and  in  1852,  his  health  being 
now  somewhat  restored,  he  entered  the  Prussian  diplomatic 
service  and  went  as  attache  to  Rome.  The  fruit  of  his  long 
years  of  illness  was  a  slender  volume  of  lyrics,  Gedichte  (Stuttgart 
and  Tubingen,  1851),  good  in  form,  but  seldom  inspired,  and 
showing  occasionally  the  influence  of  a  morbid  sensuality.  In 
1854  he  was  appointed  secretary  of  legation;  but  the  aggressive 
ultramontanism  of  the  Curia  became  increasingly  intolerable 
to  his  overwrought  nature,  and  in  1856  he  was  transferred,  at  his 
own  request,  as  secretary  of  legation  to  Dresden.  This  post  he 
resigned  in  1859,  in  which  year  he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of 
Freihcrr  (baron).  In  1866  he  received  the  title  of  councillor 
of  legation;  but  he  never  again  occupied  any  diplomatic  post. 

The  rest  of  his  life  he  devoted  to  historical  research,  ultimately 
selecting  as  his  special  subject  the  Italian  libraries  up  to  the  year 
1500.  The  outcome  of  all  his  labours  was,  however,  only  the 
first  part  of  Studies  and  Researches  in  the  Times  and  Life  of 
Cardinal  Bessarion,  embracing  the  period  of  the  council  of 
Florence  (privately  printed  at  Jena,  1871),  a  catalogue  of  the 
MSS.  in  the  monastery  of  Sancta  Justina  at  Padua  (Jena, 
1873),  and  a  mass  of  undigested  material,  which  he  ultimately 
bequeathed  to  the  university  of  Jena. 

In  1870  Ottilie  von  Goethe,  who  had  resided  mainly  at  Vienna, 
returned  to  Weimar  and  took  up  her  residence  with  her  two  sons 
in  the  Goethehaus.  So  long  as  she  lived,  her  small  salon  in  the 
attic  storey  of  the  great  house  was  a  centre  of  attraction  for 
many  of  the  most  illustrious  personages  in  Europe.  But  after 
her  death  in  1872  the  two  brothers  lived  in  almost  complete 
isolation.  The  few  old  friends,  including  the  grand-duke  Charles 
Alexander,  who  continued  regularly  to  visit  the  house,  were 
entertained  with  kindly  hospitality  by  Baron  Walther;  Wolf- 
gang refused  to  be  drawn  from  his  isolation  even  by  the  advent 
of  royalty.  "Tell  the  empress,"  he  cried  on  one  occasion 
"  that  I  am  not  a  wild  beast  to  be  stared  at ! "  In  1879,  his 
increasing  illness  necessitating  the  constant  presence  of  an 
attendant,  he  went  to  live  at  Leipzig,  where  he  died. 

Goethe's  grandsons  have  been  so  repeatedly  accused  of  having 
displayed  a  dog-in-the-manger  temper  in  closing  the  Goethehau 


o  the  public  and  the  Goethe  archives  to  research,  that  the 

harge  has  almost  universally  come  to  be  regarded  as  proven. 

t  is  true  that  the  house  was  closed  and  access  to  the  archives  only 
:ery  sparingly  allowed  until  Baron  Walther's  death  in  1885. 
But  the  reason  for  this  was  not,  as  Herr  Max  Hecker  rather 

,bsurdly   suggests,    Wolfgang's   jealousy   of   his   grandfather's 

ippressive  fame,  but  one  far  more  simple  and  natural.  From 
one  cause  or  another,  principally  Ottilie  von  Goethe's  extrava- 
gance, the  family  was  in  very  straitened  circumstances;  and  the 

mothers,  being  thoroughly  unbusinesslike,  believed  themselves 

o  be  poorer  than  they  really  were.1  They  closed  the  Goethehaus 
and  the  archives,  because  to  have  opened  them  would  have 
needed  an  army  of  attendants.2  If  they  deserve  any  blame  it 

s  for  the  pride,  natural  to  their  rank  and  their  generation,  which 

revented  them  from  charging  an  entrance  fee,  an  expedient 
which  would  not  only  have  made  it  possible  for  them  to  give 
access  to  the  house  and  collections,  but  would  have  enabled 

hem  to  save  the  fabric  from  falling  into  the  lamentable  state 
of  disrepair  in  which  it  was  found  after  their  death.  In  any  case, 

he  accusation  is  ungenerous.  With  an  almost  exaggerated 
Pietdt  Goethe's  descendants  preserved  his  house  untouched, 
at  great  inconvenience  to  themselves,  and  left  it,  with  all  its 

reasures  intact,  to  the  nation.  Had  they  been  the  selfish 
misers  they  are  sometimes  painted,  they  could  have  realized  a 

'ortune  by  selling  its  contents. 
Wolf  Goethe  (Weimar,  1889)  is  a  sympathetic  appreciation  by  Otto 

Vlejer,  formerly  president  of  the  Lutheran  consistory  in  Hanover. 
See  also  Jenny  v.  Gerstenbergk,  Ottilie  von  Goethe  und  ihre  Sohne 

Walther  und  Wolf  (Stuttgart,  1901),  and  the  article  on  Maximilian 
Wolfgang  von  Goethe  by  Max  F.  Hecker  in  Allgem.  deulsche  Bio- 
graphie,  Bd.  49,  Nachtrage  (Leipzig,  1904)..  (W.  A.  P.) 

GOETZ,  HERMANN  (1840-1876),  German  musical  composer, 
was  born  at  Konigsberg  in  Prussia,  on  the  i7th  of  December  1840, 
and  began  his  regular  musical  studies  at  the  comparatively 
advanced  age  of  seventeen.     He  entered  the  music-school  of 
Professor  Stern  at  Berlin,  and  studied  composition  chiefly  under 
Ulrich  and  Hans  von  Bulow.     In  1863  he  was  appointed  organist 
at  Winterthur  in  Switzerland,  where  he  lived  in  obscurity  for 
a  number  of  years,  occupying  himself  with  composition  during 
his  leisure  hours.     One  of  his  works  was  an  opera,  The  Taming 
of  the  Shrew,  the  libretto  skilfully  adapted  from  Shakespeare's 
play.     After  much  delay  it  was  produced  at  Mannheim  (in 
October  1874),  and  its  success  was  as  instantaneous  as  it  has  up  to 
the  present  proved  lasting.     It  rapidly  made  the  round  of  the 
great  German  theatres,  and  spread  its  composer's  fame  over  all 
the  land.     But  Goetz  did  not  live  to  enjoy  this  happy  result 
for  long.     In  December  1876  he  died  at  Zurich  from  overwork. 
A  second  opera,  Francesca  da  Rimini,  on  which  he  was  engaged, 
remained  a  fragment;  but  it  was  finished    according    to   his 
directions,  and  was  performed  for  the  first  time  at  Mannheim 
a  few  months  after  the  composer's  death  on  the  4th  of  December 
1876.     Besides  his  dramatic  work,   Goetz  also  wrote  various 
compositions  for  chamber-music,  of  which  a  trio  (Op.  i)  and 
a  quintet  (Op.  16)  have  been  given  with  great  success  at  the 
London  Monday  Popular  Concerts.     Still  more  important  is  the 
Symphony  in  F.      As  a  composer  of  comic  opera  Goetz  lacks  the 
sprightliness  and  artistic  savoir  faire  so  rarely  found  amongst 
Germanic  nations.     His  was  essentially  a  serious  nature,  and 
passion  and  pathos  were  to  him  more  congenial  than  humour. 
The  more  serious  sides  of  the  subject  are  therefore  insisted  upon 
more   successfully   than   Katherine's   ravings   and   Petruchio's 
eccentricities.     There  are,  however,  very  graceful  passages,  e.g. 
the  singing  lesson  Bianca  receives  from  her  disguised  lover. 
Goetz's  style,  although  influenced  by  Wagner  and  other  masters, 
shows  signs  of  a  distinct  individuality.     The  design  of  his  music 
is  essentially  of  a  polyphonic  character,  and  the  working  out  and 
interweaving  of  his  themes  betray  the  musician  of  high  scholar- 
ship.    But  breadth  and  beautiful  flow  of  melody  also  were  his, 

1  After  Walther's  death  upwards  of  £10,000  in  bonds,  &c.,  were 
discovered  put  away  and  forgotten  in  escritoires  and  odd  corners. 

2  This  was  the  reason  given  by  Baron  Walther  himself  to  the 
writer's  mother,  an  old  friend  of  Frau  von  Goethe,  who  lived  with 
her  family  in  the  Goethehaus  for  some  years  after  1871. 


GOFFE— GOGOL 


as  is  seen  in  the  symphony,  and  perhaps  still  more  in  the  quintet 
for  pianoforte  and  strings  above  referred  to.  The  mosfcimportant 
of  Goetz's  posthumous  works  are  a  setting  of  the  I37th  Psalm 
for  soprano  solo,  chorus  and  orchestra,  a  "  Spring  "  overture 
(Op.  15),  and  a  pianoforte  sonata  for  four  hands  (Op.  17). 

GOFFE  (or  GOUGH),  WILLIAM  (fl.  1642-1660),  English 
parliamentarian,  son  of  Stephen  Goffe,  puritan  rector  of  Stanmer 
in  Essex,  began  life  as  an  apprentice  to  a  London  salter,  a  zealous 
parliamentarian,  but  on  the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war  he  joined 
the  army  and  became  captain  in  Colonel  Harley's  regiment  of  the 
new  model  in  1645.  He  was  imprisoned  in  1642  for  his  share  in 
the  petition  to  give  the  control  of  the  militia  to  the  parliament. 
By  his  marriage  with  Frances,  daughter  of  General  Edward 
Whalley,  he  became  connected  with  Oliver  Cromwell's  family 
and  one  of  his  most  faithful  followers.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  deputation  which  on  the  6th  of  July  1647  brought  up  the 
charge  against  the  eleven  members.  He  was  active  in  bringing 
the  king  to  trial  and  signed  the  death  warrant.  In  1649  he 
received  the  honorary  degree  of  M.A.  at  Oxford.  He  distin- 
guished himself  at  Dunbar,  commanding  a  regiment  there  and  at 
Worcester.  He  assisted  in  the  expulsion  of  Barebone's  parlia- 
ment in  1653,  took  an  active  part  in  the  suppression  of  Pen- 
ruddock's  rising  in  July  1654,  and  in  October  1655  was  appointed 
major-general  for  Berkshire,  Sussex  and  Hampshire.  Meanwhile 
he  had  been  elected  member  for  Yarmouth  in  the  parliament  of 
1654  and  for  Hampshire  in  that  of  1656.  He  supported  the 
proposal  to  bestow  a  royal  title  upon  Cromwell,  who  greatly 
esteemed  him,  was  included  in  the  newly-constituted  House  of 
Lords,  obtained  Lambert's  place  as  major-general  of  the  Foot, 
and  was  even  thought  of  as  a  fit  successor  to  Cromwell.  As  a 
member  of  the  committee  of  nine  appointed  in  June  1658  on 
public  affairs,  he  was  witness  to  the  protector's  appointment 
of  Richard  Cromwell  as  his  successor.  He  supported  the  latter 
during  his  brief  tenure  of  power  and  his  fall  involved  his  own  loss 
of  influence.  In  November  1659  he  took  part  in  the  futile  mission 
sent  by  the  army  to  Monk  in  Scotland,  and  at  the  Restoration 
escaped  with  his  father-in-law  General  Edward  Whalley  to 
Massachusetts.  Goffe's  political  aims  appear  not  to  have  gone 
much  beyond  fighting  "  to  pull  down  Charles  and  set  up  Oliver  "; 
and  he  was  no  doubt  a  man  of  deep  religious  feeling,  who  acted 
throughout  according  to  a  strict  sense  of  duty  as  he  conceived  it. 
He  was  destined  to  pass  the  rest  of  his  life  in  exile,  separated 
from  his  wife  and  children,  dying,  it  is  supposed,  about  1679. 

GOFFER,  to  give  a  fluted  or  crimped  appearance  to  anything, 
particularly  to  linen  or  lace  frills  or  trimmings  by  means  of 
heated  irons  of  a  special  shape,  called  goffering-irons  or  tongs. 
"  Goffering,"  or  the  French  term  gaufrage,  is  also  used  of  the 
wavey  or  crimped  edging  in  certain  forms  of  porcelain,  and  also 
of  the  stamped  or  embossed  decorations  on  the  edges  of  the 
binding  of  books.  The  French  word  gaufre,  from  which  the 
English  form  is  adapted,  means  a  thin  cake  marked  with  a 
pattern  like  a  honeycomb,  a  "  wafer,"  which  is  etymologically 
the  same  word.  Waufre  appears  in  the  phrase  un  fer  a  waufres, 
an  iron  for  baking  cakes  on  (quotation  of  1433  in  J.  B.  Roque- 
fort's Glossaire  de  la  langue  romane).  The  word  is  Teutonic, 
cf.  Dutch  wafel,  Ger.  Wa/el,  a  form  seen  in  "  waffle,"  the  name 
given  to  the  well-known  batter-cakes  of  America.  The  "  wafer  " 
was  so  called  from  its  likeness  to  a  honeycomb,  Wabe,  ultimately 
derived  from  the  root  wab-,  to  weave,  the  cells  of  the  comb 
appearing  to  be  woven  together. 

GOG  (possibly  connected  with  the  Gentilic  Gagaya,  "  of  the 
land  of  Gag,"  used  in  Amarna  Letters  i.  38,  as  a  synonym  for 
"  barbarian,"  or  with  Ass.  Gagu,  a  ruler  of  the  land  of  Sahi, 
N.  of  Assyria,  or  with  Gyges,  Ass.  Gugu,  a  king  of  Lydia),  a 
Hebrew  name  found  in  Ezek.  xxxviii.-xxxix.  and  in  Rev.  xx., 
and  denoting  an  antitheocratic  power  that  is  to  manifest  itself 
in  the  world  immediately  before  the  final  dispensation.  In  the 
later  passage,  Gog  and  Magog  are  spoken  of  as  co-ordinate;  in 
the  earlier,  Gog  is  given  as  the  name  of  the  person  or  people  and 
Magog  as  that  of  the  land  of  origin.  Magog  is  perhaps  a 
contracted  form  of  Mat-gog,  mat  being  the  common  Assyrian 
word  for  "land."  The  passages  are,  however,  intimately  related 


and  both  depend  upon  Gen.  x.  2,  though  here  Magog  alone  is 
mentioned.  He  is  the  second  "  son  "  of  Japhet,  and  the  order 
of  the  names  here  and  in  Ezekiel  xxxviii.  2,  indicates  a  locality' 
between  Cappadocia  and  Media,  i.e.  in  Armenia.  According 
to  Josephus,  who  is  followed  by  Jerome,  the  Scythians  were 
primarily  intended  by  this  designation;  and  this  plausible 
opinion  has  been  generally  followed.  The  name  SxWat,  it  is 
to  be  observed,  however,  is  often  but  a  vague  word  for  any  or  all 
of  the  numerous  and  but  partially  known  tribes  of  the  north; 
and  any  attempt  to  assign  a  more  definite  locality  to  Magog  can 
only  be  very  hesitatingly  made.  According  to  some,  the  Maiotes 
about  the  Palus  Maeotis  are  meant;  according  to  others,  the 
Massagetae;  according  to  Kiepert,  the  inhabitants  of  the 
northern  and  eastern  parts  of  Armenia.  The  imagery  employed 
in  Ezekiel's  prophetic  description  was  no  doubt  suggested  by  the 
Scythian  invasion  which  about  the  time  of  Josiah,  630  B.C., 
had  devastated  Asia  (Herodotus  i..  104-106;  Jer.  iv.  3-vi.  30). 
Following  on  this  description,  Gog  figures  largely  in  Jewish  and 
Mahommedan  as  well  as  in  Christian  eschatology.  In  the 
district  of  Astrakhan  a  legend  is  still  to  be  met  with,  to  the  effect 
that  Gog  and  Magog  were  two  great  races,  which  Alexander  the 
Great  subdued  and  banished  to  the  inmost  recesses  of  the 
Caucasus,  where  they  are  meanwhile  kept  in  by  the  terror  of 
twelve  trumpets  blown  by  the  winds,  but  whence  they  are 
destined  ultimately  to  make  their  escape  and  destroy  the  world. 

The  legends  that  attach  themselves  to  the  gigantic  effigies 
(dating  from  1708  and  replacing  those1  destroyed  in  the  Great 
Fire)  of  Gog  and  Magog  in  Guildhall,  London,  are  connected 
only  remotely,  if  at  all,  with  the  biblical  notices.  According  to 
the  Recuyell  des  histoires  de  Troye,  Gog  and  Magog  were  the 
survivors  of  a  race  of  giants  descended  from  the  thirty-three 
wicked  daughters  of  Diocletian;  after  their  brethren  had  been 
slain  by  Brute  and  his  companions,  Gog  and  Magog  were  brought 
to  London  (Troy-novant)  and  compelled  to  officiate  as  porters 
at  the  gate  of  the  royal  palace.  It  is  known  that  effigies  similar 
to  the  present  existed  in  London  as  early  as  the  time  of  Henry  V.; 
but  when  this  legend  began  to  attach  to  them  is  uncertain.  They 
may  be  compared  with  the  giant  images  formerly  kept  at  Antwerp 
(Antigomes)  and  Douai  (Gayant).  According  to  Geoffrey  of 
Monmouth  (Chronicles,  i.  16),  Goemot  or  Goemagot  (either 
corrupted  from  or  corrupted  into  "  Gog  and  Magog  ")  was  a 
giant  who,  along  with  his  brother  Corineus,  tyrannized  in  the 
western  horn  of  England  until  slain  by  foreign  invaders. 

GOGO,  or  GOGHA,  a  town  of  British  India  in  Ahmedabad 
district,  Bombay,  193  m.  N.W.  of  Bombay.  Pop.  (1901)  4798. 
About  J  m.  east  of  the  town  is  an  excellent  anchorage,  in  some 
measure  sheltered  by  the  island  of  Piram,  which  lies  still  farther 
east.  The  natives  of  this  place  are  reckoned  the  best  sailors  in 
India;  and  ships  touching  here  may  procure  water  and  supplies, 
or  repair  damages.  The  anchorage  is  a  safe  refuge  during  the 
south-west  monsoon,  the  bottom  being  a  bed  of  mud  and  the 
water  always  smooth.  Gogo  has  lost  its  commercial  importance 
and  has  steadily  declined  in  population  arid  trade  since  the  time 
of  the  American  Civil  War,  when  it  was  an  important  cotton- 
mart. 

GOGOL,  NIKOLAI  VASILIEVICH  (1800-1852),  Russian 
novelist,  was  born  in  the  province  of  Poltava,  in  South  Russia, 
on  the  3ist  of  March  1809.  Educated  at  the  Niezhin  gymnasium, 
he  there  started  a  manuscript  periodical,  "  The  Star,"  and  wrote 
several  pieces  including  a  tragedy,  The  Brigands.  Having 
completed  his  course  at  Niezhin,  he  went  in  1829  to  St  Petersburg, 
where  he  tried  the  stage  but  failed.  Next  year  he  obtained  a 
clerkship  in  the  department  of  appanages,  but  he  soon  gave  it  up. 
In  literature,  however,  he  found  his  true  vocation.  In  1829  he 
published  anonymously  a  poem  called  Italy,  and,  under  the 
pseudonym  of  V.  Alof,  an  idyll,  Hans  Kuchel  Garten,  which  he 
had  written  while  still  at  Niezhin.  The  idyll  was  so  ridiculed  by 
a  reviewer  that  its  author  bought  up  all  the  copies  he  could 
secure,  and  burnt  them  in  a  room  which  he  hired  for  the  purpose 
at  an  inn.  Gogol  then  fell  back  upon  South  Russian  popular 
literature,  and  especially  the  tales  of  Cossackdom  on  which  his 
boyish  fancy  had  been  nursed,  his  father  having  occupied  the 


GOGRA— GOITRE 


191 


post  of  "  regimental  secretary,"  one  of  the  honorary  officials  in 
the  Zaporogian  Cossack  forces. 

In  1830  he  published  in  a  periodical  the  first  of  the  stories 
which  appeared  next  year  under  the  title  of  Evenings  in  a  Farm 
near  Dikanka:  by  Rudy  Panko.  This  work,  containing  a  series 
of  attractive  pictures  of  that  Little-Russian  life  which  lends 
itself  to  romance  more  readily  than  does  the  monotony  of 
"  Great-Russian  "  existence,  immediately  obtained  a  great 
success — its  light  and  colour,  its  freshness  and  originality  being 
hailed  with  enthusiasm  by  the  principal  writers  of  the  day  in 
Russia.  Whereupon  Gogol  planned,  not  only  a  history  of  Little- 
Russia,  but  also  one  of  the  middle  ages,  to  be  completed  in  eight 
or  nine  volumes.  This  plan  he  did  not  carry  out,  though  it  led 
to  his  being  appointed  to  a  professorship  in  the  university  of 
St  Petersburg,  a  post  in  which  he  met  with  small  success  and 
which  he  resigned  in  1835.  Meanwhile  he  had  published  his 
Arabesques,  a  collection  of  essays  and  stories;  his  Taras  Bulba, 
the  chief  of  the  Cossack  Tales  translated  into  English  by  George 
Tolstoy;  and  a  number  of  novelettes,  which  mark  his  transition 
from  the  romantic  to  the  realistic  school  of  fiction,  such  as  the 
admirable  sketch  of  the  tranquil  life  led  in  a  quiet  country 
house  by  two  kindly  specimens  of  Old-world  Gentlefolks,  or  the 
description  of  the  petty  miseries  endured  by  an  ill-paid  clerk 
in  a  government  office,  the  great  object  of  whose  life  is  to  secure 
the  "  cloak  "  from  which  his  story  takes  its  name.  To  the  same 
period  belongs  his  celebrated  comedy,  the  Revizor,  or  government 
inspector.  His  aim  in  writing  it  was  to  drag  into  light  "  all  that 
was  bad  in  Russia,"  and  to  hold  it  up  to  contempt.  And  he 
succeeded  in  rendering  contemptible  and  ludicrous  the  official 
life  of  Russia,  the  corruption  universally  prevailing  throughout 
the  civil  service,  the  alternate  arrogance  and  servility  of  men 
in  office.  The  plot  of  the  comedy  is  very  simple.  A  traveller 
who  arrives  with  an  empty  purse  at  a  provincial  town  is  taken 
for  an  inspector  whose  arrival  is  awaited  with  fear,  and  he 
receives  all  the  attentions  and  bribes  which  are  meant  to  pro- 
pitiate the  dreaded  investigator  of  abuses.  The  play  appeared 
on  the  stage  in  the  spring  of  1836,  and  achieved  a  full  success, 
in  spite  of  the  opposition  attempted  by  the  official  classes  whose 
malpractices  it  exposed.  The  aim  which  Gogol  had  in  view 
when  writing  the  Revizor  he  afterwards  fully  attained  in  his 
great  novel,  Mertvuiya  Dushi,  or  Dead  Souls,  the  first  part  of 
which  appeared  in  1842.  The  hero  of  the  story  is  an  adventurer 
who  goes  about  Russia  making  fictitious  purchases  of  "  dead 
souls,"  i.e.  of  serfs  who  have  died  since  the  last  census,  with  the 
view  of  pledging  his  imaginary  property  to  the  government. 
But  his  adventures  are  merely  an  excuse  for  drawing  a  series 
of  pictures,  of  an  unfavourable  kind,  of  Russian  provincial  life, 
and  of  introducing  on  the  scene  a  number  of  types  of  Russian 
society.  Of  the  force  and  truth  with  which  these  delineations 
are  executed  the  universal  consent  of  Russian  critics  in  their 
favour  may  be  taken  as  a  measure.  From  the  French  version 
of  the  story  a  general  idea  of  its  merits  may  be  formed,  and  some 
knowledge  of  its  plot  and  its  principal  characters  may  be  gathered 
from  the  English  adaptation  published  in  1854,  as  an  original 
work,  under  the  title  of  Home  Life  in  Russia.  But  no  one  can 
fully  appreciate  Gogol's  merits  as  a  humorist  who  is  not  intimate 
with  the  language  in  which  he  wrote  as  well  as  with  the  society 
which  he  depicted. 

In  1836  Gogol  for  the  first  time  went  abroad.  Subsequently 
he  spent  a  considerable  amount  of  time  out  of  Russia,  chiefly 
in  Italy,  where  much  of  his  Dead  Souls  was  written.  His 
residence  there,  especially  at  Rome,  made  a  deep  impression  on 
his  mind,  which,  during  his  later  years,  turned  towards  mysticism. 
The  last  works  which  he  published,  his  Confession  and  Corre- 
spondence with  Friends,  offer  a  painful  contrast  to  the  light,  bright, 
vigorous,  realistic,  humorous  writings  which  had  gained  and  have 
retained  for  him  his  immense  popularity  in  his  native  land. 
Asceticism  and  mystical  exaltation  had  told  upon  his  nervous 
system,  and  its  feeble  condition  showed  itself  in  his  literary 
compositions.  In  1848  he  made  a  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem,  and 
on  his  return  settled  down  at  Moscow,  where  he  died  on  the  3rd 
of  March  1852. 


See  Materials  for  the  Biography  of  Gogol  (in  Russian)  (1897),  by 
Shenrok;  "  Illness  and  Death  of  Gogol,"  by  N.  Bazhenov,  Russkaya 
Muisl,  January  1902.  (W.  R.  S.-R.) 

GOGRA,  or  GHAGRA,  a  river  of  northern  India.  It  is  an 
important  tributary  of  the  Ganges,  bringing  down  to  the  plains 
more  water  than  the  Ganges  itself.  It  rises  in  Tibet  near  Lake 
Manasarowar,  not  far  from  the  sources  of  the  Brahmaputra 
and  the  Sutlej,  passes  through  Nepal  where  it  is  known  as  the 
Kauriala,  and  after  entering  British  territory  becomes  the  most 
important  waterway  in  the  United  Provinces.  It  joins  the  Ganges 
at  Chapra  after  a  course  of  600  m.  Its  tributary,  the  Rapti, 
also  has  considerable  commercial  importance.  The  Gogra  has 
the  alternative  name  of  Sarju,  and  in  its  lower  course  is  also 
known  as  the  Deoha. 

GOHIER,  LOUIS  JER6ME  (1746-1830),  French  politician, 
was  born  at  Semblancay  (Indre-et-Loire)  on  the  27th  of  February 
1 746,  the  son  of  a  notary.  He  was  called  to  the  bar  at  Rennes, 
and  practised  there  until  he  was  sent  to  represent  the  town  in 
the  states-general.  In  the  Legislative  Assembly  he  represented 
Ille-et-Vilaine.  He  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  deliberations; 
he  protested  against  the  exaction  of  a  new  oath  from  priests 
(Nov.  22, 1 791),  and  demanded  the  sequestration  of  the  emigrants' 
property  (Feb.  7,  1792).  He  was  minister  of  justice  from  March 
1793  to  April  1794,  and  in  June  1799  he  succeeded  Treilhard 
in  the  Directory,  where  he  represented  the  republican  interest. 
His  wife  was  intimate  with  Josephine  Bonaparte,  and  when 
Bonaparte  suddenly  returned  from  Egypt  in  October  1799  he 
repeatedly  protested  his  friendship  for  Gohier,  who  was  then 
president  of  the  Directory,  and  tried  in  vain  to  gain  him  over. 
After  the  coup  d'etat  of  the  i8th  Brumaire  (Nov.  9,  1799),  he 
refused  to  abdicate  his  functions,  and  sought  out  Bonaparte 
at  the  Tuileries  "  to  save  the  republic,"  as  he  boldly  expressed 
it.  He  was  escorted  to  the  Luxembourg,  and  on  his  release 
he  retired  to  his  estate  at  Eaubonne.  In  1802  Napoleon  made 
him  consul-general  at  Amsterdam,  and  on  the  union  of  the 
Netherlands  with  France  he  was  offered  a  similar  post  in  the 
United  States.  His  health  did  not  permit  of  his  taking  up  a  new 
appointment,  and  he  died  at  Eaubonne  on  the  2gth  of  May  1830. 

His  Memoires  d'un  veteran  irreprochable  de  la  Revolution  was 
published  in  1824,  his  report  on  the  papers  of  the  civil  list  preparatory 
to  the  trial  of  Louis  XVI.  is  printed  in  Le  Proces  de  Louis  XVI 
(Paris,  an  III)  and  elsewhere,  while  others  appear  in  the  Moniteur. 

GOHRDE,  a  forest  of  Germany,  in  the  Prussian  province  of 
Hanover,  immediately  W.  of  the  Elbe,  between  Wittenberg  and 
Luneburg.  It  has  an  area  of  about  85  sq.  m.  and  is  famous  for  its 
oaks,  beeches  and  game  preserves.  It  is  memorable  for  the 
victory  gained  here,  on  the  i6th  of  September  1813,  by  the  allies, 
under  Wallmoden,  over  the  French  forces  commanded  by  Pecheur. 
The  hunting-box  situated  in  the  forest  was  built  in  1689  and  was 
restored  by  Ernest  Augustus,  King  of  Hanover.  It  is  known  to 
history  on  account  of  the  constitution  of  Gohrde,  promulgated 
here  in  1719. 

GOITO,  a  village  of  Lombardy,  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Mantua, 
from  which  it  is  n  m.  N.W.,  on  the  road  to  Brescia.  Pop. 
(village)  737;  (commune)  5712.  It  is  situated  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Mincio  near  the  bridge.  Its  position  has  given  it  a  certain 
military  importance  in  various  campaigns  and  it  has  been 
repeatedly  fortified  as  a  bridge-head.  The  Piedmontese  forces 
won  two  actions  (8th  of  April  and  3oth  of  May  1848)  over  the 
Austrians  here. 

GOITRE  (from  Lat.  guttur,  the  throat;  synonyms,  Bronchocele, 
Derbyshire  Neck),  a  term  applied  to  a  swelling  in  the  front  of  the 
neck  caused  by  enlargement  of  the  thyroid  gland.  This  structure, 
which  lies  between  the  skin  and  the  anterior  surface  of  the  wind- 
pipe, and  in  health  is  not  large  enough  to  give  rise  to  any  external 
prominence  (except  in  the  pictures  of  certain  artists),  is  liable  to 
variations  in  size,  more  especially  in  females,  a  temporary 
enlargement  of  the  gland  being  not  uncommon  at  the  catamenial 
periods,  as  well  as  during  pregnancy.  In  goitre  the  swelling  is 
conspicuous  and  is  not  only  unsightly  but  may  occasion  much 
discomfort  from  its  pressure  upon  the  windpipe  and  other 
important  parts  of  the  neck.  J.  L.  Alibert  recorded  cases  of 


192 


GOKAK— GOLD 


goitre  where  the  tumour  hung  down  over  the  breast,  or  reached 
as  low  as  the  middle  of  the  thigh. 

Goitre  usually  appears  in  early  life,  often  from  the  eighth  to  the 
twelfth  year;  its  growth  is  at  first  slow,  but  after  several  years  of 
comparative  quiescence  a  sudden  increase  is  apt  to  occur.  In  the 
earlier  stages  the  condition  of  the  gland  is  simply  an  enlargement 
of  its  constituent  parts,  which  retain  their  normal  soft  consistence; 
but  in  the  course  of  time  other  changes  supervene,  and  it  may 
become  cystic,  or  acquire  hardness  from  increase  of  fibrous  tissue 
or  from  calcareous  deposits.  Occasionally  the  enlargement  is 
uniform,  but  more  commonly  one  of  the  lobes,  generally  the  right, 
is  the  larger.  In  rare  instances  the  disease  is  limited  to  the 
isthmus  which  connects  the  two  lobes  of  the  gland.  The  growth 
is  unattended  with  pain,  and  is  not  inconsistent  with  good  health. 

Goitre  is  a  marked  example  of  an  endemic  disease.  There  are 
few  parts  of  the  world  where  it  is  not  found  prevailing  in  certain 
localities,  these  being  for  the  most  part  valleys  and  elevated  plains 
in  mountainous  districts(see  CRETINISM).  The  malady  is  generally 
ascribed  to  the  use  of  drinking  water  impregnated  with  the  salts  of 
lime  and  magnesia,  in  which  ingredients  the  water  of  goitrous 
districts  abounds.  But  in  localities  not  far  removed  from  those  in 
which  goitre  prevails,  and  where  the  water  is  of  the  same  chemical 
composition,  the  disease  may  be  entirely  unknown.  The  disease 
may  be  the  result  of  a  combination  of  causes,  among  which  local 
telluric  or  malarial  influences  concur  with  those  of  the  drinking 
water.  Goitre  is  sometimes  cured  by  removal  of  the  individual 
from  the  district  where  it  prevails,  and  it  is  apt  to  be  acquired 
by  previously  healthy  persons  who  settle  in  goitrous  localities; 
and  it  is  only  in  such  places  that  the  disease  exhibits  hereditary 
tendencies. 

In  the  early  stages,  change  of  air,  especially  to  the  seaside,  is 
desirable,  and  small  doses  of  iron  and  of  iodine  should  be  given; 
if  this  fails  small  doses  of  thyroid  extract  should  be  tried.  If 
palliative  measures  prove  unsuccessful,  operation  must  be  under- 
taken for  the  removal  of  one  lateral  lobe  and  the  isthmus  of  the 
tumour.  This  may  be  done  under  chloroform  or  after  the  sub- 
cutaneous injection  of  cocaine.  If  chloroform  is  used,  it  must  be 
given  very  sparingly,  as  the  breathing  is  apt  to  become  seriously 
embarrassed  during  the  operation.  After  the  successful  per- 
formance of  the  operation  great  improvement  takes  place,  the 
remaining  part  of  the  gland  slowly  decreasing  in  size.  The  whole 
of  the  gland  must  not  be  removed  during  the  operation,  lest  the 
strange  disease  known  as  Myxoedema  should  be  produced  (see 
METABOLIC  DISEASES). 

In  exophthalmic  goitre  the  bronchocele  is  but  one  of  three 
phenomena,  which  together  constitute  the  disease,  viz.  palpitation 
of  the  heart,  elargement  of  the  thyroid  gland,  and  protrusion  of 
the  eyeballs.  This  group  of  symptoms  is  known  by  the  name  of 
"  Graves's  disease  "  or  "  Von  Basedow's  disease  " — the  physicians 
by  whom  the  malady  was  originally  described.  Although 
occasionally  observed  in  men,  this  affection  occurs  chiefly  in 
females,  and  in  comparatively  early  life.  It  is  generally  preceded 
by  impoverishment  of  blood,  and  by  nervous  or  hysterical 
disorders,  and  it  is  occasionally  seen  in  cases  of  organic  heart 
disease.  It  has  been  suddenly  developed  as  the  effect  of  fright  or 
of  violent  emotion.  The  first  symptom  is  usually  the  palpitation 
of  the  heart,  which  is  aggravated  by  slight  exertion,  and  may  be 
so  severe  as  not  only  to  shake  the  whole  frame  but  even  to  be 
audible  at  some  distance.  A  throbbing  is  felt  throughout  the 
body,  and  many  of  the  larger  blood-vessels  are,  like  the  heart, 
seen  to  pulsate  strongly.  The  enlargement  of  the  thyroid  is 
gradual,  and  rarely  increases  to  any  great  size,  thus  differing 
from  the  commoner  form  of  goitre.  The  enlarged  gland  is  of  soft 
consistence,  and  communicates  a  thrill  to  the  touch  from  its 
dilated  and  pulsating  blood-vessels.  Accompanying  the  goitre  a 
remarkable  change  is  observed  in  the  eyes,  which  attract  attention 
by  their  prominence,  and  by  the  startled  expression  thus  given  to 
the  countenance.  In  extreme  cases  the  eyes  protrude  from  their 
sockets  to  such  a  degree  that  the  eyelids  cannot  be  closed,  and 
injury  may  thus  arise  to  the  constantly  exposed  eyeballs.  Apart 
from  such  risk,  however,  the  vision  is  rarely  affected.  It  occasion- 
ally happens  that  in  undoubted  cases  of  the  disease  one  or  other  of 


the  three  above-named  phenomena  is  absent,  generally  either  th« 
goitre  or  the  exophthalmos.  The  palpitation  of  the  heart  is  the 
most  constant  symptom.  Sleeplessness,  irritability,  disorders  of 
digestion,  diarrhoea  and  uterine  derangements,  are  frequent 
accompaniments.  It  is  a  serious  disease  and,  if  unchecked,  may 
end  fatally.  Some  cases  are  improved  by  general  hygienic 
measures,  others  by  electric  treatment,  or  by  the  administration 
of  animal  extracts  or  of  sera.  Some  cases,  on  the  other  hand,  may 
be  considered  suitable  for  operative  treatment.  (E.  O.*) 

GOKAK,  a  town  of  British  India,  in  the  Belgaum  district  of 
Bombay,  8  m.  from  a  station  on  the  Southern  Mahratta  railway. 
Pop.  (1901)  9860.  It  contains  old  temples  with  inscriptions, 
and  is  known  for  a  special  industry  of  modelled  toys.  About 
4  m.  N.W.  are  the  Gokak  Falls,  where  the  Ghatprabha  throws 
itself  over  a  precipice  170  ft.  high.  Close  by,  the  water  has  been 
impounded  for  a  large  reservoir, which  supplies  not  only  irrigation 
but  also  motive  power  for  a  cotton-mill  employing  2000  hands. 

GOKCHA,  (GoK-CnAi;  Armenian  Sevanga;  ancient  Haosra- 
vagha),  the  largest  lake  of  Russian  Transcaucasia,  in  the  govern- 
ment of  Erivan,  in  40°  9'  to  40°  38'  N.  and  45°  i'  to  45°  40'  E. 
Its  altitude  is  6345  ft.,  it  is  of  triangular  shape,  and  measures 
from  north-west  to  south-east  45  m.,  its  greatest  width  being 
25m.,  and  its  maximum  depth  67  fathoms.  Its  area  is  540  sq.  m. 
It  is  surrounded  by  barren  mountains  of  volcanic  origin,  12,000 
ft.  high.  Its  outflow  is  the  Zanga,  a  left  bank  tributary  of  the 
Aras  (Araxes) ;  it  never  freezes,  and  its  level  undergoes  periodical 
oscillations.  It  contains  four  species  of  Salmonidae,  and  two 
of  Cyprinidae,  which  are  only  met  with  in  the  drainage  area 
of  this  lake.  A  lava  island  in  the  middle  is  crowned  by  an 
Armenian  monastery. 

60LCONDA,  a  fortress  and  ruined  city  of  India,  in  the  Nizam's 
Dominions,  5  m.  W.  of  Hyderabad  city.  In  former  times 
Golconda  was  the  capital  of  a  large  and  powerful  kingdom  of 
the  Deccan,  ruled  by  the  Kutb  Shahi  dynasty  which  was  founded 
in  1512  by  a  Turkoman  adventurer  on  the  downfall  of  the 
Bahmani  dynasty,  but  the  city  was  subdued  by  Aurangzeb  in 
1687,  and  annexed  to  the  Delhi  empire.  The  fortress  of  Golconda, 
situated  on  a  rocky  ridge  of  granite,  is  extensive,  and  contains 
many  enclosures.  It  is  strong  and  in  good  repair,  but  is  com- 
manded by  the  summits  of  the  enormous  and  massive  mausolea 
of  the  ancient  kings  about  600  yds.  distant.  These  buildings, 
which  are  now  the  chief  characteristics  of  the  place,  form  a  vast 
group,  situated  in  .an  arid,  rocky  desert.  They  have  suffered 
considerably  from  the  ravages  of  time,  but  more  from  the  hand 
of  man,  and  nothing  but  the  great  solidity  of  their  walls  has 
preserved  them  from  utter  ruin.  These  tombs  were  erected  at  a 
great  expense,  some  of  them  being  said  to  have  cost  as  much 
as  £i  50,000.  Golconda  fort  is  now  used  as  the  Nizam's  treasury, 
and  also  as  the  state  prison.  Golconda  has  given  its  name  in 
English  literature  to  the  diamonds  which  were  found  in  other 
parts  of  the  dominions  of  the  Kutb  Shahi  dynasty,  not  near 
Golconda  itself. 

GOLD  [symbol  Au,  atomic  weight  195-7(11  =  i), 197-2(0  =16)], 
a  metallic  chemical  element,  valued  from  the  earliest  ages  on 
account  of  the  permanency  of  its  colour  and  lustre.  Gold 
ornaments  of  great  variety  and  elaborate  workmanship  have 
been  discovered  on  sites  belonging  to  the  earliest  known  civiliza- 
tions, Minoan,  Egyptian,  Assyrian,  Etruscan  (see  JEWELRY, 
PLATE,  EGYPT,  CRETE,  AEGEAN  CIVILIZATION,  NUMISMATICS), 
and  in  ancient  literature  gold  is  the  universal  symbol  of  the 
highest  purity  and  value  (cf.  passages  in  the  Old  Testament, 
e.g.  Ps.  xix.  10  "  More  to  be  desired  are  they  than  gold,  yea,  than 
much  fine  gold  ").  With  regard  to  the  history  of  the  metallurgy 
of  gold,  it  may  be  mentioned  that,  according  to  Pliny,  mercury 
was  employed  in  his  time  both  as  a  means  of  separating  the 
precious  metals  and  for  the  purposes  of  gilding.  Vitruvius  also 
gives  a  detailed  account  of  the  means  of  recovering  gold,  by 
amalgamation,  from  cloth  into  which  it  had  been  woven. 

Physical  Properties. — Gold  has  a  characteristic  yellow  colour, 
which  is,  however,  notably  affected  by  small  quantities  of  other 
metals;  thus  the  tint  is  sensibly  lowered  by  small  quantities 
of  silver,  and  heightened  by  copper.  When  the  gold  is  finely 


GOLD 


193 


divided,  as  in  "  purple  of  Cassius,"  or  when  it  is  precipitated 
from  solutions,  the  colour  is  ruby-red,  while  in  very  thin  leaves 
it  transmits  a  greenish  light.  It  is  nearly  as  soft  as  lead  and 
softer  than  silver.  When  pure,  it  is  the  most  malleable  of  all 
metals  (see  GOLDBEATING).  It  is  also  extremely  ductile;  a 
single  grain  may  be  drawn  into  a  wire  500  ft.  in  length,  and  an 
ounce  of  gold  covering  a  silver  wire  is  capable  of  being  extended 
more  than  1300  m.  The  presence  of  minute  quantities  of 
cadmium,  lead,  bismuth,  antimony,  arsenic,  tin,  tellurium  and 
zinc  renders  gold  brittle,  TS^nrth  part  of  one  of  the  three  metals 
first  named  being  sufficient  to  produce  that  quality.  Gold  can 
be  readily  welded  cold;  the  finely  divided  metal,  in  the  state 
in  which  it  is  precipitated  from  solution,  may  be  compressed 
between  dies  into  disks  or  medals.  The  specific  gravity  of  gold 
obtained  by  precipitation  from  solution  by  ferrous  sulphate 
is  from  10-55  to  20-72.  The  specific  gravity  of  cast  gold  varies 
from  18-29  to  19-37,  and  by  compression  between  dies  the 
specific  gravity  may  be  raised  from  19-37  to  19-41;  by  annealing, 
however,  the  previous  density  is  to  some  extent  recovered,  as 
it  is  then  found  to  be  19-40.  The  melting-point  has  been 
variously  given,  the  early  values  ranging  from  1425°  C.  to  103  5°  C. 
Using  improved  methods,  C.  T.  Heycock  and  F.  H.  Neville 
determined  it  to  be  1061-7°  C.;  Daniel  Berthelot  gives  1064°  C., 
while  Jaquerod  and  Perrot  give  1066-1-1067-4°  C.  At  still 
higher  temperatures  it  volatilizes,  forming  a  reddish  vapour. 
Macquer  and  Lavoisier  showed  that  when  gold  is  strongly  heated, 
fumes  arise  which  gild  a  piece  of  silver  held  in  them.  Its  vola- 
tility has  also  been  studied  by  L.  Eisner,  and,  in  the  presence  of 
other  metals,  by  Napier  and  others.  The  volatility  is  barely 
appreciable  at  1075°;  at  1250°  it  is  four  times  as  much  as  at 
1100°.  Copper  and  zinc  increase  the  volatility  far  more  than 
lead,  while  the  greatest  volatility  is  induced,  according  to  T. 
Kirke  Rose,  by  tellurium.  It  has  also  been  shown  that  gold 
volatilizes  when  a  gold-amalgam  is  distilled.  Gold  is  dissipated 
by  sending  a.  powerful  charge  of  electricity  through  it  when  in  the 
form  of  leaf  or  thin  wire.  The  electric  conductivity  is  given  by 
A.  Matthiessen  as  73  at  o°  C.,  pure  silver  being  100;  the  value 
of  this  coefficient  depends  greatly  on  the  purity  of  the  metal, 
the  presence  of  a  few  thousandths  of  silver  lowering  it  by  10%. 
Its  conductivity  for  heat  has  been  variously  given  as  103  (C.  M. 
Despretz),  98  (F.  Crace-Calvert  and  R.  Johnson),  and  60  (G.  H. 
Wiedemann  and  R.  Franz),  pure  silver  being  100.  Its  specific 
heat  is  between  0-0298  (Dulong  and  Petit)  and  0-03244  (Reg- 
nault).  Its  coefficient  of  expansion  for  each  degree  between 
o°  and  100°  C.  is  0-000014661,  or  for  gold  which  has  been 
annealed  0-000015136  (Laplace  and  Lavoisier).  The  spark 
spectrum  of  gold  has  been  mapped  by  A.  Kirchhoff,  R.  Thalen, 
Sir  William  Huggins  and  H.  Kriiss;  the  brightest  lines  are  6277, 
5960,  5955  and  5836  in  the  orange  and  yellow,  and  5230  and 
4792  in  the  green  and  blue. 

Chemical  Properties. — Gold  is  permanent  in  both  dry  and 
moist  air  at  ordinary  or  high  temperatures.  It  is  insoluble  in 
hydrochloric,  nitric  and  sulphuric  acids,  but  dissolves  in  aqua 
regia — a  mixture  of  hydrochloric  and  nitric  acids — and  when 
very  finely  divided  in  a  heated  mixture  of  strong  sulphuric 
acid  and  a  little  nitric  acid;  dilution  with  water,  however, 
precipitates  the  metal  as  a  violet  or  brown  powder  from  this 
solution.  The  metal  is  soluble  in  solutions  of  chlorine,  bromine, 
thiosulphates  and  cyanides;  and  also  in  solutions  which 
generate  chlorine,  such  as  mixtures  of  hydrochloric  acid  with 
nitric  acid,  chromic  acid,  antimonious  acid,  peroxides  and 
nitrates,  and  of  nitric  acid  wjth  a  chloride.  Gold  is  also  attacked 
when  strong  sulphuric  acid  is  submitted  to  electrolysis  with  a 
gold  positive  pole.  W.  Skey  showed  that  in  substances  which 
contain  small  quantities  of  gold  the  precious  metal  may  be 
removed  by  the  solvent  action  of  iodine  or  bromine  in  water. 
Filter  paper  soaked  with  the  clear  solution  is  burnt,  and  the 
presence  of  gold  is  indicated  by  the  purple  colour  of  the  ash.  In 
solution  minute  quantities  of  gold  may  be  detected  by  the 
formation  of  "  purple  of  Cassius,"  a  bluish-purple  precipitate 
thrown  down  by  a  mixture  of  ferric  and  stannous  chlorides. 
?he  atomic  weight  of  gold  was  first  determined  with  accuracy 
HI.  7 


by  Berzelius,  who  deduced  the  value  195-7  (H=i)  from  the 
amount  of  mercury  necessary  to  precipitate  it  from  the  chloride, 
and  195-2  from  the  ratio  between  gold  and  potassium  chloride 
in  potassium  aurichloride,  KAuCl4.  Later  determinations 
were  made  by  Sir  T.  E.  Thorpe  and  A.  P.  Laurie,  Kriiss  and 
J.  W.  Mallet.  Thorpe  and  Laurie  converted  potassium  auri- 
bromide  into  a  mixture  of  metallic  gold  and  potassium  bromide 
by  careful  heating.  The  relation  of  the  gold  to  the  potassium 
bromide,  as  well  as  the  amounts  of  silver  and  silver  bromide 
which  are  equivalent  to  the  potassium  bromide,  were  determined. 
The  mean  value  thus  adduced  was  195-86.  Kriiss  worked  with 
the  same  salt,  arid  obtained  the  value  195-65;  while  Mallet, 
by  analyses  of  gold  chloride  and  bromide,  and  potassium  auri- 
bromide,  obtained  the  value  195-77. 

Occlusion  of  Gas  by  Gold. — T.  Graham  showed  that  gold  is 
capable  of  occluding  by  volume  0-48%  of  hydrogen,  0-20% 
of  nitrogen,  0-29%  of  carbon  monoxide,  and  0-16%  of  carbon 
dioxide.  Varrentrapp  pointed  out  that  "  cornets  "  from  the 
assay  of  gold  may  retain  gas  if  they  are  not  strongly  heated. 

Occurrence  and  Distribution. — Gold  is  found  in  nature  chiefly 
in  the  metallic  state,  i.e.  as  "  native  gold,"  and  less  frequently 
in  combination  with  tellurium,  lead  and  silver.  These  are  the 
only  certain  examples  of  natural  combinations  of  the  metal, 
the  minute,  though  economically  valuable,  quantity  often 
found  in  pyrites  and  other  sulphides  being  probably  only  present 
in  mechanical  suspension.  The  native  metal  crystallizes  in  the 
cubic  system,  the  octahedron  being  the  commonest  form,  but 
other  and  complex  combinations  have  been  observed.  Owing 
to  the  softness  of  the  metal,  large  crystals  are  rarely  well  defined, 
the  points  being  commonly  rounded.  In  the  irregular  crystalline 
aggregates  branching  and  moss-like  forms  are  most  common, 
and  in  Transylvania  thin  plates  or  sheets  with  diagonal  structures 
are  found.  More  characteristic,  however,  than  the  crystallized 
are  the  irregular  forms, which,  when  large,  are  known  as  "nuggets" 
or  "  pepites,"  and  when  in  pieces  below  i  to  ^  oz.  weight  as  gold 
dust,  the  larger  sizes  being  distinguished  as  coarse  or  nuggety 
gold,  and  the  smaller  as  gold  dust  proper.  Except  in  the  larger 
nuggets,  which  may  be  more  or  less  angular,  or  at  times  even 
masses  of  crystals,  with  or  without  associated  quartz  or  other 
rock,  gold  is  generally  found  bean-shaped  or  in  some  other 
flattened  form,  the  smallest  particles  being  scales  of  scarcely 
appreciable  thickness,  which,  from  their  small  bulk  as  compared 
with  their  surface,  subside  very  slowly  when  suspended  in  water, 
and  are  therefore  readily  carried  away  by  a  rapid  current.  These 
form  the  "  float  gold  "  of  the  miner.  The  physical  properties  of 
native  gold  are  generally  similar  to  that  of  the  melted  metal. 

Of  the  minerals  containing  gold  the  most  important  are  sylvanite  or 
graphic  tellurium  (Ag,  Au)  Te2,  with  24  to  26%;  calaverite,  AuTej, 
with  42  % ;  nagyagite  or  foliate  tellurium  (Pb,  Au)i6  Sb3(S,  Te)24, 
with  5  to  9%  of  gold;  petzite,  (Ag,  Au)2Te,  and  white  tellurium. 
These  are  confined  to  a  few  localities,  the  oldest  and  best  known 
being  those  of  Nagyag  and  Offenbanya  in  Transylvania ;  they  have 
also  been  found  at  Red  Cloud,  Colorado,  in  Calaveras  county,  Cali- 
fornia, and  at  Perth  and  Boulder,  West  Australia.  The  minerals 
of  the  second  class,  usually  spoken  of  as  "  auriferous,"  are  compara- 
tively numerous.  Prominent  among  these  are  galena  and  iron  pyrites, 
the  former  being  almost  invariably  gold-bearing.  Iron  pyrites, 
however,  is  of  greater  practical  importance,  being  in  some  districts 
exceedingly  rich,  and,  next  to  the  native  metal,  is  the  most  prolific 
source  of  gold.  Magnetic  pyrites,  copper  pyrites,  zinc  blende  and 
arsenical  pyrites  are  other  and  less  important  examples,  the  last 
constituting  the  gold  ore  formerly  worked  in  Silesia.  A  native  gold 
amalgam  is  found  as  a  rarity  in  California,  and  bismuth  from 
South  America  is  sometimes  rich  in  gold.  Native  arsenic  and 
antimony  are  also  very  frequently  found  to  contain  gold  and  silver. 

The  association  and  distribution  of  gold  may  be  considered  under 
two  different  heads,  namely,  as  it  occurs  in  mineral  veins — "reef 
gold,"  and  in  alluvial  or  other  superficial  deposits  which  are  derived 
from  the  waste  of  the  former — "  alluvial  gold."  Four  distinct 
types  of  reef  gold  deposits  may  be  distinguished:  (i)  Gold  may 
occur  disseminated  through  metalliferous  veins,  generally  with 
sulphides  and  more  particularly  with  pyrites.  These  deposits  seem 
to  be  the  primary  sources  of  native  gold.  (2)  More  common  are  the 
auriferous  quartz-reefs — veins  or  masses  of  quartz  containing  gold 
in  flakes  visible  to  the  naked  eye,  or  so  finely  divided  as  to  be  invisible. 
(3)  The  "  banket  "  formation,  which  characterizes  the  goldfields  of 
South  Africa,  consists  of  a  quartzite  conglomerate  throughout 
which  gold  is  very  finely  disseminated.  (4)  The  siliceous  sinter  at 


GOLD 


Mount  Morgan,  Queensland,  which  is  obviously  associated  with 
hydrothermal  action,  is  also  gold-bearing.  The  genesis  of  the  last 
three  types  of  deposit  is  generally  assigned  to  the  simultaneous 
percolation  of  solutions  of  gold  and  silica,  the  auriferous  solution 
being  formed  during  the  disintegration  of  the  gold-bearing  metalli- 
ferous veins.  But  there  is  much  uncertainty  as  to  the  mechanism 
of  the  process;  some  authors  hold  that  the  soluble  chloride  is  first 
formed,  while  others  postulate  the  intervention  of  a  soluble  aurate. 

In  the  alluvial  deposits  the  associated  minerals  are  chiefly  those 
of  great  density  and  hardness,  such  as  platinum,  osmiridium  and 
other  metals  of  the  platinum  group,  tinstone,  chromic,  magnetic 
and  brown  iron  ores,  diamond,  ruby  and  sapphire,  zircon,  topaz, 
garnet,  &c.  which  represent  the  more  durable  original  constituents  of 
the  rocks  whose  distintegration  has  furnished  the  detritus. 

Statistics  of  Gold  Production. — The  supply  of  gold,  and  also 
its  relation  to  the  supply  of  silver,  has,  among  civilized  nations, 
always  been  of  paramount  importance  in  the  economic  questions 
concerning  money  (see  MONEY  and  BIMETALLISM);  in  this 
article  a  summary  of  the  modern  gold-producing  areas  will  be 
given,  and  for  further  details  reference  should  be  made  to  the 
articles  on  the  localities  named.  The  chief  sources  of  the 
European  supply  during  the  middle  ages  were  the  mines  of 
Saxony  and  Austria,  while  Spain  also  contributed.  The  supplies 
from  Mexico  and  Brazil  were  important  during  the  i6th  and  i7th 
centuries.  Russia  became  prominent  in  1823,  and  for  fourteen 
years  contributed  the  bulk  of  the  supply.  The  United  States 
(California)  after  1848,  and  Australia  after  1851,  were  responsible 
for  enormous  increases  in  the  total  production,  which  has  been 
subsequently  enhanced  by  discoveries  in  Canada,  South  Africa, 
India,  China  and  other  countries. 

The  average  annual  world's  production  for  certain  periods 
from  1801  to  1880  in  ounces  is  given  in  Table  I.  The  average 
TABLE  I. 


Period. 

Oz. 

Period. 

Oz. 

1801-1810 
1811-1820 
1821-1830 
1831-1840 
1841-1850 
1851-1855 

590,750 
380,300 
472,400 
674,200 
1,819,600 
6,350,180 

1856-1860 
1861-1865 
1866-1870 
1871-1875 
1876-1880 

6,350,180 
5,951,770 
6,169,660 
5,487,400 
5,729,300 

production  of  the  five  years  1881-1885  was  the  smallest  since  the 
Australian  and  Calif ornian  mines  began  to  be  worked  in  1848- 
1849;  the  minimum  4,614,588  oz.,  occurred  in  1882.  It  was 
not  until  after  1885  that  the  annual  output  of  the  world  began 
to  expand.  Of  the  total  production  in  1876,  5,016,488  oz., 
almost  the  whole  was  derived  from  the  United  States,  Australasia 
and  Russia.  Since  then  the  proportion  furnished  by  these 
countries  has  been  greatly  lowered  by  the  supplies  from  South 
Africa,  Canada,  India  and  China.  The  increase  of  production 
has  not  been  uniform,  the  greater  part  having  occurred  most 
notably  since  1895.  Among  the  regions  not  previously  important 
as  gold-producers  which  now  contribute  to  the  annual  output, 
the  most  remarkable  are  the  goldfields  of  South  Africa  (Transvaal 
and  Rhodesia,  the  former  of  which  were  discovered  in  1885). 
India  likewise  has  been  added  to  the  list,  its  active  production 
having  begun  at  about  the  same  time  as  that  of  South  Africa. 
The  average  annual  product  of  India  for  the  period  1886  to  1899 
inclusive  was  £698,208,  and  its  present  annual  product  averages 
about  550,000  oz.,  or  about  £2,200,000,  obtained  almost  wholly 
from  the  free-milling  quartz  veins  of  the  Colar  goldfields  in 
Mysore,  southern  India.  In  1900  the  output  was  valued  at 
£1,891,804,  in  1905  at  £2,450,536,  and  in  1908  at  £2,270,000. 
Canada,  too,  assumed  an  important  rank,  having  contributed 
in  1900  £5,583,300;  but  the  output  has  since  steadily  declined 
to  £1,973,000  in  1908.  The  great  increase  during  the  few  years 
preceding  1899  was  due  to  the  development  of  the  goldfields 
of  the  North-Western  Territory,  especially  British  Columbia. 
From  the  district  of  Yukon  (Klondike,  &c.)  £2,800,000  was 
obtained  in  .1899,  wholly  from  alluvial  workings,  but  the  progress 
made  since  has  been  slower  than  was  expected  by  sanguine 
people.  It  is,  however,  probable  that  the  North-Western 
Territory  will  continue  to  yield  gold  in  important  quantities 
for  some  time  to  come. 

The  output  of  the  United  States  increased  from  £7,050,000 


in  1881  to  £16,085,567  in  1900,  £17,916,000  in  1905,  and  to 
£20,065,000  in  1908.  This  increase  was  chiefly  due  to  the 
exploitation  of  new  goldfields.  The  fall  in  the  price  of  silver 
stimulated  the  discovery  and  development  of  gold  deposits, 
and  many  states  formerly  regarded  as  characteristically  silver 
districts  have  become  important  as  gold  producers.  Colorado  is 
a  case  in  point,  its  output  having  increased  from  about  £600,000 
in  1880  to  £6,065,000  in  1900;  it  was  £5,139,800  in  1905.  Some- 
what more  than  one-half  of  the  Colorado  gold  is  obtained  from 
the  Cripple  Creek  district.  Other  states  also  showed  a  largely 
augmented  product.  On  the  other  hand,  the  output  of  California, 
which  was  producing  over  £3,000,000  per  annum  in  1876,  has 
fallen  off,  the  average  annual  output  from  1876  to  1000 
being  £2,800,000;  in  1905  the  yield  was  £3,839,000.  This 
decrease  was  largely  caused  by  the  practical  suspension  for 
many  years  of  the  hydraulic  mining  operations,  in  preparation 
for  which  millions  of  dollars  had  been  expended  in  deep  tunnels, 
flumes,  &c.,  and  the  active  continuance  of  which  might  have  been 
expected  to  yield  some  £2,000,000  of  gold  annually.  This  inter- 
ruption, due  to  the  practical  prohibition  of  the  industry  by  the 
United  States  courts,  on  the  ground  that  it  was  injuring,  through 
the  deposit  of  tailings,  agricultural  lands  and  navigable  streams, 
was  lessened,  though  not  entirely  removed,  by  compromises  and 
regulations  which  permit,  under  certain  restrictions,  the  renewed 
exploitation  of  the  ancient  river-beds  by  the  hydraulic  method. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  progressive  reduction  of  mining  and 
metallurgical  costs  effected  by  improved  transportation  and 
machinery,  and  the  use  of  high  explosives,  compressed  air, 
electric-power  transmission,  &c.,  resulted  in  California  (as 
elsewhere)  in  a  notable  revival  of  deep  mining.  This  was 
especially  the  caseonthe  "  Mother  Lode,"  where  highly  promising 
results  were  obtained.  Not  only  is  vein-material  formerly 
regarded  as  unremunerative  now  extracted  at  a  profit,  but  in 
many  instances  increased  gold-values  have  been  encountered 
below  zones  of  relative  barrenness,  and  operators  have  been 
encouraged  to  make  costly  preparations  for  really  deep  mining 
— more  than  3000  ft.  below  the  surface.  The  gold  product  of 
California,  therefore,  may  be  fairly  expected  to  maintain  itself, 
and,  indeed,  to  show  an  advance.  Alaska  appeared  in  the  list 
of  gold-producing  countries  in  1886,  and  gradually  increased  its 
annual  output  until  1897,  when  the  country  attracted  much  atten- 
tion with  a  production  valued  at  over  £500,000;  the  opening  up 
of  new  workings  has  increased  this  figure  immensely,  from  about 
£1,400,000  in  1901  to  £3,006,500  in  1905.  The  Alaska  gold 
was  derived  almost  wholly  from  the  large  low-grade  quartz  mines 
of  Douglas  Island  prior  to  1899,  but  in  that  year  an  important 
district  was  discovered  at  Cape  Nome,  on  the  north-western 
coast.  The  result  of  a  few  months'  working  during  that  year 
was  more  than  £500,000  of  gold,  and  a  very  much  larger  annual 
output  may  reasonably  be  anticipated  in  the  future;  in  1905  it 
was  about  £900,000.  The  gold  occurs  in  alluvial  deposits 
designated  as  gulch-,  bar-,  beach-,  tundra-  and  bench-placers. 
The  tundra  is  a  coastal  plain,  swampy  and  covered  with  under- 
growth and  underlaid  by  gravel.  The  most  interesting  and,  thus 
far,  the  most  productive  are  the  beach  deposits,  similar  to  those 
on  the  coast  of  Northern  California.  These  occur  in  a  strip  of 
comparatively  fine  gravel  and  sand,  150  yds.  wide,  extending 
along  the  shore.  The  gold  is  found  in  stratified  layers,  with 
"  ruby  "  and  black  sand.  The  "  ruby  "  sand  consists  chiefly  of 
fine  garnets  and  magnetites,  with  a  few  rose-quartz  grains. 
Further  exploration  of  the  interior  will  probably  result  in  the 
discovery  of  additional  gold  district^. 

Mexico,  from  a  gold  production  of  £200,000  in  1891,  advanced 
to  about  £1,881,800  in  1900  and  to  about  £3,221,000  in  1905.  Of 
this  increase,  a  considerable  part  was  derived  from  gold-quartz 
mining,  though  much  was  also  obtained  as  a  by-product  in  the 
working  of  the  ores  of  other  metals.  The  product  of  Colombia, 
Venezuela,  the  Guianas,  Brazil,  Uruguay,  Argentina,  Chile, 
Bolivia,  Peru  and  Ecuador  amounted  in  1900  to  £2,481,000  and 
to  £2,046,000  in  1905. 

In  1876  Australasia  produced  £7,364,000,  of  which  Victoria 
contributed  £3,984,000.  The  annual  output  of  Victoria  declined 


GOLD 


'95 


until  the  year  1892,  when  it  began  to  increase  rapidly,  but  not  to 
its  former  level,  the  values  for  1000  and  1905  being  £3,142,000 
and  £3,138,000.     There   has   been   an  important  increase  in 
Queensland,    which    advanced    from     £1,696,000  in    1876   to 
£2,843,000  in  1900,  and  subsequently  declined   to    £2,489,000 
in '190  5.     There  has  been  no  increase,  and,  indeed,  no  large 
fluctuation  until  quite  recently  in  the  output  of  New  Zealand, 
which  averaged  £1,054,000  per 
annum  from  1876  to  1898,  but 
the  production  of  the  two  years 
1900 and  igosrose to £1,425,459 
and  £2,070,407  respectively.  By 
far  the  most  important  addition 
to  the  Australasian  product  has 
come  fromWest  Australia,  which 
began  its  production  in  1887  — 
about  the  time  of  the  incep- 
tion of  mining  at  Witwaters- 
rand  ("the  Rand")  in  South 
Africa — and  by  continuous  in- 
crease,   which    assumed    large 
proportions  towards  the  close  of 
the  igthcentury,  was£6,426,ooo 
in  1899,  £6, 1 79,000  in  1900,  and 
£8,212,000  in  1905.     The  total 
Australasian  production  in  1908 
was  valued  at  £14,708,000. 

Undoubtedly  the  greatest  of 
the  gold  discoveries  made  in  the 
latter  half  of  the  igth  century 
was  that  of  the  Witwatersrand 
district  in  the  Transvaal.  By 
reason  of  its  unusual  geological 
character  and  great  economic 
importance  this  district  deserves 
a  more  extended  description.  The  gold  occurs  in  conglomerate 
beds,  locally  known  as  "banket."  There  are  several  series  of 
parallel  beds,  interstratified  with  quartzite  and  schist,  the  most 
important  being  the  "main  reef"  series.  The  gold  in  this  con- 
glomerate reef  is  partly  of  detrital  origin  and  partly  of  the  genetic 
character  of  ordinary  vein-gold.  The  formation  is  noted  for  its 
regularity  as  regards  both  the  thickness  and  the  gold-tenor  of 
the  ore-bearing  reefs,  in  which  respect  it  is  unparalleled  in  the 
geology  of  the  auriferous  formations.  The  gold  carries,  on  an 
average,  £2  per  ton,  and  is  worked  by  ordinary  methods  of  gold- 
mining,  stamp-milling  and  cyaniding.  In  1899,  5762  stamps 
were  in  operation,  crushing  7,331,446  tons  of  ore,  and  yielding 
£15,134,000,  equivalent  to  25-5%  of  the  world's  production. 
Of  this,  80%  came  from  within  12  m.  of  Johannesburg.  After 
September  1899  operations  were  suspended,  almost  entirely 
owing  to  the  Boer  War,  but  on  the  2nd  of  May  1901  they  were 
started  again.  In  1905  the  yield  was  valued  at  £20,802,074, 
and  in  1909  at  £30,925,788.  So  certain  is  the  ore-bearing 
formation  that  engineers  in  estimating  its  auriferous  contents 
feel  justified  in  assuming,  as  a  factor  in  their  calculations,  a 
vertical  extension  limited  only  by  the  lowest  depths  at  which 
mining  is  feasible.  On  such  a  basis  they  arrived  at  more  than 
£600,000,000  as  the  available  gold  contained  in  the  Witwaters- 
rand conglomerates.  This  was  a  conservative  estimate,  and  was 
made  before  the  full  extent  of  the  reefs  was  known;  in  1904 
Lionel  Phillips  stated  that  the  main  reef  series  had  been 
proved  for  61  m.,  and  he  estimated  the  gold  remaining  to  be 
mined  to  be  worth  £2,500,000,000.  Deposits  similar  to  the 
Witwatersrand  banket  occur  in  Zululand,  and  also  on  the 
Gold  Coast  of  Africa.  In  Rhodesia,  the  country  lying  north 
of  the  Transvaal,  where  gold  occurs  in  well-defined  quartz- 
veins,  there  is  unquestionable  evidence  of  extensive  ancient 
workings.  The  economic  importance  of  the  region  generally 
has  been  fully  proved.  Rhodesia  produced  £386,148  in  1900 
and  £722,656  in  1901,  in  spite  of  the  South  African  War;  the 
product  for  1905  was  valued  at  £1,480,449,  and  for  1908  at 
£2,526,000. 


The  gold  production  of  Russia  has  been  remarkably  constant, 
averaging  £4,899,262  per  annum;  the  gold  is  derived  chiefly 
from  placer  workings  in  Siberia. 

The  gold  production  of  China  was  estimated  for  1899  at 
£1,328,238  and  for  1900  at  £860,000;  it  increased  in  1901  to 
about  £1,700,000,  to  fall  to  £340,000  in  1905;  in  1906  and  1907 
it  recovered  to  about  £1,000,000. 

TABLE  II. — Gold  Production  of  Certain  Countries,  1881-1908  (in  oz.). 


Year. 

Australasia. 

Africa. 

Canada. 

India. 

Mexico. 

Russia. 

United 
States. 

Totals. 

1881 

,475,161 

52,483 

41,545 

,181,853 

,678,612 

4,976,980 

1882 

,438,067 

52,000 

45-289 

,154,613 

,572,187 

4,825,794 

1883 

,333,849 

46,150 

46,229 

,132,219 

,451,250 

4-614,588 

1884 

,352,761 

46,000 

57-227 

,055,642 

-489-950 

4,902,889 

*  •""f 

1885 

,309,804 

53,987 

46,941 

,225,738 

-538,325 

5,002,584 

1886 

,257,670 

66,061 

29,702 

922,226 

,693,125 

5,044,363 

1887 

,290,202 

28,754 

59,884 

15,403 

39,861 

971,656 

,596,375 

5,061,490 

1888 

,344,002 

240,266 

53,150 

35,034 

47,"7 

,030,151 

,604,841 

5.175,623 

1889 

,540,607 

366,023 

62,658 

78,649 

33,862 

,154,076 

,587,000 

5-611,245 

1890 

,453,172 

497,817 

55,625 

107,273 

37,104 

,134,590 

,588,880 

5,726,966 

1891 

,518,690 

729,268 

45-022 

J3i,776 

48,375 

,168,764 

,604,840 

6,287,591 

1892 

1,638,238 

1,210,869 

43,905 

164,141 

54,625 

,199,809 

,597-098 

7,102,172 

1893 

1,711,892 

1,478,477 

44,853 

207,152 

63,144 

,345-224 

-739,323 

7,772,585 

1894 

2,020,180 

2,024,164 

50,411 

210,412 

217,688 

,167,455 

,910,813 

8,813,848 

1895 

2,170,505 

2,277,640 

92,440 

257,830 

290,250 

,397,767 

2,254,760 

9,814,505 

1896 

2,185,872 

2,280,892 

136,274 

323,501 

314,437 

,041,794 

2,568,132 

9,950,861 

1897 

2,547,704 

2,832,776 

294,582 

350,585 

362,812 

,124,511 

2,774-935 

11,420,068 

1898 

3,137,644 

3,876,216 

669,445 

376,43i 

411,187 

,231,791 

3,118,398 

13,877,806 

1899 

3,837,181 

3,532,488 

1,031,563 

418,869 

411,187 

,072,333 

3,437,210 

14,837-775 

1900 

3,555,506 

419,503 

1,348,720 

456,444 

435,375 

974,537 

3.829,897 

12,315,135 

1901 

3,719,080 

439,704 

1,167,216 

454,527 

497,527 

,105,412 

3,805,500 

12,698,089 

1902 

3,946,374 

1,887,773 

1,003,355 

463,824 

491,156 

,090,053 

3,870,000 

14,313,660 

1903 

4,315,538 

3,289,409 

911,118 

552,873 

516,524 

,191,582 

3,560,000 

15,852,620 

1904 

4,245,744 

4,156,084 

793,350 

556,097 

609,781 

,199-857 

3,892,480 

16,790,351 

1905 

4,159,220 

5,477,841 

700,863 

576,889 

779,181 

,063,883 

4-265,742 

18,360,945 

y 

1906 

3,984,538 

6,449,749 

581,709 

525,527 

896,615 

,087,056 

4,565,333 

19,620,272 

1907 

3,659,693 

7,270,464 

399,844 

495,965 

903,672 

,282,635 

4-374,827 

19,988,144 

1908 

3,557,705 

7,983,348 

462,467 

504,309 

1,182,445 

,497,076 

4,659,360 

21,529,300 

Alloys. — Gold  forms  alloys  with  most  metals,  and  of  these  many 
are  of  great  importance  in  the  arts.  The  alloy  with  mercury— gold 
amalgam — is  so  readily  formed  that  mercury  is  one  of  the  most 
powerful  agents  for  extracting  the  precious  metal.  With  10%  of 
gold  present  the  amalgam  is  fluid,  and  with  12-5  %  pasty,  while  with 
13  %  it  consists  of  yellowish-white  crystals.  Gold  readily  alloys  with 
silver  and  copper  to  form  substances  in  use  from  remote  times  for 
money,  jewelry  and  plate.  Other  metals  which  find  application  in 
the  metallurgy  of  gold  by  virtue  of  their  property  of  extracting  the 
gold  as  an  alloy  are  lead,  which  combines  very  readily  when  molten, 
and  which  can  afterwards  be  separated  by  cupellation,  and  copper, 
which  is  separated  from  the  gold  by  solution  in  acids  or  by  electro- 
lysis ;  molten  lead  also  extracts  gold  from  the  copper-gold  alloys. 
The  relative  amount  of  gold  in  an  alloy  is  expressed  in  two  ways : 

(1)  as  "  fineness,"  i.e.  the  amount  of  gold  in  1000  parts  of  alloy; 

(2)  as  "  carats,"  i.e.  the  amount  of  gold  in  24  parts  of  alloy.     Thus, 
pure  gold  is  1000  "  fine  "  or  24  carat.     In  England  the  following 
standards  are  used  for  plate  and  jewelry:  375,  500,  625,  750  and 
916-6,  corresponding  to  9,  12,   15,   18  and  22  carats,  the  alloying 
metals  being  silver  and  copper  in  varying  proportions.     In  France 
three  alloys  of  the  following  standards  are  used  for  jewelry,  920, 
840  and  750.     A  greenish  alloy  used  by  goldsmiths  contains  70  %  of 
silver  and  30  %  of  gold.     "  Blue  gold      is  stated  to  contain  75  % 
of  gold  and  25  %  of  iron.     The  Japanese  use  for  ornament  an  alloy 
of  gold  and  silver,  the  standard  of  which  varies  from  350  to  500, 
the  colour  of  the  precious  metal  being  developed  by  "  pickling  '  in 
a  mixture  of  plum-juice,  vinegar  and  copper  sulphate.     They  may 
be  said  to  possess  a  series  of  bronzes,  in  which  ^old  and  silver  replace 
tin  and  zinc,  all  these  alloys  being  characterized  by  patina  having 
a  wonderful  range  of  tint.     The  common  alloy,  Shi-ya-ku-Do,  con- 
tains 70%  of  copper  and  30%  of  gold;  when  exposed  to  air  it 
becomes  coated  with  a  fine  black  patina,  and  is  much  used  in  Japan 
for  sword  ornaments.     Gold  wire  may  be  drawn  of  any  quality,  but  it 
is  usual  to  add  5  to  9  dwts.  of  copper  to  the  pound.     The  "  solders  " 
used  for  red  gold  contain  I  part  of  copper  and  5  of  gold;  for  light 
gold,  i  part  of  copper,  I  of  silver  and  4  of  gold. 

Gold  and  Silver. — Electrum  is  a  natural  alloy  of  gold  and  silver. 
Matthiessen  observed  that  the  density  of  alloys,  the  composition  of 
which  varies  from  AuAge  to  Au«Ag,  is  greater  than  that  calculated 
from  the  densities  of  the  constituent  metals.  These  alloys  are 
harder,  more  fusible  and  more  sonorous  than  pure  gold.  The  alloys 
of  the  formulae  AuAg,  AuAgj,  AuAg4  and  AuAgM  are  perfectly 
homogeneous,  and  have  been  studied  by  Levol.  Molten  alloys  con- 
taining more  than  80  %  of  silver  deposit  on  cooling  the  alloy  AuAg», 
little  gold  remaining  in  the  mother  liquor. 

Gold  and  Zinc. — When  present  in  small  quantities  zinc  renders  gold 


196 


GOLD 


brittle,  but  it  may  be  added  to  gold  in  larger  quantities  without 
destroying  the  ductility  of  the  precious  metal ;  Pehgot  proved  that  a 
triple  alloy  of  gold,  copper  and  zinc,  which  contains  5-8  %  of  the  last- 
named,  is  perfectly  ductile.  The  alloy  of  1 1  parts  gold  and  I  part  of 
zinc  is,  however,  stated  to  be  brittle. 

Gold  and  Tin. — Alchorne  showed  that  gold  alloyed  with  j^th  part 
of  tin  is  sufficiently  ductile  to  be  rolled  and  stamped  into  coin,  pro- 
vided the  metal  is  not  annealed  at  a  high  temperature.  The  alloys 
of  tin  and  gold  are  hard  and  brittle,  and  the  combination  of  the  metals 
is  attended  with  contraction;  thus  the  alloy  SnAu  has  a  density 
14-243,  instead  of  14-828  indicated  by  calculation.  Matthiessen  and 
Bose  obtained  large  crystals  of  the  alloy  Au2Sn6,  having  the  colour 
of  tin,  which  changed  to  a  bronze  tint  by  oxidation. 

Cold  and  Iron. — Hatchett  found  that  the  alloy  of  n  parts  gold 
and  I  part  of  iron  is  easily  rolled  without  annealing.  In  these  pro- 
portions the  density  of  the  alloy  is  less  than  the  mean  of  its  con- 
stituent metals. 

Gold  and  Palladium. — These  metals  are  stated  to  alloy  in  all  pro- 
portions. According  to  Chenevix,  the  alloy  composed  of  equal  parts 
of  the  two  metals  is  grey,  is  less  ductile  than  its  constituent  metals 
and  has  the  specific  gravity  1 1  -08.  The  alloy  of  4  parts  of  gold  and  I 
part  of  palladium  is  white,  hard  and  ductile.  Graham  showed  that  a 
wire  of  palladium  alloyed  with  from  24  to  25  parts  of  gold  does  not 
exhibit  the  remarkable  retraction  which,  in  pure  palladium,  attends 
its  loss  of  occluded  hydrogen. 

Gold  and  Platinum. — Clarke  states  that  the  alloy  of  equal  parts 
of  the  two  metals  is  ductile,  and  has  almost  the  colour  of  gold. 

Gold  and  Rhodium. — Gold  alloyed  with  Jth  or  £th  of  rhodium  is, 
according  to  Wollaston.very  ductile,  infusible  and  of  the  colour  of  gold. 

Gold  and  Iridium. — Small  quantities  of  iridium  do  not  destroy  the 
ductility  of  gold,  but  this  is  probably  because  the  metal  is  only  dis- 
seminated through  the  mass,  and  not  alloyed,  as  it  falls  to  the  bottom 
of  the  crucible  in  which  the  gold  is  fused. 

Gold  and  Nickel. — Eleven  parts  of  gold  and  I  of  nickel  yield  an 
alloy  resembling  brass. 

Gold  and  Cobalt. — Eleven  parts  of  gold  and  I  of  cobalt  form  a 
brittle  alloy  of  a  dull  yellow  colour. 

Compounds. — Aurous  oxide,  AujO,  is  obtained  by  cautiously 
adding  potash  to  a  solution  of  aurous  bromide,  or  by  boiling 
mixed  solutions  of  auric  chloride  and  mercurous  nitrate.  It  forms 
a  dark-violet  precipitate  which  dries  to  a  greyish-violet  powder. 
When  freshly  prepared  it  dissolves  in  cold  water  to  form  an  indigo- 
coloured  solution  with  a  brownish  fluorescence  of  colloidal  aurous 
oxide;  it  is  insoluble  in  hot  water.  This  oxide  is  slightly  basic. 
Auric  oxide,  Au2O3,  is  a  brown  powder,  decomposed  into  its  elements 
when  heated  to  about  250°  or  on  exposure  to  light.  When  a  con- 
centrated solution  of  auric  chloride  is  treated  with  caustic  potash, 
a  brown  precipitate  of  auric  hydrate,  Au(OH)3,  is  obtained,  which, 
on  heating,  loses  water  to  form  auryl  hydrate,  AuO(OH),  and 
auric  oxide,  Au2O3.  It  functions  chiefly  as  an  acidic  oxide,  being 
less  basic  than  aluminium  oxide,  and  forming  no  stable  oxy-salts. 
It  dissolves  in  alkalis  to  form  well-defined  crystalline  salts ;  potassium 
aurate,  KAuCVSHjO,  is  very  soluble  in  water,  and  is  used  in  electro- 
gilding.  With  concentrated  ammonia  auric  oxide  forms  a  black, 
highly  explosive  compound  of  the  composition  AuN2H3-3H2O, 
named  "  fulminating  gold  ";  this  substance  is  generally  considered 
to  be  Au(NH2)NH-3H2O,  but  it  may  be  an  ammine  of  the  formula 
[Au(NH3)2(OH)2]OH.  Other  oxides,  e.g.  Au2O2,  have  been.described. 

Aurous  chloride,  AuCl,  is  obtained  as  a  lemon-yellow,  amorphous 
powder,  insoluble  in  water,  by  heating  auric  chloride  to  185  .  It 
begins  to  decompose  into  gold  and  chlorine  at  185°,  the  decomposition 
being  complete  at  230°;  water  decomposes  it  into  gold  and  auric 
chloride.  Auric  chloride,  or  gold  trichloride,  AuCl3,  is  a  dark  ruby- 
red  or  reddish-brown,  crystalline,  deliquescent  powder  obtained  by 
dissolving  the  metal  in  aqua  regia.  It  is  also  obtained  by  carefully 
evaporating  a  solution  of  the  metal  in  chlorine  water.  The  gold 
chloride  of  commerce,  which  is  used  in  photography,  is  really  a 
hydrochloride,  chlorauric  or  aurichloric  acid,  HAuCU-Sr^O,  and 
is  obtained  in  long  yellow  needles  by  crystallizing  the  acid  solution. 
Corresponding  to  this  acid,  a  series  of  salts,  named  chloraurates  or 
aurichlorides,  are  known.  The  potassium  salt  is  obtained  by  crys- 
tallizing equivalent  quantities  of  potassium  and  auric  chlorides. 
Light-yellow  monoclinic  needles  of  2KAuCU-H2O  are  deposited  from 
warm,  strongly  acid  solutions,  and  transparent  rhombic  tables  of 
KAuCU-2H2O  from  neutral  solutions.  By  crystallizing  an  aqueous 
solution,  red  crystals  of  AuQ3-2H2O  are  obtained.  Auric  chloride 
combines  with  the  hydrochlorides  of  many  organic  bases — amines, 
alkaloids,  &c. — to  form  characteristic  compounds.  Gold  dichloride, 
probably  Au2CU,  =Au.AuCl<,  aurous  chloraurate,  is  said  to  be 
obtained  as  a  dark-red  mass  by  heating  finely  divided  gold  to  140°- 
170°  in  chlorine.  Water  decomposes  it  into  gold  and  auric  chloride. 
The  bromides  and  iodides  resemble  the  chlorides.  Aurous  bromide, 
AuBr,  is  a  yellowish-green  powder  obtained  by  heating  the  tri- 
bromide  to  140°;  auric  bromide,  AuBr3,  forms  reddish-black  or 
scarlet-red  leafy  crystals,  which  dissolye  in  water  to  form  a  reddish- 
brown  solution.and  combines  with  bromides  to  form  bromauratescorre- 
sponding  to  the  chloraurates.  Aurous  iodide,  Aul,  is  a  light-yellow, 
sparingly  soluble  powder  obtained,  together  with  free  iodine,  by 
adding  potassium  iodide  to  auric  chloride;  auric  iodide,  Auls, 
is  formed  as  a  dark-green  powder  at  the  same  time,  but  it  readily 


decomposes  to  aurous  iodide  and  iodine.  Aurous  iodide  is  also 
obtained  as  a  green  solid  by  acting  upon  gold  with  iodine.  The 
iodaurates  correspond  to  the  chlor-  and  bromaurates;  the  potassium 
salt,  KAuI<,  forms  highly  lustrous,  intensely  black,  four-sided  prisms. 

Aurous  cyanide,  AuCN,  forms  yellow,  microscopic,  hexagonal 
tables,  insoluble  in  water,  and  is  obtained  by  the  addition  of  hydro- 
chloric acid  to  a  solution  of  potassium  aurocyanide,  KAu(CN)2. 
This  salt  is  prepared  by  precipitating  a  solution  of  gold  in  aqua  regia 
by  ammonia,  and  then  introducing  the  well-washed  precipitate  into 
a  boiling  solution  of  potassium  cyanide.  The  solution  is  filtered 
and  allowed  to  cool,  when  colourless  rhombic  pyramids  of  the 
aurocyanide  separate.  It  is  also  obtained  in  the  action  of  potassium 
cyanide  on  gold  in  the  presence  of  air,  a  reaction  utilized  in  the 
MacArthur-Forrest  process  of  gold  extraction  (see  below).  Auric 
cyanide,  Au(CN)3,  is  not  certainly  known;  its  double  sajts,  how- 
ever, have  been  frequently  described.  Potassium  auricyanide, 
2KAu(CN)4-3H2O,  is  obtained  as  large,  colourless,  efflorescent 
tablets  by  crystallizing  concentrated  solutions  of  auric  chloride 
and  potassium  cyanide.  The  acid,  auricyanic  acid,  2HAu(CN)4-3H2O, 
is  obtained  by  treating  the  silver  salt  (obtained  by  precipitating 
the  potassium  salt  with  silver  nitrate)  with  hydrochloric  acid;  it 
forms  tabular  crystals,  readily  soluble  in  water,  alcohol  and  ether. 

Gold  forms  three  sulphides  corresponding  to  the  oxides;  they 
readily  decompose  on  heating.  Aurous  sulphide,  Au2S,  is  a  brownish- 
black  powder  formed  by  passing  sulphuretted  hydrogen  into  a 
solution  of  potassium  aurocyanide  and  then  acidifying.  Sodium 
aurosulphide,  NaAuS-4H2O,  is  prepared  by  fusing  gold  with  sodium 
sulphide  and  sulphur,  the  melt  being  extracted  with  water,  filtered 
in  an  atmosphere  of  nitrogen,  and  evaporated  in  a  vacuum  over 
sulphuric  acid.  It  forms  colourless,  monoclinic  prisms,  which  turn 
brown  on  exposure  to  air.  This  method  of  bringing  gold  into 
solution  is  mentioned  by  Stahl  in  his  Observations  Chymico- 
Physico-Medicae;  he  there  remarks  that  Moses  probably  destroyed 
the  golden  calf  by  burning  it  with  sulphur  and  alkali  (Ex.  xxxii.  20). 
Auric  sulphide,  Au2S3,  is  an  amorphous  powder  formed  when  lithium 
aurichlonde  is  treated  with  dry  sulphuretted  hydrogen  at  — 10°. 
It  is  very  unstable,  decomposing  into  gold  and  sulphur  at  200°. 

Oxy-salts  of  gold  are  almost  unknown,  but  the  sulphite  and  thio- 
sulphate  form  double  salts.  Thus  by  adding  acid  sodium  sulphite 
to,  or  by  passing  sulphur  dioxide  at  50°  into,  a  solution  of  sodium 
aurate,  the  salt,  3Na2SO3-Au2SO3-3H2O  is  obtained,  which,  when 
precipitated  from  its  aqueous  solution  by  alcohol,  forms  a  purple 
powder,  appearing  yellow  or  green  by  reflected  light.  Sodium 
aurothiosutphate,  3Na2S2O3-Au2S2O3-4H2O,  forms  colourless  needles; 
it  is  obtained  in  the  direct  action  of  sodium  thiosulphatcongoldinthe 
presence  of  an  oxidizing  agent,  or  by  the  addition  of  a  dilute  solution 
of  auric  chloride  to  a  sodium  thiosulphate  solution. 

Mining  and  Metallurgy. 

The  various  deposits  of  gold  may  be  divided  into  two  classes — 
"veins "and  "placers."  The  vein  mining  of  gold  does  not 
greatly  differ  from  that  of  similar  deposits  of  metals  (see  MINERAL 
DEPOSITS).  In  the  placer  or  alluvial  deposits,  the  precious  metal 
is  found  usually  in  a  water-worn  condition  imbedded  in  earthy 
matter,  and  the  method  of  working  all  such  deposits  is  based  on 
the  disintegration  of  the  earthy  matter  by  the  action  of  a  stream 
of  water,  which  washes  away  the  lighter  portions  and  leaves  the 
denser  gold.  In  alluvial  deposits  the  richest  ground  is  usually 
found  in  contact  with  the  "bed  rock";  and,  when  the  overlying 
cover  of  gravel  is  very  thick,  or,  as  sometimes  happens,  when  the 
older  gravel  is  covered  with  a  flow  of  basalt,  regular  mining  by 
shafts  and  levels,  as  in  what  are  known  as  tunnel-claims,  may  be 
required  to  reach  the  auriferous  ground. 

The  extraction  of  gold  may  be  effected  by  several  methods; 
we  may  distinguish  the  following  leading  types: 

1.  By  simple  washing,  i.e.  dressing auriferoussands,gravels,&c.; 

2.  By  amalgamation,  i.e.  forming  a  gold  amalgam,  afterwards 
removing  the  mercury  by  distillation; 

3.  By  chlorination,  i.e.  forming  the  soluble  gold  chloride  and 
then  precipitating  the  metal; 

4.  By  the  cyanide  process,  i.e.  dissolving  the  gold  in  potassium 
cyanide  solution,  and  then  precipitating  the  metal; 

5.  Electrolytically,  generally  applied  to  the  solutions  obtained 
in  processes  (3)  and  (4). 

I.  Extraction  of  Gold  by  Washing. — In  the  early  days  of  gold- 
washing  in  California  and  Australia,  when  rich  alluvial  deposits 
were  common  at  the  surface,  the  most  simple  appliances  sufficed. 
The  most  characteristic  is  the  "  pan,"  a  circular  dish  of  sheet- 
iron  or  "  tin,"  with  sloping  sides  about  13  or  14  in.  in  diameter. 
The  pan,  about  two-thirds  filled  with  the  "  pay  dirt  "  to  be  washed, 
is  held  in  the  stream  or  in  a  hole  filled  with  water.  The  larger 
stones  having  been  removed  by  hand,  gyratory  motion  is  given 
to  the  pan  by  a  combination  of  shaking  and  twisting  movements 


GOLD 


197 


so  as  to  keep  its  contents  suspended  in  the  stream  of  water,  which 
carries  away  the  bulk  of  the  lighter  material,  leaving  the  heavy 
minerals,  together  with  any  gold  which  may  have  been  present.  The 
washing  is  repeated  until  enough  of  the  enriched  sand  is  collected, 
when  the  gold  is  finally  recovered  by  careful  washing  or  "  panning 
out  "  in  a  smaller  pan.  In  Mexico  and  South  America,  instead  of  the 
pan,  a  wooden  dish  or  trough,  known  as  "  batea,"  is  used. 

The  "  cradle  "  is  a  simple  appliance  for  treating  somewhat  larger 
quantities,  and  consists  essentially  of  a  box,  mounted  on  rockers, 
and  provided  with  a  perforated  bottom  of  sheet  iron  in  which  the 
"  pay  dirt  "  is  placed.  Water  is  poured  on  the  dirt,  and  the  rocking 
motion  imparted  to  the  cradle  causes  the  finer  particles  to  pass  through 
the  perforated  bottom  on  to  a  canvas  screen,  and  thence  to  the  base 
of  the  cradle,  where  the  auriferous  particles  accumulate  on  transverse 
bars  of  wood,  called  "  riffles." 

The  "  torn  "  is  a  sort  of  cradle  with  an  extended  sluice  placed  on 
an  incline  of  about  I  in  12.  The  upper  end  contains  a  perforated 
riddle  plate  which  is  placed  directly  over  the  riffle  box,  and  under 
certain  circumstances  mercury  may  be  placed  behind  the  riffles. 
Copper  plates  amalgamated  with  mercury  are  also  used  when  the 
gold  is  very  fine,  and  in  some  instances  amalgamated  silver  coins  have 
been  used  for  the  same  purpose.  Sometimes  the  stuff  is  disintegrated 
with  water  in  a  "  puddling  machine,"  which  was  used,  especially  in 
Australia,  when  the  earthy  matters  are  tenacious  and  water  scarce. 
The  machine  frequently  resembles  a  brickmaker's  wash-mill,  and  is 
worked  by  horse  or  steam  power. 

In  workings  on  a  larger  scale,  where  the  supply  of  water  is  abundant, 
as  in  California,  sluices  were  generally  employed.  '  They  are  shallow 
troughs  about  12  ft.  long,  about  1 6  to  20  in.  wide  and  I  ft.  in  depth. 
The  troughs  taper  slightly  so  that  they  can  be  joined  in  series,  the 
total  length  often  reaching  several  hundred  feet.  The  incline  of  the 
sluice  varies  with  the  conformation  of  the  ground  and  the  tenacity  of 
the  stuff  to  be  washed,  from  I  in  16  to  I  in  8.  A  rectangular  trough 
of  boards,  whose  dimensions  depend  chiefly  on  the  size  of  the  planks 
available,  is  set  up  on  the  higher  part  of  the  ground  at  one  side  of  the 
claim  to  be  worked,  upon  trestles  or  piers  of  rough  stone-work,  at  such 
an  inclination  that  the  stream  may  carry  off  all  but  the  largest  stones, 
which  are  kept  back  by  a  grating  of  boards  about  2  in.  apart.  The 
gravel  is  dug  by  hand  and  thrown  in  at  the  upper  end,  the  stones 
kept  back  being  removed  at  intervals  by  two  men  with  four-pronged 
steel  forks.  The  floor  of  the  sluice  is  laid  with  riffles  made  of  strips 
of  wood  2  in.  square  laid  parallel  to  the  direction  of  the  current,  and 
at  other  points  with  boards  having  transverse  notches  filled  with 
mercury.  These  were  known  originally  as  Hungarian  riffles. 

In  larger  plant  the  upper  ends  of  the  sluices  are  often  cut  in  rock 
or  lined  with  stone  blocks,  the  grating  stopping  the  larger  stones 
being  known  as  a  "  grizzly."  In  order  to  save  very  fine  and  especially 
rusty  particles  of  gold,  so-called  "  under-current  sluices  "  are  used; 
these  are  shallow  wooden  tanks,  50  sq.  yds.  and  upwards  in  area, 
which  are  placed  somewhat  below  the  main  sluice,  and  communicate 
with  it  above  and  below,  the  entry  being  protected  by  a  grating  so 
that  only  the  finer  material  is  admitted.  These  are  paved  with  stone 
blocks  or  lined  with  mercury  riffles,  so  that  from  the  greatly  reduced 
velocity  of  flow,  due  to  the  sudden  increase  of  surface,  the  finer 
particles  of  gold  may  collect.  In  order  to  save  finely  divided  gold, 
amalgamated  copper  plates  are  sometimes  placed  in  a  nearly  level 
position,  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the  head  of  the  sluice,  the 
gold  which  is  retained  in  it  being  removed  from  time  to  time.  Sluices 
are  often  made  double,  and  they  are  usually  cleaned  up — that  is, 
the  deposit  rich  in  gold  is  removed  from  them — once  a  week. 

The  "  pan  "  is  now  only  used  by  prospectors,  while  the  "  cradle  " 
and  "  torn  "  are  practically  confined  to  the  Chinese;  the  sluice  is 
considered  to  be  the  best  contrivance  for  washing  gold  gravels. 

2.  The  Amalgamation  Process. — This  method  is  employed  to 
extract  gold  from  both  alluvial  and  reef  deposits:  in  the  first 
case  it  is  combined  with  "  hydraulic  mining,"  i.e.  disintegrating 
auriferous  gravels  by  powerful  jets  of  water,  and  the  sluice 
system  described  above;  in  the  second  case  the  vein  stuff  is 
prepared  by  crushing  and  the  amalgamation  is  carried  out  in 
mills. 

Hydraulic  mining  has  for  the  most  part  been  confined  to  the  country 
of  its  invention,  California,  and  the  western  territories  of  America, 
where  the  conditions  favourable  for  its  use  are  more  fully  developed 
than  elsewhere — notably  the  presence  of  thick  banks  of  gravel  that 
cannot  be  utilized  by  other  methods,  and  abundance  of  water,  even 
though  considerable  work  may  be  required  at  times  to  make  it  avail- 
able. The  general  conditions  to  be  observed  in  such  workings 
may  be  briefly  stated  as  follows:  (l)  The  whole  of  the  auriferous 
gravel,  down  to  the  "  bed  rock,"  must  be  removed, — that  is,  no 
selection  of  rich  or  poor  parts  is  possible;  (2)  this  must  be  accom- 

Clishcd  by  the  aid  of  water  alone,  or  at  times  by  water  supplemented 
y  blasting ;  (3)  the  conglomerate  must  be  mechanically  disintegrated 
without  interrupting  the  whole  system ;  (4)  the  gold  must  be  saved 
without  interrupting  the  continuous  flow  of  water;  and  (5)  arrange- 
ments must  be  made  for  disposing  of  the  vast  masses  of  impoverished 
gravel. 

The  water  is  brought  from  a  ditch  on  the  high  ground,  and  through 
a  line  of  pipes  to  the  distributing  box,  whence  the  branch  pipes 


supplying  the  jets  diverge.  The  stream  issues  through  a  nozzle, 
termed  a  "  monitor  "  or  "  giant,"  which  is  fitted  with  a  ball  and 
socket  joint,  so  that  the  direction  of  the  jet  may  be  varied  through 
considerable  angles  by  simply  moving  a  handle.  The  material  of 
the  bank  being  loosened  by  blasting  and  the  cutting  action  of  the 
water,  crumbles  into  holes,  and  the  superincumbent  mass,  often 
with  large  trees  and  stones,  falls  into  the  lower  ground.  The 
stream,  laden  with  stones  and  gravel,  passes  into  the  sluices,  where 
the  gold  is  recovered  in  the  manner  already  described.  Under  the 
most  advantageous  conditions  the  loss  of  gold  may  be  estimated  at 
15  or  20%,  the  amount  recovered  representing  a  value  of  about 
two  shillings  per  ton  of  gravel  treated.  The  loss  of  mercury  is 
about  the  same,  from  5  to  6  cwt.  being  in  constant  use  per  mile  of 
sluice. 

In  working  auriferous  river-beds,  dredges  have  been  used  with 
considerable  success  in  certain  parts  of  New  Zealand  and  on  the 
Pacific  slope  in  America.  The  dredges  used  in  California  are  almost 
exclusively  of  the  endless-chain  bucket  or  steam-shovel  pattern. 
Some  dredges  have  a  capacity  under  favourable  conditions  of  over 
2000  cub.  yds.  of  gravel  daily.  The  gravel  is  excavated  as  in  the 
ordinary  form  of  endless-chain  bucket  dredge  and  dumped  on  to  the 
deck  of  the  dredge.  It  then  passes  through  screens  and  grizzlies 
to  retain  the  coarse  gravel,  the  finer  material  passing  on  to  sluice 
boxes  provided  with  riffles,  supplied  with  mercury.  There  are 
belt  conveyers  for  discharging  the  gravel  and  tailings  at  the  end  of  the 
vessel  remote  from  the  buckets.  The  water  necessary  to  the  process 
is  pumped  from  the  river;  as  much  as  2000  gallons  per  minute  is 
used  on  the  larger  dredges. 

The  dressing  or  mechanical  preparation  of  vein  stuff  containing  gold 
is  generally  similar  to  that  of  other  ores  (see  ORE-DRESSING),  except 
that  the  precious  metal  should  be  removed  from  the  waste  substances 
as  quickly  as  possible,  even  although  other  minerals  of  value  that  are 
subsequently  recovered  may  be  present.  In  all  cases  the  quartz 
or  other  vein  stuff  must  be  reduced  to  a  very  fine  powder  as  a  pre- 
liminary to  further  operations.  This  may  be  done  in  several  ways, 
e.g.  either  ( I )  by  the  Mexican  crusher  or  arrastra,  in  which  the  grinding 
is  effected  upon  a  bed  of  stone,  over  which  heavy  blocks  of  stone 
attached  to  cross  arms  are  dragged  by  the  rotation  of  the  arms  about 
a  central  spindle,  or  (2)  by  the  Chilean  mill  or  trapiche,  also  known 
as  the  edge-runner,  where  the  grinding  stones  roll  upon  the  floor, 
at  the  same  time  turning  about  a  central  upright — contrivances 
which  are  mainly  used  for  the  preparation  of  silver  ores;  but 
by  far  the  largest  proportion  of  the  gold  quartz  of  California, 
Australia  and  Africa  is  reduced  by  (3)  the  stamp  mill,  which  is  similar 
in  principle  to  that  used  in  Europe  for  the  preparation  of  tin  and  other 
ores. 

The  stamp  mill  was  first  used  in  California,  and  its  use  has  since 
spread  over  the  whole  world.  In  the  mills  of  the  Californian  type  the 
stamp  is  a  cylindrical  iron  pestle  faced  with  a  chilled  cast  iron  shoe, 
removable  so  that  it  can  be  renewed  when  necessary,  attached  to 
a  round  iron  rod  or  lifter,  the  whole  weighing  from  600  to  900  ft; 
stamps  weighing  1320  ft  are  in  use  in  the  Transvaal.  The  lift  is 
effected  by  cams  acting  on  the  under  surface  of  tappets,  and  formed 
by  cylindrical  boxes  keyed  on  to  the  stems  of  the  lifter  about  one- 
fourth  of  their  length  from  the  top.  As,  however,  the  cams,  unlike 
those  of  European  stamp  mills,  are  placed  to  one  side  of  the  stamp,  the 
latter  is  not  only  lifted  but  turned  partly  round  on  its  own  axis,  where- 
by the  shoes  are  worn  down  uniformly.  The  height  of  lift  may  be 
between  4  and  18  in.,  and  the  number  of  blows  from  30  to  over  100 
per  minute.  The  stamps  are  usually  arranged  in  batteries  of  five; 
the  order  of  working  is  usually  I,  4,  2,  5,  3,  but  other  arrangements, 
e.g.  I,  3,  5,  2,  4,  and  I,  5,  2,  4,  3,  are  common.  The  stuff,  previously 
broken  to  about  2-in.  lumps  in  a  rock-breaker,  is  fed  in  through  an 
aperture  at  the  back  of  the  "  battery  box,"  a  constant  supply  of 
water  is  admitted  from  above,  and  mercury  in  a  finely  divided  state 
is  added  at  frequent  intervals.  The  discharge  of  the  comminuted 
material  takes  place  through  an  aperture,  which  is  covered  by  a 
thin  steel  plate  perforated  with  numerous  slits  about  ^th  in.  broad 
and  j  in.  long,  a  certain  volume  being  discharged  at  every  blow 
and  carried  forward  by  the  flushing  water  over  an  apron  or  table 
in  front,  covered  by  copper  plates  filled  with  mercury.  Similar 
plates  are  often  used  to  catch  any  particles  of  gold  that  may  be  thrown 
back,  while  the  main  operation  is  so  conducted  that  the  bulk  of  the 
gold  may  be  reduced  to  the  state  of  amalgam  by  bringing  the  two 
metals  into  intimate  contact  under  the  stamp  head,  and  remain  in  the 
battery.  The  tables  in  front  are  laid  at  an  incline  of  about  8°  and  are 
about  13  ft.  long;  they  collect  from  10  to  15%  of  the  whole  gold; 
a  further  quantity  is  recovered  by  leading  the  sands  through  a  gutter 
about  16  in.  broad  and  120  ft.  long,  also  lined  with  amalgamated 
copper  plates,  after  the  pyritic  and  other  heavy  minerals  have  been 
separated  by  depositing  in  catch  pits  and  other  similar  contrivances. 

When  the  ore  does  not  contain  any  considerable  amount  of  free  gold 
mercury  is  not,  as  a  rule,  used  during  the  crushing,  but  the  amalgama- 
tion is  carried  out  in  a  separate  plant.  Contrivances  of  the  _most 
diverse  constructions  have  been  employed.  The  most  primitive  is 
the  rubbing  together  of  the  concentrated  crushings  with  mercury  in 
iron  mortars.  Barrel  amalgamation,  i.e.  mixing  the  crushings 
with  mercury  in  rotating  barrels,  is  rarely  used,  the  process^being 
wasteful,  since  the  mercury  is  specially  apt  to  be  "  floured  "  (see 
below). 


198 


GOLD 


At  Schemnitz,  Kerpenyes,  Kreuzberg  and  other  localities  in 
Hungary,  quartz  vein  stuff  containing  a  little  gold,  partly  free  and 
partly  associated  with  pyrites  and  galena,  is,  after  stamping  in  mills, 
similar  to  those  described  above,  but  without  rotating  stamps, 
passed  through  the  so-called  "  Hungarian  gold  mill "  or  "  quick-mill. 
This  consists  of  a  cast-iron  pan  having  a  shallow  cylindrical  bottom 
holding  mercury,  in  which  a  wooden  muller,  nearly  of  the  same 
shape  as  the  inside  of  the  pan,  and  armed  below  with  several  pro- 
jecting blades,  is  made  to  revolve  by  gearing  wheels.  The  stuff 
from  the  stamps  is  conveyed  to  the  middle  of  the  muller,  and  is 
distributed  over  the  mercury,  when  the  gold  subsides,  while  the 
quartz  and  lighter  materials  are  guided  by  the  blades  to  the  cir- 
cumference and  are  discharged,  usually  into  a  second  similar  mill, 
and  subsequently  pass  over  blanket  tables,  i.e.  boards  covered 
with  canvas  or  sacking,  the  gold  and  heavier  particles  becoming  en- 
tangled in  the  fibres.  The  action  of  this  mill  is  really  more  nearly 
analogous  to  that  of  a  centrifugal  pump,  as  no  grinding  action  takes 
place  in  it.  The  amalgam  is  cleaned  out  periodically— fortnightly  or 
monthly — and  after  filtering  through  linen  bags  to  remove  the  excess 
of  mercury,  it  is  transferred  to  retorts  for  distillation  (see  below). 

Many  other  forms  of  pan-amalgamators  have  been  devised.  The 
Laszlo  is  an  improved  Hungarian  mill,  while  the  Piccard  is  of  the 
same  type.  In  the  Knox  and  Boss  mills,  which  are  also  employed 
for  the  amalgamation  of  silver  ores,  the  grinding  is  effected  between 
flat  horizontal  surfaces  instead  of  conical  or  curved  surfaces  as  in  the 
previously  described  forms. 

One  of  the  greatest  difficulties  in  the  treatment  of  gold  by  amalga- 
mation, and  more  particularly  in  the  treatment  of  pyrites,  arises  from 
the  so-called  "  sickening  "  or  "  flouring  "  of  the  mercury;  that  is,  the 
particles,  losing  their  bright  metallic  surfaces,  are  no  longer  capable 
of  coalescing  with  or  taking  up  other  metals.  Of  the  numerous 
remedies  proposed  the  most  efficacious  is  perhaps  sodium  amalgam. 
It  appears  that  amalgamation  is  often  impeded  by  the  tarnish 
found  on  the  surface  of  the  gold  when  it  is  associated  with  sulphur, 
arsenic,  bismuth,  antimony  or  tellurium.  Henry  Wurtz  in  America 
(i  864)  and  Sir  William  Crookes  in  England  (1865)  made  independently 
the  discovery  that,  by  the  addition  of  a  small  quantity  of  sodium  to 
the  mercury,  the  operation  is  much  facilitated.  It  is  also  stated  that 
sodium  prevents  both  the  "  sickening  "  and  the  "  flouring  "  of  the 
mercury  which  is  produced  by  certain  associated  minerals.  The 
addition  of  potassium  cyanide  has  been  suggested  to  assist  the 
amalgamation  and  to  prevent  "  flouring,"  but  Skey  has  shown  that 
its  use  is  attended  with  loss  of  gold. 

Separation  of  Gold  from  the  Amalgam. — The  amalgam  is  first 
pressed  in  wetted  canvas  or  buckskin  in  order  to  remove  excess  of 
mercury.     Lumps  of  the  solid  amalgam,  about  2  in.  in  diameter, 
are  introduced  into  an  iron  vessel  provided  with  an  iron  tube  that 
leads  into  a  condenser  containing  water.     The  distillation  is  then 
effected  by  heating  to  dull  redness.     The  amalgam  yields  about 
30  to  40%  of  gold.     Horizontal  cylindrical  retorts,  holding  from 
200  to  1200  Ib  of  amalgam,  are  used  in  the  larger  Californian  mills, 
pot  retorts  being  used  in  the  smaller  mills.     The  bullion  left  in  the 
retorts  is  then  melted  in  black-lead  crucibles,  with  the  addition  of 
small  quantities  of  suitable  fluxes,  e.g.  nitre,  sodium  carbonate,  &c. 
The  extraction  of  gold  from  auriferous  minerals  by  fusion,  except  as 
an  incident  in  their  treatment  for  other  metals,  is  very  rarely  practised. 
It  was  at  one  time  proposed  to  treat  the  concentrated  black  iron 
obtained  in  the  Ural  gold  washings,  which  consists  chiefly  of  mag- 
netite, as  an  iron  ore,  by  smelting  it  with  charcoal  for  auriferous  pig- 
iron,  the  latter  metal  possessing  the  property  of  dissolving  gold  in 
considerable  quantity.  By  subsequent  treatment  with  sulphuric  acid 
the  gold  could  be  recovered.     Experiments  on  this  point  were  made 
by  Anossow  in  1835,  but  they  have  never  been  followed  in  practice. 
Gold  in  galena  or  other  lead  ores  is  invariably  recovered  in  the 
refining  or  treatment  of  the  lead  and  silver  obtained.     Pyritic  ores 
containing  copper  are  treated  by  methods  analogous  to  those  ol 
the  copper  smelter.     In  Colorado  the  pyritic  ores  containing  golc 
and  silver  in  association  with  copper  are  smelted  in  reverberatory 
furnaces  for  regulus,  which,  when  desilverized  by  Ziervogel's  method 
leaves  a  residue  containing  20  or  30  oz.  of  gold  per  ton.     This  is 
smelted  with  rich  gold  ores,  notably  those  containing  tellurium,  for 
white  metal  or  regulus;  and  by  a  following  process  of  partial  reduc- 
tion analogous  to  that  of  selecting  in  copper  smelting,  "  bottoms 
of  impure  copper  are  obtained  in  which  practically  all  the  gold  is 
concentrated.     By  continuing  the  treatment  of  these  in  the  ordinary 
way  of  refining,  poling  and  granulating,  all  the  foreign  matters 
other  than  gold,  copper  and  silver  are  removed,  and,  by  exposing  th* 
granulated  metal  to  a  high  oxidizing  heat  for  a  considerable  time  th 
copper  may  be  completely  oxidized  while  the  precious  metals  are 
unaltered.     Subsequent  treatment  with  sulphuric  acid  renders  the 
copper  soluble  in  water  as  sulphate,  and  the  final  residue  contain 
only  gold  and  silver,  which  is  parted  or  refined  in  the  ordinary  way 
This  method  of  separating  gold  from  copper,  by  converting  the  latte 
into  oxide  and  sulphate,  is  also  used  at  Oker  in  the  Harz. 

Extraction  by  Means  of  Aqueous  Solutions. — Many  processe 
have  been  suggested  in  which  the  gold  of  auriferous  deposits 
converted  into  products  soluble  in  water,  from  which  solution 
the  gold  may  be  precipitated.  Of  these  processes,  two  only  ar 


f  special  importance,  viz.  thechlorinationor  Plattner  process,  in 
hich  the  metal  is  converted  into  the  chloride,  and  the  cyanide  or 
VlacArthur-Forrest  process,  in  which  it  is  converted  into  potassium 
urocyanide. 

(3)  Chlorination  or  Plattner  Process. — In  this  process  moistened  gold 
res  are  treated  with  chlorine  gas,  the  resulting  gold  chloride  dis- 
olved  out  with  water,  and  the  gold  precipitated  with  ferrous  sulphate, 
harcoal,  sulphuretted  hydrogen  or  otherwise.   The  process  originated 
n  1848  with  C.  F.  Plattner,  who  suggested  that  the  residues  from 
ertain  mines  at  Reichenstein,  in  Silesia,  should  be  treated  with 
hlorine  after  the  arsenical  products  had  been  extracted  by  roasting, 
t  must  be  noticed,  however,  that  Percy  independently  made  the 
ame  discovery,  and  stated  his  results  at  the  meeting  of  the  British 
Association  (at  Swansea)  in  1849,  but  the  Report  was  not  published 
until  1852.    The  process  was  introduced  in  1858  by  Deetken  at  Grass 
Valley,  California,  where  the  waste  minerals,  principally  pyrites  from 
:ailings,  had  been  worked  for  a  considerable  time  by  amalgamation. 
The  process  is  rarely  applied  to  ores  direct;  free-milling  ores  are 
generally  amalgamated,  and  the  tailings  and  slimes,  after  concentra- 
ion,  operated  upon.     Three  stages  in  the  process  are  to  be  distin- 
guished:  (i.)   calcination,   to  convert  all  the  metals,  except  gold 
ind  silver,  into  oxides,  which  are  unacted  upon  by  chlorine;  (ii.) 
:hlorinating  the  gold  and  lixiviating  the  product ;  (iii.)  precipitating 
he  gold. 

The  calcination,  or  roasting,  is  conducted  at  a  low  temperature  in 
ome  form  of  reverberatory  furnace.  Salt  is  added  in  the  roasting 
o  convert  any  lime,  magnesia  or  lead  which  may  be  present,  into 
.he  corresponding  chlorides.  The  auric  chloride  is,  however,  de- 
composed at  the  elevated  temperature  into  finely  divided  metallic 
;old,  which  is  then  readily  attacked  by  the  chlorine  gas.  The  high 
'olatility  of  gold  in  the  presence  of  certain  metals  must  also  be 
considered.  According  to  Egleston  the  loss  may  be  from  40  to  90  % 
of  the  total  gold  present  in  cupriferous  ores  according  to  the  tem- 
jerature  and  duration  of  calcination.  The  roasted  mineral,  slightly 
noistened,  is  introduced  into  a  vat  made  of  stoneware  or  pitched 
Blanks,  and  furnished  with  a  double  bottom.  Chlorine,  generally 
prepared  by  the  interaction  of  pyrolusite,  salt  and  sulphuric  acid, 
s  led  from  a  suitable  generator  beneath  the  false  bottom,  and  rises 
:hrough  the  moistened  ore,  which  rests  on  a  bed  of  broken  quartz; 
:he  gold  is  thus  converted  into  a  soluble  chloride,  which  is  afterwards 
removed  by  washing  with  water.  Both  fixed  and  rotating  vats  are 
employed,  the  chlorination  proceeding  more  rapidly  in  the  latter 
:ase;  rotating  barrels  are  sometimes  used.  There  have  also  been 
.ntroduced  processes  in  which  the  chlorine  is  generated  in  the 
chloridizing  vat,  the  reagents  used  being  dilute  solutions  of  bleaching 
aowder  and  an  acid.  Munktell's  process  is  of  this  type.  In  the 
Thies  process,  used  in  many  districts  in  the  United  States,  the  vats 
are  rotating  barrels  made,  in  the  later  forms,  of  iron  lined  with  lead, 
and  provided  with  a  filter  formed  of  a  finely  perforated  leaden 
grating  running  from  one  end  of  the  barrel  to  the  other,  and  rigidly 
held  in  place  by  wooden  frames.  Chlorine  is  generated  within  the 
barrel  from  sulphuric  acid  and  chloride  of  lime.  After  charging, 
the  barrel  is  rotated,  and  when  the  chlorination  is  complete  the 
contents  are  emptied  on  a  filter  of  quartz  or  some  similar  material, 
and  the  filtrate  led  to  settling  tanks. 

After  settling  the  solution  is  run  into  the  precipitating  tanks.  The 
precipitants  in  use  are:  ferrous  sulphate,  charcoal  ana  sulphuretted 
hydrogen,  either  alone  or  mixed  with  sulphur  dioxide;  the  use  of 
copper  and  iron  sulphides  has  been  suggested,  but  apparently  these 
substances  have  achieved  no  success. 

In  the  case  of  ferrous  sulphate,  prepared  by  dissolving  iron  in 
dilute  sulphuric  acid,  the  reaction  follows  the  equation  AuCl3  +3FeSOt 
=  FeCls+Fe2(SO4)3+Au.  At  the  same  time  any  lead,  calcium, 
barium  and  strontium  present  are  precipitated  as  sulphates;  it  is 
therefore  advantageous  to  remove  these  metals  by  the  preliminary 
addition  of  sulphuric  acid,  which  also  serves  to  keep  any  basic  iron 
salts  in  solution.  The  precipitation  is  carried  out  in  tanks  or  vats 
made  with  wooden  sides  and  a  cement  bottom.  The  solutions  are 
well  mixed  by  stirring  with  wooden  poles,  and  the  gold  allowed  to 
settle,  the  time  allowed  varying  from  12  to  72  hours.  The  super- 
natant liquid  is  led  into  settling  tanks,  where  a  further  amount 
of  gold  is  deposited,  and  is  then  filtered  through  sawdust  or 
sand,  the  sawdust  being  afterwards  burnt  and  the  gold  separated 
from  the  ashes  and  the  sand  treated  in  the  chloridizing  vat.  The 
precipitated  gold  is  washed,  treated  with  salt  and  sulphuric  acid 
to  remove  iron  salts,  roughly  dried  by  pressing  in  cloths  or  on  filter 
paper,  and  then  melted  with  salt,  borax  and  nitre  in  graphite 
crucibles.  Thus  prepared  it  has  a  fineness  of  800-960,  the  chief 
impurities  usually  being  iron  and  lead. 

Charcoal  is  used  as  the  precipitant  at  Mount  Morgan,  Australia. 
Its  use  was  proposed  as  early  as  1818  and  1819  by  Hare  and  Henry; 
Percy  advocated  it  in  1869,  and  Davis  adopted  it  on  the  large  scale 
at  a  works  in  Carolina  in  1880.  The  action  is  not  properly  under- 
stood ;  it  may  be  due  to  the  reducing  gases  (hydrogen,  hydrocarbons, 
&c.)  which  are  invariably  present  in  wood  charcoal.  The  process 
consists  essentially  in  running  the  solution  over  layers  of  charcoal, 
the  charcoal  being  afterwards  burned.  It  has  been  found  that  the 
reaction  proceeds  faster  when  the  solution  is  heated. 


GOLD 


199 


Precipitation  with  sulphur  dioxide  and  sulphuretted  hydrogen 
proceeds  much  more  rapidly,  and  has  been  adopted  at  many  works. 
Sulphur  dioxide,  generated  by  burning  sulphur,  is  forced  into  the 
solution  under  pressure,  where  it  interacts  with  any  free  chlorine 
present  to  form  hydrochloric  and  sulphuric  acids.  Sulphuretted 
hydrogen,  obtained  by  treating  iron  sulphide  or  a  coarse  matte 
with  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  is  forced  in  similarly.  The  gold  is 
precipitated  as  the  sulphide,  together  with  any  arsenic,  antimony, 
copper,  silver  and  lead  which  may  be  present.  The  precipitate 
is  collected  in  a  filter-press,  and  then  roasted  in  muffle  furnaces 
with  nitre,  borax  and  sodium  carbonate.  The  fineness  of  the  gold  so 
obtained  is  900  to  950. 

4.  Cyanide  Process. — This  process  depends  upon  the  solubility 
of  gold  in  a  dilute  solution  of  potassium  cyanide  in  the  presence 
of  air  (or  some  other  oxidizing  agent),  and  the  subsequent  precipita- 
tion of  the  gold  by  metallic  zinc  or  by  electrolysis.  The  solubility 
of  gold  in  cyanide  solutions  was  known  to  K.  W.  Scheele  in  1782; 
and  M.  Faraday  applied  it  to  the  preparation  of  extremely  thin 
films  of  the  metal.  L.  Eisner  recognized,  in  1846,  the  part  played 
by  the  atmosphere,  and  in  1879  Dixon  showed  that  bleaching  powder, 
manganese  dioxide,  and  other  oxidizing  agents,  facilitated  the  solution. 
S.  B.  Christy  (Trans.  A.I.M.E.,  1896,  vol.  26)  has  shown  that  the 
solution  is  hastened  by  many  oxidizing  agents,  especially  sodium  and 
manganese  dioxides  and  potassium  ferricyanide.  According  to 
G.  Bpdliindcr  (Zeit.  f.  angew.  £hem.,  1896,  vol.  19)  the  rate  of  solu- 
tion in  potassium  cyanide  depends  upon  the  subdivision  of  the  gold 
— the  finer  the  subdivision  the  quicker  the  solution, — and  on  the 
concentration  of  the  solution — the  rate  increasing  until  the  solution 
contains  0-25%  of  cyanide,  and  remaining  fairly  stationary  with 
increasing  concentration.  The  action  proceeds  in  two  stages;  in 
the  first  hydrogen  peroxide  and  potassium  aurocyanide  are  formed, 
and  in  the  second  the  hydrogen  peroxide  oxidizes  a  further  quantity 
of  gold  and  potassium  cyanide  to  aurocyanide,  thus  (i)  2Au+4KCN 
+O2-F2H2O=2KAu(CN)2-HKOH-Hri2O2;(2)2Au-|-4KCN-|-2H2O2= 
2KAu(CN)2+4KOH.  Theendreactionmaybewritten4Au+8KCN  + 
2H2O+O2  =  4KAu(CN)2-t-4KOH. 

The  commercial  process  was  patented  in  1890  by  MacArthur  and 
Forrest,  and  is  now  in  use  all  over  the  world.  It  is  best  adapted  for 
free-milling  ores,  especially  after  the  bulk  of  the  gold  has  been  re- 
moved by  amalgamation.  It  has  been  especially  successful  in  the 
Transvaal.  In  the  Witwatersrand  the  ore,  which  contains  about 
9  dwts.  of  gold  to  the  metric  ton  (2000  ft),  is  stamped  and  amalgam- 
ated, and  the  slimes  and  tailings,  containing  about  3!  dwts.  per  ton, 
are  cyanided,  about  2  dwts.  more  being  thus  extracted.  The  total 
cost  per  ton  of  ore  treated  is  about  6s.,  of  which  the  cyaniding  costs 
from  2s.  to  45. 

The  process  embraces  three  operations:  (l)  Solution  of  the  gold; 
(2)  precipitation  of  the  gold;  (3)  treatment  of  the  precipitate. 

The  ores,  having  been  broken  and  ground,  generally  in  tube  mills, 
until  they  pass  a  1 50  to  2OO-mesh  sieve,  are  transferred  to  the  leaching 
vats,  which  are  constructed  of  wood,  iron  or  masonry;  steel  vats, 
coated  inside  and  out  with  pitch,  of  circular  section  and  holding  up  to 
1000  tons,  have  come  into  use.  The  diameter  is  generally  26  ft.,  but 
may  be  greater;  the  best  depth  is  considered  to  be  a  quarter  of  the 
diameter.  The  vats  are  fitted  with  filters  made  of  coco-nut  matting 
and  jute  cloth  supported  on  wooden  frames.  The  leaching  is  gener- 
ally carried  out  with  a  strong,  medium,  and  with  a  weak  liquor,  in  the 
order  given;  sometimes  there  is  a  preliminary  leaching  with  a  weak 
liquor.  The  strengths  employed  depend  also  upon  the  mode  of 
precipitation  adopted,  stronger  solutions  (up  to  0-25%  KCN)  being 
used  when  zinc  is  the  precipitant.  For  electrolytic  precipitation  the 
solution  may  contain  up  to  o-l  %  KCN.  The  liquors  are  run  off 
from  the  vats  to  the  electrolysing  baths  or  precipitating  tanks,  and  the 
leached  ores  are  removed  by  means  of  doors  in  the  sides  of  the  vats 
into  wagons.  In  the  Transvaal  the  operation  occupies  3j  to  4  days 
for  fine  sands,  and  up  to  14  days  for  coarse  sands;  the  quantity  of 
cyanide  per  ton  of  tailings  varies  from  0-26  to  0-28  Ib,  for  electrolytic 
precipitation,  and  0-5  Ib  for  zinc  precipitation. 

The  precipitation  is  effected  by  zinc  in  the  form  of  bright  turnings, 
or  coated  with  lead,  or  by  electrolysis.  According  to  Christy,  the 
precipitation  with  zinc  follows  equations  lor  2  according  as  potassium 
cyanide  is  present  or  not : 

(1)  4KAu(CN)2+4Zn+2H2O  =  2Zn(CN)2  + 

K2Zn(CN)4+Zn(OK)2+4H-f-4Au ; 

(2)  2KAu(CN)2+3Zn-(-4KCN+2H20  = 

2K2Zn(CN)4+Zn(OK)2+4H+2Au; 

one  part  of  zinc  precipitating  3-1  parts  of  gold  in  the  first  case,  and 
2-06  in  the  second.  It  may  be  noticed  that  the  potassium  zinc 
cyanide  is  useless  in  gold  extraction,  for  it  neither  dissolves  gold  nor 
can  potassium  cyanide  be  regenerated  from  it. 

The  precipitating  boxes,  generally  made  of  wood  but  sometimes  of 
steel,  and  set  on  an  incline,  are  divided  by  partitions  into  alternately 
wide  and  narrow  compartments,  so  that  the  liquor  travels  upwards 
in  its  passage  through  the  wide  divisions  and  downwards  through  the 
narrow  divisions.  In  the  wider  compartments  are  placed  sieves 
having  sixteen  holes  to  the  square  inch  and  bearing  zinc  turnings. 
The  gold  and  other  metals  are  precipitated  on  the  under  surfaces  of 
the  turnings  and  fall  to  the  bottom  of  the  compartment  as  a  black 
slime.  The  slime  is  cleaned  out  fortnightly  or  monthly,  the  zinc 


turnings  being  cleaned  by  rubbing  and  the  supernatant  liquor 
allowed  to  settle  in  the  precipitating  boxes  or  in  separate  vessels. 
The  slime  so  obtained  consists  of  finely  divided  gold  and  silver 
(5-50%),  zinc  (30-60%),  lead  (10%),  carbon  (10%),  together  with 
tin,  copper,  antimony,  arsenic  and  other  impurities  of  the  zinc  and 
ores.  After  well  washing  with  water,  the  slimes  are  roughly  dried  in 
bag-filters  or  filter-presses,  and  then  treated  with  dilute  sulphuric 
acid,  the  solution  being  heated  by  steam.  This  dissolves  out  the 
zinc.  Lime  is  added  to  bring  down  the  gold,  and  the  sediment,  after 
washing  and  drying,  is  fused  in  graphite  crucibles. 

5.  Electrolytic  Processes. — The  electrolytic  separation  of  the  gold 
from  cyanide  solutions  was  first  practised  in  the  Transvaal.  The 
process,  as  elaborated  by  Messrs.  Siemens  and  Halske,  essentially 
consists  in  the  electrolysis  of  weak  solutions  with  iron  or  steel  plate 
anodes,  and  lead  cathodes,  the  latter,  when  coated  with  gold,  being 
fused  and  cupelled.  Itsadvantagesoverthe  zinc  process  are  that  the 
deposited  gold  is  purer  and  more  readily  extracted,  and  that  weaker 
solutions  can  be  employed,  thereby  effecting  an  economy  in  cyanide. 

In  the  process  employed  at  the  Worcester  Works  in  the  Transvaal, 
the  liquors,  containing  about  150  grains  of  gold  per  ton  and  from 
0-08  to  o-oi  %  of  cyanide,  are  treated  in  rectangular  vats  in  which  is 
placed  a  series  of  iron  and  leaden  plates  at  intervals  of  I  in.  The 
cathodes,  which  are  sheets  of  thin  lead  foil  weighing  ij  ft  to  the 
sq.  yd.,  are  removed  monthly,  their  gold  content  being  from  0-5  to 
10%,  and  after  folding  are  melted  in  reyerberatory  furnaces  to 
ingots  containing  2  to  4  %  of  gold.  Cupellation  brings  up  the  gold  to 
about  900  fine.  Many  variations  of  the  electrolytic  process  as  above 
outlined  have  been  suggested.  S.  Cowper  Coles  has  suggested 
aluminium  cathodes;  Andreoli  has  recommended  cathodes  of  iron 
and  anodes  of  lead  coated  with  lead  peroxide,  the  gold  being  removed 
from  the  iron  cathodes  by  a  brief  immersion  in  molten  lead;  in  the 
Pelatan-Cerici  process  the  gold  is  amalgamated  at  a  mercury  cathode 
(see  also  below). 

Refining  or  Parting  of  Gold. — Gold  is  almost  always  silver- 
bearing,  and  it  may  be  also  noticed  that  silver  generally  contains 
some  gold.  Consequently  the  separation  of  these  two  metals  is 
one  of  the  most  important  metallurgical  processes.  In  addition 
to  the  separation  of  the  silver  the  operation  extends  to  the 
elimination  of  the  last  traces  of  lead,  tin,  arsenic,  &c.  which 
have  resisted  the  preceding  cupellation. 

The  "  parting  "  of  gold  and  silver  is  of  considerable  antiquity. 
Thus  Strabo  states  that  in  his  time  a  process  was  employed  for  re- 
fining and  purifying  gold  in  large  quantities  by  cementing  or  burning 
it  with  an  aluminous  earth,  which,  by  destroying  the  silver,  left  the 
gold  in  a  state  of  purity.  Pliny  shows  that  for  this  purpose  the  gold 
was  placed  on  the  fire  in  an  earthen  vessel  with  treble  its  weight  of 
salt,  and  that  it  was  afterwards  again  exposed  to  the  fire  with  two 
parts  of  salt  and  one  of  argillaceous  rock,  which,  in  the  presence  of 
moisture,  effected  the  decomposition  of  the  salt ;  by  this  means  the 
silver  became  converted  into  chloride. 

The  methods  of  parting  can  be  classified  into  "dry,"  "wet"  and 
electrolytic  methods.  In  the  "  dry  "  methods  the  silver  is  converted 
into  sulphide  or  chloride,  the  gold  remaining  unaltered;  in  the 
"  wet  "  methods  the  silver  is  dissolved  by  nitric  acid  or  boiling 
sulphuric  acid ;  and  in  the  electrolytic  processes  advantage  is  taken 
of  the  fact  that  under  certain  current  densities  and  other  circum- 
stances silver  passes  from  an  anode  composed  of  a  gold-silver  alloy 
to  the  cathode  more  readily  than  gold.  Of  the  dry  methods  only 
F.  B.  Miller's  chlorine  process  is  of  any  importance,  this  method,  and 
the  wet  process  of  refining  by  sulphuric  acid,  together  with  the 
electrolytic  process,  being  the  only  ones  now  practised. 

The  conversion  of  silver  into  the  sulphide  may  be  effected  by 
heating  with  antimony  sulphide,  litharge  and  sulphur,  pyrites,  or  with 
sulphur  alone.  The  antimony,  or  Guss  und  Fluss,  method  was 
practised  up  till  1846  at  the  Dresden  mint;  it  is  only  applicable  to 
alloys  containing  more  than  50%  of  gold.  The  fusion  results  in  the 
formation  of  a  gold-antimony  alloy,  from  which  the  antimony  is 
removed  by  an  oxidizing  fusion  with  nitre.  The  sulphur  and 
litharge,  or  Pfannenschmied,  process  was  used  to  concentrate  the 
gold  in  an  alloy  in  order  to  make  it  amenable  to  "  quartation,"  or 
parting  with  nitric  acid.  Fusion  with  sulphur  was  used  for  the  same 
purpose  as  the  Pfannenschmied  process.  It  was  employed  in  1797 
at  the  St  Petersburg  mint. 

The  conversion  of  the  silver  into  the  chloride  may  be  effected  by 
means  of  salt — the  "  cementation  "  process — or  other  chlorides,  or 
by  free  chlorine — Miller's  process.  The  first  process  consists  essenti- 
ally in  heating  the  alloy  with  salt  and  brickdust;  the  latter  absorbs 
the  chloride  formed,  while  the  gold  is  recovered  by  washing.  It  is  no 
longer  employed.  The  second  process  depends  upon  the  fact  that,  if 
chlorine  be  led  into  the  molten  alloy,  the  base  metals  and  the  silver 
are  converted  into  chlorides.  It  was  proposed  in  1838  by  Lewis 
Thompson,  but  it  was  only  applied  commercially  after  Miller's  im- 
provements in  1867,  when  it  was  adopted  at  the  Sydney  mint.  Sir 
W.  C.  Roberts-Austen  introduced  it  at  the  London  mint;  and  it  has 
also  been  used  at  Pretoria.  It  is  especially  suitable  to  gold  containing 
little  silver  and  base  metals — a  character  of  Australian  gold — but  it 
yields  to  the  sulphuric  acid  and  electrolytic  methods  in  point  of 
economy. 


2OO 


GOLD  AND  SILVER  THREAD 


The  separation  of  gold  from  silver  in  the  wet  way  may  be  effected 
by  nitric  acid,  sulphuric  acid  or  by  a  mixture  of  sulphuric  acid  and 
aqua  regia. 

Parting  by  nitric  acid  is  of  considerable  antiquity,  being  mentioned 
by  Albertus  Magnus  (i3th  cent.),  Biringuccio  (1540)  and  Agricola 
(iSS^).  It  is  now  rarely  practised,  although  in  some  refineries  both 
the  nitric  acid  and  the  sulphuric  acid  processes  are  combined,  the 
alloy  being  first  treated  with  nitric  acid.  It  used  to  be  called  "  quar- 
tation  "  or  "  inquartation,"  from  the  fact  that  the  alloy  best  suited 
for  the  operation  of  refining  contained  3  parts  of  silver  to  I  of  gold. 
The  operation  may  be  conducted  in  vessels  of  glass  or  platinum,  and 
each  pound  of  granulated  metal  is  treated  with  a  pound  and  a  quarter 
of  nitric  acid  of  specific  gravity  1-32.  The  method  is  sometimes 
employed  in  the  assay  of  gold. 

Refining  by  sulphuric  acid,  the  process  usually  adopted  for 
separating  gold  from  silver,  was  first  employed  on  the  large  scale  by 
d'Arcet  in  Paris  in  1802,  and  was  introduced  into  the  Mint  refinery, 
London,  by  Mathison  in  1829.  It  is  based  upon  the  facts  that  con- 
centrated hot  sulphuric  acid  converts  silver  and  copper  into  soluble 
sulphates  without  attacking  the  gold,  the  silver  sulphate  being 
subsequently  reduced  to  the  metallic  state  by  copper  plates  with  the 
formation  of  copper  sulphate.  It  is  applicable  to  any  alloy,  and  is 
the  best  method  for  parting  gold  with  the  exception  of  the  electro- 
lytic method. 

The  process  embraces  four  operations:  (i)  the  preparation  of  an 
alloy  suitable  for  parting;  (2)  the  treatment  with  sulphuric  acid; 
(3)  the  treatment  of  the  residue  for  gold;  (4)  the  treatment  of  the 
solution  for  silver. 

It  is  necessary  to  remove  as  completely  as  possible  any  lead,  tin, 
bismuth,  antimony,  arsenic  and  tellurium,  impurities  which  impair 
the  properties  of  jgold  and  silver,  by  an  oxidizing  fusion,  e.g.  with 
nitre.  Over  10  %  of  copper  makes  the  parting  difficult ;  conse- 
quently in  such  alloys  -the  percentage  of  copper  is  diminished  by  the 
addition  of  silver  free  from  copper,  or  else  the  copper  is  removed  by  a 
chemical  process.  Other  undesirable  impurities  are  the  platinum 
metals,  special  treatment  being  necessary'  when  these  substances  are 
present.  The  alloy,  after  the  preliminary  refining,  is  granulated  by 
being  poured,  while  molten,  in  a  thin  stream  into  cold  water  which  is 
kept  well  agitated. 

The  acid  treatment  is  generally  carried  out  in  cast  iron  pots; 
platinum  vessels  used  to  be  employed,  while  porcelain  vessels  are  only 
used  for  small  operations,  e.g.  for  charges  of  190  to  225  oz.  as  at  Oker 
in  the  Harz.  The  pots,  which  are  usually  cylindrical  with  a  hemi- 
spherical bottom,  may  hold  as  much  as  13,000  to  16,000  oz.  of  alloy. 
They  are  provided  with  lids,  made  either  of  lead  or  of  wood  lined  with 
lead,  which  have  openings  to  serve  for  the  introduction  of  the  alloy 
and  acid,  and  a  vent  tube  to  lead  off  the  vapours  evolved  during  the 
operation.  The  bullion  with  about  twice  its  weight  of  sulphuric  acid 
of  66°  B6  is  placed  in  the  pot,  and  the  whole  gradually  heated. 
Since  the  action  is  sometimes  very  violent,  especially  when  the 
bullion  is  treated  in  the  granulated  form  (it  is  steadier  when  thin 
plates  are  operated  upon),  it  is  found  expedient  to  add  the  acid  in 
several  portions.  The  heating  is  continued  for4to  I2hoursaccording 
to  the  amount  of  silver  present ;  the  end  of  the  reaction  is  known 
by  the  absence  of  any  hissing.  Generally  the  reaction  mixture  is 
allowed  to  cool,  and  the  residue,  which  settles  to  the  bottom  of  the 
pot,  consists  of  gold  together  with  copper,  lead  and  iron  sulphates, 
which  are  insoluble  in  strong  sulphuric  acid;  silver  sulphate  may 
also  separate  if  present  in  sufficient  quantity  and  the  solution  be 
sufficiently  cooled.  The  solution  is  removed  by  ladles  or  by  siphons, 
and  the  residue  is  leached  out  with  boiling  water;  this  removes  the 
sulphates.  A  certain  amount  of  silver  is  still  present  and,  according 
to  M.  Pettenkofer,  it  is  impossible  to  remove  all  the  silver  by  means 
of  sulphuric  acid.  Several  methods  are  in  use  for  removing  the 
silver.  Fusion  withan  alkaline  bisulphate  converts  thesilyerintothe 
sulphate,  which  may  be  extracted  by  boiling  with  sulphuric  acid  and 
then  with  water.  Another  process  consists  in  treating  a  mixture  of 
the  residue  with  one-quarter  of  its  weight  of  calcined  sodium  sulphate 
with  sulphuric  acid,  the  residue  being  finally  boiled  with  a  large 
quantity  of  acid.  Or  the  alloy  is  dissolved  in  aqua  regia,  the  solution 
filtered  from  the  insoluble  silver  chloride,  and  the  gold  precipitated 
by  ferrous  chloride. 

The  silver  present  in  the  solution  obtained  in  the  sulphuric  acid 
boiling  is  recovered  by  a  variety  of  processes.  The  solution  may  be 
directly  precipitated  with  copper,  the  copper  passing  into  solution 
as  copper  sulphate,  and  the  silver  separating  as  a  mud,  termed 
"  cement  silver."  Or  the  silver  sulphate  may  be  separated  from  the 
solution  by  cooling  and  dilution,  and  then  mixed  with  iron  clippings, 
the  interaction  being  accompanied  with  a  considerable  evolution  of 
heat.  Or  Gutzkow's  method  of  precipitating  the  metal  with  ferrous 
sulphate  may  be  employed. 

The  electrolytic  parting  of  gold  and  silver  has  been  shown  to  be 
more  economical  and  free  from  the  objections — such  as  the  poisonous 
fumes — of  the  sulphuric  acid  process.  One  process  depends  upon  the 
fact  that,  with  a  suitable  current  density,  if  a  very  dilute  solution  of 
silver  nitrate  be  electrolysed  between  an  auriferous  silver  anode  and  a 
silver  cathode,  the  silver  of  the  anode  is  dissolved  out  and  deposited 
at  the  cathode,  the  gold  remaining  at  the  anode.  The  silver  is  quite 
free  from  gold,  and  the  gold  after  boiling  with  nitric  acid  has  a  fine- 
ness of  over  999. 


Gold  is  left  in  the  anode  slime  when  copper  or  silver  are  refined  by 
the  usual  processes,  but  if  the  gold  preponderate  in  the  anode  these 
processes  are  inapplicable.  A  cyanide  bath,  as  used  inelectroplating, 
would  dissolve  the  gold,  but  is  not  suitable  for  refining,  because  other 
metals  (silver,  copper,  &c.)  passing  with  gold  into  the  solution  would 
deposit  with  it.  Bock,  however,  in  1880  (Berg-  und  kuttenmdnnische 
Zeitung,  1880,  p.  41 1)  described  a  process  used  at  the  North  German 
Refinery  in  Hamburg  for  the  refining  of  gold  containing  platinum 
with  a  small  proportion  of  silver,  lead  or  bismuth,  and  a  subsequent 
patent  specification  (1896)  and  a  paper  by  Wohlwill  (Zeils.  f.  Elek- 
trochem.,  1898,  pp.  379,  402,  421)  have  thrown  more  light  upon 
the  process.  The  electrolyte  is  gold  chloride  (2-5-3  parts  of  pure  gold 
per  100  of  solution)  mixed  with  from  2  to  6%  of  the  strongest 
hydrochloric  acid  to  render  the  gold  anodes  readily  soluble,  which 
they  are  not  in  the  neutral  chloride  solution.  The  bath  is  used  at 
65°  to  70°  C.  (150°  to  158°  F.),  and  if  free  chlorine  be  evolved,  which 
is  known  at  once  by  its  pungent  smell,  the  temperature  is  raised,  or 
more  acid  is  added,  to  promote  the  solubility  of  the  gold.  The  bath 
is  used  with  a  current-density  of  100  amperes  per  sq.  ft.  at  I  volt 
(or  higher),  with  electrodes- about  1-2  in.  apart.  In  this  process  all 
the  anode  metals  pass  into  solution  except  iridium  and  other  re- 
fractory metals  of  that  group,  which  remain  as  metals,  and  silver, 
which  is  converted  into  insoluble  chloride;  lead  and  bismuth  form 
chloride  and  oxychloride  respectively,  and  these  dissolve  until  the 
bath  is  saturated  with  them,  and  then  precipitate  with  the  silver  in 
the  tank.  But  if  the  gold-strength  of  the  bath  be  maintained,  only 
gold  is  deposited  at  the  cathode — in  a  loose  powdery  condition  from 
pure  solutions,  but  in  a  smooth  detachable  deposit  from  impure 
liquors.  Under  good  conditions  the  gold  should  contain  99-98  %  of 
the  pure  metal.  The  tank  is  of  porcelain  or  glazed  earthenware,  the 
electrodes  for  impure  solutions  are  $  in.  apart  (or  more  with  pure 
solutions),  and  are  on  the  multiple  system,  and  the  potential  differ- 
ence at  the  terminals  of  the  bath  is  I  volt.  A  high  current-density 
being  employed,  the  turn-over  of  gold  is  rapid — an  essential  factor 
of  success  when  the  costliness  of  the  metal  is  taken  into  account. 
Platinum  and  palladium  dissolved  from  the  anode  accumulate  in  the 
solution,  and  are  removed  at  intervals  of,  say,  a  few  months  by 
chemical  precipitation.  It  is  essential  that  the  bath  should  not 
contain  more  than  5%  of  palladium,  or  some  of  this  metal  will 
deposit  with  the  gold.  The  slimes  are  treated  chemically  for  the 
separation  of  the  metals  contained  in  them. 

AUTHORITIES. — Standard  works  on  the  metallurgy  of  gold  are  the 
treatises  of  T.  Kirke  Rose  and  of  M.  Eissler.  The  cyanide  process 
is  especially  treated  by  M.  Eissler,  Cyanide  Process  for  the  Extraction 
of  Gold,  which  pays  particular  attention  to  the  Witwatersrand 
methods;  Alfred  James,  Cyanide  Practice;  H.  Forbes  Julian  and 
Edgar  Smart,  Cyaniding  Gold  and  Silver  Ores.  Gold  milling  is  treated 
by  Henry  Louis,  A  Handbook  of  Gold  Milling;  C.  G.  Warnford  Lock, 
Gold  Milling;  T.  A.  Rickard,  Stamp  Milling  of  Gold  Ores.  Gold 
dredging  is  treated  by  Captain  C.  C.  Longridge  in  Gold  Dredging,  and 
hydraulic  mining  is  discussed  by  the  same  author  in  his  Hydraulic 
Mining.  For  operations  in  special  districts  see  J.  M.  Maclaren,  Gold 
(1908);  J.  H.  Curie,  Gold  Mines  of  the  World;  Africa:  F.  H.  Hatch 
and  J.  A.  Chalmers,  Gold  Mines  of  the  Rand;  S.  J.  Truscott,Witwaters- 
rand  Goldfields  Banket  and  Mining  Practice;  Australasia:  D.  Clark, 
Australian  Mining  and  Metallurgy;  Karl  Schmeisser,  Goldfields  of 
Australasia;  A.  G.  Charleton,  Gold  Mining  and  Milling  in  Western 
Australia;  India:  F.  H.  Hatch,  The  Kolar  Gold-Field. 

GOLD  AND  SILVER  THREAD.  Under  this  heading  some 
general  account  may  be  given  of  gold  and  silver  strips,  threads 
and  gimp  used  in  connexion  with  varieties  of  weaving,  embroidery 
and  twisting  and  plaiting  or  lace  work.  To  this  day,  in  many 
oriental  centres  where  it  seems  that  early  traditions  of  the 
knowledge  and  the  use  of  fabrics  wholly  or  partly  woven,  orna- 
mented, and  embroidered  with  gold  and  silver  have  been  main- 
tained, the  passion  for  such  brilliant  and  costly  textiles  is  still 
strong  and  prevalent.  One  of  the  earliest  mentions  of  the  use 
of  gold  in  a  woven  fabric  occurs  in  the  description  of  the  ephod 
made  for  Aaron  (Exod.  xxxix.  2,  3),  "  And  he  made  the  ephod 
of  gold,  blue,  and  purple,  and  scarlet,  and  fine  twined  linen. 
And  they  did  beat  the  gold  into  thin  plates,  and  cut  it  into  wires 
(strips),  to  work  it  in  the  blue,  and  in  the  purple,  and  in  the 
scarlet,  and  in  the  fine  linen,  with  cunning  work."  This  is 
suggestive  of  early  Syrian  or  Arabic  in-darning  or  weaving  with 
gold  strips  or  tinsel.  In  both  the  Iliad  and  the  Odyssey  allusion 
is  frequently  made  to  inwoven  and  embroidered  golden  textiles. 
Assyrian  sculpture  gives  an  elaborately  designed  ornament  upon 
the  robe  of  King  Assur-nasir-pal  (884  B.C.)  which  was  probably 
an  interweaving  of  gold  and  coloured  threads,  and  testifies 
to  the  consummate  skill  of  Assyrian  or  Babylonian  workers 
at  that  date.  From  Assyrian  and  Babylonian  weavers  the 
conquering  Persians  of  the  time  of  Darius  derived  their  celebrity 
as  weavers  and  users  of  splendid  stuffs.  Herodotus  describes 


GOLDAST 


201 


the  corselet  given  by  Amasis  king  of  Egypt  to  the  Minerva  of 
Lindus  and  how  it  was  inwoven  or  embroidered  with  gold.  Darius, 
we  are  told,  wore  a  war  mantle  on  which  were  figured  (probably 
inwoven)  two  golden  hawks  as  if  pecking  at  each  other.  Alex- 
ander the  Great  is  said  to  have  found  Eastern  kings  and  princes 
arrayed  in  robes  of  gold  and  purple.  More  than  two  hundred 
years  later  than  Alexander  the  Great  was  the  king  of  Pergamos 
(the  third  bearing  the  name  Attalus)  who  gave  much  attention 
to  working  in  metals  and  is  mentioned  by  Pliny  as  having 
invented  weaving  with  gold,  hence  the  historic  Attalic  cloths. 
There  are  several  references  in  Roman  writings  to  costumes 
and  stuffs  woven  and  embroidered  with  gold  threads  and  the 
Graeco-Roman  chryso-phrygium  and  the  Roman  auri-phrygium 
are  evidences  not  only  of  Roman  work  with  gold  threads  but 
also  of  its  indebtedness  to  Phrygian  sources.  The  famous 
tunics  of  Agrippina  and  those  of  Heliogabalus  are  said  to  have 
been  of  tissues  made  entirely  with  gold  threads,  whereas  the 
robes  which  Marcus  Aurelius  found  in  the  treasury  of  Hadrian, 
as  well  as  the  costumes  sold  at  the  dispersal  of  the  wardrobe 
of  Commodus,  were  different  in  character,  being  of  fine  linen 
and  possibly  even  of  silken  stuffs  inwoven  or  embroidered  with 
gold  threads.  The  same  description  is  perhaps  correct  of  the 
reputedly  splendid  hangings  with  which  King  Dagobert  decorated 
the  early  medieval  oratory  of  St  Denis.  Reference  to  these 
and  many  such  stuffs  is  made  by  the  respectively  contemporary 
or  almost  contemporary  writers;  and  a  very  full  and  interesting 
work  by  Monsieur  Francisque  Michel  (Paris,  1852)  is  still  a 
standard  book  for  consultation  in  respect  of  the  history  of  silk, 
gold  and  silver  stuffs. 

From  indication^  such  as  these,  as  well  as  those  of  later  date, 
one  sees  broadly  that  the  art  of  weaving  and  embroidering  with 
gold  and  silver  threads  passed  from  one  great  city  to  another, 
travelling  as  a  rule  westward.  Babylon,  Tarsus,  Bagdad, 
Damascus,  the  islands  of  Cyprus  and  Sicily,  Constantinople, 
Venice  and  southern  Spain  appear  successively  in  the  process 
of  time  as  famous  centres  of  these  much-prized  manufactures. 
During  the  middle  ages  European  royal  personages  and  high 
ecclesiastical  dignitaries  used  cloth  and  tissues  of  gold  and  silver 
for  their  state  and  ceremonial  robes,  as  well  as  for  costly  hangings 
and  decoration;  and  various  names — ciclatoun,  tartarium, 
naques  or  nac,  baudekin  or  baldachin  (Bagdad)  and  tissue — were 
applied  to  textiles  in  the  making  of  which  gold  threads  were 
almost  always  introduced  in  combination  with  others.  The 
thin  flimsy  paper  known  as  tissue  paper  is  so  called  because  it 
originally  was  placed  between  the  folds  of  gold  "  tissue  "  (or 
weaving)  to  prevent  the  contiguous  surfaces  from  fraying  each 
other.  Under  the  articles  dealing  with  carpets,  embroidery, 
lace  and  tapestry  will  be  found  notices  of  the  occasional  use  in 
such  productions  of  gold  and  silver  threads.  Of  early  date  in 
the  history  of  European  weaving  are  rich  stuffs  produced  in 
Southern  Spain  by  Moors,  as  well  as  by  Saracenic  and  Byzantine 
weavers  at  Palermo  and  Constantinople  in  the  I2th  century, 
in  which  metallic  threads  were  freely  used.  Equally  esteemed 
at  about  the  same  period  were  corresponding  stuffs  made  in 
Cyprus,  whilst  for  centuries  later  the  merchants  in  such  fabrics 
eagerly  sought  for  and  traded  in  Cyprus  gold  and  silver  threads. 
Later  the  actual  manufacture  of  them  was  not  confined  to  Cyprus, 
but  was  also  carried  on  by  Italian  thread  and  trimming  makers 
from  the  I4th  century  onwards.  For  the  most  part  the  gold 
threads  referred  to  were  of  silver  gilt.  In  rare  instances  of 
middle-age  Moorish  or  Arabian  fabrics  the  gold  threads  are 
made  with  strips  of  parchment  or  paper  gilt  and  still  rarer  are 
instances  of  the  use  of  real  gold  wire. 

In  India  the  preparation  of  varieties  of  gold  and  silver  threads 
is  an  ancient  and  important  art.  The  "  gold  wire  "  of  the 
manufacturer  has  been  and  is  as  a  rule  silver  wire  gilt,  the  silver 
wire  being,  of  course,  composed  of  pure  silver.  The  wire  is 
drawn  by  means  of  simple  draw-plates,  with  rude  and  simple 
appliances,  from  rounded  bars  of  silver,  or  gold-plated  silver,  as 
the  case  may  be.  The  wire  is  flattened  into  strip,  tinsel 
or  ribbon-like  form,  by  passing  fourteen  or  fifteen  strands 
simultaneously,  over  a  fine,  smooth,  round-topped  anvil  and 


beating  each  as  it  passes  with  a  heavy  hammer  having  a  slightly 
convex  surface.  Such  strips  or  tinsel  of  wire  so  flattened  are 
woven  into  Indian  soniri,  tissue  or  cloth  of  gold,  the  web  or  warp 
being  composed  entirely  of  golden  strips,  and  ruperi,  similar  tissue 
of  silver.  Other  gold  and  silver  threads  suitable  for  use  in 
embroidery,  pillow  and  needlepoint  lace  making,  &c.,  consist  of 
fine  strips  of  flattened  wire  wound  round  cores  of  orange  (in  the 
case  of  silver,  white)  silk  thread  so  as  to  completely  cover  them. 
Wires  flattened  or  partially  flattened  are  also  twisted  into 
exceedingly  fine  spirals  and  much  used  for  heavy,  embroideries. 
Spangles  for  embroideries,  &c.,  are  made  from  spirals  of  compara- 
tively stout  wire,  by  cutting  them  down  ring  by  ring,  laying  each 
C-like  ring  on  an  anvil,  and  by  a  smart  blow  with  a  hammer 
flattening  it  out  into  a  thin  round  disk  with  a  slit  extending 
from  the  centre  to  one  edge.  The  demand  for  many  kinds  of 
loom-woven  and  embroidered  gold  and  silver  work  in  India  is 
immense,  and  the  variety  of  textiles  so  ornamented  is  also  very 
great,  chief  amongst  which  are  the  golden  or  silvery  tinsel 
fabrics  known  as  kincobs. 

Amongst  Western  communities  the  demand  for  gold  and 
silver  embroideries  and  braid  lace  now  exists  chiefly  in  connexion 
with  naval,  military  and  other  uniforms,  masonic  insignia, 
court  costumes,  public  and  private  liveries,  ecclesiastical  robes 
and  draperies,  theatrical  dresses,  &c. 

The  proportions  of  gold  and  silver  in  the  gold  thread  for  the 
woven  braid  lace  or  ribbon  trade  varies,  but  in  all  cases  the 
proportion  of  gold  is  exceedingly  small.  An  ordinary  gold  braid 
wire  is  drawn  from  a  bar  containing  90  parts  of  silver  and  7 
of  copper,  and  plated  with  3  of  gold.  On  an  average  each  ounce 
troy  of  a  bar  so  plated  is  drawn  into  1500  yds.  of  wire;  and  there- 
fore about  1 6  grains  of  gold  cover  i  m.  of  wire.  (A.  S.  C.) 

GOLDAST  AB  HAIMINSFELD,  MELCHIOR  (1576-1635), 
Swiss  writer,  an  industrious  though  uncritical  collector  of 
documents  relating  to  the  medieval  history  and  Constitution  of 
Germany,  was  born  on  the  6th  of  January  1576  (some  say  1578), 
of  poor  Protestant  parents,  near  Bischofszell,  in  the  Swiss  Canton 
of  Thurgau.  His  university  career,  first  at  Ingolstadt  (1585- 
1586),  then  at  Altdorf  near  Nuremberg  (i  597-1 598),  was  cut  short 
by  his  poverty,  from  which  he  suffered  all  his  life,  and  which 
was  the  main  cause  of  his  wanderings.  In  1598  he  found  a  rich 
protector  in  the  person  of  Bartholomaeus  Schobinger,  of  St 
Gall,  by  whose  liberality  he  was  enabled  to  study  at  St  Gall 
(where  he  first  became  interested  in  medieval  documents,  which 
abound  in  the  conventual  library)  and  elsewhere  in  Switzerland. 
Before  his  patrcn's  death  (1604)  he  became  (1603)  secretary  to 
Henry,  duke  of  Bouillon,  with  whom  he  went  to  Heidelberg  and 
Frankfort.  But  in  1604  he  entered  the  service  of  the  Baron  von 
Hohensax,  then  the  possessor  of  the  precious  MS.  volume  of  old 
German  poems,  returned  from  Paris  to  Heidelberg  in  1888,  and, 
partially  published  by  Goldast.  Soon  he  was  back  in  Switzerland, 
and  by  1606  in  Frankfort,  earning  his  living  by  preparing  and 
correcting  books  for  the  press.  In  1611  he  was  appointed 
councillor  at  the  court  of  Saxe- Weimar,  and  in  1615  he  entered 
the  service  of  the  count  of  Schaumburg  at  Biickeburg.  In  1624 
he  was  forced  by  the  war  to  retire  to  Bremen;  there  in  1625  he 
deposited  his  library  in  that  of  the  town  (his  books  were  bought 
by  the  town  in  1646,  but  many  of  his  MSS.  passed  to  Queen 
Christina  of  Sweden,  and  hence  are  now  in  the  Vatican  library), 
he  himself  returning  to  Frankfort.  In  1627  he  became  councillor 
to  the  emperor  and  to  the  archbishop-elector  of  Treves,  and  in 
1633  passed  to  the  service  of  the  landgrave  of  Hesse-Darmstadt. 
He  died  at  Giessen  early  in  1635. 

His  immense  industry  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  his  biographer, 
Senckenburg,  gives  a  list  of  65  works  published  or  written  by 
him,  some  extending  to  several  substantial  volumes.  Among  the 
more  important  are  his  Paraeneticorum  veterum  pars  i.  (1604), 
which  contained  the  old  German  tales  of  Kunig  Tyrol  wn  Schotten, 
the  Winsbeke  and  the  Winsbekin;  Suevicarum  rerum  scriplores 
(Frankfort,  1605,  new  edition,  1727);  Rerum  Alamannicarum 
scriplores  (Frankfort,  1606,  new  edition  by  Senckenburg,  1730); 
Constitutiones  imperiales  (Frankfort,  1607-1613,  4  vols.);  Mon- 
archia  s.  Romani  imperil  (Hanover  and  Frankfort,  1612-1614, 


202 


GOLDBEATING— GOLDBERG 


3  vols.) ;     Commentarii  de  regni  Bohemiae  juribus  (Frankfort 
1627,  new  edition  by  Schmink,  1719).     He  also  edited  De  Thou's 
History  (1609-1610)  and  Willibald  Pirckheimer's  works  (1610) 
In  1688  a  volume  of  letters  addressed  to  him  by  his  learned 
friends  was  published. 

Life  by  Senckenburg,  prefixed  tc  his  1730  work.  See  also  R.  von 
Raumer's  Geschichte  d.  germanischen  Phttologie  (Munich,  1870) 

(W.  A.  B.  C.) 

GOLDBEATING.— The  art  of  goldbeating  is  of  great  antiquity, 
being  referred-  to  by  Homer;  and  Pliny  (N.H.  33.  19)  states 
that  i  oz.  of  gold  was  extended  to  750  leaves,  each  leaf  being 
four  fingers  (about  3  in.)  square;  such  a  leaf  is  three  times 
as  thick  as  the  ordinary  leaf  gold  of  the  present  time.  In  all 
probability  the  art  originated  among  the  Eastern  nations,  where 
the  working  of  gold  and  the  use  of  gold  ornaments  have  been 
distinguishing  characteristics  from  the  most  remote  periods. 
On  Egyptian  mummy  cases  specimens  of  original  leaf-gilding 
are  met  with,  where  the  gold  is  so  thin  that  it  resembles  modern 
gilding  (q.t!.).  The  minimum  thickness  to  which  gold  can  be 
beaten  is  not  known  with  certainty.  According  to  Mersenne 
(1621)  i  oz.  was  spread  out  over  105  sq.  ft.;  Reaumur  (1711) 
obtained  1465  sq.  ft.;  other  values  are  189  sq.  ft.  and  300  sq.  ft. 
Its  malleability  is  greatly  diminished  by  the  presence  of  other 
metals,  even  in  very  minute  quantity.  In  practice  the  average 
degree  of  tenuity  to  which  the  gold  is  reduced  is  not  nearly  so 
great  as  the  last  example  quoted  above.  A  "  book  of  gold  " 
containing  25  leaves  measuring  each  3j  in.,  equal  to  an  area  of 
264  sq.  in.,  generally  weighs  from  4  to  5  grains. 

The  gold  used  by  the  goldbeater  is  variously  alloyed,  according 
to  the  colour  required.  Fine  gold  is  commonly  supposed  to  be 
incapable  of  being  reduced  to  thin  leaves.  This,  however,  is 
not  the  case,  although  its  use  for  ordinary  purposes  is  undesirable 
on  account  of  its  greater  cost.  It  also  adheres  on  one  part  of  a 
leaf  touching  another,  thus  causing  a  waste  of  labour  by  the 
leaves  being  spoiled;  but  for  work  exposed  to  the  weather  it  is 
much  preferable,  as  it  is  more  durable,  and  does  not  tarnish  or 
change  colour.  The  external  gilding  on  many  pubh'c  buildings, 
e.g.  the  Albert  Memorial  in  Kensington  Gardens,  London,  is  done 
with  pure  gold.  The  following  is  a  list  of  the  principal  classes  of 
leaf  recognized  and  ordinarily  prepared  by  British  beaters,  with 
the  proportions  of  alloy  per  oz.  they  contain. 


Name  of  Leaf. 

Proportion 
of  Gold. 

Proportion 
of  Silver. 

Proportion 
of  Copper. 

Grains. 

Grains. 

Grains. 

Red 

456-460 

20-24 

Pale  red      .... 

464 

16 

Extra  deep 

456 

12 

12 

Deep     

444 

24 

12 

Citron  . 

440 

30 

10 

Yellow        .... 

408 

72 

Pale  yellow 

384 

96 

Lemon        .... 

360 

I2O 

Green  or  pale  . 

312 

168 

White   

240 

240 

The  process  of  goldbeating  is  as  follows:  The  gold,  having  been 
alloyed  according  to  the  colour  desired,  is  melted  in  a  crucible  at  a 
higher  temperature  than  is  simply  necessary  to  fuse  it,  as  its  malle- 
ability is  improved  by  exposure  to  a  greater  heat;  sudden  cooling 
does  not  interfere  with  its  malleability,  gold  differing  in  this  respect 
from  some  other  metals.  It  is  then  cast  into  an  ingot,  and  flattened, 
by  rolling  between  a  pair  of  powerful  smooth  steel  rollers,  into  a 
ribbon  of  i|  in.  wide  and  10  ft.  in  length  to  the  oz.  After  being 
flattened  it  is  annealed  and  cut  into  pieces  of  about  6\  grs.  each,  or 
about  75  per  oz.,  and  placed  between  the  leaves  of  a  "  cutch,"  which 
is  about  J  in.  thick  and  33  in.  square,  containing  about  180  leaves  of 
a  tough  paper.  Formerly  fine  vellum  was  used  for  this  purpose,  and 
generally  still  it  is  interleaved  in  the  proportion  of  about  one  of 
vellum  to  six  of  paper.  The  cutch  is  beaten  on  for  about  20  minutes 
with  a  17-ft  hammer,  which  rebounds  by  the  elasticity  of  the  skin, 
and  saves  the  labour  of  lifting,  by  which  the  gold  is  spread  to  the 
size  of  the  cutch;  each  leaf  is  then  taken  out,  and  cut  into  four 
pieces,  and  put  between  the  skins  of  a  "  shoder,"  4^  in.  square  and 
i  in.  thick,  containing  about  720  skins,  which  have  been  worn  out 
in  the  finishing  or  "  mould  "  process.  The  shoder  requires  about 
two  hours'  beating  upon  with  a  9-lb  hammer.  As  the  gold  will 
spread  unequally,  the  shoder  is  beaten  upon  after  the  larger  leaves 
have  reached  the  edges.  The  effect  of  this  is  that  the  margins  of 


larger  leaves  come  out  of  the  edges  in  a  state  of  dust.  This  allows 
time  for  the  smaller  leaves  to  reach  the  full  size  of  the  shoder,  thus 
producing  a  general  evenness  of  size  in  the  leaves.  Each  leaf  is  again 
cut  into  four  pieces,  and  placed  between  the  leaves  of  a  "  mould,' 
composed  of  about  950  of  the  finest  gold-beaters'  skins,  5  in.  square 
and  }  in.  thick,  the  contents  of  one  shoder  filling  three  moulds 
The  material  has  now  reached  the  last  and  most  difficult  stage  of  the 
process;  and  on  the  fineness  of  the  skin  and  judgment  of  the  work- 
man the  perfection  and  thinness  of  the  leaf  of  gold  depend.  During 
the  first  hour  the  hammer  is  allowed  to  fall  principally  upon  the  centre 
of  the  mould.  This  causes  gaping  cracks  upon  the  edges  of  the 
leaves,  the  sides  of  which  readily  coalesce  and  unite  without  leaving 
any  trace  of  the  union  after  being  beaten  upon.  At  the  second  hour 
when  the  gold  is  about  the  iso.oooth  part  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  it 
for  the  first  time  permits  the  transmission  of  the  rays  of  light.  Pure 
gold,  or  gold  but  slightly  alloyed,  transmits  green  rays;  gold  highly 
alloyed  with  silver  transmits  pale  violet  rays.  The  mould  requires 
in  all  about  four  hours'  beating  with  a  7-lb  hammer,  when  the 
ordinary  thinness  for  the  gold  leaf  of  commerce  will  be  reached.  A 
single  ounce  of  gold  will  at  this  stage  be  extended  to  75X4X4  =  1200 
leaves,  which  will  trim  to  squares  of  about  3  J  in.  each.  The  finished 
leaf  is  then  taken  out  of  the  mould,  and  the  rough  edges  are  trimmed 
off  by  slips  of  the  ratan  fixed  in  parallel  grooves  of  an  instrument 
called  a  waggon,  the  leaf  being  laid  upon  a  leathern  cushion.  The 
leaves  thus  prepared  are  placed  into  "  books  "  capable  of  holding 
25  leaves  each,  which  have  been  rubbed  over  with  red  ochre  to 
prevent  the  gold  clinging  to  the  paper.  Dentist  gold  is  gold  leaf 
carried  no  farther  than  the  cutch  stage,  and  should  be  perfectly  pure 
gold. 

By  the  above  process  also  silver  is  beaten,  but  not  so  thin,  the 
inferior  value  of  the  metal  not  rendering  it  commercially  desirable  to 
bestow  so  much  labour  upon  it.  Copper,  tin,  zinc,  palladium,  lead, 
cadmium,  platinum  and  aluminium  can  be  beaten  into  thin  leaves, 
but  not  to  the  same  extent  as  gold  or  silver. 

The  fine  membrane  called  goldbeater's  skin,  used  for  making 
up  the  shoder  and  mould,  is  the  outer  coat  of  the  caecum  or  blind 
gut  of  the  ox.  It  is  stripped  off  in  lengths  about  25  or  30  in., 
and  freed  from  fat  by  dipping  in  a  solution  of  caustic  alkali  and 
scraping  with  a  blunt  knife.  It  is  afterwards  stretched  on  a 
frame;  two  membranes  are  glued  together,  treated  with  a 
solution  of  aromatic  substances  or  camphor  in  isinglass,  and 
subsequently  coated  with  white  of  egg.  Finally  they  are  cut 
into  squares  of  5  or  s|  in. ;  and  to  make  up  a  mould  of  950  pieces 
the  gut  of  about  380  oxen  is  required,  about  2\  skins  being  got 
from  each  animal.  A  skin  will  endure  about  200  beatings  in 
the  mould,  after  which  it  is  fit  for  use  in  the  shoder  alone. 

The  dryness  of  the  cutch,  shoder  and  mould  is  a  matter  of  extreme 
delicacy.  They  require  to  be  hot-pressed  every  time  they  are  used, 
although  they  may  be  used  daily,  to  remove  the  moisture  which  they 
acquire  from  the  atmosphere,  except  in  extremely  frosty  weather, 
when  they  acquire  so  little  moisture  that  a  difficulty  arises  from  their 
over-dryness,  whereby  the  brilliancy  of  the  gold  is  diminished,  and 

t  spreads  very  slowly  under  the  hammer.  On  the  contrary,  if  the 
cutch  or  shoder  be  damp,  the  gold  will  become  pierced  with  innumer- 
able microscopic  holes;  and  in  the  moulds  in  its  more  attenuated 
state  it  will  become  reduced  to  a  pulverulent  state.  This  condition 

s  more  readily  produced  in  alloyed  golds  than  in  fine  gold.  It  is 
necessary  that  each  skin  of  the  mould  should  be  rubbed  over  with 
calcined  gypsum  each  time  the  mould  may  be  used,  in  order  to  pre- 
vent the  adhesion  of  the  gold  to  the  surface  of  the  skin  in  beating. 

GOLDBERG,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  Prussian  province  of 
Silesia,1  14  m.  by  rail  S.W.  of  Liegnitz,  on  the  Katzbach,  an 
affluent  of  the  Oder.     Pop.  (1905)  6804.   The  principal  buildings 
are  an  old  church  dating  from  the  beginning  of  the  I3th  century, 
he  Schwabe-Priesemuth  institution,  completed  in  1876,  for  the 
soard  and  education  of  orphans,  and  the  classical  school  or 
gymnasium  (founded  in  1524  by  Duke  Frederick  II.  of  Liegnitz), 
which  in  the  1 7th  century  enjoyed  great  prosperity,  and  numbered 
Wallenstein   among  its  pupils.     The   chief   manufactures  are 
woollen  cloth,  flannel,  gloves,  stockings,  leather  and  beer,  and 
here   is   a  considerable   trade   in    corn    and  fruit.     Goldberg 
owes  its  origin  and  name  to  a  gold  mine  in  the  neighbourhood, 
which,  however,  has  been  wholly  abandoned  since  the  time  of 
he  Hussite  wars.     The  town  obtained  civic  rights  in  1211.     It 
suffered  heavily  from  the  Tatars  in  1241,  from  the  plague  in  1334, 
rom  the  Hussites  in  1428,  and  from  the  Saxon,  Imperial  and 
iwedish  forces  during  the  Thirty  Years'  War.     On  the  27th  of 
May  1813  a  battle  took  place  near  it  between  the  French  and  the 

1  Goldberg  is  also  the  name  of  a  small  town  in  the  grand-duchy  of 
Mecklenburg- Schwerin. 


GOLD  COAST 


203 


Russians;  and  on  the  23rd  and  the  27th  of  August  of  the  same 
year  fights  between  the  allies  and  the  French. 

See  Sturm,  Geschichte  der  Stadt  Goldberg  in  SMesien  (1887). 

GOLD  COAST,  that  portion  of  the  Guinea  Coast  (West  Africa) 
which  extends  from  Assini  upon  the  west  to  the  river  Volta  on 
the  east.  It  derives  its  name  from  the  quantities  of  grains  of 
gold  mixed  with  the  sand  of  the  rivers  traversing  the  district. 
The  term  Gold  Coast  is  now  generally  identified  with  the  British 
Gold  Coast  colony.  This  extends  from  3°  7'  W.  to  i°  14'  E.,  the 
length  of  the  coast-line  being  about  370  m.  It  is  bounded  W.  by 
the  Ivory  Coast  colony  (French),  E.  by  Togoland  (German).  On 
the  north  the  British  possessions,  including  Ashanti  (q.v.)  and  the 
Northern  Territories,  extend  to  the  nth  degree  of  north  latitude. 
The  frontier  separating  the  colony  from  Ashanti  (fixed  by  order 


GOLD 
COAST 

and 

Hinterland 

Scale,  1:6,000,000 

English  Miles 


gouty  Walker  K. 


in  council,  22nd  of  October  1906)  is  in  general  130  m.  from  the 
coast,  but  in  the  central  portion  of  the  colony  the  southern  limits 
of  Ashanti  project  wedge-like  to  the  confluence  of  the  rivers  Ofin 
and  Prah,  which  point  is  but  60  m.  from  the  sea  at  Cape  Coast. 
The  combined  area  of  the  Gold  Coast,  Ashanti  and  the  Northern 
Territories,  is  about  80,000  sq.  m.,  with  a  total  population 
officially  estimated  in  1908  at  2,700,000;  the  Gold  Coast  colony 
alone  has  an  area  of  24,200  sq.  m.,  with  a  population  of  over  a 
million,  of  whom  about  2000  are  Europeans. 

Physical  features. — Though  the  lagoons  common  to  the  West 
African  coast  are  found  both  at  the  western  and  eastern  extremities 
of  the  colony  (Assini  in  the  west  and  Kwitta  in  the  east)  the  greater 
part  of  the  coast-line  is  of  a  different  character.  Cape  Three  Points 
(4°  44'  40"  N.  2°  5'  45*  W.)  juts  boldly  into  the  sea,  forming  the  most 
southerly  point  of  the  colony.  Thence  the  coast  trends  E.  by  N.,  and 
is  but  slightly  indented.  The  usually  low  sandy  beach  is,  however, 
diversified  by  bold,  rocky  headlands.  The  flat  belt  of  country  does 
not  extend  inland  any  considerable  distance,  the  spurs  of  the  great 
plateau  which  forms  the  major  part  of  West  Africa  advancing  in  the 
east,  in  the  Akwapim  district,  near  to  the  coast.  Here  the  hills  reach 
an  altitude  of  over  2000  ft.  Out  of  the  level  plain  rise  many  isolated 
peaks,  generally  of  conical  formation.  Numerous  rivers  descend 


from  the  hills,  but  bars  of  sand  block  their  mouths,  and  the  Gold 
Coast  possesses  no  harbours.  Great  Atlantic  rollers  break  unceas- 
ingly upon  the  shore.  The  chief  rivers  are  the  Volta  (q.v.),  the 
Ankobra  and  the  Prah.  The  Ankobra  or  Snake  river  traverses 
auriferous  country,  and  reaches  the  sea  some  20  m.  west  of  Cape 
Three  Points.  It  has  a  course  of  about  150  m.,  and  is  navigable  in 
steam  launches  for  about  80  m.  The  Prah  ("  Busum  Prah,'  sacred 
river)  is  regarded  as  a  fetish  stream  by  the  Fanti  and  Ashanti.  One 
of  its  sub-tributaries  has  its  rise  near  Kumasi.  The  Prah  rises  in  the 
N.E.  of  the  colony  and  flows  S.W.  Some  60  m.  from  its  mouth  it  is 
joined  by  the  Ofin,  which  comes  from  the  north-west.  The  united 
stream  flows  S.  and  reaches  the  sea  in  I  °  35'  W.  As  a  waterway  the 
river,  which  has  a  course  ol  400  m.,  is  almost  useless,  owing  to  the 
many  cataracts  in  its  course.  Another  river  is  the  Tano,  which  for 
some  distance  in  its  lower  course  forms  the  boundary  between  the 
colony  and  the  Ivory  Coast. 

Geology. — Cretaceous  rocks  occur  at  intervals  along  the  coast  belt, 
but  are  mostly  hidden  under  an  extensive  development  of  superficial 
deposits.  Basalt  occurs  at  Axim.  Inland  is  a  broad  belt  of  sand- 
stone and  marl  with  an  occasional  band  of  auriferous  conglomerate, 
best  known  and  most  extensively  worked  for  gold  in  the  Wasaw 
district.  Though  the  conglomerates  bear  some  resemblance  to  the 
"  Banket  "  of  South  Africa  they  are  most  probably  of  more  recent 
date.  The  alluvial  silts  and  gravels  also  carry  gold. 

Climate. — The  climate  on  the  coast  is  hot,  moist  and  unhealthy, 
especially  for  Europeans.  The  mean  temperature  in  the  shade  in  the 
coast  towns  is  78°  to  80°  F.  Fevers  and  dysentery  are  the  diseases 
most  to  be  dreaded  by  the  European.  The  native  inhabitants, 
although  they  enjoy  tolerable  health  and  live  to  an  average  age,  are 
subject  in  the  rainy  season  to  numerous  chest  complaints.  There  are 
two  wet  seasons.  From  April  to  August  are  the  greater  rains,  whilst 
in  October  and  November  occur  the  "  smalls  "  or  second  rains. 
From  the  end  of  December  to  March  the  dry  harmattan  wind  blows 
from  the  Sahara.  In  consequence  of  the  prevalence  of  the  sea- 
breeze  from  the  south-west  the  western  portion  of  the  colony,  up  to 
the  mouth  of  the  Sekum  river  (a  small  stream  to  the  .west  of  Accra), 
is  called  the  windward  district,  the  eastward  portion  being  known 
as  the  leeward.  The  rainfall  at  Accra,  in  the  leeward  district, 
averages  27  in.  in  the  year,  but  at  places  in  the  windward  district  is 
much  greater,  averaging  79  in.  at  Axim. 

Flora. — The  greater  part  (probably  three-fourths)  of  the  colony  is 
covered  with  primeval  forest.  Here  the  vegetation  is  so  luxuriant 
that  for  great  distances  the  sky  is  shut  out  from  view.  As  a  result  of 
the  struggle  to  reach  the  sunlight  the  forest  growths  are  almost 
entirely  vertical.  The  chief  trees  are  silk  cottons,  especially  the 
bombax,  and  gigantic  hard- wood  trees,  such  as  the  African  mahogany, 
ebony,  odum  and  camwood.  The  bombax  rises  for  over  100  ft.,  a 
straight  column-like  shaft,  25  to  30  ft.  in  circumference,  and  then 
throws  out  horizontally  a  large  number  of  branches.  The  lowest 
growth  in  the  forest  consists  of  ferns  and  herbaceous  plants.  Of 
the  ferns  some  are  climbers  reaching  30  to  40  ft.  up  the  stems  of  the 
trees  they  entwine.  Flowering  plants  are  comparatively  rare;  they 
include  orchids  and  a  beautiful  white  lily.  The  "  bush  "  or  inter- 
mediate growth  is  made  up  of  smaller  trees,  the  rubber  vine  and 
other  creepers,  some  as  thick  as  hawsers,  bamboos  and  sensitive 
mimosa,  and  has  a  height  of  from  30  to  60  ft.  The  creepers  are  found 
not  only  in  the  bush,  but  on  the  ground  and  hanging  from  the  branches 
of  the  highest  trees.  West  of  the  Prah  the  forest  comes  down  to  the 
edge  of  the  Atlantic.  East  of  that  river  the  coast  land  is  covered 
with  bushes  5  to  12  ft.  high,  occasional  large  trees  and  groves  of 
oil  palms.  Still  farther  east,  by  Accra,  are  numerous  arborescent 
Euphorbias,  and  immediately  west  of  the  lower  Volta  forests  of  oil 
palms  and  grassy  plains  with  fan  palms.  Behind  all  these  eastern 
regions  is  a  belt  of  thin  forest  country  before  the  denser  forest  is 
reached.  In  the  north-east  are  stretches  of  orchard-like  country 
with  wild  plum,  shea-butter  and  kola  trees,  baobabs,  dwarf  date 
and  fan  palms.  The  cotton  and  tobacco  plants  grow  wild.  At  the 
mouths  of  the  rivers  and  along  the  lagoons  the  mangrove  is  the 
characteristic  tree.  There  are  numerous  coco-nut  palms  along  the 
coast.  The  f»uit  trees  and  plants  also  include  the  orange,  pineapple, 
mango,  papaw,  banana  and  avocado  or  alligator  pear. 

Fauna. — The  fauna  includes  leopards,  panthers,  hyenas,  Potto 
lemurs,  jackals,  antelopes,  buffaloes,  wild-nogs  and  many  kinds  of 
monkey,  including  the  chimpanzee  and  the  Colobus  vellerosus,  whose 
skin,  with  long  black  silky  hair,  is  much  prized  in  Europe.  The 
elephant  has  been  almost  exterminated  by  ivory  hunters.  The 
snakes  include  pythons,  cobras,  horned  and  puff  adders  and  the 
venomous  water  snake.  Among  the  lesser  denizens  of  the  forest  are 
the  squirrel  and  porcupine.  Crocodiles  and  in  fewer  numbers 
manatees  and  otters  frequent  the  rivers  and  lagoons  and  hippopotami 
are  found  in  the  Volta.  Lizards  of  brilliant  hue,  tortoises  and  great 
snails  are  common.  Birds,  which  are  not  very  numerous,  include 
parrots  and  hornbills,  kingfishers,  ospreys,  herons,  crossbills,  curlews, 
woodpeckers,  doves,  pigeons,  storks,  pelicans,  swallows,  vultures  and 
the  spur  plover  (the  last-named  rare).  Shoals  of  herrings  frequent 
the  coast,  and  the  other  fish  include  mackerel,  sole,  skate,  mullet, 
bonito,  flying  fish,  fighting  fish  and  shynose.  Sharks  abound  at  the 
mouths  of  all  the  rivers,  edible  turtle  are  fairly  common,  as  are  the 
sword  fish,  dolphin  and  sting  ray  (with  poisonous  caudal  spine). 
Oysters  are  numerous  on  rocks  running  into  the  sea  and  on  the 


204 


GOLD  COAST 


exposed  roots  of  mangrove  trees.  Insect  life  is  multitudinous ;  beetles, 
spiders,  ants,  fireflies,  butterflies  and  jiggers  abound.  'The  earth- 
worm is  rare.  The  mosquitos  include  the  Culex  or  ordinary  kind, 
the  Anopheles,  which  carry  malarial  fever,  and  the  Stegomyia,  a 
striped  white  and  black  mosquito  which  carries  yellow-fever. 

Inhabitants. — The  natives  are  all  of  the  Negro  race.  The  most 
important  tribe  is  the  Fanti  (q.v.),  and  the  Fanti  language  is  generally 
understood  throughout  the  colony.  The  Fanti  and  Ashanti  are 
believed  to  have  a  common  origin.  It  is  certain  that  the  Fanti  came 
originally  from  the  north  and  conquered  many  of  the  coast  tribes, 
who  anciently  had  owned  the  rule  of  the  king  of  Benin.  The  districts 
in  general  are  named  after  the  tribes  inhabiting  them.  Those  in  the 
western  part  of  the  colony  are  mainly  of  Fanti  stock;  the  Accra  and 
allied  tribes  inhabit  the  eastern  portion  and  are  believed  to  be  the 
aboriginal  inhabitants.  The  Akim  (Akem),  who  occupy  the  north- 
east portion  of  the  colony,  have  engaged  in  gold-digging  from  time 
immemorial.  The  capital  of  their  country  is  Kibbi.  The  Akwapim 
(Aquapem),  southern  neighbours  of  the  Akim,  are  extensively  en- 
gaged in  agriculture  and  in  trade.  The  Accra,  a  clever  race,  are  to  be 
found  in  all  the  towns  of  the  West  African  coast  as  artisans  and 
sailors.  They  are  employed  by  the  interior  tribes  as  middlemen  and 
interpreters.  On  the  right  bank  of  the  Volta  occupying  the  low 
marshy  land  near  the  sea  are  the  Adangme.  The  Krobos  live  in 
little  villages  in  the  midst  of  the  palm  tree  woods  which  grow  round 
about  the  Kroboberg,  an  eminence  about  1000  ft.  high.  Their 
country  lies  between  that  of  the  Akim  and  the  Adangme.  In  the 
west  of  the  colony  is  the  Ahanta  country,  formerly  an  independent 
kingdom.  The  inhabitants  were  noted  for  their  skill  in  war.  They 
are  one  of  the  finest  and  most  intelligent  of  the  tribes  of  Accra  stock. 
The  Apollonia,  a  kindred  race,  occupy  the  coast  region  nearest  the 
Ivory  Coast. 

The  Tshi,  Tchwi  or  Chi  language,1  which  is  that  spoken  on  the 
Gold  Coast,  belongs  to  the  great  prefix-pronominal  group.  It  com- 
Natlve  prises  many  dialects,  which  may,  however,  be  reduced 
ian,  to  two  classes  or  types.  Akan  dialects  are  spoken  in 

ruazes  Assini,  Amanahia  (Apollonia),  Awini,  Ahanta,  Wasaw, 
Tshuforo  (Juffer  or  Tufel),  and  Denkyera  in  the  west, 
and  in  Asen,  Akim,  and  Akwapim  in  the  east,  as  well  as  in  the 
different  parts  of  Ashanti.  Fanti  dialects  are  spoken,  not  only  in 
Fanti  proper,  but  in  Afutu  or  the  country  round  Cape  Coast,  in 
Abora,  Agymako,  Akomfi,  Gomoa  and  Agona.  The  difference 
between  the  two  types  is  not  very  great ;  a  Fanti,  for  example,  can 
converse  without  much  difficulty  with  a  native  of  Akwapim  or 
Ashanti,  his  language  being  in  fact  a  deteriorated  form  of  the  same 
original.  Akim  is  considered  the  finest  and  purest  of  all  the  Akan 
dialects.  The  Akwapim,  which  is  based  on  the  Akim  but  has  im- 
bibed Fanti  influences,  has  been  made  the  book-language  by  the 
Basel  missionaries.  They  had  reduced  it  to  writing  before  1850. 
About  a  million  people  in  all,  it  is  estimated,  speak  dialects  of  the 
Tshi. 

The  south-eastern  corner  of  the  Gold  Coast  is  occupied  by  another 
language  known  as  the  Ga  or  Accra,  which  comprises  the  Ga  proper 
and  the  Adangme  and  Krobo  dialects.  Ga  proper  is  spoken  by  about 
40,000  people,  including  the  inhabitants  of  Ga  a'nd  Kinka  (i.e.  Accra, 
in  Tshi,  Nkran  and  Kankan),  Osu  (i.e.  Christiansborg),  La,  Tessi, 
Ningua  and  numerous  inland  villages.  It  has  been  reduced  to  writing 
by  the  missionaries.  The  Adangme  and  Krobo  dialects  are  spoken 
by  about  80,000  people.  They  differ  very  considerably  from  Ga 
proper,  but  books  printed  in  Ga  can  be  used  by  both  the  Krobo  and 
Adangme  natives.  Another  language  known  as  Guan  is  used  in  parts 
of  Akwapim  and  in  Anum  beyond  the  Volta ;  but  not  much  is  known 
either  about  it  or  the  Obutu  tongue  spoken  in  a  few  towns  in  Agona, 
Gomoa  and  Akomfi. 

Fetishism  (q.v .)  is  the  prevailing  religion  of  all  the  tribes.  Belief 
in  a  God  is  universal,  as  also  is  a  belief  in  a  future  state.  Christi- 
Rellrloa  an'tv  and  Mahommedanism  are  both  making  progress. 
an(j  The  natives  professing  Christianity  number  about  40,000. 

education.  ^  Moravian  mission  was  started  at  Christiansborg 
about  1736;  the  Basel  mission  (Evangelical)  was  begun 
in  1828,  the  missionaries  combining  manual  training  and  farm 
labour  with  purely  religious  work;  the  Wesleyans  started  a 
mission  among  the  Fanti  in  1835,  and  the  Anglican  and  Roman 
Catholic  Churches  are  also  represented,  as  well  as  the  Bremen 
Missionary  Society.  Elementary  education  is  chiefly  in  the  hands  of 
the  Wesleyan,  Basel,  Bremen  and  Roman  Catholic  missions,  who 
have  schools  at  many  towns  along  the  coast  and  in  the  interior. 
There  are  also  government  and  Mahommedan  schools.  The  natives 
generally  are  extremely  intelligent.  They  obtain  easily  the  means  of 
subsistence,  and  are  disinclined  to  unaccustomed  labour,  such  as 
working  in  mines.  They  are  keen  traders.  The  native  custom  of 
burying  the  dead  under  the  floors  of  the  houses  prevailed  until  1874, 
when  it  was  prohibited  by  the  British  authorities. 

Towns. — Unlike  the  other  British  possessions  on  the  west  coast  of 
Africa,  the  colony  has  many  towns  along  the  shore,  this  being  due  to 
the  multiplicity  of  traders  of  rival  nations  who  went  thither  in  quest 
of  gold.  Beginning  at  the  west,  Newtown,  on  the  Assini  or  Eyi 
lagoon,  is  just  within  the  British  frontier.  The  first  place  of  im- 

1  This  name  appears  in  a  great  variety  of  forms — Kwi,  Ekwi, 
Okwi,  Oji,  Odschi,  Otsui,  Tyi,  Twi,  Tschi,  Chwee  or  Chee. 


portance  reached  is  Axim  (pop.,  1901,  2189),  the  site  of  an  old  Dutch 
fort  built  near  the  mouth  of  the  Axim  river,  and  in  the  pre-railway 
days  the  port  of  the  gold  region.  Rounding  Cape  Three  Points, 
whose  vicinity  is  marked  by  a  line  of  breakers  nearly  2j  m.  long, 
Dixcove  is  reached.  Twenty  miles  farther  east  is  Sekondi  (q.v°, 
(pop.  about  5000),  the  starting-point  of  the  railway  to  the  gold-fields 
and  Kumasi.  Elmina  (q.v.),  formerly  one  of  the  most  important 
posts  of  European  settlement,  is  reached  some  distance  after  passing 
the  mouth  of  the  Prah.  Eight  miles  east  of  Elmina  is  Cape  Coast 
(q.v.),  pop.  (1901)  28,948.  Anamabo  is  9  m.  farther  east.  Here,  in 
1807,  a  handful  of  English  soldiers  made  a  heroic  and  successful 
defence  of  its  fort  against  the  whole  Ashanti  host.  Saltpond,  towards 
the  end  of  the  igth  century,  diverted  to  itself  the  trade  formerly  done 
by  Anamabo,  from  which  it  is  distant  9  m.  Saltpond  is  a  well-built, 
flourishing  town,  and  is  singular  in  possessing  no  ancient  fort. 
Between  Anamabo  and  Saltpond  is  Kormantine(Cormantyne),  noted 
as  the  place  whence  the  English  first  exported  slaves  from  this  coast. 
Hence  the  general  name  Coromantynes  given  in  the  West  Indies  to 
slaves  from  the  Gold  Coast.  Eighty  miles  from  Cape  Coast  is  Accra 
(q.v.)  (pop.  17,892),  capital  of  the  colony.  (Winnebah  is  passed 
30  m.  before  Accra  is  reached.  It  is  an  old  town  noted  for  the  manu- 
facture of  canoes.)  There  is  no  station  of  much  importance  in  the 
60  m.  between  Accra  and  the  Volta,  on  the  right  bank  of  which  river, 
near  its  mouth,  is  the  town  of  Addah  (pop.  13,240).  Kwitta  (pop. 
3018)  lies  beyond  the  Volta  not  far  from  the  German  frontier.  Of 
the  inland  towns  Akropong,  the  residence  of  the  king  of  Akwapim,  is 
one  of  the  best  known.  It  is  39  m.  N.E.  of  Accra,  stands  on  a  ridge 
1400  ft.  above  sea-level,  and  is  a  healthy  place  for  European  residents. 
At  Akropong  are  the  headquarters  of  the  Basel  Missionary  Society. 
Akuse  is  a  large  town  on  the  banks  of  the  Volta.  Tarkwa  is  the 
centre  of  the  gold  mining  industry  in  the  Wasaw  district.  Its  im- 
portance dates  from  the  beginning  of  the  2Oth  century.  Accra,  Cape 
Coast  and  Sekondi  possess  municipal  government. 

Agriculture  and  Trade. — The  soil  is  everywhere  very  fertile  and  the 
needs  of  the  people  being  few  there  is  little  incentive  to  work.  The 
forests  alone  supply  an  inexhaustible  source  of  wealth,  notably  in  the 
oil  palm.  Among  vegetable  products  cultivated  are  cocoa,  cotton, 
Indian  corn,  yams,  cassava,  peas,  peppers,  onions,  tomatoes,  ground- 
nuts (Arachis  hypogaea),  Guinea  corn  (Sorghum  vulgare)  and  Guinea 
grains  (Amomum  grana-paradisi) .  The  most  common  article  of 
cultivation  is,  however,  the  kola  nut  (Sterculia  acuminata),  the 
favourite  substitute  in  West  Africa  for  the  betel  nut.  In  1890  efforts 
were  made  by  the  establishment  of  a  government  botanical  station  at 
Aburi  in  the  Accra  district  to  induce  the  natives  to  improve  their 
methods  of  cultivation  and  to  enlarge  the  number  of  their  crops. 
This  resulted  in  the  formation  of  hundreds  of  cocoa  plantations, 
chiefly  in  the  district  immediately  north  of  Accra.  Subsequently  the 
cultivation  of  the  plant  extended  to  every  district  of  the  colony. 
The  industry  had  been  founded  in  1879  by  a  native  of  Accra,  but  it 
was  not  until  1901,  as  the  result  of  the  government's  fostering  care, 
that  the  export  became  of  importance.  In  that  year  the  quantity 
exported  slightly  exceeded  2,000,000  ft  and  fetched  £42,000.  In 
1907  the  quantity  exported  was  nearly  21,000,000  Ib  and  in  value 
exceeded  £515.000.  In  19°4  efforts  were  begun  by  the  government 
and  the  British  Cotton  Growing  Association  in  co-operation  to  foster 
the  growing  of  cotton  for  export  and  by  1907  the  cotton  industry 
had  become  firmly  established.  Tobacco  and  coffee  are  grown  at 
some  of  the  Basel  missionary  stations. 

The  chief  exports  are  gold,  palm  oil  and  palm  kernels,  cocoa, 
rubber,  timber  (including  mahogany)  and  kola  nuts.  Of  these 
articles  the  gold  and  rubber  are  shipped  chiefly, to  England,  whilst 
Germany,  France  and  America,  take  the  palm  products  and  ground- 
nuts. The  rubber  comes  chiefly  from  Ashanti.  The  imports  consist 
of  cotton  goods,  rum,  gin  and  other  spirits,  rice,  sugar,  tobacco,  beads, 
machinery,  building  materials  and  European  goods  generally. 

The  value  of  the  trade  increased  from  £1,628,309  in  1896  to 
£4,055,351  in  1906.  In  the  last  named  year  the  imports  were  valued 
at  £2,058,839  and  the  exports  at  £1,996,412.  While  the  value  of 
imports  had  remained  nearly  stationary  since  1902  the  value  of 
exports  had  nearly  trebled  in  that  period.  In  the  five  years  1903- 
1907  the  total  trade  increased  from  £3,063,486  to  £5,007,869.  Great 
Britain  and  British  colonies  take  66%  of  the  exports  and  supply 
over  60%  of  the  imports.  In  both  import  and  export  trade  Germany 
is  second,  followed  by  France  and  the  United  States.  Specie  is  in- 
cluded in  these  totals,  over  a  quarter  of  a  million  being  imported  in 

1904- 

Fishing  is  carried  on  extensively  along  the  coast,  and  salted  and 
sun-dried  fish  from  Addah  and  Kwitta  districts  find  a  ready  sale 
inland.  Cloths  are  woven  by  the  natives  from  home-grown  and 
imported  yarn;  the  making  of  canoes,  from  the  silk-cotton  trees, 
is  a  flourishing  industry,  and  salt  from  the  lagoons  near  Addah  is 
roughly  prepared.  There  are  also  native  artificers  in  gold  and  other 
metals,  the  workmanship  in  some  cases  being  of  conspicuous  merit. 
Odum  wood  is  largely  used  in  building  and  for  cabinet  work. 

Gold  Mining. — Gold  is  found  in  almost  every  part  of  the  colony, 
but  only  in  a  few  districts  in  paying  quantities.  Although  since  the 
discovery  of  the  coast  gold  had  been  continuously  exported  to 
Europe  from  its  ports,  it  was  not  until  the  last  twenty  years  of  the 
igth  century  that  efforts  were  made  to  extract  gold  according  to 
modern  methods.  The  richness  of  the  Tarkwa  main  reef  was  first 


GOLD  COAST 


205 


discovered  by  a  French  trader,  M.  J.  Bennat,  about  1880.  During 
the  period  1880  to  1900  the  value  of  the  gold  exported  varied  from 
a  minimum  of  £32,000  to  a  maximum  (1889)  of  £103,000.  The 
increased  interest  shown  in  the  industry  led  to  the  construction  of  a 
railway  (see  below)  to  the  chief  gold-fields,  whereby  the  difficulties  of 
transport  were  largely  overcome.  Consequent  upon  the  taking  up  of 
a  number  of  concessions,  a  concessions  ordinance  was  issued  in 
August  1900.  This  was  followed  in  1901  by  the  grant  of  2825  con- 
cessions, and  a  "  boom  "  in  the  West  African  market  on  the  London 
stock  exchange.  Many  concessions  were  speedily  abandoned,  and  in 
1901  the  export  of  gold  dropped  to  its  lowest  point,  6162  oz.,  worth 
£22,186,  but  in  1902  a  large  company  began  crushing  ore  and  the 
output  of  gold  rose  to  26,911  oz.,  valued  at  £96,880.  In  1907  the 
export  was  292, 125  oz.,  wotht  £1,164,676.  It  should  be  noted  that  one 
of  the  principal  gold  mines  is  not  in  the  colony  proper,  but  at  Obuassi 
in  Ashanti.  Underground  labour  is  performed  mainly  by  Basas  and 
Krumen  from  Liberia.  Of  native  tribes  the  Apollonia  have  proved 
the  best  for  underground  work,  as  they  have  mining  traditions  dating 
from  Portuguese  times.  A  good  deal  of  alluvial  gold  is  obtained  by 
dredging  apparatus.  The  use  of  dredging  apparatus  is  modern,  but 
the  natives  have  worked  the  alluvial  soil  and  the  sand  of  the  sea- 
shore for  generations  to  get  the  gold  they  contain. 

Communications. — The  colony  possesses  a  railway,  built  and 
owned  by  the  government,  which  serves  the  gold  mines,  and  has  its 
sea  terminus  at  Sekondi.  Work  was  begun  in  August  1898,  but 
owing  to  the  disturbance  caused  by  the  Ashanti  rising  of  1900  the 
rails  only  reached  Tarkwa  (39  m.)  in  May  1901.  Thence  the  line  is 
carried  to  Kumasi,  the  distance  to  Obuassi  (124  m.)  being  completed 
by  December  1902,  whilst  the  first  train  entered  the  Ashanti  capital 
on  the  1st  of  October  1903.  The  total  length  of  the  line  is  168  m. 
The  cost  of  construction  was  £1,820,000.  The  line  has  a  gauge 
3  ft.  6  in.  There  is  a  branch  line,  20  m.  long,  from  Tarkwa  N.W.  to 
Prestea  on  the  Ankobra  river.  Another  railway,  built  1907-10, 
35  m.  in  length,  runs  from  Accra  to  Mangoase,  in  the  centre  of  the 
chief  cocoa  plantations.  An  extension  to  Kumasi  has  been  surveyed. 

Tortuous  bush  tracks  are  the  usual  means  of  internal  communica- 
tion. These  are  kept  in  fair  order  in  the  neighbourhood  of  govern- 
ment stations.  There  is  a  well-constructed  road  141  m.  long  from 
Cape  Coast  to  Kumasi,  and  roads  connecting  neighbouring  towns  are 
maintained  by  the  government.  Systematic  attempts  to  make  use 
of  the  upper  Volta  as  a  means  of  conveying  goods  to  the  interior  were 
first  tried  in  1900.  The  rapids  about  60  m.  from  the  mouth  of  the 
river  effectually  prevent  boats  of  large  size  passing  up  the  stream. 
Where  railways  or  canoes  are  not  available  goods  are  generally 
carried  on  the  heads  of  porters,  60  Ib  being  a  full  load.  Telegraphs, 
introduced  in  1882,  connect  all  the  important  towns  in  the  colony, 
and  a  line  starting  at  Cape  Coast  stretches  far  inland,  via  Kumasi  to 
Wa  in  the  Northern  Territories.  Accra  and  Sekondi  are  in  telegraphic 
communication  with  Europe,  the  Ivory  Coast,  Lagos  and  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope.  There  is  regular  and  frequent  steamship  communica- 
tion with  Europe  by  British,  Belgian  and  German  lines. 

Administration,  Revenue,  &c. — The  country  is  governed  as  a  crown 
colony,  the  governor  being  assisted  by  a  legislative  council  composed 
of  officials  and  nominated  unofficial  members.  Laws,  called  ordin- 
ances, are  enacted  by  the  governor  with  the  advice  and  consent  of 
this  council.  The  law  of  the  colony  is  the  common  law  and  statutes 
of  general  application  in  force  in  England  in  1874,  modified  by  local 
ordinances  passed  since  that  date.  The  governor  is  also  governor  of 
Ashanti  and  the  Northern  Territories,  but  in  those  dependencies  the 
legislative  council  has  no  authority. 

Native  laws  and  customs — which  are  extremely  elaborate  and 
complicated — are  not  interfered  with  "  except  when  repugnant  to 
natural  justice."  Those  relating  to  land  tenure  and  succession  may 
be  thus  summarized.  Individual  tenure  is  not  unknown,  but  most 
land  is  held  by  the  tribe  or  by  the  family  in  common,  each  member 
having  the  right  to  select  a  part  of  the  common  land  for  his  own  use. 
Permanent  alienation  can  only  take  place  with  the  unanimous 
consent  of  the  family  and  is  uncommon,  but  long  leases  are  granted. 
Succession  is  through  the  female,  i.e.  when  a  man  dies  his  property 
goes  to  his  sister's  children.  The  government  of  the  tribes  is  by  their 
own  kings  and  chiefs  under  the  supervision  of  district  commissioners. 
Slavery  has  been  abolished  in  the  colony.  In  the  Northern  Terri- 
tories the  dealing  in  slaves  is  unlawful,  neither  can  any  person  be 
put  in  pawn  for  debt ;  nor  will  any  court  give  effect  to  the  relations 
between  master  and  slave  except  m  so  far  as  those  relations  may  be 
in  accordance  with  the  English  laws  relating  to  master  and  servant. 

For  administrative  purposes  the  colony  is  divided  into  three 
provinces  under  provincial  commissioners,  and  each  province  is  sub- 
divided into  districts  presided  over  by  commissioners,  who  exercise 
judicial  as  well  as  executive  functions.  The  supreme  court  consists 
of  a  chief  justice  and  three  puisne  judges.  The  defence  of  the  colony 
is  entrusted  to  the  Gold  Coast  regiment  of  the  West  African  Frontier 
Force,  a  force  of  natives  controlled  by  the  Colonial  Office  but  officered 
from  the  British  army.  There  is  also  a  corps  of  volunteers  (formed 
1892). 

The  chief  source  of  revenue  is  the  customs  and  (since  1902)  railway 
receipts,  whilst  the  heaviest  items  of  expenditure  are  transport  (in- 
cluding railways)  and  mine  surveys,  medical  and  sanitary  services, 
and  maintenance  of  the  military  force.  The  revenue,  which  in  the 
period  1894-1898  averaged  £244,559  yearly,  rose  in  1898-1903  to  an 


average  of  £556,316  a  year.  For  the  five  years  1903-1907  the 
average  annual  revenue  was  £647,557  and  the  average  annual 
expenditure  £615,696.  Save  for  municipal  purposes  there  is  no 
direct  taxation  in  the  colony  and  no  poor-houses  exist.  There  is  a 
public  debt  of  (December  1907)  £2,206,964.  It  should  be  noted  that 
the  expenditure  on  Ashanti  and  the  Northern  Territories  is  included 
in  the  Gold  Coast  budget. 

History. — It  is  a  debated  question  whether  the  Gold  Coast  was 
discovered  by  French  or  by  Portuguese  sailors.  The  evidence 
available  is  insufficient  to  prove  the  assertion,  of  which  there  is 
no  contemporary  record,  that  a  company  of  Norman  merchants 
established  themselves  about  1364  at  a  place  they  named  La 
Mina  (Elmina),and  that  they  traded  with  the  natives  for  nearly 
fifty  years,  when  the  enterprise  was  abandoned.  It  is  well  estab- 
lished that  a  Portuguese  expedition  under  Diogo  d'Azambuja, 
accompanied  probably  by  Christopher  Columbus,  took  possession 
of  (or  founded)  Elmina  in  1481-1482.  By  the  Portuguese  it  was 
called  variously  Sao  Jorge  da  Mina  or  Ora  del  Mina — the  mouth 
of  the  (gold)  mines.  That  besides  alluvial  washings  they  also 
worked  the  gold  mines  was  proved  by  discoveries  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  igth  century.  The  Portuguese  remained  undisturbed 
in  their  trade  until  the  Reformation,  when  the  papal  bull  which 
had  given  the  country,  with  many  others,  to  Portugal  ceased  to 
have  a  binding  power.  English  ships  in  1 5  53  brought  back  from 
Guinea  gold  to  the  weight  of  1 50  Ib.  The  fame  of  the  Gold  Coast 
thereafter  attracted  to  it  adventurers  from  almost  every  European 
nation.  The  English  were  followed  by  French,  Danes,  Branden- 
burgers,  Dutch  and  Swedes.  The  most  aggressive  were  the 
Dutch,  who  from  the  end  of  the  i6th  century  sought  to  oust  the 
Portuguese  from  the  Gold  Coast,  and  in  whose  favour  the  Portu- 
guese did  finally  withdraw  in  1642,  in  return  for  the  withdrawal 
on  the  part  of  the  Dutch  of  their  claims  to  Brazil.  The  Dutch 
henceforth  made  Elmina  their  headquarters  on  the  coast.  Traces 
of  the  Portuguese  occupation,  which  lasted  160  years,  are  still  to 
be  found,  notably  in  the  language  of  the  natives.  Such  familiar 
words  as  palaver,  fetish,  caboceer  and  dash  (i.e.  a  gift)  have  all  a 
Portuguese  origin. 

An  English  company  built  a  fort  at  Kormantine  previously  to 
165 1, and  some  ten  years  later  Cape  Coast  Castle  was  built.  The 
settlements  made  by  the  English  provoked  the  hostility  Appear- 
of  the  Dutch  and  led  to  war  between  England  and  aace  of 
Holland,  during  which  Admiral  de  Ruyter  destroyed 
(1664-1665)  all  the  English  forts  save  Cape  Coast 
castle.  The  treaty  of  Breda  in  1667  confirmed  the  Dutch  in  the 
possession  of  their  conquests,  but  the  English  speedily  opened 
other  trading  stations.  Charles  II.  in  1672  granted  a  charter  to 
the  Royal  African  Company,  which  built  forts  at  Dixcove, 
Sekondi,  Accra,  Whydah  and  other  places,  besides  repairing  Cape 
Coast  Castle.  At  this  time  the  trade  both  in  slaves  and  gold  was 
very  great,  and  at  the  beginning  of  the  i8th  century  the  value  of 
the  gold  exported  annually  was  estimated  by  Willem  Bosman,  the 
chief  Dutch  factor  at  Elmina,  to  be  over  £200,000.  The  various 
European  traders  were  constantly  quarrelling  among  themselves 
and  exercised  scarcely  any  controloverthenatives.  Piracy  was  rife 
along  the  coast,  and  was  not  indeed  finally  stamped  out  until  the 
middle  of  the  i  Qth  century.  The  Royal  African  Company,  which 
lost  its  monopoly  of  trade  with  England  in  1 700,  was  succeeded 
by  another,  the  African  Company  of  Merchants,  which  was  con- 
stituted in  1 7  50  by  act  of  parliament  and  received  an  annual 
subsidy  from  government.  The  slave  trade  was  then  at  its 
height  and  some  10,000  negroes  were  exported  yearly.  Many 
of  the  slaves  were  prisoners  of  war  sold  to  the  merchants  by 
the  Ashanti,  who  had  become  the  chief  native  power.  The  aboli- 
tion of  the  slave  trade  (1807)  crippled  the  company,  which  was 
dissolved  in  1821,  when  the  crown  took  possession  of  the  forts. 

Since  the  beginning  of  the  io,th  century  the  British  had  begun 
to  exercise  territorial  rights  in  the  towns  where  they  held  forts, 
and  in  181 7  the  right  of  the  British  to  control  the  natives  living  in 
the  coast  towns  was  recognized  by  Ashanti.  In  1824  the  first 
step  towards  the  extension  of  British  authority  beyond  the  coast 
region  was  taken  by  Governor  Sir  Charles  M'Carthy,  who  incited 
the  Fanti  to  rise  against  their  oppressors,  the  Ashanti.  (The 
Fanti's  country  had  been  conquered  by  the  Ashanti  in  1807.) 


the 
English. 


2o6 


GOLD  COAST 


torts 
purchased. 


Sir  Charles  and  the  Fanti  army  were  defeated,  the  governor  losing 
his  life,  but  in  1826  the  English  gained  a  victory  over  the  Ashanti 
at  Dodowah.  At  this  period,  however,  the  home  government, 
disgusted  with  the  Gold  Coast  by  reason  of  the  perpetual  dis- 
turbances in  the  protectorate  and  the  trouble  it  occasioned, 
determined  to  abandon  the  settlements,  and  sent  instructions  for 
the  forts  to  be  destroyed  and  the  Europeans  brought  home.  The 
merchants,  backed  by  Major  Rickets,  2nd  West  India  regiments, 
the  administrator,  protested,  and  as  a  compromise  the  forts  were 
handed  over  to  a  committee  of  merchants  (Sept.  1828),  who  were 
given  a  subsidy  of  £4000  a  year.  The  merchants  secured  ( 1 830) 
as  their  administrator  Mr  George  Maclean — a  gentleman  with 
military  experience  on  the  Gold  Coast  and  not  engaged  in  trade. 
To  Maclean  is  due  the  consolidation  of  British  interests  in  the 
interior.  He  concluded,  1831,  a  treaty  Iwith  the  Ashanti  advantage- 
ous to  the  Fanti,  whilst  with  very  inadequate  means  he  contrived 
to  extend  British  influence  over  the  whole  region  of  the  present 
colony.  In  the  words  of  a  Fanti  trader  Maclean  understood  the 
people,  "  he  settled  things  quietly  with  them  and  the  people  also 
loved  him."1  Complaints  that  Maclean  encouraged  slavery 
reached  England,  but  these  were  completely  disproved,  the 
governor  being  highly  commended  on  his  administration  by  the 
House  of  Commons  Committee.  It  was  decided,  nevertheless, 
that  the  Colonial  Office  should  resume  direct  control  of  the  forts, 
which  was  done  in  1843,  Maclean  continuing  to  direct  native 
affairs  until  his  death  in  1847.  The  jurisdiction  of  England  on 
the  Gold  Coast  was  defined  by  the  bond  of  the  6th  of  March  1844, 
Danish  an  agreement  with  the  native  chiefs  by  which  the 
and  crown  received  the  right  of  trying  criminals,  repressing 

Dutch  human  sacrifice,  &c.  The  limits  of  the  protectorate 
inland  were  not  defined.  The  purchase  of  the  Danish 
forts  in  1850,  and  of  the  Dutch  forts  and  territory  in 
1871,  led  to  the  consolidation  of  the  British  power  along  the 
coast;  and  the  Ashanti  war  of  1873-74  resulted  in  the  extension 
of  the  area  of  British  influence.  Since  that  time  the  colony  has 
been  chiefly  engaged  in  the  development  of  its  material  resources, 
a  development  accompanied  by  a  slow  but  substantial  advance 
in  civilization  among  the  native  population.  (For  further 
historical  information  see  ASHANTI.) 

For  a  time  the  Gold  Coast  formed  officially  a  limb  of  the 
"  West  African  Settlements  "  and  was  virtually  a  dependency  of 
Sierra  Leone.  In  1874  the  settlements  on  the  Gold  Coast  and 
Lagos  were  created  a  separate  crown  colony,  this  arrangement 
lasting  until  1886  when  Lagos  was  cut  off  from  the  Gold  Coast 
administration. 

Northern  Territories. 

The  Northern  Territories  of  the  Gold  Coast  form  a  British 
protectorate  to  the  north  of  Ashanti.  They  are  bounded  W.  and 
N. — where  1 1  °  N.  is  the  frontier  line  except  at  the  eastern 
extremity — by  the  French  colonies  of  the  Ivory  Coast  and  Upper 
Senegal  and  Niger,  E.  by  the  German  colony  of  Togoland.  The 
southern  frontier,  separating  the  protectorate  from  Ashanti,  is 
the  Black  Volta  to  a  point  a  little  above  its  junction  with  the 
White  Volta.  Thence  the  frontier  turns  south  and  afterwards 
east  so  as  to  include  the  Brumasi  district  in  the  protectorate, 
the  frontier  gaining  the  main  Volta  below  Yeji.  The  Territories 
include  nearly  all  the  country  from  the  meridian  of  Greenwich 
to  3°  W.  and  between  8°  and  11°  N.,  and  cover  an  area  of  about 
33,000  sq.  m. 

Lying  north  of  the  great  belt  of  primeval  forest  which  extends 
parallel  to  the  Guinea  coast,  the  greater  part  of  the  protectorate 
consists  of  open  country, well  timbered,  and  much  of  it  presenting 
a  park-like  appearance.  There  are  also  large  stretches  of  grassy 
plains,  and  in  the  south-east  an  area  of  treeless  steppe.  The  flora 
and  fauna  resemble  those  of  Ashanti.  The  country  is  well 
watered,  the  Black  Volta  forming  the  west  and  southern  frontier 
for  some  distance,  while  the  White  Volta  traverses  its  central 
regions.  Both  rivers,  and  also  the  united  stream,  contain  rapids 
which  impede  but  do  not  prevent  navigation  (see  VOLTA).  The 
climate  is  much  healthier  than  that  of  the  coast  districts,  and  the 
1  Blue  Book  on  Africa  (Western  Coast)  (1865),  p.  233. 


fever  experienced  is  of  a  milder  type.  The  rainfall  is  less  than  on 
the  coast;  the  dry  season  lasts  from  November  (when  the 
harmattan  begins  to  blow)  to  March.  The  mean  temperature  at 
Gambaga  is  80°  F.,  the  mean  annual  rainfall  43  in.  The  inhabi- 
tants were  officially  estimated  in  1907  to  number  "  at  least 
1,000,000."  The  Dagomba,  Dagarti,  Grunshi,  Kangarga,  Moshi 
and  Zebarima,  Negro  or  Negroid  tribes,  constitute  the  bulk  of  the 
people,  and  Fula,  Hausa  and  Yoruba  have  settled  as  traders  or 
cattle  raisers.  A  large  number  of  the  natives  are  Moslems,  the 
rest  are  fetish  worshippers.  The  tribal  organization  is  maintained 
by  the  British  authorities,  who  found  comparatively  little 
difficulty  in  putting  an  end  to  slave-raiding  and  gaining  the 
confidence  of  the  chiefs.  Trained  by  British  officers,  the  natives 
make  excellent  soldiers. 

Agriculture  and  Trade. — The  chief  crops  are  maize,  guinea-corn, 
millet,  yams,  rice,  beans,  groundnuts,  tobacco  and  cotton.  Cotton  is 
grown  in  most  parts  of  the  protectorate,  the  soil  and  climate  in  many 
districts  being  very  suitable  for  its  cultivation.  Rubber  is  found  in 
the  north-western  regions.  When  the  protectorate  was  assumed  by 
Great  Britain  the  Territories  were  singularly  destitute  of  fruit  trees. 
The  British  have  introduced  the  orange,  citron,  lime,  guava,  mango 
and  soursop,  and  among  plants  the  banana,  pine-apple  and  papaw. 
A  large  number  of  vegetables  and  flowers  have  also  been  introduced 
by  the  administration. 

Stock-raising  is  carried  on  extensively,  and  besides  oxen  and  sheep 
there  are  large  numbers  of  horses  and  donkeys  in  the  Territories. 
The  chief  exports  are  cattle,  dawa-dawa  (a  favourite  flavouring 
matter  for  soup  among  the  Ashanti  and  other  tribes)  and  shea- 
butter — the  latter  used  in  cooking  and  as  an  illuminant.  The 
principal  imports  are  kola-nuts,  salt  and  cotton  goods.  A  large 
proportion  of  the  European  goods  imported  is  German  and  conies 
through  Togoland.  The  administration  levies  a  tax  on  traders' 
caravans,  and  in  return  ensures  the  safety  of  the  roads.  This  tax  is 
the  chief  local  source  of  revenue.  The  revenue  and  expenditure  of  the 
Territories,  as  well  as  statistics  of  trade,  are  included  in  those  of  the 
Gold  Coast. 

Gold  exists  in  quartz  formation,  chiefly  in  the  valley  of  the  Black 
Volta,  and  is  found  equally  on  the  British  and  French  sides  of  the 
frontier. 

Towns. — The  headquarters  of  the  administration  are  at  Tamale 
(or  Tamari),  a  town  in  the  centre  of  the  Dagomba  country  east  of  the 
White  Volta  and  200  m.  N.E.  of  Kumasi.  Its  inhabitants  are  keen 
traders,  and  it  forms  a  distributing  centre  for  the  whole  protectorate. 
Gambaga,  an  important  commercial  centre  and  from  1897  to  1907 
the  seat  of  government,  is  in  Mamprusi,  the  north-east  corner  of  the 
protectorate  and  is  85  m.  N.N.E.  of  Tamale.  A  hundred  and  forty 
miles  due  south  of  Gambaga  is  Salaga.  This  town  is  situated  on  the 
caravan  route  from  the  Hausa  states  to  Ashanti,  and  has  a  consider- 
able trade  in  kola-nuts,  shea-butter  and  salt.  On  the  White  Volta, 
midway  between  Gambaga  and  Salaga,  is  the  thriving  town  of 
Daboya.  On  the  western  frontier  are  Bole  (Baule)  and  Wa.  They 
carry  on  an  extensive  trade  with  Bontuku,  the  capital  of  Jaman,  and 
other  places  in  the  Ivory  Coast  colony.  In  all  the  towns  the  popula- 
tion largely  consists  of  aliens — Hausa,  Ashanti,  Mandin^os,  &c. 

Communications. — Lack  of  easy  communication  with  the  sea 
hinders  the  development  of  the  country.  The  ancient  caravan  routes 
have  been,  however,  supplemented  by  roads  built  by  the  British, 
who  have  further  organized  a  service  of  boats  on  the  Volta.  Large 
cargo  boats,  chiefly  laden  with  salt,  ascend  that  river  from  Addah  to 
Yeji  and  Daboya.  From  Yeji,  the  port  of  Salaga,  a  good  road,  150 
m.  long,  has  been  made  to  Gambaga.  There  is  also  a  river  service 
from  Yeji  to  Longoro  on  the  Black  Volta,  the  port  of  Kintampo,  in 
northern  Ashanti.  There  is  a  complete  telegraphic  system  connect- 
ing the  towns  of  the  protectorate  with  Kumasi  and  the  Gold  Coast 
ports. 

History. — It  was  not  until  the  last  quarter  of  the  igth  century 
that  the  country  immediately  north  of  Ashanti  became  known 
to  Europeans.  The  first  step  forward  was  made  by  Monsieur 
M.  J.  Bonnat  (one  of  the  Kumasi  captives,  see  ASHANTI)  who, 
ascending  the  Volta,  reached  Salaga  (1875-1876).  In  1882 
Captain  R.  La  Trobe  Lonsdale,  an  officer  in  British  colonial 
service,  went  farther,  visiting  Yendi  in  the  north  and  Bontuku 
in  the  west.  Two  years  later  Captain  Brandon  Kirby  made  his 
way  to  Kintampo.  In  1887-1889  Captain  L.  G.  Binger,  a  French 
officer,  traversed  the  country  from  north  to  south.  Thereafter 
the  whole  region  was  visited  by  British,  French  and  German 
political  missions.  Prominent  among  the  British  agents  was 
Mr  George  E.  Ferguson,  a  native  of  West  Africa,  who  had 
previously  explored  northern  Ashanti.  Between  1892  and  1897 
Ferguson  concluded  several  treaties  guarding  British  interests. 
In  1897  Lieutenant  Henderson  and  Ferguson  occupied  Wa,  where 
they  were  attacked  by  the  sofas  of  Samory  (see  SENEGAL,  §  3). 


GOLDEN— GOLDEN  BULL 


207 


lenderson,  who  had  gone  to  the  sofa  camp  to  parley,  was 
held  prisoner  for  some  time,  while  Ferguson  was  killed.  Mean- 
time negotiations  were  opened  in  Europe  to  settle  the  spheres 
of  influence  of  the  respective  countries.  (The  Anglo-French 
agreement  of  1889  had  fixed  the  boundaries  of  the  hinterlands 
of  the  French  colony  of  the  Ivory  Coast  and  the  British  colony 
of  the  Gold  Coast  as  far  as  9°  N.  only.)  A  period  of  considerable 
tension,  arising  from  the  proximity  of  British  and  French  troops 
in  the  disputed  territory,  was  ended  by  the  signature  of  a  conven- 
tion in  Paris  (i4th  of  June  1898),  in  which  the  western  and 
northern  boundaries  were  defined.  The  British  abandoned 
their  claim  to  the  important  town  and  district  of  Wagadugu 
in  the  north.  In  the  following  year  (i4th  of  November  1899) 
an  agreement  defining  the  eastern  frontier  was  concluded  with 
Germany.  Previously  a  square  block  of  territory  to  the  north 
of  8°  N.  had  been  regarded  as  neutral,  both  by  Britain  and 
Germany.  This  was  in  virtue  of  an  arrangement  made  in  1888. 
By  the  1899  convention  the  neutral  zone  was  parcelled  out 
between  the  two  powers.  The  delimitation  of  the  frontiers 
agreed  upon  took  place  during  1900-1904. 

In  1897  the  Northern  Territories  were  constituted  a  separate 
district  of  the  Gold  Coast  hinterland,  and  were  placed  in  charge 
of  a  chief  commissioner.  Colonel  H.  P.  Northcott  (killed  in  the 
Boer  War,  1899-1902)  was  the  first  commissioner  and  com- 
mandant of  the  troops.  He  was  succeeded  by  Col.  A.  H.  Morris. 
In  1901  the  Territories  were  made  a  distinct  administration, 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  governor  of  the  Gold  Coast  colony. 
The  government  was  at  first  of  a  semi-military  character,  but  in 
1907  a  civilian  staff  was  appointed  to  carry  on  the  administration, 
and  a  force  of  armed  constabulary  replaced  the  troops  which 
had  been  stationed  in  the  protectorate  and  which  were  then 
disbanded.  The  prosperity  of  the  country  under  British  ad- 
ministration has  been  marked. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — A  good  summary  of  the  condition  and  history  of 
the  colony  to  the  close  of  the  igth  century  will  be  found  in  vol.  3, 
"  West  Africa,"  of  the  Historical  Geography  of  the  British  Empire  by 
C.  P.  Lucas  (2nd  ed.,  Oxford,  1900).  For  current  information  see 
the  Gold  Coast  Civil  Service  List  (London,  yearly),  the  annual  Blue 
Books  published  in  the  colony,  and  the  annual  Report  issued  by  the 
Colonial  Office,  London.  For  fuller  information  consult  the  Report 
from  the  Select  Committee  on  Africa  (Western  Coast)  (London,  1865), 
a  mine  of  valuable  information ;  The  Gold  Coast,  Past  and  Present, 
by  G.  Macdonald  (London,  1898);  History  of  the  Gold  Coast  and 
Ashanti,  by  C.  C.  Reindorf,  a  native  pastor  (Basel,  1895) ;  A  History 
of  the  Gold  Coast,  by  Col.  A.  B.  Ellis  (London,  1893);  Wanderings  in 
West  Africa  (London,  1863)  and  To  the  Gold  Coast  for  Gold  (London, 
1883),  both  by  Sir  Richard  Burton.  Of  the  earlier  books  the  most 
notable  are  The  Golden  Coast  or  a  Description  of  Guinney  together  with 
a  relation  of  such  persons  as  got  wonderful  estates  by  their  trade  thither 
(London,  1665),  and  A  New  and  Accurate  Description  of  the  Coast  of 
Guinea  written  (in  Dutch)  by  Willem  Bosman,  chief  factor  for  the 
Dutch  at  Elmina  (Eng.  trans.,  2nd  ed.,  1721).  Fora  complete  survey 
of  the  Gold  Coast  under  Dutch  control  see  "  Die  Niederlandisch 
West-Indische  Compagnie  an  der  Gold-Kuste  "  by  J.  G.  Doorman 
in  Tijds  Indische  Taal-,  Land-  en  Volkenk,  vol.  40  (1898).  For 
ethnography,  religion,  law,  &c.,  consult  The  Land  of  Fetish  (London, 
1883)  and  The  Tshi-speaking  Peoples  of  the  West  Coast  of  Africa 
(London,  1887),  both  by  Col.  A.  B.  Ellis;  Fanti  Customary  Law  (2nd 
«d.,  London,  1904)  and  Fanti  Law  Report  (London,  1904),  both  by 
I.  M.  Sarbah.  Tne  Sketch  of  the  Forestry  of  West  Africa  by  Sir  Alfred 
Moloney  (London,  1887)  contains  a  comprehensive  list  of  economic 
plants.  See  also  Report  on  Economic  Agriculture  on  the  Gold  Coast 
(Colonial  Office  Reports,  No.  no,  1890),  and  Papers  relating  to  the 
Construction  of  Railways  in  ...  the  Gold  Coast  (London,  1904). 
The  best  map  is  that  of  Major  F.  G.  Guggisberg,  over  70  sheets, 
scale  i  :  125,000  (London,  1907-1909).  There  is  a  War  Office  map  on 
the  scale  I  :  1 ,000,000  in  one  sheet.  See  also  the  works  quoted  under 
ASHANTI. 

For  the  Northern  Territories  see  L.  G.  Binger,  Du  Niger  au  Golfe 
de  Guinee  (Paris,  1892),  a  standard  authority;  H.  P.  Northcott, 
Report  on  the  Northern  Territories  of  the  Gold  Coast  (War  Office, 
London,  1899),  a  valuable  compilation  summarizing  the  then  avail- 
able information.  Annual  Reports  on  the  protectorate  are  issued  by 
the  British  Colonial  Office.  A  map  on  the  scale  of  I  :  1,000,000  is 
issued  by  the  War  Office.  (F.  R.  C.) 

GOLDEN,  a  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Jefferson  county, 
Colorado,  U.S.A.,  on  Clear  Creek  (formerly  called  the  Vasquez 
fork  of  the  South  Platte),  about  14  m.  W.  by  N.  of  Denver. 
Pop.  (1900)  2152;  (1910)  2477.  Golden  is  a  residential  suburb 
of  Denver,  served  by  the  Colorado  &  Southern,  the  Denver  & 


Intermountain  (electric),  and  the  Denver  &  North-Western 
Electric  railways.  It  is  about  5700  ft.  above  sea-level.  About 
600  ft.  above  the  city  is  Castle  Rock,  with  an  amusement  park, 
and  W.  of  Golden  is  Lookout  Mountain,  a  natural  park  of  3400 
acres.  About  i  m.  S.  of  the  city  is  a  state  industrial  school  for 
boys,  and  in  Golden  is  the  Colorado  State  School  of  Mines 
(opened  1874),  which  offers  courses  in  mining  engineering  and 
metallurgical  engineering.  The  Independent  Pyritic  Smelter 
is  at  Golden,  and  among  the  city's  manufactures  are  pottery, 
firebrick  and  tile,  made  from  clays  found  near  by,  and  flour. 
There  are  deposits  of  coal,  copper  and  gold  in  the  vicinity. 
Truck-farming  and  the  growing  of  fruit  are  important  industries 
in  the  neighbourhood.  The  first  settlement  here  was  a  gold 
mining  camp,  established  in  1859,  and  named  in  honour  of 
Tom  Golden,  one  of  the  pioneer  prospectors.  The  village  was 
laid  out  in  1860,  and  Golden  was  incorporated  as  a  town  in  1865 
and  was  chartered  as  a  city  in  1870.  Golden  was  made  the 
capital  of  Colorado  Territory  in  1862,  and  several  sessions  (or 
parts  of  sessions)  of  the  Assembly  were  held  here  between  1864 
and  1868,  when  the  seat  of  government  was  formally  established 
at  Denver;  the  territorial  offices  of  Colorado,  however,  were 
at  Golden  only  in  1866-1867. 

GOLDEN  BULL  (Lat.  Bulla  Awed),  the  general  designation 
of  any  charter  decorated  with  a  golden  seal  or  bulla,  either  owing 
to  the  intrinsic  importance  of  its  contents,  or  to  the  rank  and 
dignity  of  the  bestower  or  the  recipient.  The  custom  of  thus 
giving  distinction  to  certain  documents  is  said  to  be  of  Byzantine 
origin,  though  if  this  be  the  case  it  is  somewhat  strange  that  the 
word  employed  as  an  equivalent  for  golden  bull  in  Byzantine 
Greek  should  be  the  hybrid  xpv<rbl3ov\\ov  (cf.  Codinus  Curo- 
palates,  6  ittyas  \oyoOerqs  dtararret.  TO.  irapa.  TOV  /3a<nX«itt 
aTrooreXXojLiei'a  Trpoorcryjuara.  KCU  xpucro/SouXXa  fl"p6s  T«  '  PifraJ, 
SouXraj'as,  KCU  Toirdpxow;  and  Anna  Comnena,  Alexiad,  lib.  iii.  8ia 
Xpvo~ol3ov\iov  Xoyou;  lib.  viii.,  •x.pvaofiovk.ov  \6yov).  In  Germany 
a  Golden  Bull  is  mentioned  under  the  reign  of  Henry  I.  the  Fowler 
in  Chronica  Cassin.  ii.  31,  and  the  oldest  German  example,  if  it 
be  genuine,  dates  from  983.  At  first  the  golden  seal  was  formed 
after  the  type  of  a  solid  coin,  but  at  a  later  date,  while  the  golden 
surface  presented  to  the  eye  was  greatly  increased,  the  seal  was 
really  composed  of  two  thin  metal  plates  filled  in  with  wax. 
The  number  of  golden  bulls  issued  by  the  imperial  chancery 
must  have  been  very  large;  the  city  of  Frankfort,  for  example, 
preserves  no  fewer  than  eight. 

The  name,  however,  has  become  practically  restricted  to  a  few 
documents  of  unusual  political  importance,  the  golden  bull  of 
the  Empire,  the  golden  bull  of  Brabant,  the  golden  bull  of 
Hungary  and  the  golden  bull  of  Milan — and  of  these  the  first 
is  undoubtedly  the  Golden  Bull  par  excellence.  The  main  object 
of  the  Golden  Bull  was  to  provide  a  set  of  rules  for  the  election 
of  the  German  kings,  or  kings  of  the  Romans,  as  they  are  called 
in  this  document.  Since  the  informal  establishment  of  the 
electoral  college  about  a  century  before  (see  ELECTORS)  ,  various 
disputes  had  taken  place  about  the  right  of  certain  princes  to 
vote  at  the  elections,  these  and  other  difficulties  having  arisen 
owing  to  the  absence  of  any  authoritative  ruling.  The  spiritual 
electors,  it  is  true,  had  exercised  their  votes  without  challenge, 
but  far  different  was  the  case  of  the  temporal  electors.  The 
families  ruling  in  Saxony  and  in  Bavaria  had  been  divided  into 
two  main  branches  and,  as  the  German  states  had  not  yet 
accepted  the  principles  of  primogeniture,  it  was  uncertain  which 
member  of  the  divided  family  should  vote.  Thus,  both  the 
prince  ruling  in  Saxe-Lauenburg  and  the  prince  ruling  in  Saxe- 
Wittenberg  claimed  the  vote,  and  the  two  branches  of  the 
family  of  Wittelsbach,  one  settled  in  Bavaria  and  the  other  in 
the  Rhenish  palatinate,  were  similarly  at  variance,  while  the 
duke  of  Bavaria  also  claimed  the  vote  at  the  expense  of  the 
king  of  Bohemia.  Moreover,  there  had  been  several  disputed 
and  double  elections  to  the  German  crown  during  the  past 
century.  In  more  than  one  instance  a  prince,  chosen  by  a 
minority  of  the  electors,  had  claimed  to  exercise  the  functions 
of  king,  and  as  often  civil  war  had  been  the  result.  Under  these 
circumstances  the  emperor  Charles  IV.  determined  by  an 


208 


GOLDEN  BULL 


authoritative  pronouncement  to  makesuch  proceedings  impossible 
in  the  future,  and  at  the  same  time  to  add  to  his  own  power 
and  prestige,  especially  in  his  capacity  as  king  of  Bohemia. 

Having  arranged  various  disputes  in  Germany,  and  having  in 
April  1355  secured  his  coronation  in  Rome,  Charles  gave  instruc- 
tions for  the  bull  to  be  drawn  up.  It  is  uncertain  who  is  respon- 
sible for  its  actual  composition.  The  honour  has  been  assigned 
to  Bartolo  of  Sassoferrato,  professor  of  law  at  Pisa  and  Perugia, 
to  the  imperial  secretary,  Rudolph  of  Friedberg,  and  even  to 
the  emperor  himself,  but  there  is  no  valid  authority  for  giving 
it  to  any  one  of  the  three  in  preference  to  the  others.  In  its 
first  form  the  bull  was  promulgated  at  the  diet  of  Nuremberg 
on  the  loth  of  January  1356,  but  it  was  not  accepted  by  the 
princes  until  some  modifications  had  been  introduced,  and  in 
its  final  form  it  was  issued  at  the  diet  of  Metz  on  the  2$th  of 
December  following. 

The  text  of  the  Golden  Bull  consists  of  a  prologue  and  of 
thirty-one  chapters.  Some  lines  of  verse  invoking  the  aid  of 
Almighty  God  are  followed  by  a  rhetorical  statement  of  the 
evils  which  arise  from  discord  and  division,  illustrations  being 
taken  from  Adam,  who  was  divided  from  obedience  and  thus  fell, 
and  from  Helen  of  Troy  who  was  divided  from  her  husband. 
The  early  chapters  are  mainly  concerned  with  details  of  the 
elaborate  ceremonies  which  are  to  be  observed  on  the  occasion 
of  an  election.  The  number  of  electors  is  fixed  at  seven,  the  duke 
of  Saxe- Wittenberg,  not  the  duke  of  Saxe-Lauenburg,  receiving 
the  Saxon  vote,  and  the  count  palatine,  not  the  duke  of  Bavaria, 
obtaining  the  vote  of  the  Wittelsbachs.  The  electors  were  ar- 
ranged in  order  of  precedence  thus:  the  archbishops  of  Mainz, 
of  Trier  and  of  Cologne,  the  king  of  Bohemia,  qui  inter  electores 
laicos  ex  regiae  dignitalis  fastigio  jure  et  merito  obtinet  primaliam, 
the  count  palatine  of  the  Rhine,  the  duke  of  Saxony  and  the 
margrave  of  Brandenburg.  The  three  archbishops  were  respec- 
tively arch-chancellors  of  the  three  principal  divisions  of  the 
Empire,  Germany,  Aries  and  Italy,  and  the  four  secular  electors 
each  held  an  office  in  the  imperial  household,  the  functions  of 
which  they  were  expected  to  discharge  on  great  occasions. 
The  king  of  Bohemia  was  the  arch-cupbearer,  the  count  palatine 
was  the  arch-steward  (dapifer),  the  duke  of  Saxony  was  arch- 
marshal,  and  the  margrave  of  Brandenburg  was  arch-chamber- 
lain. The  work  of  summoning  the  electors  and  of  presiding  over 
their  deliberations  fell  to  the  archbishop  of  Mainz,  but  if  he 
failed  to  discharge  this  duty  the  electors  were  to  assemble  without 
summons  within  three  months  of  the  death  of  a  king.  Elections 
were  to  be  held  at  Frankfort;  they  were  to  be  decided  by  a 
majority  of  votes,  and  the  subsequent  coronation  at  Aix-la- 
Chapelle  was  to  be  performed  by  the  archbishop  of  Cologne. 
During  a  vacancy  in  the  Empire  the  work  of  administering  the 
greater  part  of  Germany  was  entrusted  to  the  count  palatine 
of  the  Rhine,  the  duke  of  Saxony  being  responsible,  however, 
for  the  government  of  Saxony,  or  rather  for  the  districts  ubi 
Saxonica  jura  servantur. 

The  chief  result  of  the  bull  was  to  add  greatly  to  the  power  of 
the  electors;  for,  to  quote  Bryce  {Holy  Roman  Empire),  it 
"  confessed  and  legalized  the  independence  of  the  electors  and 
the  powerlessness  of  tlje  crown."  To  these  princes  were  given 
sovereign  rights  in  their  dominions,  which  were  declared  in- 
divisible and  were  to  pass  according  to  the  rule  of  primogeniture. 
Except  in  extreme  cases,  there  was  to  be  no  appeal  from  the 
sentences  of  their  tribunals,  and  they  were  confirmed  in  the  right 
of  coining  money,  of  taking  tolls,  and  in  other  privileges,  while 
conspirators  against  their  lives  were  to  suffer  the  penalties  of 
treason.  One  clause  gave  special  rights  and  immunities  to  the 
king  of  Bohemia,  who,  it  must  be  remembered,  at  this  time  was 
Charles  himself,  and  others  enjoined  the  observance  of  the  public 
peace.  Provision  was  made  for  an  annual  meeting  of  the  electors, 
to  be  held  at  Metz  four  weeks  after  Easter,  when  matters  pro 
bono  et  salute  communi  were  to  be  discussed.  This  arrangement, 
however,  was  not  carried  out,  although  the  electors  met  occasion- 
ally. Another  clause  forbade  the  cities  to  receive  Pfahlbiirger, 
i.e.  forbade  them  to  take  men  dwelling  outside  their  walls  under 
their  protection.  It  may  be  noted  that  there  is  no  admission 


whatever  that  the  election  of  a  king  needs  confirmation  from 
the  pope. 

The  Golden  Bull  was  thus  a  great  victory  for  the  electors,  but 
it  weakened  the  position  of  the  German  king  and  was  a  distinct 
humiliation  for  the  other  princes  and  for  the  cities.  The  status 
of  those  rulers  who  did  not  obtain  the  electoral  privilege  was 
lowered  by  this  very  fact,  and  the  regulations  about  the  Pfahl- 
biirger, together  with  the  prohibition  of  new  leagues  and  associa- 
tions, struck  a  severe  blow  at  the  cities.  The  German  kings  were 
elected  according  to  the  conditions  laid  down  in  the  bull  until 
the  dissolution  of  the  Empire  in  1806.  At  first  the  document 
was  known  simply  as  the  Lex  Carolina;  but  gradually  the  name 
of  the  Book  with  the  Golden  Bull  came  into  use,  and  the  present 
elliptical  title  was  sufficiently  established  by  1417  to  be  officially 
employed  in  a  charter  by  King  Sigismund.  The  original  auto- 
graph was  committed  to  the  care  of  the  elector  of  Mainz,  and  it 
was  preserved  in  the  archives  at  Mainz  till  1789.  Official  tran- 
scripts were  probably  furnished  to  each  of  the  seven  electors  at 
the  time  of  the  promulgation,  and  before  long  many  of  the  other 
members  of  the  Empire  secured  copies  for  themselves.  The 
transcript  which  belonged  to  the  elector  of  Trier  is  preserved  in 
the  state  archives  at  Stuttgart,  that  of  the  elector  of  Cologne  in 
the  court  library  at  Darmstadt,  and  that  of  the  king  of  Bohemia 
in  the  imperial  archives  at  Vienna.  Berlin,  Munich  and  Dresden 
also  boast  the  possession  of  an  electoral  transcript;  and  the 
town  of  Kitzingen  has  a  contemporary  copy  in  its  municipal 
archives.  There  appears,  however,  to  be  good  reason  to  doubt 
the  genuineness  of  most  of  these  so-called  original  transcripts. 
But  perhaps  the  best  known  example  is  that  of  Frankfort-on- 
Main,  which  was  procured  from  the  imperial  chancery  in  1366, 
and  is  adorned  with  a  golden  seal  like  the  original.  Not  only 
was  it  regularly  quoted  as  the  indubitable  authority  in  regard 
to  the  election  of  the  emperors  in  Frankfort  itself,  but  it 
was  from  time  to  time  officially  consulted  by  members  of  the 
Empire. 

The  manuscript  consists  of  43  leaves  of  parchment  of  medium 
quality,  each  measuring  about  loj  in.  in  height  by  7s  in  breadth. 
The  seal  is  of  the  plate  and  wax  type.  On  the  obverse  appears  a 
figure  of  the  emperor  seated  on  his  throne,  with  the  sceptre  in  his 
right  hand  and  the  globe  in  his  left;  a  shield,  with  the  crowned 
imperial  eagle,  occupies  the  space  on  the  one  side  of  the  throne,  and 
a  corresponding  shield,  with  the  crowned  Bohemian  lion  with  two 
tails,  occupies  the  space  on  the  other  side;  and  round  the  margin 
runs  the  legend,  Karolus  quartus  divina  favente  dementia,  Romanorum 
imperator  semper  Augustus  et  Boemiae  rex.  On  the  reverse  is  a  castle, 
with  the  words  Aurea  Roma  on  the  gate,  and  the  circumscription 
reads,  Roma  caput  mundiregit  orbisfrena  rotundi.  The  original  Latin 
text  of  the  bull  was  printed  at  Nuremberg  by  Friedrich  Creussner  in 
1474,  and  a  second  edition  by  Anthonius  Kpburger  (d.  1532)  appeared 
at  the  same  place  in  1477.  Since  that  time  it  has  been  frequently 
reprinted  from  various  manuscripts  and  collections.  M.  Goldast  gave 
the  Palatine  text,  compared  with  those  of  Bohemia  and  Frankfort, 
in  his  Collectio  constitutionum  et  legum  imperialium  (Frankfort,  1613). 
Another  is  to  be  found  in  De  comitiis  imperil  of  O.  Panvinius,  and  a 
third,  of  unknown  history,  is  prefixed  to  the  Codex  recessuum 
Imperil  (Mainz,  1599,  and  again  1615).  The  Frankfort  text  appeared 
in  1742  as  Aurea  Bulla  secundum  exemplar  originale  Frankfurtense, 
edited  by  W.  C.  Multz,  and  the  text  is  also  found  in  J.  J.  Schmauss, 
Corpus  juris  publici,  edited  by  R.  von  Hommel  (Leipzig,  1794),  and 
in  the  Ausgewdhlte  Urkunden  zur  Erlduterung  der  Verfassungs- 
geschichte  Dentschlands  im  Mittelalter,  edited  by  VV.  Altmann  and 
E.  Bernheim  (Berlin,  1891,  and  again  1895).  German  translations, 
none  of  which,  however,  had  any  official  authority,  were  published 
at  Nuremberg  about  1474,  at  Venice  in  1476,  and  at  Strassburg  in 
1485.  _  Among  the  earlier  commentators  on  the  document  are 
H.Canisiusand  J.  Limnaeus  who  wrote  In  Auream  Bullam (Strassburg, 
1662).  The  student  will  find  a  good  account  of  the  older  literature 
on  the  subject  in  C.  G.  Biener's  Commentarii  de  origine  et  progressu 
legum  junumque  Germaniae  (1787-1795).  See  also  J.  D.  von 
OTenschlager,  Neue  Erlauterungen  der  Guldenen  Bulle  (Frankfort  and 
Leipzig,  1766) ;  H.  G.  von  Thulemeyer,  De  Bulla  Aurea,  Argentea,  &c. 
(Heidelberg,  1682);  J.  St  Putter,  Historische  Entwickelung  der 
heutigen  Staatsverfassung  des  teutschen  Reichs  (Gottingen,  1786- 
1787),  and  O.  Stobbe,  Geschichte  der  deutschen  Rechtsquetten  (Bruns- 
wick, 1860-1864).  Among  the  more  modern  works  may  be 
mentioned:  E.  Nerger,  Die  Goldne  Bulle  nach  ihrem  Ursprung 
(Gottingen,  1877),  O.  Hahn,  Ursprung  und  Bedeutung  der  Goldnen 
Bulle  (Breslau,  1903);  and  M.  G.  Schmidt,  Die  staatsrechlliche 
Anwendung  der  Goldnen  Bulle  (Halle,  1894).  There  is  a  valuable 
contribution  to  the  subject  in  the  Ouellensammlung  zur  Geschichte  der 
deutschen  Reichsverfassung,  edited  by  K.  Zeumer  (Leipzig,  1904),  and 


GOLDEN-EYE—GOLDEN  ROSE 


209 


another  by  O.  Harnack  in  his  Das  Kurfursten  Kolle^ium  bis  zur 
Mitte  des  I4ten  Jahrhunderts  (Giessen,  1 883).  There  is  an  English  trans- 
lation of  the  bull  in  E.  F.  Henderson's  Select  Historical  Documents  of 
the  Middle  Ages  (London,  1903).  (A.  W.  H.*) 

GOLDEN-EYE,  a  name  indiscriminately  given  in  many  parts 
of  Britain  to  two  very  distinct  species  of  ducks,  from  the  rich 
yellow  colour  of  their  irides.  The  commonest  of  them — the 
A  nas  fuligula  of  Linnaeus  and  Fuligula  cristata  of  most  modern 
ornithologists — is,  however,  usually  called  by  English  writers 
the  tufted  duck,  while  "  golden-eye  "  is  reserved  in  books  for 
the  A.  clangula  and  A.  glaucion  of  Linnaeus,  who  did  not  know 
that  the  birds  he  so  named  were  but  examples  of  the  same 
species,  differing  only  in  age  or  sex;  and  to  this  day  many  fowlers 
perpetuate  a  like  mistake,  deeming  the  "  Morillon,"  which  is  the 
female  or  young  male,  distinct  from  the  "  Golden-eye  "  or 
"  Rattle-wings  "  (as  from  its  noisy  flight  they  oftener  call  it), 
which  is  the  adult  male.  This  species  belongs  to  the  group  known 
as  diving  ducks,  and  is  the  type  of  the  very  well-marked  genus 
Clangula  of  later  systematists,  which,  among  other  differences, 
has  the  posterior  end  of  the  sternum  prolonged  so  as  to  extend 
considerably  over,  and,  we  may  not  unreasonably  suppose, 
protect  the  belly — a  character  possessed  in  a  still  greater  degree 
by  the  mergansers  (Merginae),  while  the  males  also  exhibit  in 
the  extraordinarily  developed  bony  labyrinth  of  their  trachea 
and  its  midway  enlargement  another  resemblance  to  the  members 
of  the  same  subfamily.  The  golden-eye,  C.  glaucion  of  modern 
writers,  has  its  home  in  the  northern  parts  of  both  hemispheres, 
whence  in  winter  it  migrates  southward;  but  as  it  is  one  of  the 
ducks  that  constantly  resorts  to  hollow  trees  for  the  purpose 
of  breeding  it  hardly  transcends  the  limit  of  the  Arctic  forests 
on  either  continent.  So  well  known  is  this  habit  to  the  people 
of  the  northern  districts  of  Scandinavia,  that  they  very  commonly 
devise  artificial  nest-boxes  for  its  accommodation  and  their  own 
profit.  Hollow  logs  of  wood  are  prepared,  the  top  and  bottom 
closed,  and  a  hole  cut  in  the  side.  These  are  affixed  to  the  trunks 
of  living  trees  in  suitable  places,  at  a  convenient  distance  from 
the  ground,  and,  being  readily  occupied  by  the  birds  in  the  breed- 
ing-season, are  regularly  robbed,  first  of  the  numerous  eggs,  and 
finally  of  the  down  they  contain,  by  those  who  have  set  them  up. 

The  adult  male  golden-eye  is  a  very  beautiful  bird,  mostly 
black  above,  but  with  the  head,  which  is  slightly  crested,  reflect- 
ing rich  green  lights,  a  large  oval  white  patch  under  each  eye 
and  elongated  white  scapulars;  the  lower  parts  are  wholly 
white  and  the  feet  bright  orange,  except  the  webs,  which  are 
dusky.  In  the  female  and  young  male,  dark  brown  replaces  the 
black,  the  cheek-spots  are  indistinct  and  the  elongated  white 
scapulars  wanting.  The  golden-eye  of  North  America  has  been 
by  some  authors  deemed  to  differ,  and  has  been  named  C. 
americana,  but  apparently  on  insufficient  grounds.  North 
America,  however,  has,  in  common  with  Iceland,  a  very  distinct 
species,  C.  islandica,  often  called  Barrow's  duck,  which  is  but 
a  rare  straggler  to  the  continent  of  Europe,  and  never,  so  far 
as  known,  to  Britain.  In  Iceland  and  Greenland  it  is  the  only 
habitual  representative  of  the  genus,  and  it  occurs  from  thence 
to  the  Rocky  Mountains.  In  breeding-habits  it  differs  from  the 
commoner  species,  not  placing  its  eggs  in  tree-holes;  but  how 
far  this  difference  is  voluntary  may  be  doubted,  for  in  the 
countries  it  frequents  trees  are  wanting.  It  is  a  larger  and 
stouter  bird,  and  in  the  male  the  white  cheek-patches  take  a  more 
crescentic  form,  while  the  head  is  glossed  with  purple  rather 
than  green,  and  the  white  scapulars  are  not  elongated.  The  New 
World  also  possesses  a  third  and  still  more  beautiful  species  of 
the  genus  in  C.  albeola,  known  in  books  as  the  buff  el-headed  duck, 
and  to  American.fowlers  as  the  "  spirit-duck  "  and  "  butter-ball " 
— the  former  name  being  applied  from  its  rapidity  in  diving,  and 
the  latter  from  its  exceeding  fatness  in  autumn.  This  is  of  small 
size,  but  the  lustre  of  the  feathers  in  the  male  is  most  brilliant, 
exhibiting  a  deep  plum-coloured  gloss  on  the  head.  It  breeds 
in  trees,  and  is  supposed  to  have  occurred  more  than  once  in 
Britain.  (A.  N.) 

GOLDEN  FLEECE,  in  Greek  mythology,  the  fleece  of  the 
ram  on  which  Phrixus  and  Helle  escaped,  for  which  see 


ARGONAUTS.     For  the  modern  order  of  the  Golden  Fleece,  see 
KNIGHTHOOD  AND  CHIVALRY,  section  Orders  of  Knighthood. 

GOLDEN  HORDE,  the  name  of  a  body  of  Tatars  who  in  the 
middle  of  the  I3th  century  overran  a  great  portion  of  eastern 
Europe  and  founded  in  Russia  the  Tatar  empire  of  khanate 
known  as  the  Empire  of  the  Golden  Horde  or  Western  Kipchaks. 
They  invaded  Europe  about  1237  under  the  leadership  of  BatG, 
Khan,  a  younger  son  of  Juji,  eldest  son  of  Jenghiz  Khan,  passed 
over  Russia  with  slaughter  and  destruction,  and  penetrated 
into  Silesia,  Poland  and  Hungary,  finally  defeating  Henry  II., 
duke  of  Silesia,  at  Liegnitz  in  the  battle  known  as  the  Wahlstatt 
on  the  gth  of  April  1241.  So  costly  was  this  victory,  however, 
that  Batu,  finding  he  could  not  reduce  Neustadt,  retraced  his 
steps  and  established  himself  in  his  magnificent  tent  (whence 
the  name  "  golden"  )  on  the  Volga.  The  new  settlement  was 
known  as  Sir  Orda  ("  Golden  Camp,"  whence  "  Golden  Horde  "). 
Very  rapidly  the  powers  of  Batu  extended  over  the  Russian 
princes,  and  so  long  as  the  khanate  remained  in  the  direct 
descent  from  Batu  nothing  occurred  to  check  the  growth  of  the 
empire.  The  names  of  Batu's  successors  are  Sartak  (1256), 
Bereke  (Baraka)  (1256-1266),  Mangu-Timur  (1266-1280),  Tuda 
Mangu  (1280-1287),  (?)  Tula  Bugha  (1287-1290),  Toktu  (1290- 
1312),  Uzbeg  (1312-1340),  Tin-Beg  (1340),  Janl-Beg  (1340- 
I3S7)-  The  death  of  Janl-Beg,  however,  threw  the  empire  into 
confusion.  Birdl-Beg  (Berdi-Beg)  only  reigned  for  two  years, 
after  which  two  rulers,  calling  themselves  sons  of  Janl-Beg 
occupied  the  throne  during  one  year.  From  that  time  (1359) 
till  1378  no  single  ruler  held  the  whole  empire  under  control, 
various  members  of  the  other  branches  of  the  old  house  of  Juji 
assuming  the  title.  At  last  in  1378  Toktamish,  of  the  Eastern 
Kipchaks,  succeeded  in  ousting  all  rivals,  and  establishing 
himself  as  ruler  of  eastern  and  western  Kipchak.  For  a  short 
time  the  glory  of  the  Golden  Horde  was  renewed,  until  it  was 
finally  crushed  by  Timur  in  1395. 

See  further  MONGOLS  and  RUSSIA;  Sir  Henry  Howorth's  History 
of  the  Mongols;  S.  Lane-Poole's  Mohammadan  Dynasties  (1894), 
pp.  222-231 ;  for  the  relations  of  the  various  descendants  of  Jenghiz, 
see  Stockvis,  Manuel  d'histoire,  vol.  i.  chap.  ix.  table  7. 

GOLDEN  ROD,  in  botany,  the  popular  name  for  Solidago 
nrgaurea  (natural  order  Compositae),  a  native  of  Britain  and 
widely  distributed  in  the  north  temperate  region.  It  is  an  old- 
fashioned  border-plant  flowering  from  July  to  September,  with 
an  erect,  sparingly-branched  stem  and  small  bright-yellow 
clustered  heads  of  flowers.  It  grows  well  in  common  soil  and  is 
readily  propagated  by  division  in  the  spring  or  autumn. 

GOLDEN  ROSE  (rosa  aurea),  an  ornament  made  of  wrought 
gold  and  set  with  gems,  generally  sapphires,  which  is  blessed 
by  the  pope  on  the  fourth  (Laetare)  Sunday  of  Lent,  and  usually 
afterwards  sent  as  a  mark  of  special  favour  to  some  distinguished 
individual,  to  a  church,  or  a  civil  community.  Formerly  it 
was  a  single  rose  of  wrought  gold,  coloured  red,  but  the  form 
finally  adopted  is  a  thorny  branch  with  leaves  and  flowers,  the 
petals  of  which  are  decked  with  gems,  surmounted  by  one 
principal  rose.  The  origin  of  the  custom  is  obscure.  From  very 
early  times  popes  have  given  away  a  rose  on  the  fourth  Sunday 
of  Lent,  whence  the  name  Dominica  Rosa,  sometimes  given  to 
this  feast.  The  practice  of  blessing  and  sending  some  such 
symbol  (e.g.  eulogiae)  goes  back  to  the  earliest  Christian  antiquity, 
but  the  use  of  the  rose  itself  does  not  seem  to  go  farther  back  than 
the  nth  century.  According  to  some  authorities  it  was  used 
by  Leo  IX.  (1049-1054),  but  in  any  case  Pope  Urban  II.  sent  one 
to  Fulk  of  Anjou  during  the  preparations  for  the  first  crusade. 
Pope  Urban  V.,  who  sent  a  golden  rose  to  Joanna  of  Naples  in 
1366,  is  alleged  to  have  been  the  first  to  determine  that  one 
should  be  consecrated  annually.  Beginning  with  the  i6th 
.century  there  went  regularly  with  the  rose  a  letter  relating  the 
reasons  why  it  was  sent,  and  reciting  the  merits  and  virtues 
of  the  receiver.  When  the  change  was  made  from  the  form 
of  the  simple  rose  to  the  branch  is  uncertain.  The  rose  sent 
by  Innocent  IV.  in  1244  to  Count  Raymond  Berengar  IV.  of 
Provence  was  a  simple  flower  without  any  accessory  ornamenta- 
tion, while  the  one  given  by  Benedict  XI.  in  1303  or  1304  to  the 


210 


GOLDEN  RULE— GOLDFINCH 


church  of  St  Stephen  at  Perugia  consisted  of  a  branch  garnished 
with  five  open  and  two  closed  roses  enriched  with  a  sapphire, 
the  whole  having  a  value  of  seventy  ducats.  The  value  of  the 
gift  varied  according  to  the  character  or  rank  of  the  recipient. 
John  XXII.  gave  away  some  weighing  12  oz.,  and  worth 
from  £250  to  £325.  Among  the  recipients  of  this  honour  have 
been  Henry  VI.  of  England,  1446;  James  III.  of  Scotland,  on 
whom  the  rose  (made  by  Jacopo  Magnolio)  was  conferred  by 
Innocent  VIII.;  James  IV.  of  Scotland;  Frederick  the  Wise, 
elector  of  Saxony,  who  received  a  rose  from  Leo  X.  in  1518; 
Henry  VIII.  of  England,  who  received  three,  the  last  from  Clement 
VII.  in  1524  (each  had  nine  branches,  and  rested  on  different 
forms  of  feet,  one  on  oxen,  the  second  on  acorns,  and  the  third  on 
lions);  Queen  Mary,  who  received  one  in  1555  from  Julius  III.; 
the  republic  of  Lucca,  so  favoured  by  Pius  IV.,  in  1564;  the 
Lateran  Basilica  by  Pius  V.  three  years  later;  the  sanctuary 
of  Loreto  by  Gregory  XIII.  in  1584;  Maria  Theresa,  queen  of 
France,  who  received  it  from  Clement  IX.  in  1668;  Mary 
Casimir,  queen  of  Poland,  from  Innocent  XI.  in  1684  in  recogni- 
tion of  the  deliverance  of  Vienna  by  her  husband,  John  Sobieski; 
Benedict  XIII.  (1726)  presented  one  to  the  cathedral  of  Capua, 
and  in  1833  it  was  sent  by  Gregory  XVI.  to  the  church  of  St 
Mark's,  Venice.  In  more  recent  times  it  was  sent  to  Napoleon  III. 
of  France,  the  empress  Eugenie,  and  the  queens  Isabella  II., 
Christina  (1886)  and  Victoria  (1906)  of  Spain.  The  gift  of  the 
golden  rose  used  almost  invariably  to  accompany  the  coronation 
of  the  king  of  the  Romans.  If  in  any  particular  year  no  one  is 
considered  worthy  of  the  rose,  it  is  laid  up  in  the  Vatican. 

Some  of  the  most  famous  Italian  goldsmiths  have  been 
employed  in  making  the  earlier  roses;  and  such  intrinsically 
valuable  objects  have,  in  common  with  other  priceless  historical 
examples  of  the  goldsmiths'  art,  found  their  way  to  the  melting- 
pot.  It  is,  therefore,  not  surprising  that  the  number  of  existing 
historic  specimens  is  very  small.  These  include  one  of  the  I4th 
century  in  the  Cluny  Museum,  Paris,  believed  to  have  been  sent 
by  Clement  V.  to  the  prince-bishop  of  Basel;  another  conferred 
in  1458  on  his  native  city  of  Siena  by  Pope  Pius  II.;  and  the 
rose  bestowed  upon  Siena  by  Alexander  VII.,  a  son  of  that  city, 
which  is  depicted  in  a  procession  in  a  fresco  in  the  Palazzo 
Pubblico  at  Siena.  The  surviving  roses  of  more  recent  date 
include  that  presented  by  Benedict  XIII.  to  Capua  cathedral; 
the  rose  conferred  on  the  empress  Caroline  by  Pius  VII.,  1819, 
at  Vienna;  one  of  1833  (Gregory  XVI.)  at  St  Mark's,  Venice; 
and  Pope  Leo  XIII. 's  rose  sent  to  Queen  Christina  of  Spain, 
which  is  at  Madrid. 

AUTHORITIES. — Angelo  Rocca,  Aurea  Rosa,  &c.  (1719);  Busenelli, 
De  Rosa  Aurea.  Epistola  (1759);  Girbal,  La  Rosa  de  oro  (Madrid, 
1820) ;  C.  Joret,  La  Rose  d'or  dans  I'antiquM  et  au  moyen  Age  (Paris, 
1892),  pp.  432-435;  Eugene  Muntz  in  Revue  d'art  Chretien  (1901), 
series  v.  vol.  12  pp.  l-ll;  De  F.  Mely,  Le  Tresor  de  Chartres 
(1886);  Marquis  de  Mac  Swiney  Mashanaglass,  Le  Portugal  et  le 
Saint  Siege:  Les  Roses  d'or  envoyets  par  les  Papes  aux  rots  de 
Portugal  au  XVI'  siecle  (1904);  Sir  C.  Young,  Ornaments  and  Gift 
consecrated  by  the  Roman  Pontiffs:  the  Golden  Rose,  the  Cap  and 
Swords  presented  to  Sovereigns  of  England  and  Scotland  (1864). 

(J.T.S.*;  E.A.J.) 

GOLDEN  RULE,  the  term  applied  in  all  European  languages 
to  the  rule  of  conduct  laid  down  in  the  New  Testament  (Matthew 
vii.  12  and  Luke  vi.  31),  "  whatsoever  ye  would  that  men  should 
do  to  you,  do  ye  even  so  to  them,  for  this  is  the  law  and  the 
prophets."  This  principle  has  often  been  stated  as  the  funda- 
mental precept  of  social  morality.  It  is  sometimes  put  negatively 
or  passively,  "  do  not  that  to  another  which  thou  wouldst  not 
have  done  to  thyself  "  (cf.  Hobbes,  Leviathan,  xv.  79,  xvii.  85), 
but  it  should  be  observed  that  in  this  form  it  implies  merely 
abstention  from  evil  doing.  In  either  form  the  precept  in  ordinary 
application  is  part  of  a  hedonistic  system  of  ethics,  the  criterion 
of  action  being  strictly  utilitarian  in  character. 

See  H.  Sidgwick,  History  of  Ethics  (sth  ed.,  1902),  p.  167;  James 
Seth,  Ethical  Principles,  p.  97  foil. 

GOLDFIELD,  a  town  and  the  county-seat  of  Esmeralda 
county,  Nevada,  U.S.A.,  about  170  m.  S.E.  of  Carson  City. 
Pop.  (1910,  U.  S.  census)  4838.  It  is  served  by  the  Tonopah 
&  Goldfield,  Las  Vegas  &  Tonopah,  and  Tonopah  &  Tidewater 


railways.  The  town  lies  in  the  midst  of  a  desert  abounding  in 
high-grade  gold  ores,  and  is  essentially  a  mining  camp.  The 
discovery  of  gold  at  Tonopah,  about  28  m.  N.  of  Goldfield,  in 
1900  was  followed  by  its  discovery  at  Goldfield  in  1902  and  1903; 
in  1904  the  Goldfield  district  produced  about  800  tons  of  ore, 
which  yielded  $2,300,000  worth  of  gold,  or  30%  of  that  of  the 
state.  This  remarkable  production  caused  Goldfield  to  grow 
rapidly,  and  it  soon  became  the  largest  town  in  the  state.  In 
addition  to  the  mines,  there  are  large  reduction  works.  In  1907 
Goldfield  became  the  county-seat.  The  gold  output  in  1907  was 
$8,408,396;  in  1908,  $4,880,251.  Soon  after  mining  on  an  ex- 
tensive scale  began-,  the  miners  organized  themselves  as  a  local 
branch  of  the  Western  Federation  of  Miners,  and  in  this  branch 
were  included  many  labourers  in  Goldfield  other  than  miners. 
Between  this  branch  and  the  mine-owners  there  arose  a  series  of 
more  or  less  serious  differences,  and  there  were  several  set  strikes 
— in  December  1906  and  January  1907,  for  higher  wages;  in 
March  and  April  1907,  because  the  mine-owners  refused  to 
discharge  carpenters  who  were  members  of  the  American  Federa- 
tion of  Labour,  but  did  not  belong  to  the  Western  Federation  of 
Miners  or  to  the  Industrial  Workers  of  the  World  affiliated  with 
it,  this  last  organization  being,  as  a  result  of  the  strike,  forced 
out  of  Goldfield;  in  August  and  September  1907,  because  a 
rule  was  introduced  at  some  of  the  mines  requiring  miners  to 
change  their  clothing  before  entering  and  after  leaving  the 
mines, — a  rule  made  necessary,  according  to  the  operators,  by 
the  wholesale  stealing  (in  miners'  parlance,  "  high-grading  ") 
of  the  very  valuable  ore  (some  of  it  valued  at  as  high  as  $20  a 
pound) ;  and  in  November  and  December  1907,  because  some 
of  the  mine-owners,  avowedly  on  account  of  the  hard  times, 
adopted  a  system  of  paying  in  cashier's  checks.  Excepting 
occasional  attacks  upon  non-union  workmen,  or  upon  persons 
supposed  not  to  be  in  sympathy  with  the  miners'  union,  there 
had  been  no  serious  disturbance  in  Goldfield;  but  in  December 
1907,  Governor  Sparks,  at  the  instance  of  the  mine-owners, 
appealed  to  President  Roosevelt  to  send  Federal  troops  to 
Goldfield,  on  the  ground  that  the  situation  there  was  ominous, 
that  destruction  of  life  and  property  seemed  probable,  and  that 
the  state  had  no  militia  and  would  be  powerless  to  maintain  order. 
President  Roosevelt  thereupon  (December  4th)  ordered  General 
Frederick  Funston,  commanding  the  Division  of  California,  at 
San  Francisco,  to  proceed  with  300  Federal  troops  to  Goldfield. 
The  troops  arrived  in  Goldfield  on  the  6th  of  December,  and 
immediately  afterwards  the  mine-owners  reduced  wages  and 
announced  that  no  members  of  the  Western  Federation  of  Miners 
would  thereafter  be  employed  in  the  mines.  President  Roosevelt, 
becoming  convinced  that  conditions  had  not  warranted  Governor 
Sparks's  appeal  for  Federal  assistance,  but  that  the  immediate 
withdrawal  of  the  troops  might  nevertheless  lead  to  serious 
disorders,  consented  that  they  should  remain  for  a  short  time 
on  condition  that  the  state  should  immediately  organize  an 
adequate  militia  or  police  force.  Accordingly,  a  special  meeting 
of  the  legislature  was  immediately  called,  a  state  police  force 
was  organized,  and  on  the  7th  of  March  1908  the  troops  were 
withdrawn.  Thereafter  work  was  gradually  resumed  in  the 
mines,  the  contest  having  been  won  by  the  mine-owners. 

GOLDFINCH  (Ger.  Goldfink1),  the  Fringilla  carduelis  of 
Linnaeus  and  the  Carduelis  elegans  of  later  authors,  an  extremely 
well-known  bird  found  over  the  greater  parts  of  Europe  and 
North  Africa,  and  eastwards  to  Persia  and  Turkestan.  Its  gay 
plumage  is  matched  by  its  sprightly  nature;  and  together  they 
make  it  one  of  the  most  favourite  cage-birds  among  all  classes. 
As  a  songster  it  is  indeed  surpassed  by  many  other  species, 
but  its  docility  and  ready  attachment  to  its  master  or  mistress 
make  up  for  any  defect  in  its  vocal  powers.  In  some  parts  of 
England  the  trade  in  goldfinches  is  very  considerable.  In  1860 
Mr  Hussey  reported  (ZooL,  p.  7144)  the  average  annual  captures 
near  Worthing  to  exceed  11,000  dozens — nearly  all  being  cock- 
birds;  and  a  witness  before  a  committee  of  the  House  of 
Commons  in  1873  stated  that,  when  a  boy,  he  could  take  forty 

1  The  more  common  German  name,  however,  is  Distelfink  (Thistle- 
Finch)  or  Stieglitz. 


GOLDFISH— GOLDIE 


211 


dozens  in  a  morning  near  Brighton.  In  these  districts  and  others 
the  number  has  become  much  reduced,  owing  doubtless  in  part 
to  the  fatal  practice  of  catching  the  birds  just  before  or  during 
the  breeding-season;  but  perhaps  the  strongest  cause  of  their 
growing  scarcity  is  the  constant  breaking-up  of  waste  lands,  and 
the  extirpation  of  weeds  (particularly  of  the  order  Compositae) 
essential  to  the  improved  system  of  agriculture;  for  in  many 
parts  of  Scotland,  East  Lothian  for  instance,  where  goldfinches 
were  once  as  plentiful  as  sparrows,  they  are  now  only  rare 
stragglers,  and  yet  there  they  have  not  been  thinned  by  netting. 
Though  goldfinches  may  occasionally  be  observed  in  the  coldest 
weather,  incomparably  the  largest  number  leave  Britain  in 
autumn,  returning  in  spring,  and  resorting  to  gardens  and 
orchards  to  breed,  when  the  lively  song  of  the  cock,  and  the 
bright  yellow  wings  of  both  sexes,  quickly  attract  notice.  The 
nest  is  a  beautifully  neat  structure,  often  placed  at  no  great 
height  from  the  ground,  but  generally  so  well  hidden  by  the 
leafy  bough  on  which  it  is  built  as  not  to  be  easily  found,  until, 
the  young  being  hatched,  the  constant  visits  of  the  parents  reveal 
its  site.  When  the  broods  leave  the  nest  they  move  into  the 
more  open  country,  and  frequenting  pastures,  commons,  heaths 
and  downs,  assemble  in  large  flocks  towards  the  end  of  summer. 
Eastward  of  the  range  of  the  present  species  its  place  is  taken  by 
its  congener  C.  caniceps,  which  is  easily  recognized  by  wanting 
the  black  hood  and  white  ear-coverts  of  the  British  bird.  Its 
home  seems  to  be  in  Central  Asia,  but  it  moves  southward  in 
winter,  being  common  at  that  season  in  Cashmere,  and  is  not 
unfrequently  brought  for  sale  to  Calcutta.  The  position  of  the 
genus  Carduelis  in  the  family  Fringillidae  is  not  very  clear. 
Structurally  it  would  seem  to  have  some  relation  to  the  siskins 
(Chrysomitris),  though  the  members  of  the  two  groups  have  .very 
different  habits,  and  perhaps  its  nearest  kinship  lies  with  the 
hawfinches  (Coccothraustes) .  See  FINCH.  (A.N.) 

GOLDFISH    (Cyprinus   or    Carassius   auralus),    a    small    fish 
belonging  to  the  Cyprinid  family,  a  native  of  China  but  natur- 


Telescope-fish. 

alized  in  other  countries.  In  the  wild  state  its  colours  do  not 
differ  from  those  of  a  Crucian  carp,  and  like  that  fish  it  is  tenacious 
of  life  and  easily  domesticated.  Albinos  seem  to  be  rather 
common;  and  as  in  other  fishes  (for  instance,  the  tench,  carp, 
eel,  flounder),  the  colour  of  most  of  these  albinos  is  a  bright 
orange  or  golden  yellow;  occasionally  even  this  shade  of  colour 
is  lost,  the  fish  being  more  or  less  pure  white  or  silvery.  The 
Chinese  have  domesticated  these  albinos  for  a  long  time,  and 
by  careful  selection  have  succeeded  in  propagating  all  those 
strange  varieties,  and  even  monstrosities,  which  appear  in  every 
domestic  animal.  In  some  individuals  the  dorsal  fin  is  only 
half  its  normal  length,  in  others  entirely  absent;  in  others  the 
anal  fin  has  a  double  spine;  in  others  all  the  fins  are  of  nearly 
double  the  usual  length.  The  snout  is  frequently  malformed, 
giving  the  head  of  the  fish  an  appearance  similar  to  that  of  a 
bull-dog.  The  variety  most  highly  prized  has  an  extremely 
short  snout,  eyes  which  almost  wholly  project  beyond  the  orbit, 
no  dorsal  fin,  and  a  very  long  three-  or  four-lobed  caudal  fin 
(Telescope-fish). 


The  domestication  of  the  goldfish  by  the  Chinese  dates  back 
from  the  highest  antiquity,  and  they  were  introduced  into  Japan 
at  the  beginning  of  the  i6th  century;  but  the  date  of  their 
importation  into  Europe  is  still  uncertain.  The  great  German 
ichthyologist,  M.  E.  Bloch,  thought  he  could  trace  it  back  in 
England  to  the  reign  of  James  I.,  whilst  other  authors  fix  the 
date  at  1691.  It  appears  certain  that  they  were  brought  to 
France,  only  much  later,  as  a  present  to  Mme  de  Pompadour, 
although  the  de  Goncourts,  the  historians  of  the  mistresses  of 
Louis  XV.,  have  failed  to  trace  any  records  of  this  event.  The 
fish  has  since  spread  over  a  considerable  part  of  Europe,  and  in 
many  places  it  has  reverted  to  its  wild  condition.  In  many  parts 
of  south-eastern  Asia,  in  Mauritius,  in  North  and  South  Africa, 
in  Madagascar,  in  the  Azores,  it  has  become  thoroughly  acclima- 
tized, and  successfully  competes  with  the  indigenous  fresh-water 
fishes.  It  will  not  thrive  in  rivers;  in  large  ponds  it  readily 
reverts  to  the  coloration  of  the  original  wild  stock.  It  flourishes 
best  in  small  tanks  and  ponds,  in  which  the  water  is  constantly 
changing  and  does  not  freeze;  in  such  localities,  and  with  a  full 
supply  of  food,  which  consists  of  weeds,  crumbs  of  bread,  bran, 
worms,  small  crustaceans  and  insects,  it  attains  to  a  length  of 
from  6  to  12  in.,  breeding  readily,  sometimes  at  different  times 
of  the  same  year. 

GOLDFUSS,  GEORG  AUGUST  (1782-1848),  German  palaeon- 
tologist, born  at  Thurnau  near  Bayreuth  on  the  i8th  of  April 
1782,  was  educated  at  Erlangen,  where  he  graduated  Ph.D.  in 
1804  and  became  professor  of  zoology  in  1818.  He  was  sub- 
sequently appointed  professor  of  zoology  and  mineralogy  in  the 
university  of  Bonn.  Aided  by  Count  G.  Munster  he  issued  the 
important  Petrefacta  Germaniae  (1826-1844),  a  work  which  was 
intended  to  illustrate  the  invertebrate  fossils  of  Germany,  but  it 
was  left  incomplete  after  the  sponges,  corals,  crinoids,  echinids 
and  part  of  the  mollusca  had  been  figured.  Goldf  uss  died  at  Bonn 
on  the  2nd  of  October  1848. 

GOLDIE,  SIR  GEORGE  DASHWOOD  TAUBMAN  (1846-  ), 
English  administrator,  the  founder  of  Nigeria,  was  born  on  the 
2oth  of  May  1846  at  the  Nunnery  in  the  Isle  of  Man,  being  the 
youngest  son  of  Lieut. -Colonel  John  Taubman  Goldie-Taubman, 
speaker  of  the  House  of  Keys,  by  his  second  wife  Caroline, 
daughter  of  John  E.  Hoveden  of  Hemingford,  Cambridgeshire. 
Sir  George  resumed  his  paternal  name,  Goldie,  by  royal  licence  in 
1887.  He  was  educated  at  the  Royal  Military  Academy,  Wool- 
wich, and  for  about  two  years  held  a  commission  in  the  Royal 
Engineers.  He  travelled  in  all  parts  of  Africa,  gaining  an  ex- 
tensive knowledge  of  the  continent,  and  first  visited  the  country 
of  the  Niger  in  1877.  He  conceived  the  idea  of  adding  to  the 
British  empire  the  then  little  known  regions  of  the  lower  and 
middle  Niger,  and  for  over  twenty  years  his  efforts  were  devoted 
to  the  realization  of  this  conception.  The  method  by  which  he 
determined  to  work  was  the  revival  of  government  by  chartered 
companies  within  the  empire — a  method  supposed  to  be  buried 
with  the  East  India  Company.  The  first  step  was  to  combine  all 
British  commercial  interests  in  the  Niger,  and  this  he  accomplished 
in  1879  when  the  United  African  Company  was  formed.  In  1881 
Goldie  sought  a  charter  from  the  imperial  government  (the  2nd 
Gladstone  ministry).  Objections  of  various  kinds  were  raised. 
To  meet  them  the  capital  of  the  company  (renamed  the  National 
African  Company)  was  increased  from  £i  25,000  to  £1,000,000,  and 
great  energy  was  displayed  in  founding  stations  on  the  Niger. 
At  this  time  French  traders,  encouraged  by  Gambetta,  established 
themselves  on  the  lower  river,  thus  rendering  it  difficult  for  the 
company  to  obtain  territorial  rights;  but  the  Frenchmen  were 
bought  out  in  1884,  so  that  at  the  Berlin  conference  on  West 
Africa  in  1885  Mr  Goldie,  present  as  an  expert  on  matters  relating 
to  the  river,  was  able  to  announce  that  on  the  lower  Niger  the 
British  flag  alone  flew.  Meantime  the  Niger  coast  line  had  been 
placed  under  British  protection.  Through  Joseph  Thomson, 
David  Mclntosh,  D.  W.  Sargent,  J.  Flint,  William  Wallace, 
E.  Dangerfield  and  numerous  other  agents,  over  400  political 
treaties — drawn  up  by  Goldie — were  made  with  the  chiefs  of  the 
lower  Niger  and  the  Hausa  states.  The  scruples  of  the  British 
government  being  overcome,  a  charter  was  at  length  granted 


212 


GOLDING— GOLDMARK 


(July  1886),  the  National  African  Company  becoming  the  Royal 
Niger  Company,  with  Lord  Aberdare  as  governor  and  Goldie  as 
vice-governor.  In  1895,  on  Lord  Aberdare's  death,  Goldie 
became  governor  of  the  company,  whose  destinies  he  had  guided 
throughout. 

The  building  up  of  Nigeria  as  a  British  state  had  to  be  carried 
on  in  face  of  further  difficulties  raised  by  French  travellers  with 
political  missions,  and  also  in  face  of  German  opposition.  From 
1884  to  1890,  Prince  Bismarck  was  a  persistent  antagonist,  and 
the  strenuous  efforts  he  made  to  secure  for  Germany  the  basin  of 
the  lower  Niger  and  Lake  Chad  were  even  more  dangerous 
to  Goldie's  schemes  of  empire  than  the  ambitions  of  France. 
Herr  E.  R.  Flegel,  who  had  travelled  in  Nigeria  during  1882-1884 
under  the  auspices  of  the  British  company,  was  sent  out  in  1885 
by  the  newly-formed  German  Colonial  Society  to  secure  treaties 
for  Germany,  which  had  established  itself  at  Cameroon.  After 
Flegel 's  death  in  1886  his  work  was  continued  by  his  companion 
Dr  Staudinger,  while  Herr  Hoenigsberg  was  despatched  to  stir 
up  trouble  in  the  occupied  portions  of  the  Company's  territory, — 
or,  as  he  expressed  it,  "  to  burst  up  the  charter."  He  was  finally 
arrested  at  Onitsha,  and,  after  trial  by  the  company's  supreme 
court  at  Asaba,  was  expelled  the  country.  Prince  Bismarck  then 
sent  out  his  nephew,  Herr  von  Puttkamer,  as  German  consul- 
general  to  Nigeria,  with  orders  to  report  on  this  affair,  and  when 
this  report  was  published  in  a  White  Book,  Bismarck  demanded 
heavy  damages  from  the  company.  Meanwhile  Bismarck  main- 
tained constant  pressure  on  the  British  government  to  compel  the 
Royal  Niger  Company  to  a  division  of  spheres  of  influence,  where- 
by Great  Britain  would  have  lost  a  third,  and  the  most  valuable 
part,  of  the  company's  territory.  But  he  fell  from  power  in 
March  1890,  and  in  July  following  Lord  Salisbury  concluded  the 
famous  "  Heligoland  "  agreement  with  Germany.  After  this 
event  the  aggressive  action  of  Germany  in  Nigeria  entirely  ceased, 
and  the  door  was  opened  for  a  final  settlement  of  the  Nigeria- 
Cameroon  frontiers.  These  negotiations,  which  resulted  in  an 
agreement  in  1893,  were  initiated  by  Goldie  as  a  means  of  arresting 
the  advance  of  France  into  Nigeria  from  the  direction  of  the  Congo. 
By  conceding  to  Germany  a  long  but  narrow  strip  of  territory 
between  Adamawa  and  Lake  Chad,  to  which  she  had  no  treaty 
claims,  a  barrier  was  raised  against  French  expeditions,  semi- 
military  and  semi-exploratory,  which  sought  to  enter  Nigeria 
from  the  east.  Later  French  efforts  at  aggression  were  made 
from  the  western  or  Dahomeyan  side,  despite  an  agreement 
concluded  with  France  in  1890  respecting  the  northern  frontier. 

The  hostility  of  certain  Fula  princes  led  the  company  to 
despatch,  in  1897,  an  expedition  against  the  Mahommedan  states 
of  Nupe  and  Illorin.  This  expedition  was  organized  and  personally 
directed  by  Goldie  and  was  completely  successful.  Internal  peace 
was  thus  secured,  but  in  the  following  year  the  differences  with 
France  in  regard  to  the  frontier  line  became  acute,  and  compelled 
the  intervention  of  the  British  government.  In  the  negotiations 
which  ensued  Goldie  was  instrumental  in  preserving  for  Great 
Britain  the  whole  of  the  navigable  stretch  of  the  lower  Niger.  It 
was,  however,  evidently  impossible  for  a  chartered  company  to 
hold  its  own  against  the  state-supported  protectorates  of  France 
and  Germany,  and  in  consequence,  on  the  ist  of  January  1900, 
the  Royal  Niger  Company  transferred  its  territories  to  the  British 
government  for  the  sum  of  £865,000.  The  ceded  territory 
together  with  the  small  Niger  Coast  Protectorate,  already  under 
imperial  control,  was  formed  into  the  two  protectorates  of 
northern  and  southern  Nigeria  (see  further  NIGERIA). 

In  1903-1904,  at  the  request  of  the  Chartered  Company  of 
South  Africa,  Goldie  visited  Rhodesia  and  examined  the  situation 
in  connexion  with  the  agitation  for  self-government  by  the 
Rhodesians.  In  1902-1903  he  was  one  of  the  royal  commissioners 
who  inquired  into  the  military  preparations  for  the  war  in  South 
Africa  (1899-1902)  and  into  the  operations  up  to  the  occupation 
of  Pretoria,  and  in  1905-1906  was  a  member  of  the  royal  com- 
mission which  investigated  the  methods  of  disposal  of  war  stores 
after  peace  had  been  made.  In  1905  he  was  elected  president 
of  the  Royal  Geographical"  Society  and  held  that  office  for  three 
years.  In  1908  he  was  chosen  an  alderman  of  the  London  County 


Council.  Goldie  was  created  K.C.M.G.  in  1887,  and  a  privy 
councillor  in  1898.  He  became  an  F.R.S.,  honorary  D.C.L.  of 
Oxford  University  (1897)  and  honorary  LL.D.  of  Cambridge 
(1897).  He  married  in  1870  Matilda  Catherine  (d.  1898),  daughter 
of  John  William  Elliott  of  Wakefield. 

GOLDING,  ARTHUR  (c.  1536-0.  1605),  English  translator,  son 
of  John  Golding  of  Belchamp  St  Paul  and  Halsted,  Essex,  one  of 
the  auditors  of  the  exchequer,  was  born  probably  in  London 
about  1536.  His  half-sister,  Margaret,  married  John  de  Vere, 
1 6th  earl  of  Oxford.  In  1549  he  was  already  in  the  service  of 
Protector  Somerset,  and  the  statement  that  he  was  educated  at 
Queen's  College,  Cambridge,  lacks  corroboration.  He  seems  to 
have  resided  for  some  time  in  the  house  of  Sir  Wiiliam  Cecil,  in 
the  Strand,  with  his  nephew,  the  poet,  the  i7th  earl  of  Oxford, 
whose  receiver  he  was,  for  two  of  his  dedications  are  dated  from 
Cecil  House.  His  chief  work  is  his  translation  of  Ovid.  The 
Fyrst  Power  Bookes  of  P.  Ovidius  Nasos  worke,  entitled  Meta- 
morphosis, translated  oute  of  Latin  into  Englishe  meter  (1565), 
was  supplemented  in  1567  by  a  translation  of  the  fifteen  books. 
Strangely  enough  the  translator  of  Ovid  was  a  man  of  strong 
Puritan  sympathies,  and  he  translated  many  of  the  works  of 
Calvin.  To  his  version  of  the  Metamorphoses  he  prefixed  a  long 
metrical  explanation  of  his  reasons  for  considering  it  a  work 
of  edification.  He  sets  forth  the  moral  which  he  supposes  to 
underlie  certain  of  the  stories,  and  shows  how  the  pagan 
machinery  may  be  brought  into  line  with  Christian  thought. 
It  was  from  Golding's  pages  that  many  of  the  Elizabethans  drew 
their  knowledge  of  classical  mythology,  and  there  is  little  doubt 
that  Shakespeare  was  well  acquainted  with  the  book.  Golding 
translated  also  the  Commentaries  of  Caesar  (1565),  Calvin's 
commentaries  on  the  Psalms  (1571),  his  sermons  on  the  Galatians 
and  Ephesians,  on  Deuteronomy  and  the  book  of  Job,  Theodore 
Beza's  Tragedie  of  Abrahams  Sacrifice  (1577)  andtheZte  Beneficiis 
of  Seneca  (1578).  He  completed  a  translation  begun  by  Sidney 
from  Philippe  de  Mornay,  A  Worke  concerning  the  Trewnesse  of 
the  Christian  Religion  (1604).  His  only  original  work  is  a  prose 
Discourse  on  the  earthquake  of  1 580,  in  which  he  saw  a  judgment 
of  God  on  the  wickedness  of  his  time.  He  inherited  three  con- 
siderable estates  in  Essex,  the  greater  part  of  which  he  sold  in 
1 595.  The  last  trace  we  have  of  Golding  is  contained  in  an  order 
dated  the  25th  of  July  1605,  giving  him  licence  to  print  certain 
of  his  works. 

GOLDING  EN  (Lettish,  Kuldiga),  a  town  of  Russia,  in  the 
government  of  Courland,  55  m.  by  rail  N.E.  of  Libau,  and  on 
Windau  river,  in  56°  58'  N.  and  22°  E.  Pop.  (1897)  9733.  It 
has  woollen  mills,  needle  and  match  factories,  breweries  and 
distilleries,  a  college  for  teachers,  and  ruins  of  a  castle  of  the 
Teutonic  Knights,  built  in  1248  and  used  in  the  i7th  century  as 
the  residence  of  the  dukes  of  Courland. 

GOLDMARK,  KARL  (1832-  ),  Hungarian  composer,  was 
born  at  Keszthely-am-Plattensee,  in  Hungary,  on  the  i8th  of 
May  1832.  His  father,  a  poor  cantor  in  the  local  Jewish  syna- 
gogue, was  unable  to  assist  to  any  extent  financially  in  the 
development  of  his  son's  talents.  Yet  in  the  household  much 
music  was  made,  and  on  a  cheap  violin  and  home-made  flute, 
constructed  by  Goldmark  himself  from  reeds  cut  from  the  river- 
bank,  the  future  composer  gave  rein  to  his  musical  ideas.  His 
talent  was  fostered  by  the  village  schoolmaster,  by  whose  aid 
he  was  able  to  enter  the  music-school  of  the  Oedenburger  Verein. 
Here  he  remained  but  a  short  time,  his  success  at  a  school  concert 
finally  determining  his  parents  to  allow  him  to  devote  himself 
entirely  to  music.  In  1844,  then,  he  went  to  Vienna,  where 
Jansa  took  up  his  cause  and  eventually  obtained  for  him  admis- 
sion to  the  conservatorium.  For  two  years  Goldmark  worked 
under  Jansa  at  the  violin,  and  on  the  outbreak  of  the  revolution, 
after  studying  all  the  orchestral  instruments  he  obtained  an 
engagement  in  the  orchestra  at  Raab.  There,  on  the  capitulation 
of  Raab,  he  was  to  have  been  shot  for  a  spy,  and  was  only  saved 
at  the  eleventh  hour  by  the  happy  arrival  of  a  former  colleague. 
In  1850  Goldmark  left  Raab  for  Vienna,  where  from  his  friend 
Mittrich  he  obtained  his  first  real  knowledge  of  the  classics. 
There,  too,  he  devoted  himself  to  composition.  In  1857  Goldmark, 


GOLDONI— GOLDSCHMIDT 


213 


who  was  then  engaged  in  the  Karl-theater  band,  gave  a 
concert  of  his  own  works  with  such  success  that  his  first  quartet 
attracted  very  general  attention.  Then  followed  the  "  Sakun- 
tala  "  and  "  Penthesilea  "  overtures,  which  show  how  Wagner's 
influence  had  supervened  upon  his  previous  domination  by 
Mendelssohn,  and  the  delightful  "  Landliche  Hochzeit  "  sym- 
phony, which  carried  his  fame  abroad.  Goldmark's  reputation 
was  now  made,  and  very  largely  increased  by  the  production 
at  Vienna  in  1875  of  his  first  and  best  opera,  Die  Konigin  von 
Sato.  Over  this  opera  he  spent  seven  years.  Its  popularity 
is  still  almost  as  great  as  ever.  It  was  followed  in  November 
1886,  also  at  Vienna,  by  Merlin,  much  of  which  has  been  re- 
written since  then.  A  third  opera,  a  version  of  Dickens's  Cricket 
on  the  Hearth,  was  given  by  the  Royal  Carl  Rosa  Company 
in  London  in  1900.  Goldmark's  chamber  music  has  not  made 
much  lasting  impression,  but  the  overtures  "  Im  Friihling," 
"  Prometheus  Bound,"  and  "  Sapho  "  are  fairly  well  known. 
A  "  programme  "  seems  essential  to  him.  In  opera  he  is  most 
certainly  at  his  best,  and  as  an  orchestral  colourist  he  ranks 
among  the  very  highest. 

GOLDONI,  CARLO  (1707-1793),  Italian  dramatist,  the  real 
founder  of  modern  Italian  comedy,  was  born  at  Venice,  on  the 
25th  of  February  1707,  in  a  fine  house  near  St  Thomas's  church. 
His  father  Giulio  was  a  native  of  Modena.  The  first  playthings 
of  the  future  writer  were  puppets  which  he  made  dance;  the 
first  books  he  read  were  plays, — among  others,  the  comedies  of 
the  Florentine  Cicognini.  Later  he  received  a  still  stronger 
impression  from  the  Mandragora  of  Machiavelli.  At  eight  years 
old  he  had  tried  to  sketch  a  play.  His  father,  meanwhile,  had 
taken  his  degree  in  medicine  at  Rome  and  fixed  himself  at 
Perugia,  where  he  made  his  son  join  him;  but,  having  soon 
quarrelled  with  his  colleagues  in  medicine,  he  departed  for 
Chioggia,  leaving  his  son  to  the  care  of  a  philosopher,  Professor 
Caldini  of  Rimini.  The  young  Goldoni  soon  grew  tired  of  his 
life  at  Rimini,  and  ran  away  with  a  Venetian  company  of  players. 
He  began  to  study  law  at  Venice,  then  went  to  continue  the 
same  pursuit  at  Pavia,  but  at  that  time  he  was  studying  the 
Greek  and  Latin  comic  poets  much  more  and  much  better  than 
books  about  law.  "  I  have  read  over  again,"  he  writes  in  his 
own  Memoirs,  "  the  Greek  and  Latin  poets,  and  I  have  told  to 
myself  that  I  should  like  to  imitate  them  in  their  style,  their 
plots,  their  precision;  but  I  would  not  be  satisfied  unless  I 
succeeded  in  giving  more  interest  to  my  works,  happier  issues 
to  my  plots,  better  drawn  characters  and  more  genuine  comedy." 
For  a  satire  entitled  //  Colosso,  which  attacked  the  honour  of 
several  families  of  Pavia,  he  was  driven  from  that  town,  and 
went  first  to  study  with  the  jurisconsult  Morelli  at  Udine,  then 
to  take  his  degree  in  law  at  Modena.  After  having  worked 
some  time  as  clerk  in  the  chanceries  of  Chioggia  and  Feltre, 
his  father  being  dead,  he  went  to  Venice,  to  exercise  there  his 
profession  as  a  lawyer.  But  the  wish  to  write  for  the  stage 
was  always  strong  in  him,  and  he  tried  to  do  so;  he  made, 
however,  a  mistake  in  his  choice,  and  began  with  a  tragedy, 
Amalasunta,  which  was  represented  at  Milan  and  proved  a  failure. 
In  1734  he  wrote  another  tragedy,  Belisario,  which,  though  not 
much  better,  chanced  nevertheless  to  please  the  public.  This 
first  success  encouraged  him  to  write  other  tragedies,  some  of 
which  were  well  received;  but  the  author  himself  saw  clearly 
that  he  had  not  yet  found  his  proper  sphere,  and  that  a  radical 
dramatic  reform  was  absolutely  necessary  for  the  stage.  He 
wished  to  create  a  characteristic  comedy  in  Italy,  to  follow  the 
example  of  Moliere,  and  to  delineate  the  realities  of  social  life 
in  as  natural  a  manner  as  possible.  His  first  essay  of  this  kind 
was  Momolo  Cortesan  (Momolo  the  Courtier),  written  in  the 
Venetian  dialect,  and  based  on  his  own  experience.  Other 
plays  followed — some  interesting  from  their  subject,  others 
from  the  characters;  the  best  of  that  period  are — Le  Trentadue 
Disgrazie  d'  Arlecchino,  La  Nolle  crilica,  La  Bancarotta,  La 
Donna  di  Carbo.  Having,  while  consul  of  Genoa  at  Venice, 
been  cheated  by  a  captain  of  Ragusa,  he  founded  on  this  his 
play  L'Impostore.  At  Leghorn  'he  made  the  acquaintance  of  the 
comedian  Medebac,  and  followed  him  to  Venice,  with  his  company, 


for  which  he  began  to  write  his  best  plays.  Once  he  promised 
to  write  sixteen  comedies  in  a  year,  and  kept  his  word ;  among 
the  sixteen  are  some  of  his  very  best,  such  as  //  Caffe,  II  Bugiardo, 
La  Pamela.  When  he  left  the  company  of  Medebac,  he  passed 
over  to  that  maintained  by  the  patrician  Vendramin,  continuing 
to  write  with  the  greatest  facility.  In  1761  he  was  called  to 
Paris,  and  before  leaving  Venice  he  wrote  Una  delle  ultime  sere 
di  Carnevale  (One  of  the  Last  Nights  of  Carnival) ,  an  allegorical 
comedy  in  which  he  said  good-bye  to  his  country.  At  the  end 
of  the  representation  of  this  play,  the  theatre  resounded  with 
applause,  and  with  shouts  expressive  of  good  wishes.  Goldoni, 
at  this  proof  of  public  sympathy,  wept  as  a  child.  At  Paris, 
during  two  years,  he  wrote  comedies  for  the  Italian  actors;  then 
he  taught  Italian  to  the  royal  princesses;  and  for  the  wedding 
of  Louis  XVI.  and  of  Marie  Antoinette  he  wrote  in  French  one 
of  his  best  comedies,  Le  Bourru  bienfaisant,  which  was  a  great 
success.  When  he  retired  from  Paris  to  Versailles,  the  king 
made  him  a  gift  of  6000  francs,  and  fixed  on  him  an  annual 
pension  of  1 200  francs.  It  was  at  Versailles  he  wrote  his  Memoirs, 
which  occupied  him  till  he  reached  his  eightieth  year.  The 
Revolution  deprived  him  all  at  once  of  his  modest  pension,  and 
reduced  him  to  extreme  misery;  he  dragged  on  his  unfortunate 
existence  till  1793,  and  died  on  the  6th  of  February.  The  day 
after,  on  the  proposal  of  Andre  Chenier,  the  Convention  agreed 
to  give  the  pension  back  to  the  poet;  and  as  he  had  already 
died,  a  reduced  allowance  was  granted  to  his  widow. 

The  best  comedies  of  Goldoni  are :  La  Donna  di  Garbo,  La  Boltega 
di  Caffe,  Pamela  nubile,  Le  Baruffe  chiozzotte,  I  Rusteghi,  Todero 
Bronlolon,  Gli  Innamorati,  II  Ventaglio,  II  Bugiardo,  La  Casa  nova, 
II  Burbero  benefico,  La  Locandiera.  A  collected  edition  (Venice, 
1788)  was  republished  at  Florence  in  1827.  See  P.  G.  Molmenti, 
Carlo  Goldoni  (Venice,  1875);  Rabany,  Carlo  Goldoni  (Paris,  1896). 
The  Memoirs  were  translated  into  English  by  John  Black  (Boston, 
1877),  with  preface  by  W.  D.  Howells. 

GOLDS,  a  Mongolo-Tatar  people,  living  on  the  Lower  Amur 
in  south-eastern  Siberia.  Their  chief  settlements  are  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Amur  and  along  the  Sungari  and  Usuri  rivers.  In 
physique  they  are  typically  Mongolic.  Like  the  Chinese  they 
wear  a  pigtail,  and  from  them,  too,  have  learnt  the  art  of  silk 
embroidery.  The  Golds  live  almost  entirely  on  fish,  and  are 
excellent  boatmen.  They  keep  large  herds  of  swine  and  dogs, 
which  live,  like  themselves,  on  fish.  Geese,  wild  duck,  eagles, 
bears,  wolves  and  foxes  are  also  kept  in  menageries.  There  is 
much  reverence  paid  to  the  eagles,  and  hence  the  Manchus  call 
the  Golds  "  Eaglets."  Their  religion  is  Shamanism. 

See  L.  Schrenck,  Die  Vo'lker  des  Amurlandes  (St  Petersburg,  1891) ; 
Laufer,  "  The  Amoor  Tribes,"  in  American  Anthropologist  (New 
York,  1900);  E.  G.  Ravenstein,  The  Russians  on  the  Amur  (1861). 

GOLDSBORO,  a  city  and  the  County-seat  of  Wayne  county, 
North  Carolina,  U.S.A.,  on  the  Neuse  river,  about  50  m.  S.E.  of 
Raleigh.  Pop.  (1890)  4017;  (1900)  5877  (2520  negroes);  (1910) 
6107.  It  is  served  by  the  Southern,  the  Atlantic  Coast  Line 
and  the  Norfolk  &  Southern  railways.  The  surrounding  country 
produces  large  quantities  of  tobacco,  cotton  and  grain,  and 
trucking  is  an  important  industry,  the  city  being  a  distributing 
point  for  strawberries  and  various  kinds  of  vegetables.  The 
city's  manufactures  include  cotton  goods,  knit  goods,  cotton- 
seed oil,  agricultural  implements,  lumber  and  furniture.  Golds- 
boro  is  the  seat  of  the  Eastern  insane  asylum  (for  negroes)  and 
of  an  Odd  Fellows'  orphan  home.  The  municipality  owns  and 
operates  its  water-works  and  electric-lighting  plant.  Goldsboro 
was  settled  in  1838,  and  was  first  incorporated  in  1841.  In  the 
campaign  of  1865  Goldsboro  was  the  point  of  junction  of  the 
Union  armies  under  generals  Sherman  and  Schofield,  previous 
to  the  final  advance  to  Greensboro. 

GOLDSCHMIDT,  HERMANN  (1802-1866),  German  painter 
and  astronomer,  was  the  son  of  a  Jewish  merchant,  and  was  born 
at  Frankfort  on  the  1 7th  of  June  1802.  He  for  ten  years  assisted 
his  father  in  his  business;  but,  his  love  of  art  having  been 
awakened  while  journeying  in  Holland,  he  in  1832  began  the 
study  of  painting  at  Munich  under  Cornelius  and  Schnorr,  and 
in  1836  established  himself  at  Paris,  where  he  painted  a  number 
of  pictures  of  more  than  average  merit,  among  which  may  be 
mentioned  the  "  Cumaean  Sibyl"  (1844);  an  "Offering  to 


214 


GOLDSMID— GOLDSMITH,  OLIVER 


Venus  "  (1845);  a  "  View  of  Rome  "  (1849);  the  "  Death  of 
Romeo  and  Juliet"  (1857);  and  several  Alpine  landscapes. 
In  1847  he  began  to  devote  his  attention  to  astronomy;  and 
from  1852  to  1 86 1  he  discovered  fourteen  asteroids  between 
Mars  and  Jupiter,  on  which  account  he  received  the  grand 
astronomical  prize  from  the  Academy  of  Sciences.  His  observa- 
tions of  the  protuberances  on  the  sun,  made  during  the  total 
eclipse  on  the  loth  of  July  1860,  are  included  in  the  work  of 
Madler  on  the  eclipse,  published  in  1861.  Goldschmidt  died  at 
Fontainebleau  on  the  26th  of  August  1866. 

G0LDSMI1,  the  name  of  a  family  of  Anglo-Jewish  bankers 
sprung  from  Aaron  Goldsmid  (d.  1782),  a  Dutch  merchant  who 
settled  in  England  about  1763.  Two  of  his  sons,  Benjamin 
Goldsmid  (c,  1753-1808)  and  Abraham  Goldsmid  (c.  1756-1810), 
began  business  together  about  1777  as  bill-brokers  in  London, 
and  soon  became  great  powers  in  the  money  market,  during  the 
Napoleonic  war,  through  their  dealings  with  the  government. 
Abraham  Goldsmid  was  in  1810  joint  contractor  with  the  Barings 
for  a  government  loan,  but  owing  to  a  depreciation  of  the  scrip 
he  was  forced  into  bankruptcy  and  committed  suicide.  His 
brother,  in  a  fit  of  depression,  had  similarly  taken  his  own  life 
two  years  before.  Both  were  noted  for  their  public  and  private 
generosity,  and  Benjamin  had  a  part  in  founding  the  Royal 
Naval  Asylum.  Benjamin  left  four  sons,  the  youngest  being 
Lionel  Prager  Goldsmid;  Abraham  a  daughter,  Isabel. 

Their  nephew,  Sir  Isaac  Lyon  Goldsmid,  Bart.  (1778-1859), 
was  born  in  London,  and  began  in  business  with  a  firm  of  bullion 
brokers  to  the  Bank  of  England  and  the  East  India  Company. 
He  amassed  a  large  fortune,  and  was  made  Baron  da  Palmeira 
by  the  Portuguese  government  in  1846  for  services  rendered  in 
settling  a  monetary  dispute  between  Portugal  and  Brazil,  but 
he  is  chiefly  known  for  his  efforts  to  obtain  the  emancipation  of 
the  Jews  in  England  and  for  his  part  in  founding  University 
College,  London.  The  Jewish  Disabilities  Bill,  first  introduced 
in  Parliament  by  Sir  Robert  Grant  in  1830,  owed  its  final  passage 
to  Goldsmid's  energetic  work.  He  helped  to  establish  the 
University  College  hospital  in  1834,  serving  as  its  treasurer  for 
eighteen  years,  and  also  aided  in  the  efforts  to  obtain  reform  in 
the  English  penal  code.  Moreover  he  assisted  by  his  capital 
and  his  enterprise  to  build  part  of  the  English  southern  railways 
and  also  the  London  docks.  In  1841  he  became  the  first  Jewish 
baronet,  thehonour  being  conferred  upon  him  by  Lord  Melbourne. 
He  had  married  his  cousin  Isabel  (see  above),  and  their  second 
son  was  Sir  Francis  Henry  Goldsmid,  Bart.  (1808-1878),  born  in 
London,  and  called  to  the  bar  at  Lincoln's  Inn  in  1833  (the  first 
Jew  to  become  an  English  barrister;  Q.C.  1858).  After  the 
passing  of  the  Jewish  Disabilities  Bill,  in  which  he  had  aided 
his  father  with  a  number  of  pamphlets  that  attracted  great 
attention,  he  entered  Parliament  in  1860  (having  succeeded  to 
the  baronetcy)  as  member  for  Reading,  and  represented  that 
constituency  until  his  death.  He  was  strenuous  on  behalf  of  the 
Jewish  religion,  and  the  founder  of  the  great  Jews'  Free  School. 
He  was  a  munificent  contributor  to  charities  and  especially  to 
the  endowment  of  University  College.  He,  like  his  father, 
married  a  cousin,  and,  dying  without  issue,  was  succeeded  in  the 
baronetcy  by  his  nephew  Sir  Julian  Goldsmid,  Bart.  (1838-1896), 
son  of  Frederick  David  Goldsmid  (1812-1866),  long  M.P.  for 
Honiton.  Sir  Julian  was  for  many  years  in  Parliament,  and  his 
wealth,  ability  and  influence  made  him  a  personage  of  consider- 
able importance.  He  was  eventually  made  a  privy  councillor. 
He  had  eight  daughters,  but  no  son,  and  his  entailed  property 
passed  to  his  relation,  Mr  d'Avigdor,  his  house  in  Piccadilly 
being  converted  into  the  Isthmian  Club. 

Another  distinguished  member  of  the  same  family,  Sir 
Frederic  John  Goldsmid  (1818-1908),  son  of  Lionel  Prager 
Goldsmid  (see  above),  was  educated  at  King's  College,  London, 
and  entering  the  Madras  army  in  1839  served  in  the  China  War 
of  1840-41,  with  the  Turkish  troops  in  eastern  Crimea  in  1855-56, 
and  was  given  political  employment  by  the  Indian  government. 
He  received  the  thanks  of  the  commander-in-chief  and  of  the 
war  office  for  services  during  the  Egyptian  campaign,  and  was 
retired  a  major-general  in  1875.  Sir  Frederic  Goldsmid's  name 


is,  however,  associated  less  with  military  service  than  with  much 
valuable  work  in  exploration  and  in  surveying,  for  which  he 
repeatedly  received  the  thanks  of  government.  From  1865  to 
1870  he  was  director-general  of  the  Indo-European  telegraph, 
and  carried  through  the  telegraph  convention  with  Persia;  and 
between  1870  and  1872,  as  commissioner,  he  settled  with  Persia 
the  difficult  questions  of  the  Perso-Baluch  and  Perso-Afghan 
boundaries.  In  the  course  of  his  work  he  had  to  travel  exten- 
sively, and  he  followed  this  up  by  various  responsible  missions 
connected  with  emigration  questions.  In  1881-1882  he  was  in 
Egypt,  as  controller  of  the  Daira  Sanieh,  and  doing  other  mis- 
cellaneous military  work;  and  in  1883  he  went  to  the  Congo, 
on  behalf  of  the  king  of  the  Belgians,  as  one  of  the  organizers 
of  the  new  state,  but  had  to  return  on  account  of  illness.  From 
his  early  years  he  had  made  studies  of  several  Eastern  languages, 
and  he  ranked  among  the  foremost  Orientalists  of  his  day.  In 
1886  he  was  president  of  the  geographical  section  of  the  British 
Association  meeting  held  at  Birmingham.  He  had  married  in 
1849,  and  had  two  sons  and  four  daughters.  In  1871  he  was 
made  a  K.C.S.I.  Besides  important  contributions  to  the  gth 
edition  of  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica  and  many  periodicals, 
he  wrote  an  excellent  and  authoritative  biography  of  Sir  James 
Outram  (2  vols.,  1880). 

A  sister  of  the  last-named  married  Henry  Edward  Goldsmid 
(1812-1855),  an  eminent  Indian  civil  servant,  son  of  Edward 
Goldsmid;  his  reform  of  the  revenue  system  in  Bombay,  and 
introduction  of  a  new  system,  established  after  his  death,  through 
his  reports  in  1840-1847,  and  his  devoted  labour  in  land-surveys, 
were  of  the  highest  importance  to  western  India,  and  established 
his  memory  there  as  a  public  benefactor. 

GOLDSMITH,  LEWIS  (c.  1763-1846),  Anglo-French  publicist, 
of  Ifortuguese-Jewish  extraction,  was  born  near  London  about 
1763.  Having  published  in  1801  The  Crimes  of  Cabinets,  or  a 
Review  of  the  Plans  and  Aggressions  for  Annihilating  the  Liberties 
of  France,  and  the  Dismemberment  of  her  Territories,  an  attack  on 
the  military  policy  of  Pitt,  he  moved,  in  1802,  from  England  to 
Paris.  Talleyrand  introduced  him  to  Napoleon,  who  arranged 
for  him  to  establish  in  Paris  an  English  tri- weekly,  the  Argus, 
which  was  to  review  English  affairs  from  the  French  point  of 
view.  According  to  his  own  account,  he  was  in  1803  entrusted 
with  a  mission  to  obtain  from  the  head  of  the  French  royal 
family,  afterwards  Louis  XVIII.,  a  renunciation  of  his  claims  to 
the  throne  of  France,  in  return  for  the  throne  of  Poland.  The 
offer  was  declined,  and  Goldsmith  says  that  he  then  received 
instructions  to  kidnap  Louis  and  kill  him  if  he  resisted,  but, 
instead  of  executing  these  orders,  he  revealed  the  plot.  He  was, 
nevertheless,  employed  by  Napoleon  on  various  other  secret 
service  missions  till  1807,  when  his  Republican  sympathies  began 
to  wane.  In  1809  he  returned  to  England,  where  he  was  at  first 
imprisoned  but  soon  released;  and  he  became  a  notary  in 
London.  In  18 1 1,  being  now  violently  anti-republican,  he  founded 
a  Sunday  newspaper,  the  Anti-Gallican  Monitor  and  Anti- 
Corsican  Chronicle,  subsequently  known  as  the  British  Monitor, 
in  which  he  denounced  the  French  Revolution.  In  1811  he 
proposed  that  a  public  subscription  should  be  raised  to  put  a 
price  on  Napoleon's  head,  but  this  suggestion  was  strongly  repro- 
bated by  the  British  government.  In  the  same  year  he  published 
Secret  History  of  the  Cabinet  of  Bonaparte  and  Recueil  des  mnni- 
festes,  or  a  Collection  of  the  Decrees  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  and  in 
1812  Secret  History  of  Bonaparte's  Diplomacy.  Goldsmith  alleged 
that  in  the  latter  year  he  was  offered  £200,000  by  Napoleon 
to  discontinue  his  attacks.  In  1815  he  published  An  Appeal  to 
the  Governments  of  Europe  on  the  Necessity  of  bringing  Napoleon  • 
Bonaparte  to  a  Public  Trial.  In  1825  he  again  settled  down  in 
Paris,  and  in  1832  published  his  Statistics  of  France.  His  only 
child,  Georgiana,  became,  in  1837,  the  second  wife  of  Lord 
Lyndhurst.  He  died  in  Paris  on  the  6th  of  January  1846. 

GOLDSMITH,  OLIVER  (1728-1774),  English  poet,  playwright, 
novelist  and  man  of  letters,  came  of  a  Protestant  and  Saxon 
family  which  had  long  been  settled  in  Ireland.  He  is 
usually  said  to  have  been  born  at  Pallas  or  Pallasmore,  Co. 
Longford;  but  recent  investigators  have  contended,  with  much 


GOLDSMITH,  OLIVER 


215 


show  of  probability,  that  his  true  birthplace  was  Smith-Hill 
House,  Elphin,  Roscommon,  the  residence  of  his  mother's  father, 
the  Rev.  Oliver  Jones.  His  father,  Charles  Goldsmith,  lived  at 
Pallas,  supporting  with  difficulty  his  wife  and  children  on  what 
he  could  earn,  partly  as  a  curate  and  partly  as  a  farmer. 

While  Oliver  was  still  a  child  his  father  was  presented  to  the 
living  of  Kilkenny  West,  in  the  county  of  West  Meath.  This 
was  worth  about  £200  a  year.  The  family  accordingly  quitted 
their  cottage  at  Pallas  for  a  spacious  house  on  a  frequented  road, 
near  the  village  of  Lissoy.  Here  the  boy  was  taught  his  letters  by 
a  relative  and  dependent,  Elizabeth  Delap,  and  was  sent  in  his 
seventh  year  to  a  village  school  kept  by  an  old  quartermaster  on 
half-pay,  who  professed  to  teach  nothing  but  reading,  writing 
and  arithmetic,  but  who  had  an  inexhaustible  fund  of  stories 
about  ghosts,  banshees  and  fairies,  about  the  great  Rapparee 
chiefs,  Baldearg  O'Donnell  and  galloping  Hogan,  and  about  the 
exploits  of  Peterborough  and  Stanhope,  the  surprise  of  Monjuich 
and  the  glorious  disaster  of  Brihuega.  This  man  must  have  been 
of  the  Protestant  religion;  but  he  was  of  the  aboriginal  race,  and 
not  only  spoke  the  Irish  language,  but  could  pour  forth  unpre- 
meditated Irish  verses.  Oliver  early  became,  and  through  life 
continued  to  be,  a  passionate  admirer  of  the  Irish  music,  and 
especially  of  the  compositions  of  Carolan,  some  of  the  last  notes 
of  whose  harp  he  heard.  It  ought  to  be  added  that  Oliver,  though 
by  birth  one  of  the  Englishry,  and  though  connected  by  numerous 
ties  with  the  Established  Church,  never  showed  the  least  sign  of 
that  contemptuous  antipathy  with  which,  in  his  days,  the  ruling 
minority  in  Ireland  too  generally  regarded  the  subject  majority. 
So  far  indeed  was  he  from  sharing  in  the  opinions  and  feelings  of 
the  caste  to  which  he  belonged  that  he  conceived  an  aversion  to 
the  Glorious  and  Immortal  Memory,  and,  even  when  George  III. 
was  on  the  throne,  maintained  that  nothing  but  the  restoration 
of  the  banished  dynasty  could  save  the  country. 

From  the  humble  academy  kept  by  the  old  soldier  Goldsmith 
was  removed  in  his  ninth  year.  He  went  to  several  grammar- 
schools,  and  acquired  some  knowledge  of  the  ancient  languages. 
His  life  at  this  time  seems  to  have  been  far  from  happy.  He  had, 
as  appears  from  the  admirable  portrait  of  him  by  Reynolds  at 
Knole,  features  harsh  even  to  ugliness.  The  small-pox  had  set  its 
mark  on  him  with  more  than  usual  severity.  His  stature  was 
small,  and  his  limbs  ill  put  together.  Among  boys  little  tender- 
ness is  shown  to  personal  defects;  and  the  ridicule  excited  by 
poor  Oliver's  appearance  was  heightened  by  a  peculiar  simplicity 
and  a  disposition  to  blunder  which  he  retained  to  the  last.  He 
became  the  common  butt  of  boys  and  masters,  was  pointed  at  as 
a  fright  in  the  play-ground,  and  flogged  as  a  dunce  in  the  school- 
room. When  he  had  risen  to  eminence,  those  who  had  once 
derided  him  ransacked  their  memory  for  the  events  of  his  early 
years,  and  recited  repartees  and  couplets  which  had  dropped 
from  him,  and  which,  though  little  noticed  at  the  time,  were 
supposed,  a  quarter  of  a  century  later,  to  indicate  the  powers 
which  produced  the  Vicar  of  Wakefidd  and  the  Deserted  Village. 

On  the  nth  of  June  1744,  being  then  in  his  sixteenth  year, 
Oliver  went  up  to  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  as  a  sizar.  The  sizars 
paid  nothing  for  food  and  tuition,  and  very  little  for  lodging; 
but  they  had  to  perform  some  menial  services  from  which  they 
have  long  been  relieved.  Goldsmith  was  quartered,  not  alone,  in 
a  garret  of  what  was  then  No.  35  in  a  range  of  buildings  which  has 
long  since  disappeared.  His  name,  scrawled  by  himself  on  one  of 
its  window-panes  is  still  preserved  in  the  college  library.  From 
such  garrets  many  men  of  less  parts  than  his  have  made  their 
way  to  the  woolsack  or  to  the  episcopal  bench.  But  Goldsmith, 
while  he  suffered  all  the  humiliations,  threw  away  all  the 
advantages  of  his  situation.  He  neglected  the  studies  of  the 
place,  stood  low  at  the  examinations,  was  turned  down  to  the 
bottom  of  his  class  for  playing  the  buffoon  in  the  lecture-room, 
was  severely  reprimanded  for  pumping  on  a  constable,  and  was 
caned  by  a  brutal  tutor  for  giving  a  ball  in  the  attic  storey  of  the 
college  to  some  gay  youths  and  damsels  from  the  city. 

While  Oliver  was  leading  at  Dublin  a  life  divided  between 
squalid  distress  and  squalid  dissipation,  his  father  djeri.  leaving 
a  mere  pittance.  In  February  1749  the  youth  obtained  his 


bachelor's  degree,  and  left  the  university.  During  some  time 
the  humble  dwelling  to  which  his  widowed  mother  had  retired 
was  his  home.  He  was  now  in  his  twenty-first  year;  it  was 
necessary  that  he  should  do  something;  and  his  education 
seemed  to  have  fitted  him  to  do  nothing  but  to  dress  himself 
in  gaudy  colours,  of  which  he  was  as  fond  as  a  magpie,  to  take  a 
hand  at  cards,  to  sing  Irish  airs,  to  play  the  flute,  to  angle  in 
summer  and  to  tell  ghost  stories  by  the  fire  in  winter.  He  tried 
five  or  six  professions  in  turn  without  success.  He  applied  for 
ordination;  but,  as  he  applied  in  scarlet  clothes,  he  was  speedily 
turned  out  of  the  episcopal  palace.  He  then  became  tutor  in  an 
opulent  family,  but  soon  quitted  his  situation  in  consequence  of  a 
dispute  about  pay.  Then  he  determined  to  emigrate  to  America. 
His  relations,  with  much  satisfaction,  saw  him  set  out  for  Cork 
on  a  good  horse,  with  £30  in  his  pocket.  But  in  six  weeks  he 
came  back  on  a  miserable  hack,  without  a  penny,  and  informed 
his  mother  that  the  ship  in  which  he  had  taken  his  passage, 
having  got  a  fair  wind  while  he  was  at  a  party  of  pleasure,  had 
sailed  without  him.  Then  he  resolved  to  study  the  law.  A 
generous  uncle,  Mr  Contarine,  advanced  £50.  With  this  sum 
Goldsmith  went  to  Dublin,  was  enticed  into  a  gaming-house 
and  lost  every  shilling.  He  then  thought  of  medicine.  A  small 
purse  was  made  up;  and  in  his  twenty-fourth  year  he  was  sent 
to  Edinburgh.  At  Edinburgh  he  passed  eighteen  months  in 
nominal  attendance  on  lectures,  and  picked  up  some  superficial 
information  about  chemistry  and  natural  history.  Thence  he 
went  to  Leiden,  still  pretending  to  study  physic.  He  left  that 
celebrated  university,  the  third  university  at  which  he  had 
resided,  in  his  twenty-seventh  year,  without  a  degree,  with  the 
merest  smattering  of  medical  knowledge,  and  with  no  property 
but  his  clothes  and  his  flute.  His  flute,  however,  proved  a  useful 
friend.  He  rambled  on  foot  through  Flanders,  France  and 
Switzerland,  playing  tunes  which  everywhere  set  the  peasantry 
dancing,  and  which  often  procured  for  him  a  supper  and  a  bed. 
He  wandered  as  far  as  Italy.  His  musical  performances,  indeed, 
were  not  to  the  taste  of  the  Itah'ans;  but  he  contrived  to  live  on 
the  alms  which  he  obtained  at  the  gates  of  convents.  It  should, 
however,  be  observed  that  the  stories  which  he  told  about  this 
part  of  his  life  ought  to  be  received  with  great  caution;  for  strict 
veracity  was  never  one  of  his  virtues;  and  a  man  who  is  ordinarily 
inaccurate  in  narration  is  likely  to  be  more  than  ordinarily 
inaccurate  when  he  talks  about  his  own  travels.  Goldsmith, 
indeed,  was  so  regardless  of  truth  as  to  assert  in  print  that  he  was 
present  at  a  most  interesting  conversation  between  Voltaire  and 
Fontenelle,  and  that  this  conversation  took  place  at  Paris. 
Now  it  is  certain  that  Voltaire  never  was  within  a  hundred 
leagues  of  Paris  during  the  whole  time  which  Goldsmith  passed 
on  the  continent. 

In  February  1756  the  wanderer  landed  at  Dover,  without  a 
shilling,  without  a  friend  and  without  a  calling.  He  had  indeed, 
if  his  own  unsupported  evidence  may  be  trusted,  obtained  a 
doctor's  degree  on  the  continent;  but  this  dignity  proved 
utterly  useless  to  him.  In  England  his  flute  was  not  in  request; 
there  were  no  convents;  and  he  was  forced  to  have  recourse  to 
a  series  of  desperate  expedients.  There  is  a  tradition  that  he 
turned  strolling  player.  He  pounded  drugs  and  ran  about 
London  with  phials  for  charitable  chemists.  He  asserted,  upon 
one  occasion,  that  he  had  lived  "among  the  beggars  in  Axe  Lane." 
He  was  for  a  time  usher  of  a  school,  and  felt  the  miseries  and 
humiliations  of  this  situation  so  keenly  that  he  thought  it  a 
promotion  to  be  permitted  to  earn  his  bread  as  a  bookseller's 
hack;  but  he  soon  found  the  new  yoke  more  galling  than  the 
old  one,  and  was  glad  to  become  an  usher  again.  He  obtained  a 
medical  appointment  in  the  service  of  the  East  India  Company; 
but  the  appointment  was  speedily  revoked.  Why  it  was  revoked 
we  are  not  told.  The  subject  was  one  on  which  he  never  liked 
to  talk.  It  is  probable  that  he  was  incompetent  to  perform 
the  duties  of  the  place.  Then  he  presented  himself  at  Surgeons' 
Hall  for  examination,  as  "  mate  to  an  hospital."  Even  to  so 
humble  a  post  he  was  found  unequal.  Nothing  remained  but  to 
return  to  the  lowest  drudgery  of  literature.  Goldsmith  took  a 
room  in  a  tiny  square  off  Ludgate  Hill,  to  which  he  had  to  climb 


2l6 


GOLDSMITH,  OLIVER 


from  Sea-coal  Lane  by  a  dizzy  ladder  of  flagstones  called  Break- 
neck Steps.  Green  Arbour  Court  and  the  ascent  have  long 
diasppeared.  Here,  at  thirty,  the  unlucky  adventurer  sat 
down  to  toil  like  a  galley  slave.  Already,  in  1 758,  during  his  first 
bondage  to  letters,  he  had  translated  Marteilhe's  remarkable 
Memoirs  of  a  Protestant,  Condemned  to  the  Galleys  of  France  for  his 
Religion.  In  the  years  that  now  succeeded  h£  sent  to  the  press 
some  things  which  have  survived,  and  many  which  have  perished. 
He  produced  articles  for  reviews,  magazines  and  newspapers; 
children's  books,  which,  bound  in  gilt  paper  and  adorned  with 
hideous  woodcuts,  appeared  in  the  window  of  Newbery's  once 
far-famed  shop  at  the  corner  of  Saint  Paul's  churchyard;  An 
Inquiry  into  the  State  of  Polite  Learning  in  Europe,  which,  though 
of  little  or  no  value,  is  still  reprinted  among  his  works;  a  volume 
of  essays  entitled  The  Bee;  a  Life  of  Beau  Nash;  a  superficial 
and  incorrect,  but  very  readable,  History  of  England,  in  a  series 
of  letters  purporting  to  be  addressed  by  a  nobleman  to  his  son; 
and  some  very  lively  and  amusing  sketches  of  London  Society  in 
another  series  of  letters  purporting  to  be  addressed  by  a  Chinese 
traveller  to  his  friends.  All  these  works  were  anonymous; 
but  some  of  them  were  well  known  to  be  Goldsmith's;  and  he 
gradually  rose  in  the  estimation  of  the  booksellers  for  whom  he 
drudged.  He  was,  indeed,  emphatically  a  popular  writer.  For 
accurate  research  or  grave  disquisition  he  was  not  well  qualified 
by  nature  or  by  education.  He  knew  nothing  accurately;  his 
reading  had  been  desultory;  nor  had  he  meditated  deeply  on 
what  he  had  read.  He  had  seen  much  of  the  world ;  but  he  had 
noticed  and  retained  little  more  of  what  he  had  seen  than  some 
grotesque  incidents  and  characters  which  had  happened  to  strike 
his  fancy.  But,  though  his  mind  was  very  scantily  stored  with 
materials,  he  used  what  materials  he  had  in  such  a  way  as  to 
produce  a  wonderful  effect.  There  have  been  many  greater 
writers;  but  perhaps  no  writer  was  ever  more  uniformly  agree- 
able. His  style  was  always  pure  and  easy,  and,  on  proper 
occasions,  pointed  and  energetic.  His  narratives  were  always 
amusing,  his  descriptions  always  picturesque,  his  humour  rich 
and  joyous,  yet  not  without  an  occasional  tinge  of  amiable 
sadness.  About  everything  that  he  wrote,  serious  or  sportive, 
there  was  a  certain  natural  grace  and  decorum,  hardly  to  be 
expected  from  a  man  a  great  part  of  whose  life  had  been  passed 
among  thieves  and  beggars,  street-walkers  and  merryandrews, 
in  those  squalid  dens  which  are  the  reproach  of  great  capitals. 

As  his  name  gradually  became  known,  the  circle  of  his  acquaint- 
ance widened.  He  was  introduced  to  Johnson,  who  was  then 
considered  as  the  first  of  living  English  writers;  to  Reynolds, 
the  first  of  English  painters;  and  to  Burke,  who  had  not  yet 
entered  parliament,  but  had  distinguished  himself  greatly  by  his 
writings  and  by  the  eloquence  of  his  conversation.  With  these 
eminent  men  Goldsmith  became  intimate.  In  1763  he  was  one 
of  the  nine  original  members  of  that  celebrated  fraternity  which 
has  sometimes  been  called  the  Literary  Club,  but  which  has 
always  disclaimed  that  epithet,  and  still  glories  in  the  simple 
name  of  the  Club. 

By  this  date  Goldsmith  had  quitted  his  miserable  dwelling 
at  the  top  of  Breakneck  Steps,  and,  after  living  for  some  time 
at  No.  6  Wine  Office  Court,  Fleet  Street,  had  moved  into  the 
Temple.  But  he  was  still  often  reduced  to  pitiable  shifts,  the 
most  popular  of  which  is  connected  with  the  sale  of  his  solitary 
novel,  the  Vicar  of  Wakefield.  Towards  the  close  of  I764(?) 
his  rent  is  alleged  to  have  been  so  long  in  arrear  that  his  landlady 
one  morning  called  in  the  help  of  a  sheriff's  officer.  The  debtor, 
in  great  perplexity,  despatched  a  messenger  to  Johnson;  and 
Johnson,  always  friendly,  though  often  surly,  sent  back  the 
messenger  with  a  guinea,  and  promised  to  follow  speedily. 
He  came,  and  found  that  Goldsmith  had  changed  the  guinea, 
and  was  railing  at  the  landlady  over  a  bottle  of  Madeira.  Johnson 
put  the  cork  into  the  bottle,  and  entreated  his  friend  to  consider 
calmly  how  money  was  to  be  procured.  Goldsmith  said  that  he 
had  a  novel  ready  for  the  press.  Johnson  glanced  at  the  manu- 
script, saw  that  there  were  good  things  in  it.took  it  to  a  bookseller, 
sold  it  for  £60  and  soon  returned  with  the  money.  The  rent 
was  paid;  and  the  sheriff's  officer  withdrew.  (Unfortunately, 


|  however,  for  this  time-honoured  version  of  the  circumstances, 
it  has  of  late  years  been  discovered  that  as  early  as  October 
1762  Goldsmith  had  already  sold  a  third  of  the  Vicar  to  one 
Benjamin  Collins  of  Salisbury,  a  printer,  by  whom  it  was  eventu- 
ally printed  for  F.  Newbery,  and  it  is  difficult  to  reconcile  this 
fact  with  Johnson's  narrative.) 

But  before  the  Vicar  of  Wakefield  appeared  in  1766,  came  the 
great  crisis  of  Goldsmith's  literary  life.  In  Christmas  week  1 764 
he  published  a  poem,  entitled  the  Traveller.  It  was  the  first 
work  to  which  he  had  put  his  name,  and  it  at  once  raised  him 
to  the  rank  of  a  legitimate  English  classic.  The  opinion  of  the 
most  skilful  critics  was  that  nothing  finer  had  appeared  in  verse 
since  the  fourth  book  of  the  Dunciad.  In  one  respect  the 
Traveller  differs  from  all  Goldsmith's  other  writings.  In  general 
his  designs  were  bad,  and  his  execution  good.  In  the  Traveller 
the  execution,  though  deserving  of  much  praise,  is  far  inferior 
to  the  design.  No  philosophical  poem,  ancient  or  modern,  has 
a  plan  so  noble,  and  at  the  same  time  so  simple.  An  English 
wanderer,  seated  on  a  crag  among  the  Alps,  near  the  point 
where  three  great  countries  meet,  looks  down  on  the  boundless 
prospect,  reviews  his  long  pilgrimage,  recalls  the  varieties  of 
scenery,  of  climate,  of  government,  of  religion,  of  national 
character,  which  he  has  observed,  and  comes  to  the  conclusion, 
just  or  unjust,  that  our  happiness  depends  little  on  political 
institutions,  and  much  on  the  temper  arid  regulation  of  our  own 
minds. 

While  the  fourth  edition  of  the  Traveller  was  on  the  counters 
of  the  booksellers,  the  Vicar  of  Wakefield  appeared,  and  rapidly 
obtained  a  popularity  which  has  lasted  down  to  our  own  time, 
and  which  is  likely  to  last  as  long  as  our  language.  The  fable 
is  indeed  one  of  the  worst  that  ever  was  constructed.  It  wants, 
not  merely  that  probability  which  ought  to  be  found  in  a  tale  of 
common  English  life,  but  that  consistency  which  ought  to  be 
found  even  in  the  wildest  fiction  about  witches,  giants  and 
fairies.  B  ut  the  earlier  chapters  have  all  the  sweetness  of  pastoral 
poetry,  together  with  all  the  vivacity  of  comedy.  Moses  and  his 
spectacles,  the  vicar  and  his  monogamy,  the  sharper  and  his 
cosmogony,  the  squire  proving  from  Aristotle  that  relatives  are 
related,  Olivia  preparing  herself  for  the  arduous  task  of  converting 
a  rakish  lover  by  studying  the  controversy  between  Robinson 
Crusoe  and  Friday,  the  great  ladies  with  their  scandal  about  Sir 
Tomkyn's  amours  and  Dr  Burdock's  verses,  and  Mr  Burchell 
with  his  "  Fudge,"  have  caused  as  much  harmless  mirth  as  has 
ever  been  caused  by  matter  packed  into  so  small  a  number  of 
pages.  The  latter  part  of  the  tale  is  unworthy  of  the  beginning. 
As  we  approach  the  catastrophe,  the  absurdities  lie  thicker  and 
thicker,  and  the  gleams  of  pleasantry  become  rarer  and  rarer. 

The  success  which  had  attended  Goldsmith  as  a  novelist 
emboldened  him  to  try  his  fortune  as  a  dramatist.  He  wrote 
the  Good  Natur'd  Man,  a  piece  which  had  a  worse  fate  than  it 
deserved.  Garrick  refused  to  produce  it  at  Drury  Lane.  It  was 
acted  at  Covent  Garden  in  January  1768,  but  was  coldly  received. 
The  Author,  however,  cleared  by  his  benefit  nights,  and  by  the 
sale  of  the  copyright,  no  less  than  £500,  five  times  as  much  as  he 
had  made  by  the  Traveller  and  the  Vicar  of  Wakefield  together. 
The  plot  of  the  Good  Natur'd  Man  is,  like  almost  all  Goldsmith's 
plots,  very  ill  constructed.  But  some  passages  are  exquisitely 
ludicrous, — much  more  ludicrous  indeed  than  suited  the  taste 
of  the  town  at  that  time.  A  canting,  mawkish  play,  entitled 
False  Delicacy,  had  just  been  produced,  and  sentimentality 
was  all  the  mode.  During  some  years  more  tears  were  shed  at. 
comedies  than  at  tragedies;  and  a  pleasantry  which  moved  the 
audience  to  anything  more  than  a  grave  smile  was  reprobated 
as  low.  It  is  not  strange,  therefore,  that  the  very  best  scene  in 
the  Good  Nalur'd  Man,  that  in  which  Miss  Richland  finds  her 
lover  attended  by  the  bailiff  and  the  bailiff's  follower  in  full 
court  dresses,  should  have  been  mercilessly  hissed,  and  should 
have  been  omitted  after  the  first  night,  not  to  be  restored  for 
several  years. 

In  May  1770  appeared  the  Deserted  Village.  In  mere  diction 
and  versification  this  celebrated  poem  is  fully  equal,  perhaps 
superior,  to  the  Traveller;  and  it  is  generally  preferred  to  the 


GOLDSMITH,  OLIVER 


217 


Traveller  by  that  large  class  of  readers  who  think,  with  Bayes 
in  the  Rehearsal,  that  the  only  use  of  a  plot  is  to  bring  in  fine- 
things.  More  discerning  judges,  however,  while  they  admire 
the  beauty  of  the  details,  are  shocked  by  one  unpardonable  fault 
which  pervades  the  whole.  The  fault  which  we  mean  is  not  that 
theory  about  wealth  and  luxury  which  has  so  often  been  censured 
by  political  economists.  The  theory  is  indeed  false;  but  the 
poem,  considered  merely  as  a  poem,  is  not  necessarily  the  worse 
on  that  account.  The  finest  poem  in  the  Latin  language — 
indeed,  the  finest  didactic  poem  in  any  language — was  written 
in  defence  of  the  silliest  and  meanest  of  all  systems  of  natural 
and  moral  philosophy.  A  poet  may  easily  be  pardoned  for 
reasoning  ill;  but  he  cannot  be  pardoned  for  describing  ill,  for 
observing  the  world  in  which  he  lives  so  carelessly  that  his 
portraits  bear  no  resemblance  to  the  originals,  for  exhibiting  as 
copies  from  real  life  monstrous  combinations  of  things  which 
never  were  and  never  could  be  found  together.  What  would 
be  thought  of  a  painter  who  should  mix  August  and  January  in 
one  landscape,  who  should  introduce  a  frozen  river  into  a  harvest 
scene  ?  Would  it  be  a  sufficient  defence  of  such  a  picture  to  say 
that  every  part  was  exquisitely  coloured,  that  the  green  hedges, 
the  apple-trees  loaded  with  fruit,  the  waggons  reeling  under  the 
yellow  sheaves,  and  the  suruburned  reapers  wiping  their  fore- 
heads were  very  fine,  and  that  the  ice  and  the  boys  sliding  were 
also  very  fine  ?  To  such  a  picture  the  Deserted  Village  bears  a 
great  resemblance.  It  is  made  up  of  incongruous  parts.  The 
village  in  its  happy  days  is  a  true  English  village.  The  village 
in  its  decay  is  an  Irish  village.  The  felicity  and  the  misery 
which  Goldsmith  has  brought  close  together  belong  to  two 
different  countries  and  to  two  different  stages  in  the  progress 
of  society.  He  had  assuredly  never  seen  in  his  native  island  such 
a  rural  paradise,  such  a  seat  of  plenty,  content  and  tranquillity, 
as  his  Auburn.  He  had  assuredly  never  seen  in  England  all 
the  inhabitants  of  such  a  paradise  turned  out  of  their  homes  in 
one  day  and -forced  to  emigrate  in  a  body  to  America.  The 
hamlet  he  had  probably  seen  in  Kent;  the  ejectment  he  had 
probably  seen  in  Munster;  but  by  joining  the  two,  he  has 
produced  something  which  never  was  and  never  will  be  seen  in 
any  part  of  the  world. 

In  1773  Goldsmith  tried  his  chance  at  Covent  Garden  with  a 
second  play,  She  Stoops  to  Conquer.  The  manager  was,  not 
without  great  difficulty,  induced  to  bring  this  piece  out.  The 
sentimental  comedy'still  reigned,  and  Goldsmith's  comedies  were 
not  sentimental.  The  Good  Natur'd  Man  had  been  too  funny  to 
succeed;  yet  the  mirth  of  the  Good  Natur'd  Man  was  sober  when 
compared  with  the  rich  drollery  of  She  Stoops  to  Conquer,  which 
is,  in  truth,  an  incomparable  farce  in  five  acts.  On  this  occasion, 
however,  genius  triumphed.  Pit,  boxes  and  galleries  were  in  a 
constant  roar  of  laughter.  If  any  bigoted  admirer  of  Kelly 
and  Cumberland  ventured  to  hiss  or  groan,  he  was  speedily 
silenced  by  a  general  cry  of  "  turn  him  out,"  or  "  throw  him 
over."  Later  generations  have  confirmed  the  verdict  which  was 
pronounced  on  that  night. 

While  Goldsmith  was  writing  the  Deserted  Village  and  She 
Sloops  to  Conquer,  he  was  employed  on  works  of  a  very  different 
kind — works  from  which  he  derived  little  reputation  but  much 
profit.  He  compiled  for  the  use  of  schools  a  History  of  Rome, 
by  which  he  made  £250;  a  History  of  England,  by  which  he 
made  £500;  a  History  of  Greece,  for  which  he  received  £250; 
a  Natural  History,  for  which  the  booksellers  covenanted  to  pay 
him  800  guineas.  These  works  he  produced  without  any 
elaborate  research,  by  merely  selecting,  abridging  and  translating 
into  his  own  clear,  pure  and  flowing  language,  what  he  found  in 
books  well  known  to  the  world,  but  too  bulky  or  too  dry  for  boys 
and  girls.  He  committed  some  strange  blunders,  for  he  knew 
nothing  with  accuracy.  Thus,  in  his  History  of  England,  he  tells 
us  that  Naseby  is  in  Yorkshire;  nor  did  he  correct  this  mistake 
when  the  book  was  reprinted.  He  was  very  nearly  hoaxed  into 
putting  into  the  History  of  Greece  an  account  of  a  battle  between 
Alexander  the  Great  and  Montezuma.  In  his  Animated  Nature 
he  relates,  with  faith  and  with  perfect  gravity,  all  the  most 
absurd  lies  which  he  could  find  in  books  of  travels  about  gigantic 


Patagonians,  monkeys  that  preach  sermons,  nightingales  that 
repeat  long  conversations.  "  If  he  can  tell  a  horse  from  a  cow," 
said  Johnson,  "  that  is  the  extent  of  his  knowledge  of  zoology." 
How  little  Goldsmith  was  qualified  to  write  about  the  physical 
sciences  is  sufficiently  proved  by  two  anecdotes.  He  on  one 
occasion  denied  that  the  sun  is  longer  in  the  northern  than  in  the 
southern  signs.  It  was  vain  to  cite  the  authority  of  Maupertuis. 
"  Maupertuis!"  he  cried,  "I  understand  those  matters  better 
than  Maupertuis."  On  another  occasion  he,  in  defiance  of 
the  evidence  of  his  own  senses,  maintained  obstinately,  and 
even  angrily,  that  he  chewed  his  dinner  by  moving  his  upper 
jaw. 

Yet,  ignorant  as  Goldsmith  was,  few  writers  have  done  more 
to  make  the  first  steps  in  the  laborious  road  to  knowledge  easy 
and  pleasant.  His  compilations  are  widely  distinguished  from 
the  compilations  of  ordinary  bookmakers.  He  was  a  great, 
perhaps  an  unequalled,  master  of  the  arts  of  selection  and  con- 
densation. In  these  respects  his  histories  of  Rome  and  of 
England,  and  still  more  his  own  abridgments  of  these  histories, 
well  deserved  to  be  studied.  In  general  nothing  is  less  attrac- 
tive than  an  epitome;  but  the  epitomes  of  Goldsmith, 
even  when  most  concise,  are  always  amusing;  and  to  read  them 
is  considered  by  intelligent  children  not  as  a  task  but  as  a 
pleasure. 

Goldsmith  might  now  be  considered  as  a  prosperous  man. 
He  had  the  means  of  living  in  comfort,  and  even  in  what  to  one 
who  had  so  often  slept  in  barns  and  on  bulks  must  have  been 
luxury.  His  fame  was  great  and  was  constantly  rising.  He 
lived  in  what  was  intellectually  far  the  best  society  of  the  king- 
dom, in  a  society  in  which  no  talent  or  accomplishment  was 
wanting,  and  in  which  the  art  of  conversation  was  cultivated 
with  splendid  success.  There  probably  were  never  four  talkers 
more  admirable  in  four  different  ways  than  Johnson,  Burke, 
Beauclerk  and  Garrick;  and  Goldsmith  was  on  terms  of  intimacy 
with  all  the  four.  He  aspired  to  share  in  ttieir  colloquial  renown, 
but  never  was  ambition  more  unfortunate.  \  It  may  seem  strange 
that  a  man  who  wrote  with  so  much  perspicuity,  vivacity  and 
grace  should  have  been,  whenever  he  took  a  part  in  conversation, 
an  empty,  noisy,  blundering  rattle.  But  on  this  point  the 
evidence  is  overwhelming.  So  extraordinary  was  the  contrast 
between  Goldsmith's  published  works  and  the  silly  things  which 
he  said,  that  Horace  Walpole  described  him  as  an  inspired  idiot. 
"  Noll,"  said  Garrick,  "  wrote  like  an  angel,  and  talked  like  poor 
Poll."  Chamier  declared  that  it  was  a  hard  exercise  of  faith  to 
believe  that  so  foolish  a  chatterer  could  have  really  written  the 
Traveller.  Even  Boswell  could  say,  with  contemptuous  com- 
passion, that  he  liked  very  well  to  hear  honest  Goldsmith  run  on. 
"  Yes,  sir,"  said  Johnson,  "  but  he  should  not  like  to  hear  him- 
self." Minds  differ  as  rivers  differ.  There  are  transparent  and 
sparkling  rivers  from  which  it  is  delightful  to  drink  as  they  flow; 
to  such  rivers  the  minds  of  such  men  as  Burke  and  Johnson  may 
be  compared.  But  there  are  rivers  of  which  the  water  when  first 
drawn  is  turbid  and  noisome,  but  becomes  pellucid  as  crystal 
and  delicious  to  the  taste,  if  it  be  suffered  to  stand  till  it  has 
deposited  a  sediment;  and  such  a  river  is  a  type  of  the  mind  of 
Goldsmith.  His  first  thoughts  on  every  subject  were  confused 
even  to  absurdity,  but  they  required  only  a  little  time  to  work 
themselves  clear.  When  he  wrote  they  had  that  time,  and 
therefore  his  readers  pronounced  him  a  man  of  genius;  but 
when  he  talked  he  talked  nonsense  and  made  himself  the 
laughing-stock  of  his  hearers.  He  was  painfully  sensible  of 
his  inferiority  in  conversation;  he  felt  every  failure  keenly;  yet 
he  had  not  sufficient  judgment  and  self-command  to  hold  his 
tongue.  His  animal  spirits  and  vanity  were  always  impelling 
him  to  try  to  do  the  one  thing  which  he  could  not  do.  After. 
every  attempt  he  felt  that  he  had  exposed  himself,  and  writhed 
with  shame  and  vexation;  yet  the  next  moment  he  began 
again. 

His  associates  seem  to  have  regarded  him  with  kindness,  which, 
in  spite  of  their  admiration  of  his  writings,  was  not  unmixed  with 
contempt.  In  truth,  there  was  in  his  character  much  to  love, 
but  very  little  to  respect.  His  heart  was  soft  even  to  weakness: 


218 


GOLDSTUCKER 


he  was  so  generous  that  he  quite  forgot  to  be  just ;  he  forgave 
injuries  so  readily  that  he  might  be  said  to  invite  them,  and  was 
so  liberal  to  beggars  that  he  had  nothing  left  for  his  tailor  and  his 
butcher.  He  was  vain,  senjmal,  frivolous,  profuse,  improvident. 
One  vice  of  a  darker  shade  was  imputed  to  him,  envy.  But  there 
is  not  the  least  reason  to  believe  that  this  bad  passion,  though  it 
sometimes  made  him  wince  and  utter  fretful  exclamations,  ever 
impelled  him  to  injure  by  wicked  arts  the  reputation  of  any  of 
his  rivals.  The  truth  probably  is  that  he  was  not  more  envious, 
but  merely  less  prudent,  than  his  neighbours.  His  heart  was 
on  his  lips.  All  those  small  jealousies,  which  are  but  too  common 
among  men  of  letters,  but  which  a  man  of  letters  who  is  also  a 
man  of  the  world  does  his  best  to  conceal,  Goldsmith  avowed 
with  the  simplicity  of  a  child.  When  he  was  envious,  instead  of 
affecting  indifference,  instead  of  damning  with  faint  praise, 
instead  of  doing  injuries  slyly  and  in  the  dark,  he  told  everybody 
that  he  was  envious.  "  Do  not,  pray,  do  not,  talk  of  Johnson  in 
such  terms,"  he  said  to  Boswell;  "  you  harrow  up  my  very  soul." 
George  Steevens  and  Cumberland  were  men  far  too  cunning 
to  say  such  a  thing.  They  would  have  echoed  the  praises  of  the 
man  whom  they  envied,  and  then  have  sent  to  the  newspapers 
anonymous  libels  upon  him.  Both  what  was  good  and  what,  was 
bad  in  Goldsmith's  character  was  to  his  associates  a  perfect 
security  that  he  would  never  commit  such  villainy.  He  was 
neither  ill-natured  enough,  nor  long-headed  enough,  to  be 
guilty  of  any  malicious  act  which  required  contrivance  and 
disguise. 

Goldsmith  has  sometimes  been  represented  as  a  man  of  genius, 
cruelly  treated  by  the  world,  and  doomed  to  struggle  with 
difficulties,  which  at  last  broke  his  heart.  But  no  representation 
can  be  more  remote  from  the  truth.  He  did,  indeed,  go  through 
much  sharp  misery  before  he  had  done  anything  considerable 
in  literature.  But  after  his  name  had  appeared  on  the  title-page 
of  the  Traveller,  he  had  none  but  himself  to  blame  for  his  dis- 
tresses. His  average  income,  during  the  last  seven  years  of  his 
life,  certainly  exceeded  £400  a  year,  and  £400  a  year  ranked, 
among  the  incomes  of  that  day,  at  least  as  high  as  £800  a  year 
would  rank  at  present.  A  single  man  living  in  the  Temple,  with 
£400  a  year,  might  then  be  called  opulent.  Not  one  in  ten  of  the 
young  gentlemen  of  good  families  who  were  studying  the  law 
there  had  so  much.  But  all  the  wealth  which  Lord  Clive  had 
brought  from  Bengal  and  Sir  Lawrence  Dundas  from  Germany, 
joined  together,  would  not  have  sufficed  for  Goldsmith.  He 
spent  twice  as  much  as  he  had.  He  woxe_&»«-dojjiesj  gave 
dinners  of  several  courses,  pajd-couxLtQ  venal  beauties.  He  had 
also,  it  should  be  remembered,  to  the  honour  of  his  heart,  though 
not  of  his  head,  a  guinea,  or  five,  or  ten,  according  to  the  state  of 
his  purse,  ready  for  any  tale  of  distress,  true  or  false.  But  it  was 
not  in  dress  or  feasting,  in  promiscuous  amours  or  promiscuous 
charities,  that  his  chief  expense  lay.  He  had  been  from  boyhood 
a  gambler,  and  at  once  the  most  sanguine  and  the  most  unskilful 
of  gamblers.  For  a  time  he  put  off  the  day  of  inevitable  ruin  by 
temporary  expedients.  He  obtained  advances  from  booksellers 
by  promising  to  execute  works  which  he  never  began.  But  at 
length  this  source  of  supply  failed.  He  owed  more  than  £2000; 
and  he  saw  no  hope  of  extrication  from  his  embarrassments. 
His  spirits  and  health  gave  way.  He  was  attacked  by  a  nervous 
fever,  which  he  thought  himself  competent  to  treat.  It  would 
have  been  happy  for  him  if  his  medical  skill  had  been  appreciated 
as  justly  by  himself  as  by  others.  Notwithstanding  the  degree 
which  he  pretended  to  have  received  on  the  continent,  he  could 
procure  no  patients.  "  I  do  not  practise,"  he  once  said;  "  I 
make  it  a  rule  to  prescribe  only  for  my  friends."  "  Pray,  dear 
Doctor,"  said  Beauclerk,  "  alter  your  rule;  and  prescribe  only 
for  your  enemies."  Goldsmith,  now,  in  spite  of  this  excellent 
advice,  prescribed  for  himself.  The  remedy  aggravated  the 
malady.  The  sick  man  was  induced  to  call  in  real  physicians; 
and  they  at  one  time  imagined  that  they  had  cured  the  disease. 
Still  his  weakness  and  restlessness  continued.  He  could  get  no 
sleep.  He  could  take  no  food.  "  You  are  worse,"  said  one  of  his 
medical  attendants,  "  than  you  should  be  from  the  degree  of 
fever  which  you  have.  Is  your  mind  at  ease?"  "No;  it  is 


not,"  were  the  last  recorded  words  of  Oliver  Goldsmith.  He 
died  on  the  4th  of  April  1774,  in  his  forty-sixth  year.  He  was 
laid  in  the  churchyard  of  the  Temple;  but  the  spot  was  not 
marked  by  any  inscription  and  is  now  forgotten.  The  coffin 
was  followed  by  Burke  and  Reynolds.  Both  these  great  men 
were  sincere  mourners.  Burke,  when  he  heard  of  Goldsmith's 
death,  had  burst  into  a  flood  of  tears.  Reynolds  had  been  so 
much  moved  by  the  news  that  he  had  flung  aside  his  brush  and 
palette  for  the  day. 

A  short  time  after  Goldsmith's  death,  a  little  poem  appeared, 
which  will,  as  long  as  our  language  lasts,  associate  the  names  of 
his  two  illustrious  friends  with  his  own.  It  has  already  been 
mentioned  that  he  sometimes  felt  keenly  the  sarcasm  which  his 
wild  blundering  talk  brought  upon  him.  He  was,  not  long 
before  his  last  illness,  provoked  into  retaliating.  He  wisely 
betook  himself  to  his  pen;  and  at  that  weapon  he  proved 
himself  a  match  for  all  his  assailants  together.  Within  a  small 
compass  he  drew  with  a  singularly  easy  and  vigorous  pencil 
the  characters  of  nine  or  ten  of  his  intimate  associates. 
Though  this  little  work  did  not  receive  his  last  touches,  it 
must  always  be  regarded  as  a  masterpiece.  It  is  impossible, 
however,  not  to  wish  that  four  or  five  likenesses  which  have 
no  interest  for  posterity  were  wanting  to  that  noble  gallery, 
and  that  their  places  were  supplied  by  sketches  of  Johnson 
and  Gibbon,  as  happy  and  vivid  as  the  sketches  of  Burke  and 
Garrick. 

Some  of  Goldsmith's  friends  and  admirers  honoured  him 
with  a  cenotaph  in  Westminster  Abbey.  Nollekens  was  the 
sculptor,  and  Johnson  wrote  the  inscription.  It  is  much  to  be 
lamented  that  Johnson  did  not  leave  to  posterity  a  more  durable 
and  a  more  valuable  memorial  of  his  friend.  A  life  of  Goldsmith 
would  have  been  an  inestimable  addition  to  the  Lives  of  the  Poets. 
No  man  appreciated  Goldsmith's  writings  more  justly  than 
Johnson;  no  man  was  better  acquainted  with  Goldsmith's 
character  and  habits;  and  no  man  was  more  competent  to 
delineate  with  truth  and  spirit  the  peculiarities  of  a  mind  in 
which  great  powers  were  found  in  company  with  great  weaknesses. 
But  the  list  of  poets  to  whose  works  Johnson  was  requested  by 
the  booksellers  to  furnish  prefaces  ended  with  Lyttelton,  who 
died  in  1773.  The  line  seems  to  have  been  drawn  expressly  for 
the  purpose  of  excluding  the  person  whose  portrait  would  have 
most  fitly  closed  the  series.  Goldsmith,  however,  has  been 
fortunate  in  his  biographers.  (M.) 

Goldsmith's  life  has  been  written  by  Prior  (1837),  by  Washington 
Irving  (1844-1849),  and  by  John  Forster  (1848,  2nd  ed.  1854). 
The  diligence  of  Prior  deserves  great  praise ;  the  style  of  Washington 
Irving  is  always  pleasing;  but  the  highest  place  must,  in  justice,  be 
assigned  to  the  eminently  interesting  work  of  Forster.  Subsequent 
biographies  are  by  William  Black  (1878),  and  Austin  Dobson  (1888, 
American  ed.  1899).  The  above  article  by  Lord  Macaulay  has  been 
slightly  revised  for  this  edition  by  Mr  Austin  Dobson,  as  regards 
questions  of  fact  for  which  there  has  been  new  evidence. 

GOLDSTUCKER,  THEODOR  (1821-1872),  German  Sanskrit 
scholar,  was  born  of  Jewish  parents  at  Konigsberg  on  the  i8th  of 
January  1821,  and,  after  attending  the  gymnasium  of  that 
town,  entered  the  university  in  1836  as  a  student  of  Sanskrit. 
In  1838  he  removed  to  Bonn,  and,  after  graduating  at  Konigsberg 
in  1840,  proceeded  to  Paris;  in  1842  he  edited  a  German  trans- 
lation of  the  Prabodha  Chandrodaya.  From  1847  to  1850  he 
resided  at  Berlin,  where  his  talents  and  scholarship  were  recog- 
nized by  Alexander  von  Humboldt,  but  where  his  advanced 
political  views  caused  the  authorities  to  regard  him  with  suspicion. 
In  the  latter  year  he  removed  to  London,  where  in  1852  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  Sanskrit  in  University  College.  He  now 
worked  on  a  new  Sanskrit  dictionary,  of  which  the  first  instal- 
ment appeared  in  1856.  In  1861  he  published  his  chief  work: 
Panini:  his  place  in  Sanskrit  Literature;  and  he  was  one  of  the 
founders  and  chief  promoters  of  the  Sanskrit  Text  Society; 
he  was  also  an  active  member  of  the  Philological  Society,  and  of 
other  learned  bodies.  He  died  in  London  on  the  6th  of  March 
1872. 

As  Literary  Remains  some  of  his  writings  were  published  in  two 
volumes  (London,  1879),  but  his  papers  were  left  to  the  India  Office 
with  the  request  that  they  were  not  to  be  published  until  1920. 


GOLDWELL— GOLF 


219 


GOLDWELL,  THOMAS  (d.  1585),  English  ecclesiastic,  began 
his  career  as  vicar  of  Cheriton  in  1531,  after  graduating  M.A.  at 
All  Souls  College,  Oxford.  He  became  chaplain  to  Cardinal 
Pole  and  lived  with  him  at  Rome,  was  attainted  in  1539,  but 
returned  to  England  on  Mary's  accession,  and  in  1555  became 
bishop  of  St  Asaph,  a  diocese  which  he  did  much  to  win  back 
to  the  old  faith.  On  the  death  of  Mary,  Goldwell  escaped  from 
England  and  in  1 56 1  became  superior  of  the  Theatines  at  Naples. 
He  was  the  only  English  bishop  at  the  council  of  Trent,  and  in 
1562  was  again  attainted.  In  the  following  year  he  was  appointed 
vicar-general  to  Carlo  Borromeo,  archbishop  of  Milan.  He  died 
in  Rome  in  1385,  the  last  of  the  English  bishops  who  had  refused 
to  accept  the  Reformation. 

GOLDZIHER,  IGNAZ  (1850-  ),  Jewish  Hungarian  orient- 
alist, was  born  in  Stuhlweissenburg  on  the  2  2nd  of  June 
1850.  He  was  educated  at  the  universities  of  Budapest,  Berlin, 
Leipzig  and  Leiden,  and  became  privat  decent  at  Budapest  in 
1872.  In  the  next  year,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Hungarian 
government,  he  began  a  journey  through  Syria,  Palestine  and 
Egypt,  and  took  the  opportunity  of  attending  lectures  of 
Mahommedan  sheiks  in  the  mosque  of  el-Azhar  in  Cairo.  He 
was  the  first  Jewish  scholar  to  become  professor  in  the  Budapest 
University  (1894),  and  represented  the  Hungarian  government 
and  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  numerous  international  con- 
gresses. He  received  the  large  gold  medal  at  the  Stockholm 
Oriental  Congress  in  1889.  He  became  a  member  of  several 
Hungarian  and  other  learned  societies,  was  appointed  secretary 
of  the  Jewish  community  in  Budapest.  He  was  made  Litt.  D. 
of  Cambridge(i9O4)and  LL.D.  of  Aberdeen(i9o6).  His  eminence 
in  the  sphere  of  scholarship  is  due  primarily  to  his  careful  in- 
vestigationofpre-MahommedanandMahommedan  law, tradition, 
religion  and  poetry,  in  connexion  with  which  he  published  a  large 
number  of  treatises,  review  articles  and  essays  contributed  to 
the  collections  of  the  Hungarian  Academy. 

Among  his  chief  works  are:  Beitrage  zur  Literaturgeschichte  der 
Schi'a  (1874);  Beitrage  zur  Geschichte  der  Sprachgelehrsamkeit  bei 
den  Arabern  (Vienna,  1871-1873) ;  Der  Mythos  bei  den  Hebrdern  und 
seine  geschichtliche  Entwickelung  (Leipzig,  1876;  Eng.  trans.,  R. 
Martineau,  London,  1877);  Muhammedanische  Studien  (Halle, 
1889-1890,  2  vols.) ;  Abhandlungen  zur  arabischen  Philologie  (Leiden, 
1896-1899,  2  vols.);  Buck  v.  Wesen  d.  Seele  (ed.  1907). 

GOLETTA  [LA  GOULETTE],  a  town  on  the  Gulf  of  Tunis  in 
36°  50'  N.  10°  19'  E.,  a  little  south  of  the  ruins  of  Carthage,  and 
on  the  north  side  of  the  ship  canal  which  traverses  the  shallow 
Lake  of  Tunis  and  leads  to  the  city  of  that  name.  Built  on  the 
narrow  strip  of  sand  which  separates  the  lake  from  the  gulf, 
Goletta  is  defended  by  a  fort  and  battery.  The  town  contains 
a  summer  palace  of  the  bey,  the  old  seraglio,  arsenal  and  custom- 
house, and  many  villas,  gardens  and  pleasure  resorts,  Goletta 
being  a  favourite  place  for  sea-bathing.  A  short  canal,  from 
which  the  name  of  the  town  is  derived  (Arab.  Halk-el-Wad, 
"  throat  of  the  canal  "),  40  ft.  broad  and  8£  ft.  deep,  divides  the 
town  and  affords  communication  between  the  ship  canal  and 
a  dock  or  basin,  1082  ft.  long  and  541  ft.  broad.  An  electric 
tramway  which  runs  along  the  north  bank  of  the  ship  canal 
connects  Goletta  with  the  city  of  Tunis  (q.v.).  Pop.  (1907) 
about  s°°o,  mostly  Jews  and  Italian  fishermen. 

Beyond  Cape  Carthage,  5  m.  N.  of  Goletta,  is  La  Marsa,  a 
summer  resort  overlooking  the  sea.  The  bey  has  a  palace  here, 
and  the  French  resident-general,  the  British  consul,  other 
officials,  and  many  Tunisians  have  country-houses,  surrounded 
by  groves  of  olive  trees. 

Before  the  opening  of  the  ship  canal  in  1893  Goletta,  as  the 
port  of  Tunis,  was  a  place  of  considerable  importance.  The 
basin  at  the  Goletta  end  of  the  canal  now  serves  as  a  subsidiary 
harbour  to  that  of  Tunis.  The  most  stirring  events  in  the 
history  of  the  town  are  connected  with  the  Turkish  conquest 
of  the  Barbary  states.  Khair-ed-Din  Barbarossa  having  made 
himself  master  of  Tunis  and  its  port,  Goletta  was  attacked  in 
IS3S  by  the  emperor  Charles  V.,  who  seized  the  pirate's  fleet, 
which  was  sheltered  in  the  small  canal,  his  arsenal,  and  300  brass 
cannon.  The  Turks  regained  possession  in  1574.  (See  TUNISIA: 
History.) 


GOLF  (in  its  older  forms  GOFF,  GOUFF  or  GOWFF,  the  last  of 
which  gives  the  genuine  old  pronunciation),  a  game  which 
probably  derives  its  name  from  the  Ger.  kolbe,  a  club — in  Dutch, 
kolf — which  last  is  nearly  in  sound  identical  and  might  suggest  a 
Dutch  origin,1  which  many  pictures  and  other  witnesses  further 
support. 

History. — One  of  the  most  ancient  and  most  interesting  of  the 
pictures  in  which  the  game  is  portrayed  is  the  tailpiece  to  an 
illuminated  Book  of  Hours  made  at  Bruges  at  the  beginning  of 
the  i6th  century.  The  original  is  in  the  British  Museum.  The 
players,  three  in  number,  have  but  one  club  apiece.  The  heads 
of  the  clubs  are  steel  or  steel  covered.  They  play  with  a  ball  each. 
That  which  gives  this  picture  a  peculiar  interest  over  the  many 
pictures  of  Dutch  schools  that  portray  the  game  in  progress  is 
that  most  of  them  show  it  on  the  ice,  the  putting  being  at  a  stake. 
In  this  Book  of  Hours  they  are  putting  at  a  hole  in  the  turf,  as  in 
our  modern  golf.  It  is  scarcely  to  be  doubted  that  the  game  is  of 
Dutch  origin,  and  that  it  has  been  in  favour  since  very  early  days. 
Further  than  that  our  knowledge  does  not  go.  The  early  Dutch- 
men played  golf,  they  painted  golf,  but  they  did  not  write  it. 

It  is  uncertain  at  what  date  golf  was  introduced  into  Scotland, 
but  in  1457  the  popularity  of  the  game  had  already  become  so 
great  as  seriously  to  interfere  with  the  more  important  pursuit 
of  archery.  In  March  of  that  year  the  Scottish  parliament 
"  decreted  and  ordained  that  wapinshaivingis  be  halden  be  the 
lordis  and  baronis  spirituale  and  temporale,  four  times  in  the 
zeir;  and  that  the  fute-ball  and  golf  lie  utterly  cryit  doun,  and 
nocht  usit;  and  that  the  bowe-merkis  be  maid  at  ilk  paroche  kirk 
a  pair  of  buttis,  and  schuttin  be  usit  ilk  Sunday. ' '  Fourteen  years 
afterwards,  in  May  1471,  it  was  judged  necessary  to  pass  another 
act  "  anent  wapenshawings,"  and  in  1491  a  final  and  evidently 
angry  fulmination  was  issued  on  the  general  subject,  with  pains 
and  penalties  annexed.  It  runs  thus —  "  Futeball  and  Golfe 
forbidden.  Item,  it  is  statut  and  ordainit  that  in  na  place  of  the 
realme  there  be  usit  fute-ball,  golfe,  or  uther  sik  unprofitabill 
sporlis,"  &c.  This,  be  it  noted,  is  an  edict  of  James  IV.;  and  it  is 
not  a  little  curious  presently  to  find  the  monarch  himself  setting 
an  ill  example  to  his  commons,  by  practice  of  this  "  unprofitabill 
sport,"  as  is  shown  by  various  entries  in  the  accounts  of  the  lord 
high  treasurer  of  Scotland  (1503-1506). 

About  a  century  later,  the  game  again  appears  on  the  surface  of 
history,  and  it  is  quite  as  popular  as  before.  In  the  year  1592 
the  town  council  of  Edinburgh  "ordanis  proclamation  to  be  made 
threw  this  burgh,  that  na  inhabitants  of  the  samyn  be  seen  at  ony 
pastymes  within  or  without  the  toun,  upoun  the  Sabboth  day,  sic 
as  golfe,  &c."2  The  following  year  the  edict  was  re-announced, 
but  with  the  modification  that  the  prohibition  was  "  in  tyme  of 
sermons." 

Golf  has  from  old  times  been  known  in  Scotland  as  "  The 
Royal  and  Ancient  Game  of  Goff."  Though  no  doubt  Scottish 
monarchs  handled  the  club  before  him,  James  IV.  is  the  first  who 
figures  formally  in  the  golfing  record.  James  V.  was  also  very 
partial  to  the  game  distinctively  known  as  "  royal  ";  and  there 
is  some  scrap  of  evidence  to  show  that  his  daughter,  the  unhappy 
Mary  Stuart,  was  a  golfer.  It  was  alleged  by  her  enemies  that,  as 
showing  her  shameless  indifference  to  the  fate  of  her  husband,  a 
very  few  days  after  his  murder,  she  "  was  seen  playing  golf  and 
pallmall  in  the  fields  beside  Seton."  3  That  her  son,  James  VI. 
(afterwards  James  I.  of  England),  was  a  golfer,  tradition  con- 
fidently asserts,  though  the  evidence  which  connects  him  with  the 
personal  practice  of  the  game  is  slight.  Of  the  interest  he  took  in 
it  we  have  evidence  in  his  act — already  alluded  to —  "  anent  golfe 
ballis,"  prohibiting  their  importation,  except  under  certain 

"From  an  enactment  of  James  VI.  (then  James  I.  of  England), 
bearing  date  1618,  we  find  that  a  considerable  importation  of  golf 
balls  at  that  time  took  place  from  Holland,  and  as  thereby  "  na 
small  quantitie  of  gold  and  silver  is  transported  zierly  out  of  his 
Hienes  kingdome  of  Scoteland  "  (see  letter  of  His  Majesty  from 
Salisbury,  the  5th  of  August  1618),  he  issues  a  royal  prohibition,  at 
once  as  a  wise  economy  of  the  national  moneys,  and  a  protection  to 
native  industry  in  the  article.  From  this  it  might  almost  seem  that 
the  game  was  at  that  date  still  known  and  practised  in  Holland. 

*  Records  of  the  City  of  Edinburgh. 

1  Inventories  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  preface,  p.  Ixx.  (1863). 


220 


GOLF 


restrictions.  Charles  I.  (as  his  brother  Prince  Henry  had  been  ') 
was  devotedly  attached  to  the  game.  Whilst  engaged  in  it  on 
the  links  of  Leith,  in  1642,  the  news  reached  him  of  the  Irish 
rebellion  of  that  year.  He  had  not  the  equanimity  to  finish  his 
match,  but  returned  precipitately  and  in  much  agitation  to 
Holyrood.2  Afterwards,  while  prisoner  to  the  Scots  army  at 
Newcastle,  he  found  his  favourite  diversion  in  "  the  royal  game." 
"  The  King  was  nowhere  treated  with  more  honour  than  at  New- 
castle, as  he  himself  confessed,  both  he  and  his  train  having  liberty 
to  go  abroad  and  play  at  goff  in  the  Shield  Field,  without  the 
walls."3  Of  his  son,  Charles  II.,  as  a  golfer,  nothing  whatever  is 
ascertained,  but  James  II.  was  a  known  devotee.4  After  the 
Restoration,  James,  then  duke  of  York,  was  sent  to  Edinburgh  in 
1681/2  as  commissioner  of  the  king  to  parliament,  and  an 
historical  monument  of  his  prowess  as  a  golfer  remains  there  to 
this  day  in  the  "  Golfer's  Land,"  as  it  is  still  called,  77  Canongate. 
The  duke  having  been  challenged  by  two  English  noblemen  of  his 
suite,  to  play  a  match  against  them,  for  a  very  large  stake,  along 
with  any  Scotch  ally  he  might  select,  chose  as  his  partner  one 
"  Johne  Patersone,"  a  shoemaker.  The  duke  and  the  said  Johne 
won  easily,  and  half  of  the  large  stake  the  duke  made  over  to  his 
humble  coadjutor,  who  therewith  built  himself  the  house  men- 
tioned above.  In  1834  William  IV.  became  patron  of  the  St 
Andrews  Golf  Club  (St  Andrews  being  then,  as  now,  the  most 
famous  seat  of  the  game),  and  approved  of  its  being  styled  "  The 
Royal  and  Ancient  Golf  Club  of  St  Andrews."  In  1837,  as 
further  proof  of  royal  favour,  he  presented  to  it  a  magnificent  gold 
medal,  which  "  should  be  challenged  and  played  for  annually  "; 
and  in  1838  the  queen  dowager,  duchess  of  St  Andrews,  became 
patroness  of  the  club,  and  presented  to  it  a  handsome  gold  medal 
— "  The  Royal  Adelaide  " — with  a  request  that  it  should  be  worn 
by  the  captain,  as  president,  on  all  public  occasions.  In  June 
1863  the  prince  of  Wales  (afterwards  Edward  VII.)  signified  his 
desire  to  become  patron  of  the  club,  and  in  the  following  September 
was  elected  captain  by  acclamation.  His  engagements  did  not 
admit  of  his  coming  in  person  to  undertake  the  duties  of  the 
office,  but  his  brother  Prince  Leopold  (the  duke  of  Albany) ,  having 
in  1876  done  the  club  the  honour  to  become  its  captain,  twice 
visited  the  ancient  city  in  that  capacity. 

In  more  recent  days,  golf  has  become  increasingly  popular  in 
a  much  wider  degree.  In  1880  the  man  who  travelled  about 
England  with  a  set  of  golf  clubs  was  an  object  of  some  astonish- 
ment, almost  of  alarm,  to  his  fellow-travellers.  In  those  days  the 
commonest  of  questions  in  regard  to  the  game  was, "  You  have  to 
be  a  fine  rider,  do  you  not,  to  play  golf  ?  "  so  confounded  was  it  in 
the  popular  mind  with  the  game  of  polo.  At  Blackheath  a  few 
Scotsmen  resident  in  London  had  long  played  golf.  In  1864  the 
Royal  North  Devon  Club  was  formed  at  Westward  Ho,  and  this 
was  the  first  of  the  seaside  links  discovered  and  laid  out  for  golf  in 
England.  In  1869  the  Royal  Liverpool  Club  established  itself  in 
possession  of  thesecondEnglish  course  of  this  quality  at  Hoylake,  in 
Cheshire.  A  golf  club  was  formed  in  connexion  with  the  London 
Scottish  Volunteers  corps,  which  had  its  house  on  the  Putney  end 
of  Wimbledon  Common  on  Putney  Heath;  and,  after  making  so 
much  of  a  start,  the  progress  of  the  game  was  slow,  though  steady, 
for  many  years.  A  few  more  clubs  were  formed;  the  numbers  of 
golfers  grew;  but  it  could  not  be  said  that  the  game  was  yet  in 
any  sense  popular  in  England.  All  at  once,  for  no  very  obvious 
reason,  the  qualities  of  the  ancient  Scottish  game  seemed  to  strike 
home,  and  from  that  moment  its  popularity  has  been  wonderfully 
and  increasingly  great.  The  English  links  that  rose  into  most 
immediate  favour  was  the  fine  course  of  the  St  George's  Golf 
Club,  near  Sandwich,  on  the  coast  of  Kent.  To  the  London  golfer 
it  was  the  first  course  of  the  first  class  that  was  reasonably 
accessible,  and  the  fact  made  something  like  an  epoch  in 
English  golf.  A  very  considerable  increase,  it  is  true,  in  the 
number  of  English  golfers  and  English  golf  clubs  had  taken  place 
before  the  discovery  for  golfing  purposes  of  the  links  at  Sandwich. 

1  Anonymous  author  of  MS.  in  the  Harleian  Library. 

2  See  History  of  Leith,  by  A.  Campbell  (1827). 

*  Local  Records  of  Northumberland,  by  John  Sykes  (Newcastle, 

4  Robertson's  Historical  Notices  of  Leith. 


Already  there  was  a  chain  of  links  all  round  the  coast,  besides 
numerous  inland  courses;  but  since  1890  their  increase  has  been 
extraordinary,  and  the  number  which  has  been  formed  in  the 
colonies  and  abroad  is  very  large  also,  so  that  in  the  Golfer's 
Year  Book  for  1906  a  space  of  over  300  pages  was  allotted  to  the 
Club  Directory  alone,  each  page  containing,  on  a  rough  average, 
six  clubs.  To  compute  the  average  membership  of  these  clubs  is 
very  difficult.  There  is  not  a  little  overlapping,  in  the  sense  that 
a  member  of  one  club  will  often  be  a  member  of  several  others; 
but  probably  the  average  may  be  placed  at  something  like  200 
members  for  each  club. 

The  immense  amount  of  golf-playing  that  this  denotes,  the 
large  industry  in  the  making  of  clubs  and  balls,  in  the  upkeep 
of  links,  in  the  actual  work  of  club-carrying  by  the  caddies, 
and  in  the  instruction  given  by  the  professional  class,  is  obvious. 
Golf  has  taken  a  strong  hold  on  the  affections  of  the  people  in 
many  parts  of  Ireland,  and  the  fashion  for  golf  in  England  has 
reacted  strongly  on  Scotland  itself,  the  ancient  home  of  the  game, 
where  since  1880  golfers  have  probably  increased  in  the  ratio  of 
forty  to  one.  Besides  the  industry  that  such  a  growth  of  the 
game  denotes  in  the  branches  immediately  connected  with  it, 
as  mentioned  above,  there  is  to  be  taken  into  further  account 
the  visiting  population  that  it  brings  to  all  lodging-houses  and 
hotels  within  reach  of  a  tolerable  golf  links,  so  that  many  a 
fishing  village  has  risen  into  a  moderate  watering-place  by  virtue 
of  no  other  attractions  than  those  which  are  offered  by  its  golf 
course.  ^  Therefore  to  the  Briton,  golf  has  developed  from 
something  of  which  he  had  a  vague  idea — as  of  "  curling  "- 
to  something  in  the  nature  of  an  important  business,  a  business 
that  can  make  towns  and  has  a  considerable  effect  on  the  receipts 
of  railway  companies. 

Moreover,  ladies  have  learned  to  play  golf.  Although  this 
is  a  crude  and  brief  sentence,  it  does  not  state  the  fact  too 
widely  nor  too  forcibly,  for  though  it  is  true  that  before  1885 
many  played  on  the  short  links  of  St  Andrews,  North  Berwick, 
Westward  Ho  and  elsewhere,  still  it  was  virtually  unknown 
that  they  should  play  on  the  longer  courses,  which  till  then 
had  been  in  the  undisputed  possession  of  the  men.  At  many 
places  women  now  have  their  separate  links,  at  others  they  play 
on  the  same  course  as  the  men.  But  even  where  links  are  set 
apart  for  women,  they  are  far  different  from  the  little  courses 
that  used  to  be  assigned  to  them.  They  are  links  only  a  little 
less  formidable  in  their  bunkers,  a  little  less  varied  in  their 
features  than  those  of  men.  The  ladies  have  their  annual 
championship,  which  they  play  on  the  long  links  of  the  men, 
sometimes  on  one,  sometimes  on  another,  but  always  on  courses 
of  the  first  quality,  demanding  the  finest  display  of  golfing  skill. 

The  claim  that  England  made  to  a  golfing  fellowship  with 
Scotland  was  conceded  very  strikingly  by  the  admission  of 
three  English  greens,  first  those  of  Hoylake  and  of  Sandwich, 
and  in  1909  Deal,  into  the  exclusive  list  of  the  links  on  which 
the  open  championship  of  the  game  is  decided.  Before  England 
had  so  fully  assimilated  Scotland's  game  this  great  annual 
contest  was  waged  at  St  Andrews,  Musselburgh  and  Prestwick 
in  successive  years.  Now  the  ancient  green  of  Musselburgh, 
somewhat  worn  out  with  length  of  hard  and  gallant  service,  and 
moreover,  as  a  nine-holes  course  inadequately  accommodating 
the  numbers  who  compete  in  the  championships  to-day,  has  been 
superseded  by  the  course  at  Muirfield  as  a  championship  arena. 

While  golf  had  been  making  itself  a  force  in  the  southern 
kingdom,  the  professional  element — men  who  had  learned  the 
game  from  childhood,  had  become  past-masters,  were  capable 
of  giving  instruction,  and  also  of  making  clubs  and  balls  and 
looking  after  the  greens  on  which  golf  was  played — had  at  first 
been  taken  from  the  northern  side  of  the  Border.  But  when 
golf  had  been  started  long  enough  in  England  for  the  little  boys 
who  were  at  first  employed  as  "  caddies  " — in  carrying  the 
players'  clubs — to  grow  to  sufficient  strength  to  drive  the  ball 
as  far  as  their  masters,  it  was  inevitable  that  out  of  the  number 
who  thus  began  to  play  in  their  boyhood  some  few  should 
develop  an  exceptional  talent  for  the  game.  This,  in  fact, 
actually  happened,  and  English  golfers,  both  of  the  amateur 


GOLF 


221 


and  the  professional  classes,  have  proved  themselves  so  adept 
at  Scotland's  game,  that  the  championships  in  either  the  Open 
or  the  Amateur  competitions  have  been  won  more  often  by 
English  than  by  Scottish  players  of  late  years.  Probably  in  the 
United  Kingdom  to-day  there  are  as  many  English  as  Scottish 
professional  golf  players,  and  their  relative  number  is  increasing. 

Golf  also  "  caught  on,"  to  use  the  American  expression,  in 
the  United  States.  To  the  American  of  1890  golf  was  largely  an 
unknown  thing.  Since  then,  however,  golf  has  become  perhaps 
a  greater  factor  in  the  life  of  the  upper  and  upper-middle  classes 
in  the  United  States  than  it  ever  has  been  in  England  or  Scotland. 
Golf  to  the  English  and  the  Scots  meant  only  one  among  several 
of  the  sports  and  pastimes  that  take  the  man  and  the  woman 
of  the  upper  and  upper-middle  classes  into  the  country  and  the 
fresh  air.  To  the  American  of  like  status  golf  came  as  the  one 
thing  to  take  him  out  of  his  towns  and  give  him  a  reason  for 
exercise  in  the  country.  To-day  golf  has  become  an  interest 
all  over  North  America,  but  it  is  in  the  Eastern  States  that  it 
has  made  most  difference  in  the  life  of  the  classes  with  whom  it 
has  become  fashionable.  Westerners  and  Southerners  found 
more  excuses  before  the  coming  of  golf  for  being  in  the  open 
country  air.  It  is  in  the  Eastern  States  more  especially  that  it 
has  had  so  much  influence  in  making  the  people  live  and  take 
exercise  out  of  doors.  In  a  truly  democratic  spirit  the  American 
woman  golfer  plays  on  a  perfect  equality  with  the  American 
man.  She  does  not  compete  in  the  men's  championships;  she 
has  championships  of  her  own;  but  she  plays,  without  question, 
on  the  same  links.  There  is  no  suggestion  of  relegating  her,  as  a 
certain  cynical  writer  in  the  Badminton  volume  on  golf  described 
it,  to  a  waste  corner,  a  kind  of  "  Jews'  Quarter,"  of  the  links. 
And  the  Americans  have  taken  up  golf  in  the  spirit  of  a  sumptuous 
and  opulent  people,  spending  money  on  magnificent  clubhouses 
beyond  the  finest  dreams  of  the  Englishman  or  the  Scot.  The 
greatest  success  achieved  by  any  American  golfer  fell  to  the  lot 
of  Mr  Walter  Travis  of  the  Garden  City  club,  who  in  1904  won 
the  British  amateur  championship. 

So  much  enthusiasm  and  so  much  golf  in  America  have  not 
failed  to  make  their  influence  felt  in  the  United  Kingdom. 
Naturally  and  inevitably  they  have  created  a  strong  demand 
for  professional  instruction,  both  by  example  and  by  precept, 
and  for  professional  advice  and  assistance  in  the  laying-out  and 
upkeep  of  the  many  new  links  that  have  been  created  in  all  parts 
of  the  States,  sometimes  out  of  the  least  promising  material. 
By  the  offer  of  great  prizes  for  exhibition  matches,  and  of  wages 
that  are  to  the  British  rate  on  the  scale  of  the  dollar  to  the 
shilling,  they  have  attracted  many  of  the  best  Scottish  and 
English  professionals  to  pay  them  longer  or  shorter  visits  as  the 
case  may  be,  and  thus  a  new  opening  has  been  created  for  the 
energies  of  the  professional  golfing  class. 

The  Game. — The  game  of  golf  may  be  briefly  defined  as 
consisting  in  hitting  the  ball  over  a  great  extent  of  country, 
preferably  of  that  sand-hill  nature  which  is  found  by  the  sea-side, 
and  finally  hitting  or  "  putting  "  it  into  a  little  hole  of  some 
4  in.  diameter  cut  in  the  turf.  The  place  of  the  hole  is  commonly 
marked  by  a  flag.  Eighteen  is  the  recognized  number  of  these 
holes  on  a  full  course,  and  they  are  at  varying  distances  apart, 
from  100  yds.  up  to  anything  between  a  J  and  J  m.  For  the 
various  strokes  required  to  achieve  the  hitting  of  the  ball  over 
the  great  hills,  and  finally  putting  it  into  the  small  hole,  a  number 
of  different  "  clubs  "  has  been  devised  to  suit  the  different 
positions  in  which  the  ball  may  be  found  and  the  different 
directions  in  which  it  is  wished  to  propel  it.  At  the  start 
for  each  hole  the  ball  may  be  placed  on  a  favourable  position 
(e.g.  "  tee'd  "  on  a  small  mound  of  sand)  for  striking  it,  but 
after  that  it  may  not  be  touched,  except  with  the  club,  until 
it  is  hit  into  the  next  holer  A  "  full  drive,"  as  the  farthest  distance 
that  the  ball  can  be  hit  is  called,  is  about  200  yds.  in  length, 
of  which  some  three-fourths  will  be  traversed  in  the  air,  and  the 
rest  by  bounding  or  running  over  the  ground.  It  is  easily  to  be 
understood  that  when  the  ball  is  lying  on  the  turf  behind  a  tall 
sand-hill,  or  in  a  bunker,  a  differently-shaped  club  is  required 
for  raising  it  over  such  an  obstacle  from  that  which  is  needed 


when  it  is  placed  on  the  tee  to  start  with;  and  again,  that 
another  club  is  needed  to  strike  the  ball  out  of  a  cup  or  out  of 
heavy  grass.  It  is  this  variety  that  gives  the  game  its  charm. 
Each  player  plays  with  his  own  ball,  with  no  interference  from 
his  opponent,  and  the  object  of  each  is  to  hit  the  ball  from  the 
starting-point  into  each  successive  hole  in  the  fewest  strokes. 
The  player  who  at  the  end  of  the  round  (i.e.  of  the  course  of 
eighteen  holes)  has  won  the  majority  of  the  holes  is  the  winner 
of  the  round;  or  the  decision  may  be  reached  before  the  end 
of  the  round  by  one  side  gaining  more  holes  than  there  remain  to 
play.  For  instance,  if  one  player  be  four  holes  to  the  good,  and 
only  three  holes  remain  to  be  played,  it  is  evident  that  the 
former  must  be  the  winner,  for  even  if  the  latter  win  every 
remaining  hole,  he  still  must  be  one  to  the  bad  at  the  finish. 

The  British  Amateur  Championship  is  decided  by  a  tourna- 
ment in  matches  thus  played,  each  defeated  player  retiring,  and 
his  opponent  passing  on  into  the  next  round.  In  the  case  of  the 
Open  Championship,  and  in  most  medal  competitions,  the  scores 
are  differently  reckoned — each  man's  total  score  (irrespective 
of  his  relative  merit  at  each  hole)  being  reckoned  at  the  finish 
against  the  total  score  of  the  other  players  in  the  competition. 
There  is  also  a  species  of  competition  called  "  bogey  "  play,  in 
which  each  man  plays  against  a  "  bogey  "  score — a  score  fixed 
for  each  hole  in  the  round  before  starting — and  his  position  in 
the  competition  relatively  to  the  other  players  is  determined 
by  the  number  of  holes  that  he  is  to  the  good  or  to  the  bad  of  the 
"  bogey  "  score  at  the  end  of  the  round.  The  player  who  is  most 
holes  to  the  good,  or  fewest  holes  to  the  bad,  wins  the  competition. 
It  may  be  mentioned  incidentally  that  golf  occupies  the  almost 
unique  position  of  being  the  only  sport  in  which  even  a  single 
player  can  enjoy  his  game,  his  opponent  in  this  event  being 
"  Colonel  Bogey" — more  often  than  not  a  redoubtable  adversary. 

The  links  which  have  been  thought  worthy,  by  reason  of  their 
geographical  positions  and  their  merits,  of  b^ng  the  scenes  on  which 
the  golf  championships  are  fought  out,  are,  as  we  have  already  said, 
three  in  Scotland — St  Andrews,  Prestwick  and  Muirfield — and  three 
in  England — Hoylake,  Sandwich  and  Deal.  This  brief  list  is  very 
far  from  being  complete  as  regards  links  of  first-class  quality  in  Great 
Britain.  Besides  those  named,  there  are  in  Scotland — Carnoustie, 
North  Berwick,  Cruden  Bay,  Nairn,  Aberdeen,  Dornoch,  Troon, 
Machrihanish,  South  Uist,  Islay,  Gullane,  Luffness  and  many  more. 
In  England  there  are — Westward  Ho,  Bembridge,  Littlestone,  Great 
Yarmouth,  Brancaster,  Seaton  Carew,  Formbv,  Lytham,  Harlech, 
Burnham,  among  the  seaside  ones;  while  of  the  inland,  some  of  them 
of  very  fine  quality,  we  cannot  even  attempt  a  selection,  so  large  is 
their  number  and  so  variously  estimated  their  comparative  merits. 
Ireland  has  Portrush,  Newcastle,  Portsalon,  Dollymount  and  many 
more  of  the  first  class;  and  there  are  excellent  courses  in  the  Isle  of 
Man.  In  America  many  fine  courses  have  been  constructed.  There 
is  not  a  British  colony  of  any  standing  that  is  without  its  golf  course — 
Australia,  India,  South  Africa,  all  have  their  golf  championships, 
which  are  keenly  contested.  Canada  has  had  courses  at  Quebec  and 
Montreal  for  many  years,  and  the  Calcutta  Golf  Club,  curiously 
enough,  is  the  oldest  established  (next  to  the  Blackheath  Club),  the 
next  oldest  being  the  club  at  Pau  in  the  Basses-Pyr<6n6es. 

The  Open  Championship  of  golf  was  started  in  1860  by  the 
Prestwick  Club  giving  a  belt  to  be  played  for  annually  under  the 
condition  that  it  should  become  the  property  of  any  who  could  win 
it  thrice  in  succession.  The  following  is  the  list  of  the  champions: — 

1860.  W.  Park,  Musselburgh     . 

1861.  Tom  Morris,  sen.,  Prestwick 

1862.  Tom  Morris,  sen.,  Prestwick 

1863.  W.  Park,  Musselburgh     .      . 

1864.  Tom  Morris,  sen.,  Prestwick 

1865.  A.  Strath,  St  Andrews     . 

1866.  W.  Park,  Musselburgh     .      . 

1867.  Tom  Morris,  sen.,  St  Andrews 


1868.  Tom  Morris,  jun.,  St  Andrews 

1869.  Tom  Morris,  jun.,  St  Andrews 

1870.  Tom  Morris,  jun.,  St  Andrews 


174— at  Prestwick. 
163 — at  Prestwick. 
163 — at  Prestwick. 
1 68 — at  Prestwick. 
160 — at  Prestwick. 
162 — at  Prestwick. 
169 — at  Prestwick. 
170 — at  Prestwick. 
154 — at  Prestwick. 
157 — at  Prestwick. 
149 — at  Prestwick. 


Tom  Morris,  junior,  thus  won  the  belt  finally,  according  to  the 
conditions.  In  1871  there  was  no  competition;  but  by  1872  the 
three  clubs  of  St  Andrews,  Prestwick  and  Musselburgh  had  sub- 
scribed for  a  cup  which  should  be  played  for  over  the  course  of  each 
subscribing  club  successively,  but  should  never  become  the  property 
of  the  winner.  In  later  years  the  course  at  Muirfield  was  substituted 
for  that  at  Musselburgh,  and  Hoylake  and  Sandwich  were  admitted 
into  the  list  of  championship  courses.  Up  to  1891,  inclusive,  the 
play  of  two  rounds,  or  thirty-six  holes,  determined  the  championship, 
but  from  1892  the  result  has  been  determined  by  the  play  of  72  holes 


222 


GOLF 


After  the  interregnum  of  1871,  the  following  were  the  champions: — 


1872. 

1873- 
1874. 

i87S- 
1876. 
1877. 
1878. 
1879. 
1880. 
1881. 
1882. 
1883. 
1884. 
1885. 
1886. 
1887. 
1888. 
1889. 
1890. 
1891. 
1892. 

1893- 
1894. 
1895. 
1896. 
1897. 
1898. 
1899. 
1900. 
1901. 
1902. 
1903. 
1904. 

1905- 
1906. 
1907. 
1908. 
1909. 
1910. 


Tom  Morris,  jun.,  St  Andrews 
Tom  Kidd,  St  Andrews      .      . 
Mungo  Park,  Musselburgh 
Willie  Park,  Musselburgh 
Bob  Martin,  St  Andrews 
Jamie  Anderson,  St  Andrews 
Jamie  Anderson,  St  Andrews 
Jamie  Anderson,  St  Andrews 
Bob  Fergusson,  Musselburgh 
Bob  Fergusson,  Musselburgh 
Bob  Fergusson,  Musselburgh 
W.  Fernie,  Dumfries 
Jack  Simpson,  Carnoustie 
Bob  Martin,  St  Andrews 
D.  Brown,  Musselburgh     . 
Willie  Park,  iun.,  Musselburgh 
Jack  Burns,  Warwick 
Willie  Park,  jun.,  Musselburgh 
Mr  John  Ball,  jun.,  Hoylake 
Hugh  Kirkaldy,  St  Andrews 
Mr  H.  H.  Hilton,  Hoylake      . 
W.  Auchterlonie,  St  Andrews 
J.  H.  Taylor,  Winchester 
T.  H.  Taylor,  Winchester 
H.  Vardon,  Scarborough 
Mr  H.  H.  Hilton,  Hoylake      . 
H.  Vardon,  Scarborough 
H.  Vardon,  Scarborough 

}.  H.  Taylor,  Richmond 
.  Braid,  Romford 
A.  Herd,  Huddersfield        .      . 
H.  Vardon,  Ganton 
J.  White,  Sunningdale 
J.  Braid,  Walton  Heath     .      . 
J.  Braid,  Walton  Heath     .      . 
Arnaud  Massey,  La  Boulie 
Braid,  Walton  Heath 
Taylor,  Richmond    . 
Walton  Heath     .      . 


/\rnaua  iv 
J.  Braid, 
J.  H.  Tay 
J.  Braid, 


166 — at  Prestwick. 
179 — at  St  Andrews. 
159 — at  Musselburgh. 
1 66 — at  Prestwick. 
176 — at  St  Andrews. 
1 60 — at  Musselburgh. 
157 — at  Prestwick. 
170 — at  St  Andrews. 
162 — at  Musselburgh. 
170 — at  Prestwick. 
171 — at  St  Andrews. 
159 — at  Musselburgh. 
1 60 — at  Prestwick. 
171 — at  St  Andrews. 
157 — at  Musselburgh. 
161 — at  Prestwick. 
171 — at  St  Andrews. 
155 — at  Musselburgh. 
164 — -at  Prestwick. 
1 66 — at  St  Andrews. 
305 — at  Muirfield. 
322 — at  Prestwick. 
326 — at  Sandwich. 
322 — at  St  Andrews. 
316 — at  Muirfield. 
314 — at  Hoylake. 
307 — at  Prestwick. 
310 — at  Sandwich. 
309 — at  St  Andrews. 
309 — at  Muirfield. 
307 — at  Hoylake. 
300 — at  Prestwick. 
296 — at  Sandwich. 
318 — at  St  Andrews. 
300 — at  Muirfield. 
312 — at  Hoylake. 
291 — at  Prestwick. 
295 — at  Deal. 
298 — at  St  Andrews. 


The  Amateur  Championship  is  of  far  more  recent  institution. 


1886.  Mr  Horace  Hutchinson 

1887.  Mr  Horace  Hutchinson 

1888.  Mr  John  Ball         .... 

1889.  Mr  J.  E.  Laidlay        .      .      . 

1890.  Mr  John  Ball         .... 

1891.  Mr  J.  E.  Laidlay        .      .      . 

1892.  Mr  John  Ball         .... 

1893.  Mr  P.  Anderson     .... 

1894.  Mr  John  Ball 

1895.  Mr  L.  Balfour-Melville    . 

1896.  Mr  F.  G.  Tait       .... 

1897.  Mr  J.  T.  Allan      .... 

1898.  Mr  John  Ball         .... 

1899.  Mr  F.  G.  Tail       .... 

1900.  Mr  H.  H.  Hilton 

1901.  Mr  H.  H.  Hilton 

1902.  Mr  C.  Hutchings 

1903.  Mr  R.  Maxwell     .... 

1904.  Mr  W.  T.  Travis 

1905.  Mr  A.  G.  Barry 

1906.  Mr  J.  Robb 

1907.  Mr  John  Ball         .... 

1908.  Mr  E.  A.  Lassen 

1909.  Mr  Robert  Maxwell 

1910.  Mr  John  Ball        .... 

The  Ladies'  Championship  was  started  in 

1893.  Lady  M.  Scott      .... 

1894.  Lady  M.  Scott      .... 

1895.  Lady  M.  Scott       .... 

1896.  Miss  A.  B.  Pascoe 

1897.  Miss  E.  C.  Orr      .      .      .      . 

1898.  Miss  L.  Thompson 

1899.  Miss  M.  Hezlet     .... 

1900.  Miss  R.  K.  Adair 

1901.  Miss  M.  A.  Graham 

1902.  Miss  M.  Hezlet     .... 

1903.  Miss  R.  K.  Adair 

1904.  Miss  L.  Dod 

1905.  Miss  B.  Thompson     . 

1906.  Mrs  Kennion         .... 

1907.  Miss  M.  Hezlet     .... 

1908.  Miss  M.  Titterton 

1909.  Miss  D.  Campbell 

1910.  Miss  Grant  Suttie 


at  St  Andrews, 
at  Hoylake. 
at  Prestwick. 
at  St  Andrews, 
at  Hoylake. 
at  St  Andrews, 
at  Sandwich, 
at  Prestwick. 
at  Hoylake. 
at  St  Andrews, 
at  Sandwich, 
at  Muirfield. 
at  Prestwick. 
at  Hoylake. 
at  Sandwich, 
at  St  Andrews, 
at  Hoylake. 
at  Muirfield. 
at  Sandwich, 
at  St  Andrews, 
at  Hoylake. 
at  St  Andrews, 
at  Sandwich, 
at  Muirfield. 
at  Hoylake. 

1893- 

at  St  Annes. 
at  Littlestone. 
at  Portrush. 
at  Hoylake. 
at  Gullane. 
at  Yarmouth, 
at  Newcastle, 
at  Westward  Ho. 
at  Aberdovy. 
at  Deal, 
at  Portrush. 
at  Troon. 
at  Cromer. 
at  Burnham. 
at  Newcastle(Co.Down) 
at  St  Andrews, 
at  Birkdale. 
at  Westward  Ho. 


There  have  been  some' slight  changes  of  detail  and  arrangement 
as  time  has  gone  on,  in  the  rules  of  the  game  (the  latest  edition 


of  the  Rules  should  be  consulted).  A  new  class  of  golfer  has 
arisen,  requiring  a  code  of  rules  framed  rather  more  exactly 
than  the  older  code.  The  Scottish  golfer,  who  was  "  teethed  " 
on  a  golf  club,  as  Mr  Andrew  Lang  has  described  it,  imbibed  all 
the  traditions  of  the  game  with  his  natural  sustenance.  Very 
few  rules  sufficed  for  him.  But  when  the  Englishman,  and  still 
more  the  American  (less  in  touch  with  the  traditions),  began  to 
play  golf  as  a  new  game,  then  they  began  to  ask  for  a  code  of 
rules  that  should  be  lucid  and  illuminating  on  every  point — 
an  ideal  perhaps  impossible  to  realize.  It  was  found,  at  least, 
that  the  code  put  forward  by  the  Royal  and  Ancient  Club  of 
St  Andrews  did  not  realize  it  adequately.  Nevertheless  the  new 
golfers  were  very  loyal  indeed  to  the  club  that  had  ever  of  old 
held,  by  tacit  consent,  the  position  of  fount  of  golfing  legislation. 
The  Royal  and  Ancient  Club  was  appealed  to  by  English  golfers 
to  step  into  the  place,  analogous  to  that  of  the  Marylebone 
Cricket  Club  in  cricket,  that  they  were  both  willing  and  anxious 
to  give  it.  It  was  a  place  that  the  Club  at  St  Andrews  did  not 
in  the  least  wish  to  occupy,  but  the  honour  was  thrust  so  insist- 
ently upon  it, 'that  there  was  no  declining.  The  latest  effort  to 
meet  the  demands  for  some  more  satisfactory  legislation  on  the 
thousand  and  one  points  that  continually  must  arise  for  decision 
in  course  of  playing  a  game  of  such  variety  as  golf,  consists  of 
the  appointment  of  a  standing  committee,  called  the  "  Rules 
of  Golf  Committee."  Its  members  all  belong  to  the  Royal  and 
Ancient  Club;  but  since  this  club  draws  its  membership  from 
all  parts  of  the  United  Kingdom,  this  restriction  is  quite  con- 
sistent with  a  very  general  representation  of  the  views  of  north, 
south,  east  and  west — from  Westward  Ho  and  Sandwich  to 
Dornoch,  and  all  the  many  first-rate  links  of  Ireland — on  the 
committee.  Ireland  has,  indeed,  some  of  the  best  links  in  the 
kingdom,  and  yields  to  neither  Scotland  nor  England  in  en- 
thusiasm for  the  game.  This  committee,  after  a  general  revision 
of  the  rules  into  the  form  in  which  they  now  stand,  consider 
every  month,  either  by  meeting  or  by  correspondence,  the 
questions  that  are  sent  up  to  it  by  clubs  or  by  individuals;  and 
the  committee's  answers  to  these  questions  have  the  force  of  law 
until  they  have  come  before  the  next  general  meeting  of  the 
Royal  and  Ancient  Club  at  St  Andrews,  which  may  confirm  or 
may  reject  them  at  will.  The  ladies  of  Great  Britain  manage 
otherwise.  They  have  a  Golfing  Union  which  settles  questions 
for  them;  but  since  this  union  itself  accepts  as  binding  the 
answers  given  by  the  Rules  of  Golf  Committee,  they  really  arrive 
at  the  same  conclusions  by  a  slightly  different  path.  Nor  does  the 
American  Union,  governing  the  play  of  men  and  women  alike 
in  the  States,  really  act  differently.  The  Americans  naturally 
reserve  to  themselves  freedom  to  make  their  own  rules,  but  in 
practice  they  conform  to  the  legislation  of  Scotland,  with  the 
exception  of  a  more  drastic  definition  of  the  status  of  the  amateur 
player,  and  certain  differences  as  to  the  clubs  used. 

A  considerable  modification  has  been  effected  in  theimplements 
of  the  game.  The  tendency  of  the  modern  wooden  clubs  is  to 
be  short  in  the  head  as  compared  with  the  clubs  of,  say,  1880  or 
1885.  The  advantage  claimed  (probably  with  justice)  for  this 
shape  is  that  it  masses  the  weight  behind  the  point  on  which 
the  ball  is  struck.  Better  material  in  the  wood  of  the  club  is  a 
consequence  of  the  increased  demand  for  these  articles  and  the 
increased  competition  among  their  makers.  Whereas  under 
the  old  conditions  a  few  workers  at  the  few  greens  then  in 
existence  were  enough  to  supply  the  golfing  wants,  now  there 
is  a  very  large  industry  in  golf  club  and  ball  making,  which  not 
only  employs  workers  in  the  local  club-makers'  shops  all  the 
kingdom  over,  but  is  an  important  branch  of  the  commerce  of 
the  stores  and  of  the  big  athletic  outfitters,  both  in  Great  Britain 
and  in  the  United  States.  By  far  the  largest  modification  in 
the  game  since  the  change  to  gutta-percha  balls  from  balls 
of  leather-covering  stuffed  with  feathers,  is  due  to  the  American 
invention  of  the  india-rubber  cased  balls.  Practically  it  is  as  an 
American  invention  that  it  is  still  regarded,  although  the  British 
law  courts  decided,  after  a  lengthy  trial  (1905),  that  there  had 
been  "  prior  users  "  of  the  principle  of  the  balls'  manufacture, 
and  therefore  that  the  patent  of  Mr  Haskell,  by  whose  name  the 


GOLF 


223 


balls  of  the  kind  were  called,  was  not  good.     It  is  singular 

to  remark  that  in  the  first  introduction  of  the  gutta-percha 
balls,  superseding  the  leather  and  feather  compositions,  they  also 
were  called  by  the  name  of  their  first  maker,  "  Gourlay."  The 
general  mode  of  manufacture  of  the  rubber-cored  ball,  which  is 
now  everywhere  in  use,  is  interiorly,  a  hard  core  of  gutta-percha 
or  some  other  such  substance;  round  this  is  wound,  by 
machinery,  india-rubber  thread  or  strips  at  a  high  tension,  and 
over  all  is  an  outer  coat  of  gutta-percha.  Some  makers  have 
tried  to  dispense  with  the  kernel  of  hard  substance,  or  to  sub- 
stitute for.it  kernels  of  some  fluid  or  gelatinous  substance,  but 
in  general  the  above  is  a  sufficient,  though  rough,  description  of 
the  mode  of  making  all  these  balls.  Their  superiority  over  the 
solid  gutta-percha  lies  in  their  superior  resiliency.  The  effect 
is  that  they  go  much  more  lightly  off  the  club.  It  is  not  so  much 
in  the  tee-shots  that  this  superiority  is  observed,  as  in  the 
second  shots,  when  the  ball  is  lying  badly;  balls  of  the  rubber- 
cored  kind,  with  their  greater  liveliness,  are  more  easy  to  raise 
in  the  air  from  a  lie  of  this  kind.  They  also  go  remarkably  well 
off  the  iron  clubs,  and  thus  make  the  game  easier  by  placing  the 
player  within  an  iron  shot  of  the  hole  at  a  distance  at  which  he 
would  have  to  use  a  wooden  club  if  he  were  playing  with  a  solid 
gutta-percha  ball.  They  also  tend  to  make  the  game  more  easy  by 
the  fact  that  if  they  are  at  all  mis-hit  they  go  much  better  than 
a  gutta-percha  ball  similarly  inaccurately  struck.  As  a  slight  set- 
off  against  these  qualities,  the  ball.because  of  the  greater  liveliness, 
is  not  quite  so  good  for  the  short  game  as  the  solid  ball;  but  on 
the  whole  its  advantages  distinctly  overbalance  its  disadvantages. 

When  these  balls  were  first  put  on  the  market  they  were  sold 
at  two  shillings  each  and  even,  when  the  supply  was  quite 
unequal  to  the  demand,  at  a  greater  deal  higher  price,  rising  to  as 
much  as  a  guinea  a  ball.  But  the  normal  price,  until  about  a 
year  after  the  decision  in  the  British  courts  of  law  affirming  that 
there  was  no  patent  in  the  balls,  was  always  two  shillings  for  the 
best  quality  of  ball.  Subsequently  there  was  a  reduction  down 
to  one  shilling  for  the  balls  made  by  many  of  the  manufacturing 
companies,  though  in  1910  the  rise  in  the  price  of  rubber  sent  up 
the  cost.  The  rubber-cored  ball  does  not  go  out  of  shape  so 
quickly  as  the  gutta-percha  solid  ball  and  does  not  show  other 
marks  of  ill-usage  with  the  club  so  obviously.  It  has  had  the 
effect  of  making  the  game  a  good  deal  easier  for  the  second-  and 
third-class  players,  favouring  especially  those  who  were  short 
drivers  with  the  old  gutta-percha  ball.  To  the  best  players  it  has 
made  the  least  difference,  nevertheless  those  who  were  best  with 
the  old  ball  are  also  best  with  the  new;  its  effect  has  merely 
been  to  bring  the  second,  third  and  fourth  best  closer  to  each 
other  and  to  the  best. 

Incidentally,  the  question  of  the  expense  of  the  game  has 
been  touched  on  in  this  notice  of  the  new  balls.  There  is  no 
doubt  that  the  balls  themselves  tend  to  a  greater  economy,  not 
only  because  of  their  own  superior  durability  but  also  because, 
as  a  consequence  of  their  greater  resiliency,  they  are  not  nearly 
so  hard  on  the  clubs,  and  the  clubs  themselves  being  perhaps 
made  of  better  material  than  used  to  be  given  to  their  manu- 
facture, the  total  effect  is  that  a  man's  necessary  annual  expendi- 
ture on  them  is  very  small  indeed  even  though  he  plays  pretty 
constantly.  Four  or  five  rounds  are  not  more  than  the  average 
of  golfers  will  make  an  india-rubber  cored  ball  last  them,  so  that 
the  outlay  on  the  weapons  is  very  moderate.  On  the  other 
hand  the  expenditure  of  the  clubs  on  their  courses  has  increased 
and  tends  to  increase.  Demands  are  more  insistent  than  they 
used  to  be  for  a  well  kept  course,  for  perfectly  mown  greens, 
renewed  teeing  grounds  and  so  on,  and  probably  the  modern 
golfer  is  a  good  deal  more  luxurious  in  his  clubhouse  wants  than 
his  father  used  to  be.  This  means  a  big  staff  of  servants  and 
workers  on  the  green,  and  to  meet  this  a  rather  heavy  subscription 
is  required.  Such  a  subscription  as  five  guineas  added  to  a  ten 
or  fifteen  guinea. entrance  fee  is  not  uncommon,  and  even  this  is 
very  moderate  compared  with  the  subscriptions  to  some  of  the 
clubs  in  the  United  States,  where  a  hundred  dollars  a  year,  or 
twenty  pounds  of  our  money,  is  not  unusual.  But  on  the  whole 
golf  is  a  very  economical  pastime,  as  compared  with  almost 


any  other  sport  or  pastime  which  engages  the  attention  of 
Britons,  and  it  is  a  pastime  for  all  the  year  round,  and  for  all 
the  life  of  a  man  or  woman. 

Glossary  of  Technical  Terms  used  in  the  Game. 

Addressing  the  Ball. — Putting  oneself  in  position  to  strike  the  ball. 

All  Square. — -Term  used  to  express  that  the  score  stands  level, 
neither  side  being  a  hole  up. 

Baff. — To  strike  the  ground  with  the  club  when  playing,  and  so 
loft  the  ball  unduly. 

Baffy. — A  short  wooden  club,  with  laid-back  face,  for  lofting  shots. 

Bogey. — The  number  of  strokes  which  a  good  average  player 
should  take  to  each  hole.  This  imaginary  player  is  usually  known 
as  "  Colonel  Bogey,"  and  plays  a  fine  game. 

Brassy. — A  wooden  club  with  a  brass  sole. 

Bulger. — A  driver  in  which  the  face  "  bulges  "  into  a  convex  shape. 
The  head  is  shorter  than  in  the  older-fashioned  driver. 

Bunker. — A  sand-pit. 

Bye. — The  holes  remaining  after  one  side  has  become  more  holes  up 
than  remain  for  play. 

Caddie. — The  person  who  carries  the  clubs.  Diminutive  of 
"  cad  ";  cf.  laddie  (from  Fr.  cadet). 

Cleek. — The  iron-headed  club  that  is  capable  of  the  farthest  drive 
of  any  of  the  clubs  with  iron  heads. 

Cup. — A  depression  in  the  ground  causing  the  ball  to  lie  badly. 

Dead. — A  ball  is  said  to  be  "  dead  "  when  so  near  the  hole  that 
the  putting  it  in  in  the  next  stroke  is  a  "  dead  "  certainty.  A  ball 
is  said  to  "  fall  dead  "  when  it  pitches  with  hardly  any  run. 

Divot. — A  piece  of  turf  cut  out  in  the  act  of  playing,  which,  be  it 
noted,  should  always  be  replaced  before  the  player  moves  on. 

Dormy. — One  side  is  said  to  be  "  dormy  "  when  it  is  as  many 
holes  to  the  good  as  remain  to  be  played — so  that  it  cannot  be 
beaten. 

Driver. — The  longest  driving  club,  used  when  the  ball  lies  very 
well  and  a  long  shot  is  needed. 

Foozle. — Any  very  badly  missed  or  bungled  stroke. 

"  Fore!  " — A  cry  of  warning  to  people  in  front. 

Foursome. — A  match  in  which  four  persons  engage,  two  on  each 
side  playing  alternately  with  the  same  ball. 

Green. — (a)  The  links  as  a  whole;  (b)  the  "  putting-greens  " 
around  the  holes. 

Grip. — (a)  The  part  of  the  club-shaft  which  is  held  in  the  hands 
while  playing;  (b)  the  grasp  itself — e.g.  "a  firm  grip,"  "a  loose 
grip,"  are  common  expressions. 

Half-Shot. — A  shot  played  with  something  less  than  a  full  swing. 

Halved. — A  hole  is  "  halved  "  when  both  sides  have  played  it  in 
the  same  number  of  strokes.  A  round  is  "  halved  "  when  each  side 
has  won  and  lost  the  same  number  of  holes. 

Handicap. — The  strokes  which  a  player  receives  either  in  match 
play  or  competition. 

Hanging. — Said  of  a  ball  that  lies  on  a  slope  inclining  downwards 
in  regard  to  the  direction  in  which  it  is  wished  to  drive. 

Hazard. — A  general  term  for  bunker,  whin,  long  grass,  roads  and 
all  kinds  of  bad  ground. 

Heel. — To  hit  the  ball  on  the  "  heel  "  of  the  club,  i.e.  the  part  of 
the  face  nearest  the  shaft,  and  so  send  the  ball  to  the  right,  with  the 
same  result  as  from  a  slice. 

Honour. — The  privilege  (which  its  holder  is  not  at  liberty  to 
decline)  of  striking  off  first  from  the  tee. 

Iron. — An  iron-headed  club  intermediate  between  the  cleek  and 
lofting  mashie.  There  are  driving  irons  and  lofting  irons  according 
to  the  purposes  for  which  they  are  intended. 

Lie. — (a)  The  angle  of  the  club-head  with  the  shaft  (e.g.  a  "  flat 
lie,"  "  an  upright  lie  ") ;  (b)  the  position  of  the  ball  on  the  ground 
(e.g.  "  a  good  lie;"  "  a  bad  lie  "). 

Like,  The. — The  stroke  which  makes  the  player's  score  equal  to 
his  opponent's  in  course  of  playing  a  hole. 

Like-as-we-Lie. — Said  when  both  sides  have  played  the  same 
number  of  strokes. 

Line. — The  direction  in  which  the  hole  towards  which  the  player 
is  progressing  lies  with  reference  to  the  present  position  of  his  ball. 

Mashie. — An  iron  club  with  a  short  head.  The  lofting  mashie  has 
the  blade  much  laid  back,  for  playing  a  short  lofting  shot.  The 
driving  mashie  has  the  blade  less  laid  back,  and  is  used  for  longer, 
less  lofted  shots. 

Match-Play. — Play  in  which  the  score  is  reckoned  by  holes  won 
and  lost. 

Medal-Play. — Play  in  which  the  score  is  reckoned  by  the  total 
of  strokes  taken  on  the  round. 

Niblick. — -A  short  stiff  club  with  a  short,  laid  back,  iron  head, 
used  for  getting  the  ball  out  of  a  very  bad  lie. 

Odd,  The. — A  stroke  more  than  the  opponent  has  played. 

Press. — To  strive  to  hit  harder  than  you  can  hit  with  accuracy. 

Pull. — To  hit  the  ball  with  a  pulling  movement  of  the  club,  so  as 
to  make  it  curve  to  the  left. 

Putt. — To  play  the  short  strokes  near  the  hole  (pronounced  as  in 
"  but  "). 

Putter. — The  club  used  for  playing  the  short  strokes  near  the  hole. 
Some  have  a  wooden  head,  some  an  iron  head. 


224 


GOLIAD— GOLIARD 


Rub-of-the-Green. — Any  chance  deflection  that  the  ball  receives  as 
it  goes  along. 

Run  Up. — To  send  the  ball  low  and  close  to  the  ground  in 
approaching  the  hole — opposite  to  lofting  it  up. 

Scratch  Player.— Player  who  receives  no  odds  in  handicap  com- 
petitions. 

Slice. — To  hit  the  ball  with  a  cut  across  it,  so  that  it  flies  curving 
to  the  right. 

Stance. — (a)  The  place  on  which  the  player  has  to  stand  when 
playing — e.g."  a  bad  stance,"  "  a  good  stance,"  are  common  ex- 
pressions ;  (6)  the  position  relative  to  each  other  of  the  player's  feet. 

Stymie. — When  one  ball  lies  in  a  straight  line  between  another  and 
the  hole  the  first  is  sa'id  to  "  stymie,"  or  "  to  be  a  stymie  to  "  the 
other — from  an  old  Scottish  word  given  by  Jamieson  to  mean  "  the 
faintest  form  of  anything."  The  idea  probably  was,  the  "stymie" 
only  left  you  the  "  faintest  form  "  of  the  hole  to  aim  at. 

Tee. — The  little  mound  of  sand  on  which  the  ball  is  generally 
placed  for  the  first  drive  to  each  hole. 

Teetng-Ground. — The  place  marked  as  the  limit,  outside  of  which 
it  is  not  permitted  to  drive  the  ball  off.  This  marked-out  ground  is 
also  sometimes  called  "  the  tee." 

Top. — To  hit  the  ball  above  the  centre,  so  that  it  does  not  rise 
much  from  the  ground. 

Up. — A  player  is  said  to  be  "  one  up,"  "  two  up,"  &c.,  when  he  is  so 
many  holes  to  the  good  of  his  opponent. 

Wrist-Shot. — A  shot  less  in  length  than  a  half-shot,  but  longer  than 
a  putt. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The  literature  of  the  game  has  grown  to  some 
considerable  bulk.  For  many  years  it  was  practically  comprised  in 
the  fine  work  by  Mr  Robert  Clark,  Golf:  A  Royal  and  Ancient  Game, 
together  with  two  handbooks  on  the  game  by  Mr  Chambers  and  by 
Mr  Forgan  respectively,  and  the  Golfiana  Miscellanea  of  Mr  Stewart. 
A  small  book  by  Mr  Horace  Hutchinspn,  named  Hints  on  Golf,  was 
very  shortly  followed  by  a  much  more  important  work  by  Sir  Walter 
Simpson,  Bart.,  called  The  Art  of  Golf,  a  title  which  sufficiently 
explains  itself.  The  Badminton  Library  book  on  Golf  attempted  to 
collect  into  one  volume  the  most  interesting  historical  facts  known 
about  the  game,  with  obiter  dicta  and  advice  to  learners,  and,  on 
similar  didactic  lines,  books  have  been  written  by  Mr  H.  C.  S. 
Everard,  Mr  Garden  Smith  and  W.  Park,  the  professional  player. 
Mr  H.  J.  Whigham,  sometime  amateur  champion  golfer  of  the 
United  States,  has  given  us  a  book  about  the  game  in  that  country. 
The  Book  of  Golf  and  Golfers,  compiled,  with  assistance,  by  Mr  Horace 
Hutchinson,  is  in  the  first  place  a  picture-gallery  of  famous  golfers 
in  their  respective  attitudes  of  play.  Taylor,  Vardon  and  Braid  have 
each  contributed  a  volume  of  instruction,  and  Mr  G.  W.  Beldam  has 
published  a  book  with  admirable  photographs  of  players  in  action, 
called  Great  Golfers:  their  Methods  at  a  Glance.  A  work  intended  for 
the  use  of  green  committees  is  among  the  volumes  of  the  Country  Life 
Library  of  Sport.  Much  interesting  lore  is  contained  in  the  Golfing 
A  nnual,  in  the  Golfer's  Year  Book  and  in  the  pages  of  Golf,  which 
has  now  become  Golf  Illustrated,  a  weekly  paper  devoted  to  the  game. 
Among  works  that  have  primarily  a  local  interest,  but  yet  contain 
much  of  historical  value  about  the  game,  may  be  cited  the  Golf  Book 
of  East  Lothian,  by  the  Rev.  John  Kerr,  and  the  Chronicle  of  Black- 
heath  Golfers,  by  Mr  W.  E.  Hughes.  (H.  G.  H.) 

GOLIAD,  an  unincorporated  village  and  the  county-seat  of 
Goliad  county,  Texas,  U.S.A.,  on  the  N.  bank  of  the  San  Antonio 
river,  85  m.  S.E.  of  San  Antonio.  Pop.  (1900)  about  1700.  It 
is  served  by  the  Galveston,  Harrisburg  &  San  Antonio  railway 
(Southern  Pacific  System).  Situated  in  the  midst  of  a  rich 
farming  and  stock-raising  country,  Goliad  has  flour  mills,  cotton 
gins  and  cotton-seed  oil  mills.  Here  are  the  interesting  ruins  of 
the  old  Spanish  mission  of  La  Bahia,  which  was  removed  to  this 
point  from  the  Guadaloupe  river  in  1747.  During  the  struggle 
between  Mexico  and  Spain  the  Mexican  leader  Bernardo  Gutierrez 
(1778-1814)  was  besieged  here.  The  name  Goliad,  probably  an 
anagram  of  the  name  of  the  Mexican  patriot  Hidalgo  (1753-181 1), 
was  first  used  about  1829.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  Texan  War 
of  Liberation  Goliad  was  garrisoned  by  a  small  force  of  Mexicans, 
who  surrendered  to  the  Texans  in  October  1835,  and  ontheaoth 
of  December  a  preliminary  "  declaration  of  independence " 
was  published  here,  antedating  by  several  months  the  official 
Declaration  issued  at  Old  Washington,  Texas,  on  the  2nd  of 
March  1836.  In  1836,  when  Santa  Anna  began  his  advance 
against  the  Texan  posts,  Goliad  was  occupied  by  a  force  of  about 
350  Americans  under  Colonel  James  W.  Fannin  (c.  1800-1836), 
who  was  overtaken  on  the  Coletto  Creek  while  attempting  to 
carry  out  orders  to  withdraw  from  Goliad  and  to  unite  with 
General  Houston;  he  surrendered  after  a  sharp  fight  (March 
19-20)  in  which  he  inflicted  a  heavy  loss  on  the  Mexicans,  and 
was  marched  back  with  his  force  to  Goliad,  where  on  the  morning 
of  the  27th  of  March  they  were  shot  down  by  Santa  Anna's 


orders.  Goliad  was  nearly  destroyed  by  a  tornado  on  the  igth 
of  May  1903. 

GOLIARD,  a  name  applied  to  those  wandering  students 
(vagantes)  and  clerks  in  England,  France  and  Germany,  during 
the  1 2th  and  I3th  centuries,  who  were  better  known  for  their 
rioting,  gambling  and  intemperance  than  for  their  scholarship. 
The  derivation  of  the  word  is  uncertain.  It  may  come  from 
the  Lat.  gula,  gluttony  (Wright),  but  was  connected  by  them 
with  a  mythical  "  Bishop  Golias,"  also  called  "  archipoeta  "  and 
"  primas  " — especially  in  Germany — in  whose  name  their  satirical 
poems  were  mostly  written.  Many  scholars  have  accepted 
Budinger's  suggestion  (fiber  einige  Reste  der  Vagantenpoesie  in 
Osterreich,  Vienna,  1854)  that  the  title  of  Golias  goes  back  to 
the  letter  of  St  Bernard  to  Innocent  II.,  in  which  he  referred 
to  Abelard  as  Goliath,  thus  connecting  the  goliards  with  the 
keen-witted  student  adherents  of  that  great  medieval  critic. 
Giesebrecht  and  others,  however,  support  the  derivation  of 
goliard  from  gaUliard,  a  gay  fellow,  leaving  "  Golias  "  as  the 
imaginary  "  patron  "of  their  fraternity. 

Spiegel  has  ingeniously  disentangled  something  of  a  biography 
of  an  archipoeta  who  flourished  mainly  in  Burgundy  and  at 
Salzburg  from  1160  to  beyond  the  middle  of  the  i3th  century; 
but  the  proof  of  the  reality  of  this  individual  is  not  convincing. 
It  is  doubtful,  too,  if  the  jocular  references  to  the  rules  of  the 
"  gild  "  of  goliards  should  be  taken  too  seriously,  though  their 
aping  of  the  "  orders  "  of  the  church,  especially  their  contrasting 
them  with  the  mendicants,  was  too  bold  for  church  synods. 
Their  satires  were  almost  uniformly  directed  against  the  church, 
attacking  even  the  pope.  In  1227  the  council  of  Treves  forbade 
priests  to  permit  the  goliards  to  take  part  in  chanting  the  service. 
In  1229  they  played  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  disturbances  at 
the  university  of  Paris,  in  connexion  with  the  intrigues  of  the 
papal  legate.  During  the  century  which  followed  they  formed 
a  subject  for  the  deliberations  of  several  church  councils,  notably 
in  1289  when  it  was  ordered  that  "  no  clerks  shall  be  jongleurs, 
goliards  or  buffoons,"  and  in  1300  (at  Cologne)  when  they  were 
forbidden  to  preach  or  engage  in  the  indulgence  traffic.  This 
legislation  was  only  effective  when  the  "  privileges  of  clergy  " 
were  withdrawn  from  the  goliards.  Those  historians  who  regard 
the  middle  ages  as  completely  dominated  by  ascetic  ideals,  regard 
the  goliard  movement  as  a  protest  against  the  spirit  of  the  time. 
But  it  is  rather  indicative  of  the  wide  diversity  in  temperament 
among  those  who  crowded  to  the  universities  in  the  I3th  century, 
and  who  found  in  the  privileges  of  the  clerk  some  advantage 
and  attraction  in  the  student  life.  The  goliard  poems  are  as 
truly  "  medieval  "  as  the  monastic  life  which  they  despised; 
they  merely  voice  another  section  of  humanity.  Yet  their 
criticism  was  most  keenly  pointed,  and  marks  a  distinct  step 
in  the  criticism  of  abuses  in  the  church. 

Along  with  these  satires  went  many  poems  in  praise  of  wine 
and  riotous  living.  A  remarkable  collection  of  them,  now  at 
Munich,  from  the  monastery  at  Benedictbeuren  in  Bavaria, 
was  published  by  Schmeller  (3rd  ed.,  1895)  under  the  title  Carmina 
Burana.  Many  of  these,  which  form  the  main  part  of  song-books 
of  German  students  to-day,  have  been  delicately  translated  by 
John  Addington  Symonds  in  a  small  volume,  Wine,  Women  and 
Song  (1884).  As  Symonds  has  said,  they  form  a  prelude  to  the 
Renaissance.  The  poems  of  "  Bishop  Golias "  were  later 
attributed  to  Walter  Mapes,  and  have  been  published  by  Thomas 
Wright  in  The  Latin  Poems  commonly  attributed  to  Walter  Mapes 
(London,  1841). 

The  word  "  goliard  "  itself  outlived  these  turbulent  bands 
which  had  given  it  birth,  and  passed  over  into  French  and 
English  literature  of  the  I4th  century  in  the  general  meaning  of 
jongleur  or  minstrel,  quite  apart  from  any  clerical  association. 
It  is  thus  used  in  Piers  Plowman,  where,  however,  the  goliard 
still  rhymes  in  Latin,- and  in  Chaucer. 

See,  besides  the  works  quoted  above,  M.  Haezner,  Goliardendich- 
tung  und  die  Satire  im  l^ten  Jahrhundert  in  England  (Leipzig,  1905) ; 
Spiegel,  Die  Vaganten  und  ihr  "  Orden  "  (Spires,  1892) ;  -Hubatsch, 
Die  lateinischen  Vagantenlieder  des  Mittelalters  (Gorlitz,  1870);  and 
the  article  in  La  grande  Encyclopedie.  All  of  these  have  biblio- 
graphical apparatus.  (J.  T.  S.  *) 


GOLIATH— GOLITSUIN,  V.  V. 


225 


GOLIATH,  the  name  of  the  giant  by  slaying  whom  David 
achieved  renown  (i  Sam.  xvii.).  The  Philistines  had  come  up  to 
make  war  against  Saul  and,  as  the  rival  camps  lay  opposite  each 
other,  this  warrior  came  forth  day  by  day  to  challenge  to  single 
combat.  Only  David  ventured  to  respond,  and  armed  with  a 
sling  and  pebbles  he  overcame  Goliath.  The  Philistines,  seeing 
their  champion  killed,  lost  heart  and  were  easily  put  to  flight. 
The  giant's  arms  were  placed  in  the  sanctuary,  and  it  was  his 
famous  sword  which  David  took  with  him  in  his  flight  from  Saul 
(i  Sam.  xxi.  1-9).  From  another  passage  we  learn  that  Goliath 
of  Gath,  "  the  shaft  of  whose  spear  was  like  a  weaver's  beam," 
was  slain  by  a  certain  Elhanan  of  Bethlehem  in  one  of  David's 
conflicts  with  the  Philistines  (2  Sam.  xxi.  18-22) — the  parallel 
i  Chron.  xx.  5,  avoids  the  contradiction  by  reading  the  "  brother 
of  Goliath."  But  this  old  popular  story  has  probably  preserved 
the  more  original  tradition,  and  if  Elhanan  is  the  son  of  Dodo 
in  the  list  of  David's  mighty  men  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  9,  24),  the 
resemblance  between  the  two  names  may  have  led  to  the  trans- 
ference. The  narratives  of  David's  early  life  point  to  some 
exploit  by  means  of  which  he  gained  the  favour  of  Saul,  Jonathan 

•  and  Israel,  but  the  absence  of  all  reference  to  his  achieve- 
ment in  the  subsequent  chapters  (i  Sam.  xxi.  n,  xxix.  5) 
is  evidence  of  the  relatively  late  origin  of  a  tradition  which 
in  course  of  time  became  one  of  the  best-known  incidents  in 
David's  life  (Ps.  cxliv.,  LXX.  title,  the  apocryphal  Ps.cli./Ecclus. 
xlvii.  4). 

See  DAVID;  SAMUEL  (BOOKS)  and  especially  Cheyne,  Aids  and 
Devout  Study  of  Criticism,  pp.  80  sqq.,  125  sqq.  In  the  old  Egyptian 
romance  of  Sinuhit  (ascribed  to  about  2000  B.C.),  the  story  of  the 
slaying  of  the  Bedouin  hero  has  several  points  of  resemblance  with  that 
of  David  and  Goliath.  See  L.  B.  Paton,  Hist,  of  Syr.  and  Pal.  p.  60 ; 
A.  Jeremias,  Das  A.T.  im  Lichte  d.  alien  Orients,  2nd  ed.  pp.  299,  491 ; 
A.  K.  S.  Kennedy,  Century  Bible:  Samuel,  p.  122,  argues  that  David's 
Philistine  adversary  was  originally  nameless,  in  i  Sam.  xvii.  he  is 
named  only  in  ».  4. 

GOLITSUIN,  BORIS  ALEKSYEEVICH  (1654-1714),  Russian 
statesman,  came  of  a  princely  family,  claiming  descent  from 
Prince  Gedimin  of  Lithuania.  Earlier  members  of  .the  family 
were  Mikhail  (d.  c.  1552),  a  famous  soldier,  and  his  great-grandson 
Vasily  Vasilevich  (d.  1 6 1 9) ,  who  was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Poland 
to  offer  the  Russian  crown  to  Prince  Ladislaus.  Boris  became 
court  chamberlain  in  1676.  He  was  the  young  tsar  Peter's  chief 
supporter  when,  in  1689,  Peter  resisted  the  usurpations  of  his 
elder  sister  Sophia,  and  the  head  of  the  loyal  council  which 
assembled  at  the  Troitsa  monastery  during  the  crisis  of  the  struggle. 
Golitsuin  it  was  who  suggested  taking  refuge  in  that  strong 
fortress  and  won  over  the  boyars  of  the  opposite  party.  In  1690 
he  was  created  a  boyar  and  shared  with  Lev  Naruishkin,  Peter's 

I  uncle,  the  conduct  of  home  affairs.  After  the  death  of  the 
tsaritsa  Natalia,  Peter's  mother,  in  1694,  his  influence  increased 
still  further.  He  accompanied  Peter  to  the  White  Sea  (1694- 
1695);  took  part  in  the  Azov  campaign  (1695);  and  was  one  of 
the  triumvirate  who  ruled  Russia  during  Peter's  first  foreign 
tour  (1697-1698).  The  Astrakhan  rebellion  (1706),  which  affected 
all  the  districts  under  his  government,  shook  Peter's  confidence 
in  him,  and  seriously  impaired  his  position.  In  1707  he  was 
superseded  in  the  Volgan  provinces  by  Andrei  Matvyeev.  A 

I  year  before  his  death  he  entered  a  monastery.  Golitsuin  was  a 
typical  representative  of  Russian  society  of  the  end  of  the  i;th 
century  in  its  transition  from  barbarism  to  civilization.  In 
many  respects  he  was  far  in  advance  of  his.  age.  He  was  highly 
educated,  spoke  Latin  with  graceful  fluency,  frequented  the  society 
of  scholars  and  had  his  children  carefully  educated  according 
to  the  best  European  models.  Yet  this  eminent,  this  superior 
personage  was  an  habitual  drunkard,  an  uncouth  savage  who 
intruded  upon  the  hospitality  of  wealthy  foreigners,  and  was  not 
ashamed  to  seize  upon  any  dish  he  took  a  fancy  to,  and  send  it 
home  to  his  wife.  It  was  his  reckless  drunkenness  which 
ultimately  ruined  him  in  the  estimation  of  Peter  the  Great, 
despite  his  previous  inestimable  services. 

See  S.  Solovev,  History  of  Russia  (Rus.),  vol.  xiv.  (Moscow,  1858) ; 
R.  N.  Bain,  The  First  Romanovs  (London,  1905).  (R.  N.  B.) 

GOLITSUIN,  DMITRY  MIKHAILOVICH  (1665-1737), 
Russian  statesman,  was  sent  in  1697  to  Italy  to  learn  "  military 

xn.8 


affairs  ";  in  1704  he  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  an 
auxiliary  corps. in  Poland  against  Charles  XII.;  from  1711  to 
1 7 1 8  he  was  governor  of  Byelogorod.  In  1 7 18  he  was  appointed 
president  of  the  newly  erected  Kammer  Kollegium  and  a  senator. 
In  May  1723  he  was  implicated  in  the  disgrace  of  the  vice- 
chancellor  Shafirov  and  was  deprived  of  all  his  offices  and 
dignities,  which  he  only  recovered  through  the  mediation  of  the 
empress  Catherine  I.  After  the  death  of  Peter  the  Great, 
Golitsuin  became  the  recognized  head  of  the  old  Conservative 
party  which  had  never  forgiven  Peter  for  putting  away  Eudoxia 
and  marrying  the  plebeian  Martha  Skavronskaya.  But  the 
reformers,  as  represented  by  Alexander  Menshikov  and  Peter 
Tolstoi,  prevailed;  and  Golitsuin  remained  in  the  background 
till  the  fall  of  Menshikov,  1727.  Duringthe  last  years  of  Peter II. 
(1728-1730),  Golitsuin  was  the  most  prominent  statesman  in 
Russia  and  his  high  aristocratic  theories  had  full  play.  On  the 
death  of  Peter  II.  he  conceived  the  idea  of  limiting  the  autocracy 
by  subordinating  it  to  the  authority  of  the  supreme  privy  council, 
of  which  he  was  president.  He  drew  up  a  form  of  constitution 
which  Anne  of  Courland,  the  newly  elected  Russian  empress, 
was  forced  to  sign  at  Mittau  before  being  permitted  to  proceed  to 
St  Petersburg.  Anne  lost  no  time  in  repudiating  this  constitution, 
and  never  forgave  its  authors.  Golitsuin  was  left  in  peace,  how- 
ever, and  lived  for  the  most  part  in  retirement,  till  1736,  when  he 
was  arrested  on  suspicion  of  being  concerned  in  the  conspiracy 
of  his  son-in-law  Prince  Constantine  Cantimir.  This,  however, 
was  a  mere  pretext,  it  was  for  his  anti-monarchical  sentiments 
that  he  was  really  prosecuted.  A  court,  largely  composed  of 
his  antagonists,  condemned  him  to  death,  but  the  empress 
reduced  the  sentence  to  lifelong  imprisonment  in  Schliisselburg 
and  confiscation  of  all  his  estates.  He  died  in  his  prison  on  the 
I4th  of  April  1737,  after  three  months  of  confinement. 

See  R.  N.  Bain,  The  Pupils  of  Peter  the  Great  (London,  1897) 

(R.  N.  B.) 

GOLITSUIN,  VASILY  VASILEVICH  (1643-1714),  Russian 
statesman,  spent  his  early  days  at  the  court  of  Tsar  Alexius 
where  he  gradually  rose  to  the  rank  of  boyar.  In  1676  he  was 
sent  to  the  Ukraine  to  keep  in  order  the  Crimean  Tatars  and 
took  part  in  the  Chigirin  campaign.  Personal  experience  of  the 
inconveniences  and  dangers  of  the  prevailing  system  of  prefer- 
ment, the  so-called  myestnichestvo,  or  rank  priority,  which  had 
paralysed  the  Russian  armies  for  centuries,  induced  him  to  pro- 
pose its  abolition,  which  was  accomplished  by  Tsar  Theodore  III. 
(1678).  The  May  revolution  of  1682  placed  Golitsuin  at  the 
head  of  the  Posolsky  Prikaz,  or  ministry  of  foreign  affairs,  and 
during  the  regency  of  Sophia,  sister  of  Peter  the  Great,  whose 
lover  he  became,  he  was  the  principal  minister  of  state  (1682- 
1689)  and  "  keeper  of  the  great  seal,"  a  title  bestowed  upon 
only  two  Russians  before  him,  Athonasy  Orduin-Nashchokin 
and  Artamon  Matvyeev.  In  home  affairs  his  influence  was 
insignificant,  but  his  foreign  policy  was  distinguished  by  the 
peace  with  Poland  in  1683,  whereby  Russia  at  last  recovered 
Kiev.  By  the  terms  of  the  same  treaty,  he  acceded  to  the 
grand  league  against  the  Porte,  but  his  two  expeditions  against 
the  Crimea  (1687  and  1689),  "  the  First  Crimean  War,"  were 
unsuccessful  and  made  him  extremely  unpopular.  Only  with  the 
utmost  difficulty  could  Sophia  get  the  young  tsar  Peter  to 
decorate  the  defeated  commander-in-chief  as  if  he  had  returned 
a  victor.  In  the^civil  war  between  Sophia  and  Peter  (August- 
September  1689),  Golitsuin  half-heartedly  supported  his  mistress 
and  shared  her  ruin.  His  life  was  spared  owing  to  the  supplica- 
tions of  his  cousin  Boris,  but  he  was  deprived  of  his  boyardom, 
his  estates  were  confiscated  and  he  was  banished  successively  to 
Kargopol,  Mezen  and  Kologora,  where  he  died  on  the  2ist  of 
April  1 7 14.  Golitsuin  was  unusually  well  educated.  He  under- 
stood German  and  Greek  as  well  as  his  mother-tongue,  and  could 
express  himself  fluently  in  Latin.  He  was  a  great  friend  of 
foreigners,  who  generally  alluded  to  him  as  "  the  great  Golitsuin." 

His  brother  MIKHAIL  (1674-1730)  was  a  celebrated  soldier,  who 
is  best  known  for  his  governorship  of  Finland  (1714-1721),  where 
his  admirable  qualities  earned  the  remembrance  of  the  people 
whom  he  had  conquered.  And  Mikhail's  son  Alexander  (1718- 


226 


GOLIUS— GOLTZ,  B. 


1783)  was  a  diplomat  and  soldier,  who  rose  to  be  field-marshal 
and  governor  of  St  Petersburg. 

See  R.  N.  Bain,  The  First  Romanovs  (London,  1905);  A. 
Bruckner,  Fiirst  Golizin  (Leipzig,  1887);  S.  Solovev,  History  of 
Russia  (Rus.),  vols.  xiii.-xiv.  (Moscow,  1858,  &c.).  (R.  N.  B.) 

GOLIUS  or  (GoHL),  JACOBUS  (1596-1667),  Dutch  Orientalist, 
was  born  at  the  Hague  in  1596  ,  and  studied  at  the  university  of 
Leiden,  where  in  Arabic  and  other  Eastern  languages  he  was  the 
most  distinguished  pupil  of  Erpenius.  In  1622  he  accompanied 
the  Dutch  embassy  to  Morocco,  and  on  his  return  he  was  chosen 
to  succeed  Erpenius  (1624).  In  the  following  year  he  set  out  on  a 
Syrian  and  Arabian  tour  from  which  he  did  not  return  until  1629. 
The  remainder  of  his  life  was  spent  at  Leiden  where  he  held  the 
chair  of  mathematics  as  well  as  that  of  Arabic.  He  died  on  the 
a8th  of  September  1667. 

His  most  important  work  is  the  Lexicon  Arabico-Latinum,  fol., 
Leiden,  1653,  which,  based  on  the  Sihah  of  Al-Jauhari,  was  only 
superseded  by  the  corresponding  work  of  Freytag.  Among  his  earlier 
publications  may  be  mentioned  editions  of  various  Arabic  texts 
(Proverbia  quaedam  Alis,  imperatoris  Muslemici,  et  Carmen  Tograi- 
poetae  doctissimi,  necnpn  dissertatio  quaedam  Aben  Synae,  1629;  and 
Ahmedis  Arabsiadae  vitae  et  rerum  gestarum  Timuri,  qui  vulgo  Tamer, 
lanes  dicitur,  historia,  1636).  In  1656  he  published  a  new  edition, 
with  considerable  additions,  of  the  Grammatica  Arabica  of  Erpenius. 
After  his  death,  there  was  found  among  his  papers  a  Dictionarium 
Persico-Latinum  which  was  published,  with  additions,  by  Edmund 
Castell  in  his  Lexicon  heptaglolton  (1669).  Golius  also  edited,  trans- 
lated and  annotated  the  astronomical  treatise  of  Alfragan  (Muham- 
medis,  filii  Ketiri  Ferganensis,  qui  vulgo  Alfraganus  dicitur,  elementa 
astronomica  Arabice  et  Latine,  1669). 

GOLLNOW,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  Prussian  province  of 
Pomerania,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Ihna,  14  m.  N.N.E.  of  Stettin, 
with  which  it  has  communication  by  rail  and  steamer.  Pop. 
(1905)  8539.  It  possesses  two  Evangelical  churches,  a  synagogue 
and  some  small  manufactures.  Gollnow  was  founded  in  1190, 
and  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  town  in  1 268.  It  was  for  a  time 
a  Hanse  town,  and  came  into  the  possession  of  Prussia  in  1720, 
having  belonged  to  Sweden  since  1648. 

GOLOSH,  or  GALOSH  (from  the  Fr.  galoche,  Low  Lat.  calopedcs, 
a  wooden  shoe  or  clog;  an  adaptation  of  the  Gr.  /caXorroStoi', 
a  diminutive  formed  of  KaXov,  wood,  and  TroOs,  foot),  originally 
a  wooden  shoe  or  patten,  or  merely  a  wooden  sole  fastened  to 
the  foot  by  a  strap  or  cord.  In  the  middle  ages  "  galosh  "  was  a 
general  term  for  a  boot  or  shoe,  particularly  one  with  a  wooden 
sole.  In  modern  usage,  it  is  an  outer  shoe  worn  in  bad  weather 
to  protect  the  inner  one,  and  keep  the  feet  dry.  Goloshes  are 
now  almost  universally  made  of  rubber,  and  in  the  United  States 
they  are  known  as  "  rubbers  "  simply,  the  word  golosh  being 
rarely  if  ever  used.  In  the  bootmakers'  trade,  a  "  golosh " 
is  the  piece  of  leather,  of  a  make  stronger  than,  or  different  from 
that  of  the  "  uppers, "  which  runs  around  the  bottom  part  of  a 
boot  or  shoe,  just  above  the  sole. 

GOLOVIN,  FEDOR  ALEKSYEEVICH,  COUNT  (d.  1706), 
Russian  statesman,  learnt,  like  so  many  of  his  countrymen  in 
later  times,  the  business  of  a  ruler  in  the  Far  East.  During  the 
regency  of  Sophia,  sister  of  Peter  the  Great,  he  was  sent  to  the 
Amur  to  defend  the  new  Muscovite  fortress  of  Albazin  against 
the  Chinese.  In  1689  he  concluded  with  the  Celestial  empire  the 
treaty  of  Nerchinsk,  by  which  the  line  of  the  Amur,  as  far  as  its 
tributary  the  Gorbitsa,  was  retroceded  to  China  because  of  the 
impossibility  of  seriously  defending  it.  In  Peter's  grand  embassy 
to  the  West  in  1697  Golovin  occupied  the  second  place 
immediately  after  Lefort.  It  was  his  chief  duty  to  hire  foreign 
sailors  and  obtain  everything  necessary  for  the  construction  and 
complete  equipment  of  a  fleet.  On  Lefort's  death,  in  March  1699, 
he  succeeded  him  as  admiral-general.  The  same  year  he  was 
created  the  first  Russian  count,  and  was  also  the  first  to  be 
decorated  with  the  newly-instituted  Russian  order  of  St  Andrew. 
The  conduct  of  foreign  affairs  was  at  the  same  time  entrusted 
to  him,  and  from  1699  to  his  death  he  was  "the  premier  minister 
of  the  tsar."  Golovin's  first  achievement  as  foreign  minister  was 
to  supplement  the  treaty  of  Carlowitz,  by  which  peace  with 
Turkey  had  only  been  secured  for  three  years,  by  concluding  with 
the  Porte  a  new  treaty  at  Constantinople  (June  13,  1700),  by 
which  the  term  of  the  peace  was  extended  to  thirty  years  and, 


besides  other  concessions,  the  Azov  district  and  a  strip  of  territory 
extending  thence  to  Kuban  were  ceded  to  Russia.  He  also 
controlled,  with  consummate  ability,  the  operations  of  the 
brand-new  Russian  diplomatists  at  the  various  foreign  courts. 
His  superiority  over  all  his  Muscovite  contemporaries  was  due 
to  the  fact  that  he  was  already  a  statesman,  in  the  modern  sense, 
while  they  were  still  learning  the  elements  of  statesmanship. 
His  death  was  an  irreparable  loss  to  the  tsar,  who  wrote  upon  the 
despatch  announcing  it,  the  words  "  Peter  filled  with  grief." 

See  R.  N.  Bain,  The  First  Romanovs  (London,  1905).     (R.  N.  B.) 

GOLOVKIN,  GAVRIIL  IVANOVICH,  CODNT  (1660-1734), 
Russian  statesman,  was  attached  (1677),  while  still  a  lad,  to  the 
court  of  the  tsarevitch  Peter,  afterwards  Peter  the  Great,  with 
whose  mother  Natalia  he  was  connected,  and  vigilantly  guarded 
him  during  the  disquieting  period  of  the  regency  of  Sophia, 
sister  of  Peter  the  Great  (1682-1689).  He  accompanied  the 
young  tsar  abroad  on  his  first  foreign  tour,  and  worked  by  his 
side  in  the  dockyards  of  Saardam.  In  1 706  he  succeeded  Golovin 
in  the  direction  of  foreign  affairs,  and  was  created  the  first  Russian 
grand-chancellor  on  the  field  of  Poltava  (1709).  Golovkin  held 
this  office  for  twenty-five  years.  In  the  reign  of  Catherine  I. 
he  became  a  member  of  the  supreme  privy  council  which  had 
the  chief  conduct  of  affairs  during  this  and  the  succeeding  reigns. 
The  empress  also  entrusted  him  with  her  last  will  whereby  she 
appointed  the  young  Peter  II.  her  successor  and  Golovkin  one 
of  his  guardians.  On  the  death  of  Peter  II.  in  1730  he  declared 
openly  in  favour  of  Anne,  duchess  of  Courland,  in  opposition 
to  the  aristocratic  Dolgorukis  and  Golitsuins,  and  his  determined 
attitude  on  behalf  of  autocracy  was  the  chief  cause  of  the  failure 
of  the  proposed  constitution,  which  would  have  converted  Russia 
into  a  limited  monarchy.  Under  Anne  he  was  a  member  of  the 
first  cabinet  formed  in  Russia,  but  had  less  influence  in  affairs  than 
Ostermann  and  Miinnich.  In  1707  he  was  created  a  count  of 
the  Holy  Roman  empire,  and  in  1710  a  count  of  the  Russian 
empire.  He  was  one  of  the  wealthiest,  and  at  the  same  time 
one  of  the  .stingiest,  magnates  of  his  day.  His  ignorance  of  any 
language  but  his  own  made  his  intercourse  with  foreign  ministers 
very  inconvenient. 

See  R.  N.  Bain,  Tlie  Pupils  of  Peter  the  Great  (London,  1897). 

(R.  N.  B.) 

GOLOVNIN,  VASILY  MIKHAILOVICH  (1776-1831),  Russian 
vice-admiral,  was  born  on  the  2oth  of  April  1776  in  the  village 
of  Gulynki  in  the  province  of  Ryazan,  and  received  his  education 
at  the  Cronstadt  naval  school.  From  1801  to  1806  he  served  as 
a  volunteer  in  the  English  navy.  In  1807  he  was  commissioned 
by  the  Russian  government  to  survey  the  coasts  of  Kamchatka 
and  of  Russian  America,  including  also  the  Kurile  Islands. 
Golovnin  sailed  round  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  on  the  5th  of 
October  1809,  arrived  in  Kamchatka.  In  1810,  whilst  attempting 
to  survey  the  coast  of  the  island  of  Kunashiri,  he  was  seized  by 
the  Japanese,  and  was  retained  by  them  as  a  prisoner,  until  the 
i3th  of  October  1813,  when  he  was  liberated,  and  in  the  following 
year  he  returned  to  St  Petersburg.  Soon  after  this  the  govern- 
ment planned  another  expedition,  which  had  for  its  object  the 
circumnavigation  of  the  globe  by  a  Russian  ship,  and  Golovnin 
was  appointed  to  the  command.  He  started  from  St  Petersburg 
on  the  7th  of  September  1817,  sailed  round  Cape  Horn,  and 
arrived  in  Kamchatka  in  the  following  May.  He  returned  to 
Europe  by  way  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  landed  at  St 
Petersburg  on  the  I7th  of  September  1819.  He  died  on  the  I2th 
of  July  1831. 

Golovnin  published  several  works,  of  which  the  following  are  the 
most  important: — Journey  to  Kamchatka  (2  vols.,  1819);  Journey 
Round  the  World  (2  vols.,  1822);  and  Narrative  of  my  Captivity  in 
Japan,  1811-1813  (2  vols.,  1816).  The  last  has  been  translated  into 
French,  German  and  English,  the  English  edition  being  in  three 
volumes  (1824).  A  complete  edition  of  his  works  was  published  at 
St  Petersburg  in  five  volumes  in  1864,  with  maps  and  charts,  and  a 
biography  of  the  author  by  N.  Grech. 

GOLTZ,  BOGUMIL  (1801-1870),  German  humorist  and 
satirist,  was  born  at  Warsaw  on  the  2oth  of  March  1801.  After 
attending  the  classical  schools  of  Marienwerder  and  Konigsberg, 
he  learnt  farming  on  an  estate  near  Thorn,  and  in  1821  entered 
the  university  of  Breslau  as  a  student  of  philosophy.  But  he 


GOLTZ,  C.— GOLUCHOWSKI 


227 


soon  abandoned  an  academical  career,  and,  after  returning  for 
a.  while  to  country  life,  retired  to  the  small  town  of  Gollub 
where  he  devoted  himself  to  literary  studies.     In  1847  he  settlec 
at  Thorn,  "  the  home  of  Copernicus,"  where  he  died  on  the  i2th 

•  of  November  1870.  Goltz  is  best  known  to  literary  fame  by  his 
Buck  der  Kindheit  (Frankfort,  1847;  4th  ed.,  Berlin,  1877),  in 
which,  after  the  style  of  Jean  Paul,  and  Adalbert  Stifter,  but 
with  a  more  modern  realism,  he  gives  a  charming  and  idyllic 
description  of  the  impressions  of  his  own  childhood.  Among  hi: 
other  works  must  be  noted  Ein  Jugendleben  (1852);  Der  Mensch 
und  die  Leule  (1858);  Zur  Charakterislik  und  Nalurgeschichte 
der  Frauen  (1859) ;  Zur  Geschichte  und  Charakteristik  des  deutschen 
Genius  (1864),  and  Die  Weltklugheit  und  die  Lebensweisheit 
(1869). 

Goltz's  works  have  not  been  collected,  but  a  selection  will  be  found 
in  Reclam's  Universalbibliothek  (ed.  by  P.  Stein,  1901  and  1906). 
See  O.  Roquette,  Siebzig  Jahre,  i.  (1894). 

GOLTZ,  COLMAR,  FREIHERR  VON  DER  (1843-  ), 
Prussian  soldier  and  military  writer,  was  born  at  Bielkenfeld, 
East  Prussia,  on  the  I2th  of  August  1843,  and  entered  the 
Prussian  infantry  in  1861.  In  1864  he  entered  the  Berlin 
Military  Academy,  but  was  temporarily  withdrawn  in  1866  to 
serve  in  the  Austrian  war,  in  which  he  was  wounded  at  Trautenau. 
In  1867  he  joined  the  topographical  section  of  the  general  staff, 
and  at  the  beginning  of  the  Franco-German  War  of  1870-71 
was  attached  to  the  staff  of  Prince  Frederick  Charles.  He  took 
part  in  the  battles  of  Vionville  and  Gravelotte  and  in  the  siege 
of  Metz.  After  its  fall  he  served  under  the  Red  Prince  in  the 
campaign  of  the  Loire,  including  the  battles  of  Orleans  and  Le 
Mans.  He  was  appointed  in  187 1  professor  at  the  military  school 
at  Potsdam,  and  the  same  year  was  promoted  captain  and  placed 
in  the  historical  section  of  the  general  staff.  It  was  then  he 
wrote  Die  Operationen  der  II.  Armee  bis  zur  Capitulation  von 
Metz  and  Die  Sieben  Tage  von  Le  Mans,  both  published  in  1873. 
In  1874  he  was  appointed  to  the  staff  of  the  6th  division,  and 
while  so  employed  wrote  Die  Operationen  der  II.  Armee  an  der 
Loire  and  Leon  Gambetta  und  seine  Armeen,  published  in  1875 
and  1877  respectively.  The  latter  was  translated  into  French 
the  same  year,  and  both  are  impartially  written.  The  views 
expressed  in  the  latter  work  led  to  his  being  sent  back  to  regi- 
mental duty  for  a  time,  but  it  was  not  long  before  he  returned 
to  the  military  history  section.  In  1878  von  der  Goltz  was 
appointed  lecturer  in  military  history  at  the  military  academy 
at  Berlin,  where  he  remained  for  five  years  and  attained  the  rank 
of  major.  He  published,  in  1883,  Rossbach  und  Jena,  (new  and 
revised  edition,  Von  Rossbach  bis  Jena  und  Auerstddt,  1906), 
Das  Volk  in  Wa/en  (English  translation  The  Nation  in  Arms), 
both  of  which  quickly  became  military  classics,  and  during  his 
residence  in  Berlin  contributed  many  articles  to  the  military 
journals.  In  June  1883  his  services  were  lent  to  Turkey  to 
reorganize  the  military  establishments  of  the  country.  He  spent 
twelve  years  in  this  work,  the  result  of  which  appeared  in  the 
Greco-Turkish  War  of  1897,  and  he  was  made  a  pasha  and  in 

1895  a  mushir  or  field-marshal.     On  his  return  to  Germany  in 

1896  he  became  a  lieutenant-general  and  commander  of  the  5th 
division,  and  in  1898,  head  of  the  Engineer  and  Pioneer  Corps 
and  inspector-general  of  fortifications.     In  1900  he  was  made 
general  of  infantry  and  in  1902  commander  of  the  I.  army  corps. 
In    1907  he  was  made  inspector-general  of  the  newly  created 
sixth  army  inspection  established  at  Berlin,  and  in  1908  was 
given  the  rank  of  colonel-general  (Generalobersf). 

In  addition  to  the  works  already  named  and  frequent  contribu- 
tions to  military  periodical  literature,  he  wrote  Kriegfuhrung  (1895, 
later  edition  Krieg-  und  Heerfuhrung,  1901 ;  Eng.  trans.  The  Conduct 
of  War);  Der  thessalische  Krieg  (Berlin,  1898);  Ein  Ausflng  nach 
Macedonien  (1894);  Anatolische  Ausfluge  (1896);  a  map  and  de- 
scription of  the  environs  of  Constantinople;  Von  Jena  bis  Pr.  Eylau 
U907),  a  most  important  historical  work,  carrying  on  the  story  of 
Rossbach  und  Jena  to  the  peace  of  Tilsit,  &c. 

GOLTZIUS,  HENDRIK  (1558-1617),  Dutch  painter  and 
engraver,  was  born  in  1558  at  Mulebrecht,  in  the  duchy  of 
Jiilich.  After  studying  painting  on  glass  for  some  years  under 
his  father,  he  was  taught  the  use  of  the  burin  by  Dirk  Volkertsz 
Coornlert,  a  Dutch  engraver  of  mediocre  attainment,  whom  he 


soon  surpassed,  but  who  retained  his  services  for  his  own 
advantage.  He  was  also  employed  by  Philip  Galle  to  engrave  a 
set  of  prints  of  the  history  of  Lucretia.  At  the  age  of  twenty-one 
he  married  a  widow  somewhat  advanced  in  years,  whose  money 
enabled  him  to  establish  at  Haarlem  an  independent  business; 
but  his  unpleasant  relations  with  her  so  affected  his  health  that 
he  found  it  advisable  in  1590  to  make  a  tour  through  Germany 
to  Italy,  where  he  acquired  an  intense  admiration  for  the  works 
of  Michelangelo,  which  led  him  to  surpass  that  master  in  the 
grotesqueness  and  extravagance  of  his  designs.  He  returned 
to  Haarlem  considerably  improved  in  health,  and  laboured  there 
at  his  art  till  his  death,  on  the  ist  of  January  1617.  Goltzius 
ought  not  to  be  judged  chiefly  by  the  works  he  valued  most, 
his  eccentric  imitations  of  Michelangelo.  His  portraits,  though 
mostly  miniatures,  are  master-pieces  of  their  kind,  both  on 
account  of  their  exquisite  finish,  and  as  fine  studies  of  individual 
character.  Of  his  larger  heads,  the  life-size  portrait  of  himself 
is  probably  the  most  striking  example.  His  "  master-pieces," 
so  called  from  their  being  attempts  to  imitate  the  style  of  the 
old  masters,  have  perhaps  been  overpraised.  In  his  command 
of  the  burin  Goltzius  is  not  surpassed  even  by  Diirer;  but  his 
technical  skill  is  often  unequally  aided  by  higher  artistic  qualities. 
Even,  however,  his  eccentricities  and  extravagances  are  greatly 
counterbalanced  by  the  beauty  and  freedom  of  his  execution. 
He  began  painting  at  the  age  of  forty-two,  but  none  of  his 
works  in  this  branch  of  art — some  of  which  are  in  the  imperial 
collection  at  Vienna — display  any  special  excellences.  He 
also  executed  a  few  pieces  in  chiaroscuro. 

His  prints  amount  to  more  than  300  plates,  and  are  fully  described 
in  Bartsch's  Peintre-graveur,  and  Weigel's  supplement  to  the  same 
work. 

GOLUCHOWSKI,  AGENOR,  COUNT  (1840-  ),  Austrian 
statesman,  was  born  on  the  25th  of  March  1849.  His  father, 
descended  from  an  old  and  noble  Polish  family,  was  governor 
of  Galicia.  Entering  the  diplomatic  service,  the  son  was  in 
1872  appointed  attache  to  the  Austrian  embassy  at  Berlin, 
where  he  became  secretary  of  legation,  and  thence  he  was 
transferred  to  Paris.  After  rising  to  the  rank  of  counsellor  of 
legation,  h'e  was  in  1887  made  minister  at  Bucharest,  where  he 
remained  till  1893.  In  these  positions  he  acquired  a  great 
reputation  as  a  firm  and  skilful  diplomatist,  and  on  the  retirement 
of  Count  Kalnoky  in  May  1895  was  chosen  to  succeed  him  as 
Austro-Hungarian  minister  for  foreign  affairs.  The  appointment 
of  a  Pole  caused  some  surprise  in  view  of  the  importance  of 
Austrian  relations  with  Russia(then  rather  strained)and  Germany, 
but  the  choice  was  justified  by  events.  In  his  speech  of  that 
year  to  the  delegations  he  declared  the  maintenance  of  the  Triple 
Alliance,  and  in  particular  the  closest  intimacy  with  Germany, 
to  be  the  keystone  of  Austrian  policy;  at  the  same  time  he 
dwelt  on  the  traditional  friendship  between  Austria  and  Great 
Britain,  and  expressed  his  desire  for  a  good  understanding  with 
all  the  powers.  In  pursuance  of  this  policy  he  effected  an  under- 
standing with  Russia,  by  which  neither  power  was  to  exert  any 
separate  influence  in  the  Balkan  peninsula,  and  thus  removed 
a  long-standing  cause  of  friction.  This  understanding  was 
formally  ratified  during  a  visit  to  St  Petersburg  on  which  he 
accompanied  the  emperor  in  April  1897.  He  took  the  lead  in 
establishing  the  European  concert  during  the  Armenian  troubles 
of  1896,  and  again  resisted  isolated  action  on  the  part  of  any  of 
the  great  powers  during  the  Cretan  troubles  and  the  Greco- 
Turkish  War.  In  November  1897,  when  the  Austro-Hungarian 
lag  was  insulted  at  Mersina,  he  threatened  to  bombard  the 
town  if  instant  reparation  were  not  made,  and  by  his  firm 
attitude  greatly  enhanced  Austrian  prestige  in  the  East.  In  his 
speech  to  the  delegations  in  1898  he  dwelt  on  the  necessity  of 
expanding  Austria's  mercantile  marine,  and  of  raising  the  fleet 
to  a  strength  which,  while  not  vying  with  the  fleets  of  the  great 
laval  powers,  would  ensure  respect  for  the  Austrian  flag  wherever 
ler  interests  needed  protection.  He  also  hinted  at  the  necessity 
or  European  combination  to  resist  American  competition. 
The  understanding  with  Russia  in  the  matter  of  the  Balkan 
States  temporarily  endangered  friendly  relations  with  Italy, 


228 


GOMAL— GOMER 


who  thought  her  interests  threatened,  until  Goluchowski 
guaranteed  in  1898  the  existing  order.  He  further  encouraged 
a  good  understanding  with  Italy  by  personal  conferences  with 
the  Italian  foreign  minister,  Tittoni,  in  1904  and  1905.  Count 
Lamsdorff  visited  Vienna  in  December  1902,  when  arrangements 
were  made  for  concerted  action  in  imposing  on  the  sultan  reforms 
in  the  government  of  Macedonia.  Further  steps  were  taken  after 
Goluchowski's  interview  with  the  tsar  at  Miirzsteg  in  1903,  and 
two  civil  agents  representing  the  countries  were  appointed  for 
two  years  to  ensure  the  execution  of  the  promised  reforms.  This 
period  was  extended  in  1905,  when  Goluchowski  was  the  chief 
mover  in  forcing  the  Porte,  by  an  international  naval  demonstra- 
tion at  Mitylene,  to  accept  financial  control  by  the  powers  in 
Macedonia.  At  the  conference  assembled  at  Algeciras  to  settle 
the  Morocco  Question,  Austria  supported  the  German  position, 
and  after  the  close  of  the  conferences  the  emperor  William  II. 
telegraphed  to  Goluchowski:  "  You  have  proved  yourself  a 
brilliant  second  on  the  duelling  ground  and  you  may  feel  certain 
of  like  services  from  me  in  similar  circumstances."  This  pledge 
was  redeemed  in  1908,  when  Germany's  support  of  Austria  in 
the  Balkan  crisis  proved  conclusive.  By  the  Hungarians, 
however,  Goluchowski  was  hated;  he  was  suspected  of  having 
inspired  the  emperor's  opposition  to  the  use  of  Magyar  in  the 
Hungarian  army,  and  was  made  responsible  for  the  slight 
offered  to  the  Magyar  deputation  by  Francis  Joseph  in  September 
1905.  So  long  as  he  remained  in  office  there  was  no  hope  of 
arriving  at  a  settlement  of  a  matter  which  threatened  the  dis- 
ruption of  the  Dual  monarchy,  and  on  the  nth  of  October  1906 
he  was  forced  to  resign.  •  '  ' 

GOMAL,  or  GUMAL,  the  name  of  a  river  of  Afghanistan,  and  of 
a  mountain  pass  on  the  Dera  Ismail  Khan  border  of  the  North- 
West  Frontier  Province  of  British  India.  The  Gomal  river,  one 
of  the  most  important  rivers  in  Afghanistan,  rises  in  the  un- 
explored regions  to  the  south-east  of  Ghazni.  Its  chief  tributary 
is  the  Zhob.  Within  the  limits  of  British  territory  the  Gomal 
forms  the  boundary  between  the  North- West  Frontier  Province 
and  Baluchistan,  and  more  or  less  between  the  Pathan  and 
Baluch  races.  The  Gomal  pass  is  the  most  important  pass  on 
the  Indian  frontier  between  the  Khyber  and  the  Bolan.  It 
connects  Dera  Ismail  Khan  with  the  Gomal  valley  in  Afghanistan, 
and  has  formed  for  centuries  the  outlet  for  the  povindah  trade. 
Until  the  year  1889  this  pass  was  almost  unknown  to  the  Anglo- 
Indian  official;  but  in  that  year  the  government  of  India 
decided  that,  in  order  to  maintain  the  safety  of  the  railway 
as  well  as  to  perfect  communication  between  Quetta  and  the 
Punjab,  the  Zhob  valley  should,  like  the  Bori  valley,  be  brought 
under  British  protection  and  control,  and  the  Gomal  pass  should 
be  opened.  After  the  Waziristan  expedition  of  1894  Wana  was 
occupied  by  British  troops  in  order  to  dominate  the  Gomal  and 
Waziristan;  but  on  the  formation  of  the  North- West  Frontier 
Province  in  1901  it  was  decided  to  replace  these  troops  by  the 
South  Waziristan  militia,  who  now  secure  the  safety  of  the 
pass. 

GOHARUS,  FRANZ  (1563-1641),  Dutch  theologian,  was  born 
at  Bruges  on  the  3Oth  of  January  1563.  His  parents,  having 
embraced  the  principles  of  the  Reformation,  emigrated  to  the 
Palatinate  in  1578,  in  order  to  enjoy  freedom  to  profess  their 
new  faith,  and  they  sent  their  son  to  be  educated  at  Strassburg 
under  Johann  Sturm  (1507-1589).  He  remained  there  three 
years,  and  then  went  in  1580  to  Neustadt,  whither  the  professors 
of  Heidelberg  had  been  driven  by  the  elector-palatine  because 
they  were  not  Lutherans.  Here  his  teachers  in  theology  were 
Zacharius  Ursinus  (1534-1583),  Hieronymus  Zanchius  (1560- 
1590),  and  Daniel  Tossanus  (1541-1602).  Crossing  to  England 
towards  the  end  of  1582,  he  attended  the  lectures  of  John  Rainolds 
(1540-1607)  at  Oxford,  and  those  of  William  Whitaker  (1548- 
1595)  at  Cambridge.  He  graduated  at  Cambridge  in  1584,  and 
then  went  to  Heidelberg,  where  the  faculty  had  been  by  this  time 
re-established.  He  was  pastor  of  a  Reformed  Dutch  church  in 
Frankfort  from  1587  till  1593,  when  the  congregation  was 
dispersed  by  persecution.  In  1594  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  theology  at  Leiden,  and  before  going  thither  received  from 


the  university  of  Heidelberg  the  degree  of  doctor.  He  taught 
quietly  at  Leiden  till  1603,  when  Jakobus  Arminius  came  to  be 
one  of  his  colleagues  in  the  theological  faculty,  and  began  to 
teach  Pelagian  doctrines  and  to  create  a  new  party  in  the  uni- 
versity. Gomarus  immediately  set  himself  earnestly  to  oppose 
these  views  in  his  classes  at  college,  and  was  supported  by 
Johann  B.  Bogermann  (1570-1637),  who  afterwards  became 
professor  of  theology  at  Franeker.  Arminius  "  sought  to  make 
election  dependent  upon  faith,  whilst  they  sought  to  enforce 
absolute  predestination  as  the  rule  of  faith,  according  to  which 
the  whole  Scriptures  are  to  be  interpreted  "  (J.  A.  Dorner, 
History  of  Protestant  Theology,  i.  p.  417).  Gomarus  then  became 
the  leader  of  the  opponents  of  Arminius,  who  from  that  circum- 
stance came  to  be  known  as  Gomarists.  He  engaged  twice  in 
personal  disputation  with  Arminius  in  the  assembly  of  the 
estates  of  Holland  in  1608,  and  was  one  of  five  Gomarists  who 
met  five  Arminians  or  Remonstrants  in  the  same  assembly  of 
1609.  On  the  death  of  Arminius  shortly  after  this  time,  Konrad 
Vorstius  (1560-1622),  who  sympathized  with  his  views,  was 
appointed  to  succeed  him,  in  spite  of  the  keen  opposition  of 
Gomarus  and  his  friends;  and  Gomarus  took  his  defeat  so  ill 
that  he  resigned  his  post,  and  went  to  Middleburg  in  1611,  where 
he  became  preacher  at  the  Reformed  church,  and  taught  theology 
and  Hebrew  in  the  newly  founded  Illustre  Schule.  From  this 
place  he  was  called  in  1614  to  a  chair  of  theology  at  Saumur, 
where  he  remained  four  years,  and  then  accepted  a  call  as 
professor  of  theology  and  Hebrew  to  Groningen,  where  he  stayed . 
till  his  death  on  the  nth  of  January  1641.  He  took  a  leading 
part  in  the  synod  of  Dort,  assembled  in  1618  to  judge  of  the 
doctrines  of  Arminius.  He  was  a  man  of  ability,  enthusiasm 
and  learning,  a  considerable  Oriental  scholar,  and  also  a  keen 
controversialist.  He  took  part  in  revising  the  Dutch  translation 
of  the  Old  Testament  in  1633,  and  after  his  death  a  book  by  him, 
called  the  Lyra  Davidis,  was  published,  which  sought  to  explain 
the  principles  of  Hebrew  metre,  and  which  created  some  con- 
troversy at  the  time,  having  been  opposed  by  Louis  Cappel. 
His  works  were  collected  and  published  in  one  volume  folio, 
in  Amsterdam  in  1645.  He  was  succeeded  at  Groningen  in  1643 
by  his  pupil  Samuel  Maresius  (1599-1673). 

GOMBERVILLE,  MARIN  LE  ROY,  SIEUE  DU  PARC  EX  DE 
(1600-1674),  French  novelist  and  miscellaneous  writer,  was  born 
at  Paris  in  1600.  At  fourteen  years  of  age  he  wrote  a  volume 
of  verse,  at  twenty  a  Discours  sur  I'histoire  and  at  twenty-two 
a  pastoral,  La  Carithfe,  which  is  really  a  novel.  The  persons  in 
it,  though  still  disguised  as  shepherds  and  shepherdesses,  repre- 
sent real  persons  for  whose  identification  the  author  himself 
provides  a  key.  This  was  followed  by  a  more  ambitious  attempt, 
Polexandre  (5  vols.  1632-1637).  The  hero  wanders  through  the 
world  in  search  of  the  island  home  of  the  princess  Alcidiane. 
It  contains  much  history  and  geography;  the  travels  of  Polex- 
andre extending  to  such  unexpected  places  as  Benin,  the  Canary 
Islands,  Mexico  and  the  Antilles,  and  incidentally  we  learn  all  that 
was  then  known  of  Mexican  history.  CylMree  (4  vols.)  appeared 
in  1630-1642,  and  in  1651  the  Jeune  Alcidiane,  intended  to  undo 
any  harm  the  earlier  novels  may  have  done,  for  Gomberville 
became  a  Jansenist  and  spent  the  last  twenty-five  years  of  his 
life  in  pious  retirement.  He  was  one  of  the  earliest  and  most 
energetic  members  of  the  Academy.  He  died  in  Paris  on  the 
I4th  of  June  1674. 

GOMER,  the  biblical  name  of  a  race  appearing  in  the  table 
of  nations  (Gen.  x.  2),  as  the  "  eldest  son  "  of  Japheth  and  the 
"  father  "  of  Ashkenaz,  Riphath  and  Togarmah ;  and  in  Ezek. 
xxxviii.  6  as  a  companion  of  "  the  house  of  Togarmah  in  the 
uttermost  parts  of  the  north,"  and  an  ally  of  Gog;  both  Corner 
and  Togarmah  being  credited  with  "  hordes,"  J  E.V.,  i.e. 
"  bands  "  or  "  armies."  The  "  sons  "  of  Corner  are  probably 
tribes  of  north-east  Asia  Minor  and  Armenia,  and  Corner  is 
identified  with  the  Cimmerians.  These  are  referred  to  in  cunei- 
form inscriptions  under  the  Assyrian  name  gimmira  (gimirrai) 
as  raiding  Asia  Minor  from  the  north  and  north-east  of  the  Black 

1  •]»  Agaph,  a  word  peculiar  to  Ezekiel,  Clarendon  Press  Heb. 
Lex. 


GOMERA— GOMM 


229 


ea,  and  overrunning  Lydia  in  the  7th  century  B.  c.  (see 
ZIMMERII,  SCYTHIA,  LYDIA).  They  do  not  seem  to  have  made 
ny  permanent  settlements,  unless  some  such  are  indicated  by 
the  fact  that  the  Armenians  called  Cappadocia  Gamir.  It  is, 
however,  suggested  that  this  name  is  borrowed  from  the  Old 
Testament.1 

The  name  Corner  (Corner  bath  Diblaim)  was  also  borne  by  the 
unfaithful  wife  of  Hosea,  whom  he  pardoned  and  took  back  (Hosea 
i.  3).  Hosea  uses  these  incidents  as  symbolic  of  the  sin,  punishment 
and  redemption  of  Israel,  but  there  is  no  need  to  regard  Comer  as  a 
purely  imaginary  person.  (W.  H.  BE.) 

GOMERA,  an  island  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  forming  part  of 
the  Spanish  archipelago  of  the  Canary  Islands  (q.v.).  Pop. 
(1900)  15,358;  area  144  sq.  m.  Gomera  lies  20  m.  W.S.W.  of 
Teneriffe.  Its  greatest  length  is  about  23  m.  The  coast  is 
precipitous  and  the  interior  mountainous,  but  Gomera  has  the 
most  wood  and  is  the  best  watered  of  the  group.  The  inhabitants 
are  very  poor.  Dromedaries  are  bred  on  Gomera  in  large 
numbers.  San  Sebastian  (3187)  is  the  chief  town  and  a  port. 
It  was  visited  by  Columbus  on  his  first  voyage  of  discovery  in 
1492. 

GOMEZ,  DIOGO  (DIEGO)  (fl.  1440-1482),  Portuguese  seaman, 
explorer  and  writer.  We  first  trace  him  as  a  cavalleiro  of  the 
royal  household;  in  1440  he  was  appointed  receiver  of  the  royal 
customs— in  1466  judge — at  Cintra  (juiz  das  causas  e  feitorias 
contadas  de  Cintra);  on  the  5th  of  March  1482  he  was  confirmed 
in  the  last-named  office.  He  wrote,  especially  for  the  benefit 
of  Martin  Behaim,  a  Latin  chronicle  of  great  value,  dealing  with 
the  life  and  discoveries  of  Prince  Henry  the  Navigator,  and 
divided  into  three  parts:  (i)  De  prima  inventione  Guineae; 
(2)  De  instills  primo  inventis  in  mare  (sic)  Occidentis;  (3)  De 
inventione  insularum  de  Azores.  This  chronicle  contains  the 
only  contemporary  account  of  the  rediscovery  of  the  Azores 
by  the  Portuguese  in  Prince  Henry's  service,  and  is  also  note- 
worthy for  its  clear  ascription  to  the  prince  of  deliberate  scientific 
and  commercial  purpose  in  exploration.  For,  on  the  one  hand, 
the  infante  sent  out  his  caravels  to  search  for  new  lands  (ad 
quacrendas  terras)  from  his  wish  to  know  the  more  distant  parts 
of  the  western  ocean,  and  in  the  hope  of  finding  islands  or  terra 
firma  beyond  the  limits  laid  down  by  Ptolemy  (ultra  descrip- 
tionem  Tolomei);  on  the  other  hand,  his  information  as  to  the 
native  trade  from  Tunis  to  Timbuktu  and  the  Gambia  helped 
to  inspire  his  persistent  exploration  of  the  West  African  coast — 
"  to  seek  those  lands  by  way  of  the  sea."  Chart  and  quadrant 
were  used  on  the  prince's  vessels,  as  by  Gomez  himself  on  reach- 
ing the  Cape  Verde  Islands;  Henry,  at  the  time  of  Diogo's  first 
voyage,  was  in  correspondence  with  an  Oran  merchant  who 
kept  him  informed  upon  events  even  in  the  Gambia  hinterland; 
and,  before  the  discovery  of  the  Senegal  and  Cape  Verde  in  1445, 
Gomez'  royal  patron  had  already  gained  reliable  information 
of  some  route  to  Timbuktu.  In  the  first  part  of  his  chronicle 
Gomez  tells  how,  no  long  time  after  the  disastrous  expedition 
of  the  Danish  nobleman  "  Vallarte  "  (Adalbert)  in  1448,  he  was 
sent  out  in  command  of  three  vessels  along  the  West  African 
coast,  accompanied  by  one  Jacob,  an  Indian  interpreter,  to  be 
employed  in  the  event  of  reaching  India.  After  passing  the  Rio 
Grande,  beyond  Cape  Verde,  strong  currents  checked  his  course; 
his  officers  and  men  feared  that  they  were  approaching  the 
extremity  of  the  ocean,  and  he  put  back  to  the  Gambia.  He 
ascended  this  river  a  considerable  distance,  to  the  negro  town  of 
"  Cantor,"  whither  natives  came  from  "  Kukia  "  and  Timbuktu 
for  trade;  he  gives  elaborate  descriptions  of  the  negro  world 
he  had  now  penetrated,  refers  to  the  Sierra  Leone  ("  Serra  Lyoa  ") 
Mountains,  sketches  the  course  of  this  range,  and  says  much  of 
Kukia  (in  the  upper  Niger  basin?),  the  centre  of  the  West  African 
gold  trade,  and  the  resort  of  merchants  and  caravans  from  Tunis, 
Fez,  Cairo  and  "  all  the  land  of  the  Saracens."  Mahommedan- 
ism  was  already  dominant  at  the  Cambria  estuary,  but  Gomez 
seems  to  have  won  over  at  least  one  important  chief,  with  his 
court,  to  Christianity  and  Portuguese  allegiance.  Another 
African  voyage,  apparently  made  in  1462,  two  years  after  Henry 
1  A.  Jeremias,  Das  A.T.  im  Lichte  des  alien  Orients,  pp.  145  f. 


the  Navigator's  death  (though  assigned  by  some  to  1 460) ,  resulted 
in  a  fresh  discovery  of  the  Cape  Verde  Islands,  already  found  by 
Cadamosto  (q.v.).  To  the  island  of  Santiago  Gomez,  like  his 
Venetian  forerunner,  claims  to  have  given  its  present  name. 
His  narrative  is  a  leading  authority  on  the  last  illness  and  death 
of  Prince  Henry,  as  well  as  on  the  life,  achievements  and  pur- 
poses of  the  latter;  here  alone  is  recorded  what  appears  to  have 
been  the  earliest  of  the  navigator's  exploring  ventures,  that 
which  under  Joao  de  Trasto  reached  Grand  Canary  in  1415. 

Of  Gomez'  chronicle  there  is  only  one  MS.,  viz.  Cod.  Hisp.  27,  in  the 
Hof-  und  Staats-Bibliothek,  Munich;  the  original  Latin  text  was 
printed  by  Schmeller  "  Cber  Valentim  Fernandez  Alemao  "  in  the 
Abhandlungen  der  philosoph.-philolog.  Kl.  der  bayerisch.  Akademie  der 
Wissenschaften,  vol.  iv.,  part  iii.  (Munich,  1847) ;  see alsoSophus Ruge, 
"  Die  Entdeckung  der  Azoren,"  pp.  149-180  (esp.  178-179)  in  the 
27th  Jahresbericht  des  Vereins  fur  Erdkunde  (Dresden,  1901);  Jules 
Mees,  Histoire  de  la  decouyerte  des  ties  A  gores,  pp.  44-45, 125- 1 27  (Ghent , 
1901);  R.  H.  Major,  Life  of  Prince  Henry  the  Navigator,  pp.  xviii., 
xix.,  64-65,  287-299,  303-305  (London,  1868);  C.  R.  Beazley,  Prince 
Henry  the  Navigator,  289-298,  304-305 ;  and  Introduction  to  Azurara's 
Discovery  and  Conquest  of  Guinea,  ii.,  iv.,  xiv.,  xxv.-xxvii.,  xcii.-xcvi. 
(London,  1899).  (C.  R.  B.) 

GOMEZ  DE  AVELLANEDA,  GERTRUDIS  (1814-1873), 
Spanish  dramatist  and  poet,  was  born  at  Puerto  Principe 
(Cuba)  on  the  23rd  of  March  1814,  and  removed  to  Spain  in  1836. 
Her  Poesias  Hricas  (1841),  issued  with  a  laudatory  preface  by 
Gallego,  made  a  most  favourable  impression  and  were  republisbed 
with  additional  poems  in  1850.  In  1846  she  married  a  diplo- 
matist named  Pedro  Sabater,  became  a  widow  within  a  year, 
and  in  1853  married  Colonel  Domingo  Verdugo.  Meanwhile 
she  had  published  Sab  (1839),  Guatimozin  (1846),  and  other 
novels  of  no  great  importance.  She  obtained,  however,  a  series 
of  successes  on  the  stage  with  Alfonso  Munio  (1844),  a  tragedy 
in  the  new  romantic  manner;  with  Satil  (1849),  a  biblical  drama 
indirectly  suggested  by  Alfieri;  and  with  Baltasar  (1858),  a 
piece  which  bears  some  resemblance  to  Byron's  Sardanapalus. 
Her  commerce  with  the  world  had  not  diminished  her  natural 
piety,  and,  on  the  death  of  her  second  husband,  she  found  so 
much  consolation  in  religion  that  she  had  thoughts  of  entering 
a  convent.  She  died  at  Madrid  on  the  2nd  of  February  1873, 
full  of  mournful  forebodings  as  to  the  future  of  her  adopted 
country.  It  is  impossible  to  agree  with  Villemain  that  "  le 
g6nie  de  don  Luis  de  Leon  et  de  sainte  Therese  a  reparu  sous  le 
voile  funebre  de  Gomez  de  Avellaneda,"  for  she  has  neither  the 
monk's  mastery  of  poetic  form  not  the  nun's  sublime  simplicity  of 
soul.  She  has  a  grandiose  tragical  vision  of  life,  a  vigorous 
eloquence  rooted  in  pietistic  pessimism,  a  dramatic  gift  effective 
in  isolated  acts  or  scenes;  but  she  is  deficient  in  constructive 
power  and  in  intellectual  force,  and  her  lyrics,  though  instinct 
with  melancholy  beauty,  or  the  tenderness  of  resigned  devotion, 
too  often  lack  human  passion  and  sympathy.  The  edition  of  her 
Obras  literarias  (5  vols.,  1869-1871),  still  incomplete,  shows  a 
scrupulous  care  for  minute  revision  uncommon  in  Spanish 
writers;  but  her  emendations  are  seldom  happy.  But  she  is 
interesting  as  a  link  between  the  classic  and  romantic  schools  of 
poetry,  and,  whatever  her  artistic  shortcomings,  she  has  no  rivals 
of  her  own  sex  in  Spain  during  the  igth  century. 

GOMM,  SIR  WILLIAM  MAYNARD  (1784-1875),  British 
soldier,  was  gazetted  to  the  9th  Foot  at  the  age  of  ten,  in  recog- 
nition of  the  services  of  his  father,  Lieut.-Colonel  William  Gomm, 
who  was  killed  in  the  attack  on  Guadaloupe  (1794).  He  joined 
his  regiment  as  a  lieutenant  in  1799,  and  fought  in  Holland  under 
the  duke  of  York,  and  subsequently  was  with  Pulteney's  Ferrol 
expedition.  In  1803  he  became  Captain,  and  shortly  afterwards 
qualified  as  a  staff  officer  at  the  High  Wycombe  military  college. 
On  the  general  staff  he  was  with  Cathcart  at  Copenhagen,  with 
Wellington  in  the  Peninsula,  and  on  Moore's  staff  at  Corunna. 
He  was  also  on  Chatham's  staff  in  the  disastrous  Walcheren 
expedition  of  1809.  In  1810  he  rejoined  the  Peninsular  army  as 
Leith's  staff  officer,  and  took  part  in  all  the  battles  of  1810, 
1811  and  1812,  winning  his  majority  after  Fuentes  d'Onor  and 
his  lieutenant-colonelcy  at  Salamanca.  His  careful  reconnais- 
sances and  skilful  leading  were  invaluable  to  Wellington  in  the 
Vittoria  campaign,  and  to  the  end  of  the  war  he  was  one  of  the 


230 


GOMPERS— GONCHAROV 


most  trusted  men  of  his  staff.  His  reward  was  a  transfer  to  the 
Coldstream  Guards  and  the  K.C.B.  In  the  Waterloo  campaign 
he  served  on  the  staff  of  the  5th  British  Division.  From  the 
peace  until  1839  he  was  employed  on  home  service,  becoming 
colonel  in  1829  and  major-general  in  1837.  From  1839  to  1842 
he  commanded  the  troops  in  Jamaica.  He  became  lieutenant- 
general  in  1846,  and  was  sent  out  to  be  commander-in-chief  in 
India,  arriving  only  to  find  that  his  appointment  had  been 
cancelled  in  favour  of  Sir  Charles  Napier,  whom,  however,  he 
eventually  succeeded  (1850-1855).  In  1854  he  became  general 
and  in  1868  field  marshal.  In  1872  he  was  appointed  constable 
of  the  Tower,  and  he  died  in  1875.  He  was  twice  married,  but 
had  no  children.  His  Letters  and  Journals  were  published  by 
F.  C.  Carr-Gomm  in  1881.  Five  "  Field  Marshal  Gomm  " 
scholarships  were  afterwards  founded  in  his  memory  at  Keble 
College,  Oxford. 

GOHPERS,  SAMUEL  (18503-  ),  American  labour  leader, 
was  born  in  London  on  the  27th  of  January  1850.  He  was 
put  to  work  in  a  shoe-factory  when  ten  years  old,  but  soon 
became  apprenticed  to  a  cigar-maker,  removed  to  New  York 
in  1863,  became  a  prominent  member  of  the  International 
Cigar-makers'  Union,  was  its  delegate  at  the  convention  of  the 
Federation  of  Organized  Trade  and  Labor  Unions  of  the  United 
States  and  Canada,  later  known  as  the  American  Federation  of 
Labor,  of  which  he  became  first  president  in  1882.  He  was 
successively  re-elected  up  to  1895,  when  the  opposition  of  the 
Socialist  Labor  Party,  then  attempting  to  incorporate  the 
Federation  into  itself,  secured  his  defeat;  he  was  re-elected 
in  the  following  year.  In  1894  he  became  editor  of  the  Federa- 
tion's organ,  The  American  Federationist. 

GOMPERZ,  THEODOR  (1832-  ),  German  philosopher  and 
classical  scholar,  was  born  at  Brtinn  on  the  2gth  of  March  1832. 
He  studied  at  Briinn  and  at  Vienna  under  Herman  Bonitz. 
Graduating  at  Vienna  in  1867  he  became  Privatdozent,  and 
subsequently  professor  of  classical  philology  (1873).  In  1882 
he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Science.  He 
received  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Philosophy  honoris  causa  from 
the  university  of  Konigsberg,  and  Doctor  of  Literature  from 
the  universities  of  Dublin  and  Cambridge,  and  became  corre- 
spondent for  several  learned  societies.  His  principal  works  are : 
Demosthenes  der  Staatsmann  (1864),  Philodemi  de  ira  liber  (1864), 
Traumdeulung  und  Zauberei  (1866),  Herkulanische  Studien 
(1865-1866),  Beilrage  zur  Kritik  und  Erklarung  griech.  Schrift- 
steller  (7  vols.,  1875-1900),  Neue  Bruchstucke  Epikurs  (1876), 
Die  Bruchstucke  der  griech.  Tragiker  und  Cobets  neuesle  krilische 
Manier  (1878),  Herodoteische  Studien  (1883),  Ein  bisher  unbe- 
kanntes  griech.  Schriftsystem  (1884),  Zu  Philodems  Biichern 
lion  der  Musik  (1885),  Uber  den  Abschluss  .des  herodoteischen 
Geschichtswerkes(i&86),  Platonische  Aufsalze (3  vols.,  1887-1905), 
Zu  Heraklits  Lehre  und  den  Uberresten  seines  Werkes  (1887), 
Zu  Aristoteles'  Poetik  (2  parts,  1888-1896),  Uber  die  Charaktere 
Theophrasts  (1888),  Nachlese  zu  den  Bruchstilcken  der  griech. 
Tragiker  (1888),  Die  Apologie  der  Heilkunsi  (1890),  Philodem 
und  die  asthetischen  Schriften  der  herculanischen  B ibl iothek  ( 1 89 1 ) , 
DieSchrift  iiomStaatswesenderAthener(i8gi),Diejiingst  entdeckten 
Uberreste  einer  den  Platonischen  Phddon  enthaltenden  Papyrus- 
rolle  (1892),  Aus  der  Hekale  des  Kallimachos  (1893),  Essays 
und  Erinnerungen  (1905).  He  supervised  a  translation  of  J.  S. 
Mill's  complete  works  (12  vols.,  Leipzig,  1869-1880),  and 
wrote  a  life  (Vienna,  1889)  of  Mill.  His  Griechische  Denker: 
Geschichte  der  anliken  Philosophic  (vols.  i.  and  ii.,  Leipzig,  1893 
and  1902)  was  translated  into  English  by  L.  Magnus  (vol.  i.,  1901). 

GONA6UAS  ("  borderers  "),  descendants  of  a  very  old  cross 
between  the  Hottentots  and  the  Kaffirs,  on  the  "  ethnical  divide  " 
between  the  two  races,  apparently  before  the  arrival  of  the 
whites  in  South  Africa.  They  have  been  always  a  despised  race 
and  regarded  as  outcasts  by  the  Bantu  peoples.  They  were 
threatened  with  extermination  during  the  Kaffir  wars,  but  were 
protected  by  the  British.  At  present  they  live  in  settled  com- 
munities under  civil  magistrates  without  any  tribal  organization, 
and  in  some  districts  could  be  scarcely  distinguished  from  the  other 
natives  but  for  their  broken  Hottentot-Dutch-English  speech. 


GONCALVES  DIAS,  ANTONIO  (1823-1864),  Brazilian  lyric 
poet,  was  born  near  the  town  of  Caxias,  in  Maranhao.  From  the 
university  of  Coimbra,  in  Portugal,  he  returned  in  1845  to  his 
native  province,  well-equipped  with  legal  lore,  but  the  literary 
tendency  which  was  strong  within  him  led  him  to  try  his  fortune 
as  an  author  at  Rio  de  Janeiro.  Here  he  wrote  for  the  newspaper 
press,  ventured  to  appear  as  a  dramatist,  and  in  1846  established 
his  reputation  by  a  volume  of  poems — Primeiros  Cantos — which 
appealed  to  the  national  feelings  of  his  Brazilian  readers,  were 
remarkable  for  their  autobiographic  impress,  and  by  their  beauty 
of  expression  and  rhythm  placed  their  author  at  the  head  of  the 
lyric  poets  of  his  country.  In  1848  he  followed  up  his  success  by 
Segundos  Cantos  e  sextilhas  de  Frei  Antdo,  in  which,  as  the  title 
indicates,  he  puts  a  number  of  the  pieces  in  the  mouth  of  a  simple 
old  Dominican  friar;  and  in  the  following  year,  in  fulfilment  of 
the  duties  of  his  new  post  as  professor  of  Brazilian  history  in  the 
Imperial  College  of  Pedro  II.  at  Rio  de  Janeiro,  he  published  an 
edition  of  Berredo's  Annaes  historicos  do  Maranhao  and  added  a 
sketch  of  the  migrations  of  the  Indian  tribes.  A  third  volume  of 
poems,  which  appeared  with  the  title  of  Ultimas  Cantos  in  1851, 
was  practically  the  poet's  farewell  to  the  service  of  the  muse,  for 
he  spent  the  next  eight  years  engaged  under  government  patronage 
in  studying  the  state  of  public  instruction  in  the  north  and  the 
educational  institutions  of  Europe.  On  his  return  to  Brazil  in 
1860  he  was  appointed  a  member  of  an  expedition  for  the  explora- 
tion of  the  province  of  Ceara,  was  forced  in  1862  by  the  state  of 
his  health  to  try  the  effects  of  another  visit  to  Europe,  and  died  in 
September  1864,  the  vessel  that  was  carrying  him  being  wrecked 
off  his  native  shores.  While  in  Germany  he  published  at  Leipzig 
a  complete  collection  of  his  lyrical  poems,  which  went  through 
several  editions,  the  four  first  cantos  of  an  epic  poem  called  Os 
Tymbiras  (1857)  and  a  Diccionario  da  lingua  Tupy  (1858). 

A  complete  edition  of  the  works  of  Dias  has  made  its  appearance 
at  Rio  de  Janeiro.  See  Wolf,  Bresil  litteraire  (Berlin,  1863);  Inno- 
cencio  de  Silva,  Diccionario  bibliographico  portuguez,  viii.  157; 
Sotero  dos  Reis,  Curso  de  litteratura  portugueza  e  brazUeira, 
\v.  (Maranhao,  1868) ;  Jos6  Verissimo,  Estudos  de  literatura 
brazileira,  segunda  serie  (Rio,  1901). 

GONCHAROV,  IVAN  ALEXANDROVICH  (1812-1891),  Rus- 
sian novelist,  was  born  6/18  July  1812,  being  the  son  of  a  rich 
merchant  in  the  town  of  Simbirsk.  At  the  age  of  ten  he  was 
placed  in  one  of  the  gymnasiums  at  Moscow,  from  which  he  passed, 
though  not  without  some  difficulty  on  account  of  his  ignorance 
of  Greek,  into  the  Moscow  University.  He  read  many  French 
works  of  fiction,  and  published  a  translation  of  one  of  the  novels 
of  Eugene  Sue.  During  his  university  career  he  devoted  himself 
to  study,  taking  no  interest  in  the  political  and  Socialistic  agitation 
among  his  fellow-students.  He  was  first  employed  as  secretary  to 
the  governor  of  Simbirsk,  and  afterwards  in  the  ministry  of 
finance  at  St  Petersburg.  Being  absorbed  in  bureaucratic  work, 
Goncharov  paid  no  attention  to  the  social  questions  then  ardently 
discussed  by  such  men  as  Herzen,  Aksakov  and  Bielinski.  He 
began  his  literary  career  by  publishing  translations  from  Schiller, 
Goethe  and  English  novelists.  His  first  original  work  was 
Obuiknovennayalstoria, "  A  Common  Story  "  (1847).  In  1856 he 
sailed  to  Japan  as  secretary  to  Admiral  Putiatin  for  the  purpose  of 
negotiating  a  commercial  treaty,  and  on  his  return  to  Russia  he 
published  a  description  of  the  voyage  under  the  title  of  "  The 
Frigate  Pallada."  His  best  work  is  Oblomov  (1857),  which  exposed 
the  laziness  and  apathy  of  the  smaller  landed  gentry  in  Russia 
anterior  to  the  reforms  of  Alexander  II.  Russian  critics  have 
pronounced  this  work  to  be  a  faithful  characterization  of  Russia 
and  the  Russians.  Dobrolubov  said  of  it,  "  Oblomofka  [the 
country-seat  of  the  Oblomovs]  is  our  fatherland:  something  of 
Oblomov  is  to  be  found  in  every  one  of  us."  Peesarev,  another 
celebrated  critic,  declared  that  "  Oblomovism,"  as  Goncharov 
called  the  sum  total  of  qualities  with  which  he  invested  the  hero 
of  his  story,  "  is  an  illness  fostered  by  the  nature  of  the  Slavonic 
character  and  the  life  of  Russian  society."  In  1858  Goncharov 
was  appointed  a  censor,  and'in  1868  he  published  another  novel 
called  Obreev.  He  was  not  a  voluminous  writer,  and  during  the 
latter  part  of  his  life  produced  nothing  of  any  importance.  His 
death  occurred  on  15/27  September  1891. 


GONCOURT— GONDAR 


231 


GONCOURT,  DE,  a  name  famous  in  French  literary  history. 
EDMOND  Louis  ANTOINE  HUOT  DE  GONCOURT  was  born  at 
fancy  on  the  26th  of  May  1822,  and  died  at  Champrosay  on  the 
:6th  of  July  1896.  JULES  ALFRED  HUOT  DE  GONCOURT,  his 
irother,  was  born  in  Paris  on  the  iyth  of  December  1830,  and 
lied  in  Paris  on  the  2oth  of  June  1870. 

Writing  always  in  collaboration,  until  the  death  of  the  younger, 
it  was  their  ambition  to  be  not  merely  novelists,  inventing  a  new 
;ind  of  novel,  but  historians;  not  merely  historians,  but  the 
listorians  of  a  particular  century,  and  of  what  was  intimate  and 
vhat  is  unknown  in  it ;  to  be  alsodiscriminating,  indeed  innovating, 
:ritics  of  art,  but  of  a  certain  section  of  art,  the  i8th  century,  in 
France  and  Japan;  and  also  to  collect  pictures  and  bibelots, 
ilways  of  the  French  and  Japanese  i8th  century.    Their  histories 
Portraits  intimes  du  X  VIII'  slide  (1857) ,  La  Femme  au  X  VIII' 
iecle  (1862),  La  du  Barry  (1878),  &c.)  are  made  entirely  out  of 
Jocuments,  autograph  letters,  scraps  of  costume,  engravings, 
songs,  the  unconscious  self -revelations  of  the  time;  their  three 
volumes  on  L'ArtduXVIII'siecle  (1850-1875)  deal  with  Watteau 
and  his  followers  in  the  same  scrupulous,  minutely  enlightening 
way,  with  all  the  detail  of  unpublished  documents;  and  when 
they  came  to  write  novels,  it  was  with  a  similar  attempt  to  give 
the  inner,  undiscovered,  minute  truths  of  contemporary  existence, 
the  inedil  of  life.    The  same  morbidly  sensitive  noting  of  the 
inedit,  of  whatever  came  to  them  from  their  own  sensations  of 
things  and  people  around  them,  gives  its  curious  quality  to  the 
nine  volumes  of  the  Journal,  1887-1896,  which  will  remain, 
perhaps,  the  truest  and  most  poignant  chapter  of  human  history 
that  they  have  written.    Their  novels,  Sxur  Philomene  (1861), 
Renee  Mauperin   (1864),  Germinie  Lacerteux   (1865),   Manette 
Salomon  (1865),  Madame  Gervaisais  (1869),  and,  by  Edmond 
alone,  La  Fille  Elisa  (1878),  Les  Freres  Zemganno  (1879),  La 
Faustin  (1882),  Cherie  (1884),  are,  however,  the  work  by  which 
they  will  live  as  artists.    Learning  something  from  Flaubert,  and 
teaching  almost  everything  to  Zola,  they  invented  a  new  kind  of 
novel,  and  their  novels  are  the  result  of  a  new  vision  of  the  world, 
in  which  the  very  element  of  sight  is  decomposed,  as  in  a  picture 
of  Monet.    Seen  through  the  nerves,  in  this  conscious  abandon- 
ment to  the  tricks  of  the  eyesight,  the  world  becomes  a  thing  of 
broken  patterns  and  conflicting  colours,  and  uneasy  movement. 
A  novel  of  the  Goncourts  is  made  up  of  an  infinite  number  of 
details,  set  side  by  side,  every  detail  equally  prominent.    While  a 
novel  of  Flaubert,  for  all  its  detail,  gives  above  all  things  an 
impression  of  unity ,  a  novel  of  the  Goncourts  deliberately  dispenses 
with  unity  in  order  to  give  the  sense  of  the  passing  of  life,  the 
heat  and  form  of  its  moments  as  they  pass.    It  is  written  in  little 
chapters,  sometimes  no  longer  than  a  page,  and  each  chapter  is  a 
separate  notation  of  some  significant  event,  some  emotion  or  sensa- 
tion which  seems  to  throw  sudden  light  on  the  picture  of  a  soul. 
To  the  Goncourts  humanity  is  as  pictorial  a  thing  as  the  world  it 
moves  in ;  they  do  not  search  further  than  "  the  physical  basis 
of  life,"  and  they  find  everything  that  can  be  known  of  that 
unknown  force  written  visibly  upon  the  sudden  faces  of  little 
incidents,  little  expressive  moments.    The  soul,  to  them,  is  a 

•  series  of  moods,  which  succeed  one  another,  certainly  without 
any  of  the  too  arbitrary  logic  of  the  novelist  who  has  conceived  oi 
character  as  a  solid  or  consistent  thing.  Their  novels  are  hardly 
stories  at  all,  but  picture-galleries,  hung  with  pictures  of  the 
momentary  aspects  of  the  world.  French  critics  have  complained 
that  the  language  of  the  Goncourts  is  no  longer  French,  no  longer 

•  the  French  of  the  past ;  and  this  is  true.  It  is  their  distinction— 
the  finest  of  their  inventions — that,  in  order  to  render  new 
sensations,  a  new  vision  of  things,  they  invented  a  new 
language.  (A.  SY.) 

In  his  will  Edmond  de  Goncourt  left  his  estate  for  the  endowmen 
of  an  academy,  the  formation  of  which  was  entrusted  to  MM 
Alphonse  Daudet  and  Ldon  Hennique.  The  society  was  to  consist  o 
ten  members,  each  of  whom  was  to  receive  an^annuity  of  6000  francs 
and  a  yearly  prize  of  5000  francs  was  to  be  awarded  to  the  author  o 
some  work  of  fiction.  Eight  of  the  members  of  the  new  academv 
were  nominated  in  the  will.  They  were:  Alphonse  Daudet,  J.  K 
Huysmans,  Ldon  Hennique,  Octave  Mirbeau,  the.  two  brother 
J.  H.  Rosny,  Gustave  Geffroy  and  Paul  Margueritte.  On  the  191! 
of  January  1903,  after  much  litigation,  the  academy  was  constituted 


with  E16mir  Bourges,  Lucien  Descaves  and  L6on  Daudet  as  members 

n  addition  to  those  mentioned  in  de  Goncourt's  will,  the  place  of 

Alphonse  Daudet  having  been  left  vacant  by  his  death  in  1897. 

On  the  brothers  de  Goncourt  see  the  Journal  des  Goncourt  already 

ted  ;  also  M.  A.  Belloc  (afterwards  Lowndes)  and  M.  L.  Shedlock, 

Edmond  and  Jules  de  Goncourt,  with  Letters  and  Leaves  from  their 

'ournals  (1895)  ;  Alidor  Delzant,  Les  Goncourt  (1889)  which  contains 

valuable  bibliography;  Lettres  de  Jules  de  Goncourt  (1888),  with 

reface  by  H.  C6ard;  R.  Doumic,  Portraits  d'ecrivains  (1892);  Paul 

Jourget,    Nouveaux  Essais  de   psychologie  contemporaine   (1886); 

£mile  Zola,  Les  Romanciers  naturalistes  (1881),  &c. 


GONDA,  a  town  and  district  of  British  India,  in  the  Fyzabad 

division  of  the  United  Provinces.    The  town  is  28  m.  N.W.  of 

ryzabad,  and  is  an  important  junction  on  the  Bengal  &  North- 

Western  railway.    The  site  on  which  it  stands  was  originally  a 

ungle,  in  the  centre  of  which  was  a  cattle-fold  (Gontha  or  Golhah), 

where  the  cattle  were  enclosed'  at  night  as  a  protection  against 

wild  beasts,  and  from  this  the  town  derives  its  name.     Pop. 

1901)  15,811.    The  cantonments  were  abandoned  in  1863. 

The  district  of  Gonda  has  an  area  of  2813  sq.  m.  It  consists 
of  a  vast  plain  with  very  slight  undulations,  studded  with  groves 
of  mango  trees.  The  surface  consists  of  a  rich  alluvial  deposit 
which  is  naturally  divided  into  three  great  belts  known  as  the 
arai  or  swampy  tract,  the  uparhar  or  uplands,  and  the  tarhar 
or  wet  lowlands,  all  three  being  marvellously  fertile.  Several 
rivers  flow  through  the  district,  but  only  two,  the  Gogra  and 
Rapti,  are  of  any  commercial  importance,  the  first  being  navigable 
throughout  the  year,  and  the  latter  during  the  rainy  season. 
The  country  is  dotted  with  small  lakes,  the  water  of  which  is 
argely  used  for  irrigation.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  Mutiny  in 
1857,  the  raja  of  Gonda,  after  honourably  escorting  the  govern- 
ment treasure  to  Fyzabad,  joined  the  rebels.  His  estates,  along 
with  those  of  the  rani  of  Tulsipur,  were  confiscated,  and  conferred 
as  rewards  upon  the  maharajas  of  Balrampur  and  Ajodhya,  who 
tiad  remained  loyal.  In  1901  the  population  was  1,403,195, 
showing  a  decrease  of  4  %  in  one  decade.  The  district  is  traversed 
by  the  main  line  and  three  branches  of  the  Bengal  &  North- 
Western  railway. 

GONDAL,  a  native  state  of  India,  in  the  Kathiawar  political 
agency  of  Bombay,  situated  in  the  centre  of  the  peninsula  of 
Kathiawar.  Its  area  is  1024  sq.  m.;  pop.  (1901)  162,859.  The 
estimated  gross  revenue  is  about  £100,000,  and  the  tribute 
£7000.  Grain  and  cotton  are  the  chief  products.  The  chief, 
whose  title  is  Thakur  Sahib,  is  a  Jadeja  Rajput,  of  the  same  clan 
as  the  Rao  of  Cutch.  The  Thakur  Sahib,  Sir  Bhagvat  Sinhji 
(b.  1865),  was  educated  at  the  Rajkot  college,  and  afterwards 
graduated  in  arts  and  medicine  at  the  university  of  Edinburgh. 
He  published  (in  English)  a  Journal  of  a  Visit  to  England  and 
A  Short  History  of  Aryan  Medical  Science.  In  1892  he  received 
Jhe  honorary  degree  of  D.C.L.  of  Oxford  University.  He  was 
created  K.C.I.E.  in  1887  and  G.C.I.E.  in  1897.  The  state  has 
long  been  conspicuous  for  its  progressive  administration.  It 
is  traversed  by  a  railway  connecting  it  with  Bhaunagar,  Rajkot 
and  the  sea-board.  The  town  of  Gondal  is  23  m.  by  rail  S.  of 
Rajkot;  pop.  (1901)  19,592- 

GONDAR,  properly  GUENDAR,  a  town  of  Abyssinia,  formerly 
the  capital  of  the  Amharic  kingdom,  situated  on  a  basaltic  ridge 
some  7500  ft.  above  the  sea,  about  21  m.  N.E.  of  Lake  Tsana, 
a  splendid  view  of  which  is  obtained  from  the  castle.  Two 
streams,  the  Angreb  on  the  east  side  and  the  Gaha  or  Kaha  on 
the  west,  flow  from  the  ridge,  and  meeting  below  the  town,  pass 
onwards  to  the  lake.  In  the  early  years  of  the  2oth  century  the 
town  was  much  decayed,  numerous  ruins  of  castles,  palaces 
and  churches  indicating  its  former  importance.  It  was  never  a 
compact  city,  being  divided  into  districts  separated  from  each 
other  by  open  spaces.  The  chief  quarters  were  those  of  the 
Abun-Bed  or  bishop,  the  Etchege-Bed  or  chief  of  the  monks, 
the  Debra  Berhan  or  Church  of  the  Light,  and  the  Gemp  or 
castle.  There  was  also  a  quarter  for  the  Mahommedans.  Gondar 
was  a  small  village  when  at  the  beginning  of  the  i6th  century 
it  was  chosen  by  the  Negus  Sysenius  (Seged  I.)  as  the  capital 
of  his  kingdom.  His  son  Fasilidas,  or  A'lem-Seged  (1633-1667), 
was  the  builder  of  the  castle  which  bears  his  name.  Later 
emperors  built  other  castles  and  palaces,  the  latest  in  date  being 


232 


GONDOKORO— GONDOMAR 


that  of  the  Negus  Yesu  II.  This  was  erected  about  1736,  at 
which  time  Gondar  appears  to  have  been  at  the  height  of  its 
prosperity.  Thereafter  it  suffered  greatly  from  the  civil  wars 
which  raged  in  Abyssinia,  and  was  more  than  once  sacked.  In 
1868  it  was  much  injured  by  the  emperor  Theodore,  who  did 
not  spare  either  the  castle  or  the  churches.  After  the  defeat 
of  the  Abyssinians  at  Debra  Sin  in  August  1887  Gondar  was 
looted  and  fired  by  the  dervishes  under  Abu  Anga.  Although 
they  held  the  town  but  a  short  time  they  inflicted  very  great 
damage,  destroying  many  churches,  further  damaging  the  castles 
and  carrying  off  much  treasure.  The  population,  estimated  by 
James  Bruce  in  1770  at  10,000  families,  had  dwindled  in  1905 
to  about  7000.  Since  the  pacification  of  the  Sudan  by  the 
British  (1886-1889)  there  has  been  some  revival  of  trade  between 
Gondar  and  the  regions  of  the  Blue  Nile.  Among  the  inhabitants 
are  numbers  of  Mahommedans,  and  there  is  a  settlement  of 
Falashas.  Cotton,  cloth,  gold  and  silver  ornaments,  copper 
wares,  fancy  articles  in  bone  and  ivory,  excellent  saddles  and 
shoes  are  among  the  products  of  the  local  industry. 

Unlike  any  other  buildings  in  Abyssinia,  the  castles  and 
palaces  of  Gondar  resemble,  with  some  modifications,  the 
medieval  fortresses  of  Europe,  the  style  of  architecture  being 
the  result  of  the  presence  in  the  country  of  numbers  of  Portuguese. 
The  Portuguese  were  expelled  by  Fasilidas,  but  his  castle  was 
built,  by  Indian  workmen,  under  the  superintendence  of 
Abyssinians  who  had  learned  something  of  architecture  from  the 
Portuguese  adventurers,  helped  possibly  by  Portuguese  still  in 
the  country.  The  castle  has  two  storeys,  is  90  ft.  by  84  ft., 
has  a  square  tower  and  circular  domed  towers  at  the  corners. 
The  most  extensive  ruins  are  a  group  of  royal  buildings  enclosed 
in  a  wall.  These  ruins  include  the  palace  of  Yesu  II.,  which  has 
several  fine  chambers.  Christian  Levantines  were  employed  in 
its  construction  and  it  was  decorated  in  part  with  Venetian 
mirrors,  &c.  In  the  same  enclosure  is  a  small  castle  attributed 
to  Yesu  I.  The  exterior  walls  of  the  castles  and  palaces  named 
are  little  damaged  and  give  to  Gondar  a  unique  character  among 
African  towns.  Of  the  forty-four  churches,  all  in  the  circular 
Abyssinian  style,  which  are  said  to  have  formerly  existed  in 
Gondar  or  its  immediate  neighbourhood,  Major  Powell-Cotton 
found  only  one  intact  in  1900.  This  church  contained  some 
well-executed  native  paintings  of  St  George  and  the  Dragon, 
The  Last  Supper,  &c.  Among  the  religious  observances  of  the 
Christians  of  Gondar  is  that  of  bathing  in  large  crowds  in  the 
Gaha  on  the  Feast  of  the  Baptist,  and  again,  though  in  more 
orderly  fashion,  on  Christmas  day. 

See  E.  Ruppell,  Reise inAbyssinien  (Frankfort-on-the-Main,  1838- 
i8<p);  T.  von  Heuglin,  Reise  nach  Abessinien  (Jena,  1868);  G. 
Lejean,  Voyage  en  Abyssinie  (Paris,  1872) ;  Achille  Raffray,  Afrique 
orientate;  Abyssinie  (Paris,  1876);  P.  H.  G.  Powell-Cotton,  A 
Sporting  Trip  through  Abyssinia,  chaps.  27-30  (London,  1902);  and 
Boll.  Soc.  Geog.  Italiana  for  1909.  Views  of  the  castle  are  given  by 
Heuglin,  Raffray  and  Powell-Cotton. 

GONDOKORO,  a  government  station  and  trading-place  on  the 
east  bank  of  the  upper  Nile,  in  4°  54'  N.,  31°  43'  E.  It  is  the 
headquarters  of  the  Northern  Province  of  the  (British)  Uganda 
protectorate,  is  1070  m.  by  river  S.  of  Khartum  and  350  m. 
N.N.W.  in  a  direct  line  of  Entebbe  on  Victoria  Nyanza.  The 
station,  which  is  very  unhealthy,  is  at  the  top  of  a  cliff  25  ft. 
above  the  river-level.  Besides  houses  for  the  civil  and  military 
authorities  and  the  lines  for  the  troops,  there  are  a  few  huts 
inhabited  by  Bari,  the  natives  of  this  part  of  the  Nile.  The 
importance  of  Gondokoro  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  is  within  a  few 
miles  of  the  limit  of  navigability  of  the  Nile  from  Khartum  up 
stream.  From  this  point  the  journey  to  Uganda  is  continued 
overland. 

Gondokoro  was  first  visited  by  Europeans  in  1841-1842, 
when  expeditions  sent  out  by  Mehemet  Ali,  pasha  of  Egypt, 
ascended  the  Nile  as  far  as  the  foot  of  the  rapids  above  Gondokoro. 
It  soon  became  an  ivory  and  slave-trading  centre.  In  1851  an 
Austrian  Roman  Catholic  mission  was  established  here,  but  it 
was  abandoned  in  1859.  It  was  at  Gondokoro  that  J.  H.  Speke 
and  J.  A.  Grant,  descending  the  Nile  after  their  discovery  of  its 
source,  met,  on  the  isth  of  February  1863,  Mr  (afterwards  Sir) 


Samuel  Baker  and  his  wife  who  were  journeying  up  the  river. 
In  1871  Baker,  then  governor-general  of  the  equatorial  provinces 
of  Egypt,  established  a  military  post  at  Gondokoro  which  he 
named  Ismailia,  after  the  then  khedive.  Baker  made  this  post 
his  headquarters,  but  Colonel  (afterwards  General)  C.  G.  Gordon, 
who  succeeded  him  in  1874,  abandoned  the  station  on  account 
of  its  unhealthy  site,  removing  to  Lado.  Gondokoro,  however, 
remained  a  trading-station.  It  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Mahdists 
in  1885.  After  the  destruction  of  the  Mahdist  power  in  1898 
Gondokoro  was  occupied  by  British  troops  and  has  since  formed 
the  northernmost  post  on  the  Nile  of  the  Uganda  protectorate 
(see  SUDAN;  NILE;  and  UGANDA). 

GONDOMAR.  DIEGO  SARMIENTO  DE  ACUNA,  COUNT  OF 
(1567-1626),  Spanish  diplomatist,  was  the  son  of  Garcia  Sarmiento 
de  Sotomayor,  corregidor  of  Granada,  and  governor  of  the 
Canary  Islands,  by  his  marriage  with  Juana  de  Acuna,  an 
heiress.  Diego  Sarmiento,  their  eldest  son,  was  born  in  the 
parish  of  Gondomar,  in  the  bishopric  of  Tuy,  Galicia,  Spain, 
on  the  ist  of  November  1567.  He  inherited  wide  estates  both 
in  Galicia  and  in  Old  Castile.  In  1583  he  was  appointed  by 
Philip  II.  to  the  military  command  of  the  Portuguese  frontier 
and  sea  coast  of  Galicia.  He  is  said  to  have  taken  an  active 
part  in  the  repulse  of  an  English  coast-raid  in  1585,  and  in  the 
defence  of  the  country  during  the  unsuccessful  English  attack 
on  Corunna  in  1589.  In  1593  he  was  named  corregidor  of  Toro. 
In  1603  he  was  sent  from  court  to  Vigo  to  superintend  the 
distribution  of  the  treasure  brought  from  America  by  two 
galleons  which  were  driven  to  take  refuge  at  Vigo,  and  on  his 
return  was  named  a  member  of  the  board  of  finance.  In  1609 
he  was  again  employed  on  the  coast  of  Galicia,  this  time  to  repel 
a  naval  attack  made  by  the  Dutch.  Although  he  held  military 
commands,  and  administrative  posts,  his  habitual  residence  was 
at  Valladolid,  where  he  owned  the  Casa  del  Sol  and  was  already 
collecting  his  fine  library.  He  was  known  as  a  courtier,  and 
apparently  as  a  friend  of  the  favourite,  the  duke  of  Lerma. 
In  1612  he  was  chosen  as  ambassador  in  England,  but  did  not 
leave  to  take  up  his  appointment  till  May  1613. 

His  reputation  as  a  diplomatist  is  based  on  his  two  periods 
of  service  in  England  from  1613  to  1618  and  from  1619  to  1622. 
The  excellence  of  his  latinity  pleased  the  literary  tastes  of  James 
I.,  whose  character  he  judged  with  remarkable  insight.  He 
flattered  the  king's  love  of  books  and  of  peace,  and  he  made 
skilful  use  of  his  desire  for  a  matrimonial  alliance  between  the 
prince  of  Wales  and  a  Spanish  infanta.  The  ambassador's 
task  was  to  keep  James  from  aiding  the  Protestant  states 
against  Spain  and  the  house  of  Austria,  and  to  avert  English 
attacks  on  Spanish  possessions  in  America.  His  success  made 
him  odious  to  the  anti-Spanish  and  puritan  parties.  The  active 
part  he  took  in  promoting  the  execution  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh 
aroused  particular  animosity.  He  was  attacked  in  pamphlets, 
and  the  dramatist  Thomas  Middleton  made  him  a  principal 
person  in  the  strange  political  play  A  Game  of  Chess,  which  was 
suppressed  by  order  of  the  council.  In  1617  Sarmiento  was 
created  count  of  Gondomar.  In  1618  he  obtained  leave  to  come 
home  for  his  health,  but  was  ordered  to  return  by  way  of  Flanders 
and  France  with  a  diplomatic  mission.  In  1619  he  returned  to 
London,  and  remained  till  1622,  when  he  was  allowed  to  retire. 
On  his  return  he  was  named  a  member  of  the  royal  council  and 
governor  of  one  of  the  king's  palaces,  and  was  appointed  to  a 
complimentary  mission  to  Vienna.  Gondomar  was  in  Madrid 
when  the  prince  of  Wales — afterwards  Charles  I. — made  his 
journey  there  in  search  of  a  wife.  He  died  at  the  house  of  the 
constable  of  Castile,  near  Haro  in  the  Rioja,  on  the  2nd  of 
October  1626. 

Gondomar  was  twice  married,  first  to  his  niece  Beatrix 
Sarmiento,  by  whom  he  had  no  children,  and  then  to  his  cousin 
Constanza  de  Acuna,  by  whom  he  had  four  sons  and  three 
daughters.  The  hatred  he  aroused  in  England,  which  was 
shown  by  constant  jeers  at  the  intestinal  complaint  from  which 
he  suffered  for  years,  was  the  best  tribute  to  the  zeal  with  which 
he  served  his  own  master.  Gondomar  collected,  both  before  he 
came  to  London  and  durintc  his  residence  there,  a  very  fine 


GONDOPHARES— GONGORA  Y  ARGOTE 


233 


library  of  printed   books  and   manuscripts.     Orders  for  the 
arrangement,  binding  and  storing  of  his  books  in  his  house  at 
/alladolid  take  a  prominent  place  in  his  voluminous  correspond- 
In  1785  the  library  was  ceded  by  his  descendant  and 
ipresentative  the  marquis  of  Malpica  to  King  Charles  III., 
id  it  is  now  in  the  Royal  Library  at  Madrid.    A  portrait  of 
mdomar,  attributed   to  Valazquez,  was  formerly  at  Stowe. 
.t  was  mezzotinted  by  Robert  Cooper. 

AUTHORITIES. — Gondomar's  missions  to  England  are  largely  dealt 
jvith  in  S.  R.  Gardiner's  History  of  England  (London,  1883-1884). 
In  Spanish,  Don  Pascual  de  Gayangos  wrote  a  useful  biographical 
introduction  to  a  publication  of  a  few  of  his  letters — Cinco  Cartas 
politico-literarias  de  Don  Diego  Sarmiento  de  Acuna,  ^  Conde  de 
Gondomar,  issued  at  Madrid  1869  by  the  Sociedad  de  Bibliofilos  of  the 
Spanish  Academy;  and  there  is  a  life  in  English  by  F.  H.  Lyon 
(1910).  (D.  H.) 

GONDOPHARES,  or  GONDOP!HERNES,  an  Indo-Parthian  king 
who  ruled  over  the  Kabul  valley  and  the  Punjab.  By  means 
of  his  coins  his  accession  may  be  dated  with  practical  certainty 
at  A.D.  21,  and  his  reign  lasted  for  some  thirty  years.  He  is 
notable  for  his  association  with  St  Thomas  in  early  Christian 
tradition.  The  legend  is  that  India  fell  to  St  Thomas,  who 
showed  unwillingness  to  start  until  Christ  appeared  in  a  vision 
and  ordered  him  to  serve  King  Gondophares  and  build  him  a 
palace.  St  Thomas  accordingly  went  to  India  and  suffered 
martyrdom  there.  This  legend  is  not  incompatible  with  what 
is  known  of  the  chronology  of  Gondophares'  reign. 

60NDWANA,  the  historical  name  for  a  large  tract  of  hilly 
country  in  India  which  roughly  corresponds  with  the  greater 
part  of  the  present  Central  Provinces.  It  is  derived  from  the 
aboriginal  tribe  of  Gonds,  who  still  form  the  largest  element 
in  the  population  and  who  were  at  one  time  the  ruling  power. 
From  the  I2th  to  as  late  as  the  i8th  century  three  or  four  Gond 
dynasties  reigned  over  this  region  with  a  degree  of  civilization 
that  seems  surprising  when  compared  with  the  existing  condition 
of  the  people.  They  built  large  walled  cities,  and  accumulated 
immense  treasures  of  gold  and  silver  and  jewels.  On  the  whole, 
they  maintained  their  independence  fairly  well  against  the 
Mahommedans,  being  subject  only  to  a  nominal  submission  and 
occasional  payment  of  tribute.  But  when  the  Mahratta  invaders 
appeared,  soon  after  the  beginning  of  the  i8th  century,  the  Gond 
kingdoms  offered  but  a  feeble  resistance  and  the  aboriginal 
population  fled  for  safety  to  the  hills.  Gondwana  was  thus 
included  in  the  dominions  of  the  Bhonsla  raja  of  Nagpur,  from 

•whom  it  finally  passed  to  the  British  in  1853. 
The  Gonds,  who  call  themselves  Koitur  or  "  highlanders," 
are  the  most  numerous  tribe  of  Dravidian  race  in  India.  Their 
total  number  in  1901  was  2,286,913,  of  whom  nearly  two  millions 
were  enumerated  in  the  Central  Provinces,  where  they  form  20% 
of  the  population.  They  have  a  language  of  their  own,  with 
many  dialects,  which  is  intermediate  between  the  two  great 
Dravidian  languages,  Tamil  and  Telugu.  It  is  unwritten  and 
has  no  literature,  except  a  little  provided  by  the  missionaries. 
More  than  half  the  Gonds  in  the  Central  Provinces  have  now 
abandoned  their  own  dialects,  and  have  adopted  Aryan  forms 
of  speech.  This  indicates  the  extent  to  which  they  have  become 
Hinduized.  The  higher  class  among  them,  called  Raj  Gonds, 
have  been  definitely  admitted  into  Hinduism  as  a  pure  cultivating 
caste;  but  the  great  majority  still  retain  the  animistic  beliefs, 
ceremonial  observances  and  impure  customs  of  food  which  are 
common  to  most  of  the  aboriginal  tribes  of  India. 

GONFALON  (the  late  French  and  Italian  form,  also  found  in 
other  Romanic  languages,  of  gonfanon,  which  is  derived  from 
the  O.H.  Ger.  gundfano,  gund,  war,  and/awo,  flag,  cf.  Mod.  Ger. 
Fahne,  and  English  "  vane  "),  a  banner  or  standard  of  the 
middle  ages.  It  took  the  form  of  a  small  pennon  attached  below 
the  head  of  a  knight's  lance,  or  when  used  in  religious  processions 
and  ceremonies,  or  as  the  banner  of  a  city  or  state  or  military 
order,  it  became  a  many-streamered  rectangular  ensign,  fre- 
quently swinging  from  a  cross-bar  attached  to  a  pole.  This  is 
the  most  frequent  use  of  the  word.  The  title  of  "  gonfalonier," 
the  bearer  of  the  gonfalon,  was  in  the  middle  ages  both  military 
and  civil.  It  was  borne  by  the  counts  of  Vexin,  as  leaders  of  the 


men  of  Saint  Denis,  and  when  the  Vexin  was  incorporated  in  the 
kingdom  of  France  the  title  of  Gonfalonier  de  Sant  Denis  passed 
to  the  kings  of  France,  who  thus  became  the  bearers  of  the 
"  oriflamme,"  as  the  banner  of  St  Denis  was  called.  "  Gon- 
falonier "  was  the  title  of  civic  magistrates  of  various  degrees 
of  authority  in  many  of  the  city  republics  of  Italy,  notably  of 
Florence,  Sienna  and  Lucca.  At  Florence  the  functions  of  the 
office  varied.  At  first  the  gonfaloniers  were  the  leaders  of  the 
various  military  divisions  of  the  inhabitants.  In  1293  was 
created  the  office  of  gonfalonier  of  justice,  who  carried  out  the 
orders  of  the  signiory.  By  the  end  of  the  i4th  century  the 
gonfalonier  was  the  chief  of  the  signiory.  At  Lucca  he  was  the 
chief  magistrate  of  the  republic.  At  Rome  two  gonfaloniers 
must  be  distinguished,  that  of  the  church  and  that  of  the 
Roman  people;  both  offices  were  conferred  by  the  pope.  The 
first  was  usually  granted  to  sovereigns,  who  were  bound  to 
defend  the  church  and  lead  her  armies.  The  second  bore  a 
standard  with  the  letters  S.P.Q.R.  on  any  enterprise  undertaken 
in  the  name  of  the  church  and  the  people  of  Rome,  and  also  at 
ceremonies,  processions,  &c.  This  was  granted  by  the  pope  to 
.distinguished  families.  Thus  the  Cesarini  held  the  office  till 
the  end  of  the  lyth  century.  The  Pamphili  held  it  from  1686 
till  1764. 

GONG  (Chinese,  gong-gong  or  tam-tam),  a  sonorous  or  musical 
instrument  of  Chinese  origin  and  manufacture,  made  in  the  form 
of  a  broad  thin  disk  with  a  deep  rim.  Gongs  vary  in  diameter 
from  about  20  to  40  in.,  and  they  are  made  of  bronze  containing 
a  maximum  of  22  parts  of  tin  to  78  of  copper;  but  in  many  cases 
the  proportion  of  tin  is  considerably  less.  Such  an  alloy,  when 
cast  and  allowed  to  cool  slowly,  is  excessively  brittle,  but  it  can  be 
tempered  and  annealed  in  a  peculiar  manner.  If  suddenly  cooled 
from  a  cherry-red  heat,  the  alloy  becomes  so  soft  that  it  can  be 
hammered  and  worked  on  the  lathe,  and  afterwards  it  may  be 
hardened  by  re-heating  and  cooling  it  slowly.  In  these  properties 
it  will  be  observed,  the  alloy  behaves  in  a  manner  exactly  opposite 
to  steel,  and  the  Chinese  avail  themselves  of  the  known  peculiari- 
ties for  preparing  the  thin  sheets  of  which  gongs  are  made.  They 
cool  their  castings  of  bronze  in  water,  and  after  hammering  out 
the  alloy  in  the  soft  state,  harden  the  finished  gongs  by  heating 
them  to  a  cherry-red  and  allowing  them  to  cool  slowly.  These 
properties  of  the  alloy  long  remained  a  secret,  said  to  have  been 
first  discovered  in  Europe  by  Jean  Pierre  Joseph  d'Arcet  at  the 
beginning  of  the  ipth  century.  Riche  and  Champion  are  said 
to  have  succeeded  in  producing  tam-tams  having  all  the  qualities 
and  timbre  of  the  Chinese  instruments.  The  composition  of  the 
alloy  of  bronze  used  for  making  gongs  is  stated  to  be  as  follows:1 
Copper,  76-52;  Tin,  22-43;  Lead,  0-62;  Zinc,  0-23;  Iron,  0-18. 
The  gong  is  beaten  with  a  round,  hard,  leather-covered  pad, 
fitted  on  a  short  stick  or  handle.  It  emits  a  peculiarly  sonorous 
sound,  its  complex  vibrations  bursting  into  a  wave-like  succession 
of  tones,  sometimes  shrill,  sometimes  deep.  In  China  and  Japan 
it  is  used  in  religious  ceremonies,  state  processions,  marriages 
and  other  festivals;  and  it  is  said  that  the  Chinese  can  modify 
its  tone  variously  by  particular  ways  of  striking  the  disk. 

The  gong  has  been  effectively  used  in  the  orchestra  to  intensify  the 
impression  of  fear  and  horror  in  melodramatic  scenes.  The  tam-tam 
was  first  introduced  into  a  western  orchestra  by  Frangois  Joseph 
Gossec  in  the  funeral  march  composed  at  the  death  of  Mirabeau  in 
1791.  Gaspard  Spontini  used  it  in  La  Vestale  (1807),  in  the  finale  of 
act  II.,  an  impressive  scene  in  which  the  high  pontiff  pronounces  the 
anathema  on  the  faithless  vestal.  It  was  also  used  in  the  funeral 
music  played  when  the  remains  of  Napoleon  the  Great  were  brought 
back  to  France  in  1840.  Meyerbeer  made  use  of  the  instrument  in  the 
scene  of  the  resurrection  of  the  three  nuns  in  Robert  le  diable.  Four 
tam-tams  are  now  used  at  Bayreuth  in  Parsifal  to  reinforce  the  bell 
instruments,  although  there  is  no  indication  given  in  the  score  (see 
PARSIFAL).  The  tam-tam  has  been  treated  from  its  ethnographical 
side  by  Franz  Heger.2  (K.  S.) 

GONGORA  Y  ARGOTE,  LUIS  DE  (1561-1627),  Spanish  lyric 
poet,  was  born  at  Cordova  on  the  nth  of  July  1561.  -His  father, 
Francisco  de  Argote,  was  corregidor  of  that  city;  the  poet  early 
adopted  the  surname  of  his  mother,  Leonora  de  G6ngora,  who 

1  See  La  grande  Encyclopedie,  vol.  viii.  (Paris),  "  Bronze,"  p.  1463. 

a  Alte  Metalllrommeln  aus  Siidost-Asien  (Leipzig,  1902),  Bd.  i., 
Text;  Bd.  ii.,  Tafeln. 


234 


GONIOMETER 


was  descended  from  an  ancient  family.  At  the  age  of  fifteen  he 
entered  as  a  student  of  civil  and  canon  law  at  the  university  of 
Salamanca;  but  he  obtained  no  academic  distinctions  and  was 
content  with  an  ordinary  pass  degree.  He  was  already  known 
as  a  poet  in  1585  when  Cervantes  praised  him  in  the  Galatea;  in 
this  same  year  he  took  minor  orders,  and  shortly  afterwards 
was  nominated  to  a  canonry  at  Cordova.  About  1605-1606 
he  was  ordained  priest,  and  thenceforth  resided  principally  at 
Valladolid  and  Madrid,  where,  as  a  contemporary  remarks,  he 
"  noted  and  stabbed  at  everything  with  his  satirical  pen."  His 
circle  of  admirers  was  now  greatly  enlarged;  but  the  acknowledg- 
ment accorded  to  his  singular  genius  was  both  slight  and  tardy. 
Ultimately  indeed,  through  the  influence  of  the  duke  of  Sandoval, 
he  obtained  an  appointment  as  honorary  chaplain  to  Philip  III., 
but  even  this  slight  honour  he  was  not  permitted  long  to  enjoy. 
In  1626  a  severe  illness,  which  seriously  impaired  his  memory, 
compelled  his  retirement  to  Cordova,  where  he  died  on  the  24th 
of  May  1627.  An  edition  of  his  poems  was  published  almost 
immediately  after  his  death  by  Juan  Lopez  de  Vicuna;  the 
frequently  reprinted  edition  by  Hozes  did  not  appear  till  1633. 
The  collection  consists  of  numerous  sonnets,  odes,  ballads,  songs 
for  the  guitar,  and  of  certain  larger  poems,  such  as  the  Soledades 
and  the  Polifemo.  Too  many  of  them  exhibit  that  tortuous 
elaboration  of  style  (estilo  cidto)  with  which  the  name  of  Gongora 
is  inseparably  associated;  but  though  Gongora  has  been  justly 
censured  for  affected  Latinisms,  unnatural  transpositions,  strained 
metaphors  and  frequent  obscurity,  it  must  be  admitted  that  he 
was  a  man  of  rare  genius, — a  fact  cordially  acknowledged  by 
those  of  his  contemporaries  who  were  most  capable  of  judging. 
It  was  only  in  the  hands  of  those  who  imitated  Gongora's  style 
without  inheriting  his  genius  that  cidteranismo  became  absurd. 
Besides  his  lyrical  poems  Gongora  is  the  author  of  a  play  entitled 
Las  Firmezas  de  Isabel  and  of  two  incomplete  dramas,  the 
Comedia  venatoria  and  El  Doctor  Carlino.  The  only  satisfactory 
edition  of  his  works  is  that  published  by  R.  Foulche-Delbose  in 
the  Bibliolheca  Hispanica. 

See  Edward  Churton,  Gongora  (London,  1862,  2  vols.);  M. 
Gonzalez  y  France's,  Gongora  racionero  (Cordoba,  1895) ;  M.  Gonzalez 
y  Francds,  Don  Luis  de  Gongora  vindicando  su  Jama  ante  el  propio 
obispo  (C6rdoba,  1899) ; "  Vingt-six  Lettres  de  Gongora  "  in  the  Revue 
hispanique,  vol.  x.  pp.  184-225  (Paris,  1903). 

GONIOMETER  (from  Gr.  yuvla,  angle,  and  fikrpov,  measure), 
an  instrument  for  measuring  the  angles  of  crystals;  there  are  two 
kinds — the  contact  goniometer  and  the  reflecting  goniometer. 
Nicolaus  Stena  in  1669  determined  the  interfacial  angles  of 
quartz  crystals  by  cutting  sections  perpendicular  to  the  edges, 
the  plane  angles  of  the  sections  being  then  the  angles  between  the 
faces  which  are  perpendicular  to  the  sections.  The  earliest  instru- 
ment was  the  contact  goniometer  devised  by  Carangeot  in  1783. 
The  Contact  Goniometer  (or  Hand-Goniometer). — This  consists  of 
two  metal  rules  pivoted  together  at  the  centre  of  a  graduated  semi- 
circle (fig.  i).  The  instrument  is  placed  with  its  plane  perpendicular 

to  an  edge  between 
two  faces  of  the 
crystal  to  be  meas- 
ured, and  the  rules 
are  brought  into 
contact  with  the 
faces;  this  is  best 
done  by  holding  the 
crystal  up  against 
the  light  with  the 
edge  in  the  line  of 
sight.  The  angle 
between  the  rules, 
as  read  on  the 
graduated  semi- 
circle, then  gives 
the  angle  between 
the  two  faces.  The 


FIG.  i. — Contact  Goniometer. 


rules  are  slotted,  so  that  they  may  be  shortened  and  their  tips  applied 
to  a  crystal  partly  embedded  in  its  matrix.  The  instrument  repre- 
sented in  fig.  i  is  practically  the  same  in  all  its  details  as  that  made 
for  Carangeot,  and  it  is  employed  at  the  present  day  for  the  approxi- 
mate measurement  of  large  crystals  with  dull  and  rough  faces. 
S.  L.  Penfield  (1900)  has  devised  some  cheap  and  simple  forms  of 
contact  goniometer,  consisting  of  jointed  arms  and  protractors  made 
of  cardboard  or  celluloid. 


The  Reflecting  Goniometer. — This  is  an  instrument  of  far  greater 
precision,  and  is  always  used  for  the  accurate  measurement  of  the 
angles  when  small  crystals  with  bright  faces  are  available.  As  a  rule, 
the  smaller  the  crystal  the  more  even  are  its  faces,  and  when  these  are 
smooth  and  bright  they  reflect  sharply  defined  images  of  a  bright 
object.  By  turning  the  crystal 
about  an  axis  parallel  to  the 
edge  between  two  faces,  the 
image  reflected  from  a  second 
face  may  be  brought  into  the 
same  position  as  that  formerly 
occupied  by  the  image  reflected 
from  the  first  face;  the  angle 
through  which  the  crystal  has 
been  rotated,  as  determined  by 
a  graduated  circle  to  which  the 
crystal  is  fixed,  is  the  angle 
between  the  normals  to  the 
two  faces. 

Several  forms  of  instruments 
depending  on  this  principle 
have  been  devised,  the  earliest 
being  the  vertical-circle  gonio- 
meter of  W.  H.  Wollaston, 
made  in  1809.  This  consists 
of  a  circle  m  (fig.  2),  graduated 
to  degrees  of  arc  and  reading 
with  the  vernier  h  to  minutes, 
which  turns  with  the  milled 
head  t  about  a  horizontal 
axis.  The  crystal  is  attached  _ 
with  wax  (a  mixture  of  bees-  FlG-  2.— Vertical-Circle  Goniometer, 
wax  and  pitch)  to  the  holder 

q,  and  by  means  of  the  pivoted  arcs  it  may  be  adjusted  so  that 
the  edge  between  two  faces  (a  zone-axis)  is  parallel  to,  and  coincident 
with,  the  axis  of  the  instrument.  The  crystal-holder  and  adjustment- 
arcs,  together  with  the  milled  head  s,  are  carried  on  an  axis  which 
passes  through  the  hollow  axis  of  the  graduated  circle,  and  may  thus 
be  rotated  independently  of  the  circle.  In  use,  the  goniometer  is 
placed  directly  opposite  to  a  window,  with  its  axis  parallel  to  the 
horizontal  window-bars,  and  as  far  distant  as  possible.  The  eye  is 
placed  quite  close  to  the  crystal,  and  the  image  of  an  upper  window- 
bar  (or  better  still  a  slit  in  a  dark  screen)  as  seen  in  the  crystal-face 
is  made  to  coincide  with  a  lower  window-bar  (or  chalk  mark  on  the 
floor)  as  seen  directly:  this  is  done  by  turning  the  milled  head  s, 
the  reading  of  the  graduated  circle  having  previously  been  observed. 
Without  moving  the  eye,  the  milled  head  /,  together  with  the  crystal, 
is  then  rotated  until  the  image  from  a  second  face  is  brought  into  the 
same  position;  the  difference  between  the  first  and  second  readings 
of  the  graduated  circle  will  then  give  the  angle  between  the  normals 
of  the  two  faces. 

Several  improvements  have  been  made  on  Wollaston's  gonio- 
meter. The  adjustment-arcs  have  been  modified;  a  mirror  of  black 
glass  fixed  to  the  stand  beneath  the  crystal  gives  a  reflected  image  of 
the  signal,  with 

which     the    reflec-         .   C  T 

tion  from  the  **^-*^ 
crystal  can  be 
more  conveni- 
ently made  to  co- 
incide; a  telescope 
provided  with 
cross-wires  gives 
greater  precision 
to  the  direction 
of  the  reflected 
rays  of  light;  and 
with  the  telescope 
a  collimator  has 
sometimes  been 
used.  P 

A  still  greater 
improvement  was 
effected  by  plac- 
ing the  graduated 
circle  in  a  hori- 
zontal position, 
as  in  the  instru- 
ments of  E.  L. 
Malus  (1810),  F. 


FIG.  3. — Horizontal-Circle  Goniometer. 


C.  von  Riese  (1829)  and  J.  Babinet  (1839).  Many  forms  of 
the  horizontal-circle  goniometer  have  been  constructed;  they  are 
provided  with  a  telescope  and  collimator,  and  in  construction  are 
essentially  the  same  as  a  spectrometer,  with  the  addition  of  arrange- 
ments for  adjusting  and  centring  the  crystal.  The  instrument  shown 
in  fig.  3  is  made  by  R.  Fuess  of  Berlin.  It  has  four  concentric  axes, 
which  enable  the  crystal-holder  A,  together  with  the  adjustment- 
arcs  B  and  centring-slides  D,  to  be  raised  or  lowered,  or  to  be  rotated 
independently  of  the  circle  H;  further,  either  the  crystal-holder  or 
the  telescope  T  may  be  rotated  with  the  circle,  while  the  other 


GONTAUT— GONZAGA 


235 


remains  fixed.  The  crystal  is  placed  on  the  holder  and  adjusted 
so  that  the  edge  (zone-axis)  between  two  faces  is  coincident  with  the 
axis  of  the  instrument.  Light  from  an  incandescent  gas-burner 
passes  through  the  slit  of  the  collimator  C,  and  the  image  of  the  slit 
(signal)  reflected  from  the  crystal  face  is  viewed  in  the  telescope. 
The  clamp  o  and  slow-motion  screw  F  enable  the  image  to  be 
brought  exactly  on  the  cross-wires  of  the  telescope,  and  the  position 
of  the  circle  with  respect  to  the  vernier  is  read  through  the  lens. 
The  crystal  and  the  circle  are  then  rotated  together  until  the  image 
from  a  second  face  is  brought  on  the  cross-wires  of  the  telescope,  and 
the  angle  through  which  they  have  been  turned  is  the  angle  between 
the  normals  to  the  two  faces.  While  measuring  the  angles  between 
the  faces  of  crystals  the  telescope  remains  fixed  by  the  clamp  0,  but 
when  this  is  released  the  instrument  may  be  used  as  a  spectrometer 
or  refractometer  for  determining,  by  the  method  of  minimum 
deviation,  the  indices  of  refraction  of  an  artificially  cut  prism  or  of  a 
transparent  crystal  when  the  faces  are  suitably  inclined  to  one 
another.  .  . 

With  a  one-circle  goniometer,  such  as  is  described  above,  it  is 
necessary  to  mount  and  re-adjust  the  crystal  afresh  for  the  measure- 
ment of  each  zone  of  faces  (i.e.  each  set  of  faces  intersecting  in  parallel 
edges) ;  with  very  small  crystals  this  operation  takes  a  considerable 
time,  and  the  minute  faces  are  not  readily  identified  again.  Further, 
in  certain  cases,  it  is  not  possible  to  measure  the  angles  between  zones, 
nor  to  determine  the  position  of  small  faces  which  do  not  lie  in  pro- 
minent zones  on  the  crystal.  These  difficulties  have  been  overcome 
by  the  use  of  a  two-circle  goniometer  or  theodolite-goniometer? 
which  as  a  combination  of  a  vertical-circle  goniometer  and  one  with  a 
horizontal-circle  was  first  employed  by  W.  H.  Miller  in  1874.  Special 
forms  have  been  designed  by  E.  S.  Fedorov  (1889),  V.  Gpldschmidt 
(1893),  S.  Czapski  (1893)  and  F.  Stoeber  (1898),  which  differ  mainly 
in  the  arrangement  of  the  optical  parts.  In  these  instruments  the 
crystal  is  set  up  and  adj  usted  once  for  all,  with  the  axis  of  a  prominent 
zone  parallel  to  the  axis  of  either  the  horizontal  or  the  vertical 
circle.  As  a  rule,  only  in  this  zone  can  the  angles  betweenthefaces  be 
measured  directly;  the  positions  of  all  the  other  faces,  which  need 
be  observed  only  once,  are  fixed  by  the  simultaneous  readings  of  the 
two  circles.  These  readings,  corresponding  to  the  polar  distance  and 
azimuth,  or  latitude  and  longitude  readings  of  astronomical  tele- 
scopes, must  be  plotted  on  a  projection  before  the  symmetry  of  the 
crystal  is  apparent;  and  laborious  calculations  are  necessary  in 
order  to  determine  the  indices  of  the  faces  and  the  angles  between 
them,  and  the  other  constants  of  the  crystal,  or  to  test  whether  any 
three  faces  are  accurately  in  a  zone. 

These  disadvantages  are  overcome  by  adding  still  another  gradu- 
ated circle  to  the  instrument,  with  its  axis  perpendicular  to  the  axis 
of  the  vertical  circle,  thus  forming  a  three-circle  goniometer.  With 
such  an  instrument  measurements  may  be  made  in  any  zone  or 
between  any  two  faces  without  re-adjusting  the  crystal;  further  the 
troublesome  calculations  are  avoided,  and,  indeed,  the  instrument 
may  be  used  for  solving  spherical  triangles.  Different  forms  of 
three-circle  goniometers  have  been  designed  by  G.  F.  H.  Smith 
(1899  and  1904),  E.  S.  Fedorov  (1900)  and  J.  F.  C.  Klein  (1900). 
Besides  being  used  as  a  one-,  two-,  or  three-circle  goniometer  for 
the  measurement  of  the  interfaciat  angles  of  crystals,  and  as  a  re- 
fractometer for  determining  refractive  indices  by  the  prismatic 
method  or  by  total  reflection,  Klein's  instrument,  which  is  called  a 
polymeter,  is  fitted  with  accessory  optical  apparatus  which  enables 
it  to  be  used  for  examining  a  crystal  in  parallel  or  convergent  polar- 
ized light  and  for  measuring  the  optic  axial  angle. 

Goniometers  of  special  construction  have  been  devised  for  certain 
purposes;  for  instance,  the  inverted  horizontal-circle  goniometer  of 
H.  A.  Miers  (1903)  for  measuring  crystals  during  their  growth  in  the 
mother-liquid.  A.  E.  Tutton  (1894)  has  combined  a  goniometer  with 
lapidaries'  appliances  for  cutting  section-plates  and  prisms  from 
crystals  accurately  in  any  desired  direction.  The  instrument 
commonly  employed  for  measuring  the  optic  axia)  angle  of  biaxial 
crystals  is  really  a  combination  of  a  goniometer  with  a  polariscope. 
For  the  optical  investigation  of  minute  crystals  under  the  microscope, 
various  forms  of  stage-goniometer  with  one,  two  or  three  graduated 
circles  have  been  constructed.  An  ordinary  microscope  fitted  with 
cross-wires  and  a  rotating  graduated  stage  serves  the  purpose  of  a 
goniometer  for  measuring  the  plane  angles  of  a  crystal  face  or  section, 
being  the  same  in  principle  as  the  contact  goniometer. 

For  fuller  descriptions  of  goniometers  reference  may  be  made  to 
the  text-books  of  Crystallography  and  Mineralogy,  especially  to 
P.  H.  Groth,  Physikalische  Krystallographie  (4th  ed.,  Leipzig,  1905). 
See  also  C.  Leiss,  Die  optischen  Instrumente  der  Firma  R.  Fuess,  deren 
Beschreibung,  Justierung  undAnwendung  (Leipzig,  1899).  (L.  J.  S.) 

GONTAUT,  MARIE  JOSEPHINE  LOUISE,  DUCHESSE  DE 
(1773-1857),  was  born  in  Paris  on  the  3rd  of  August  1773, 
daughter  of  Augustin  Francois,  comte  de  Montaut-Navailles, 
who  had  been  governor  of  Louis  XVI.  and  his  two  brothers  when 
children.  The  count  of  Provence  (afterwards  Louis  XVIII.) 
and  his  wife  stood  sponsors  to  Josephine  de  Montaut,  and  she 
shared  the  lessons  given  by  Madame  de  Genlis  to  the  Orleans 
family,  with  whom  her  mother  broke  off  relations  after  the  out- 


ireak  of  the  Revolution.  Mother  and  daughter  emigrated  to 
Coblenz  in  1792;  thence  they  went  to  Rotterdam,  and  finally 
to  England,  where  Josephine  married  the  marquis  Charles 
Michel  de  Gontaut-Saint-Blacard.  They  returned  to  France 
at  the  Restoration,  and  resumed  their  place  at  court.  Madame 
de  Gontaut  became  lady-in-waiting  to  Caroline,  duchess  of 
Berry,  and,  on  the  birth  of  the  princess  Louise  (Mile  d'Artois, 
afterwards  duchess  of  Parma),  governess  to  the  children  of 
France.  Next  year  the  birth  of  Henry,  duke  of  Bordeaux 
(afterwards  known  as  the  comte  de  Chambord),  added  to  her 
charge  the  heir  of  the  Bourbons.  She  remained  faithful  to  his 
cause  all  her  life.  Her  husband  died  in  1822,  and  in  1827  she 
was  created  duchesse  de  Gontaut.  She  followed  the  exiled  royal 
Family  in  1830  to  Holyrood  Palace,  and  then  to  Prague,  but  in 
1834,  owing  to  differences  with  Pierre  Louis,  due  de  Blacas,  who 
thought  her  comparatively  liberal  views  dangerous  for  the 
prince  and  princess,  she  received  a  brusque  conge  from  Charles  X. 
Her  twin  daughters,  Josephine  (1796-1844)  and  Charlotte  (1796- 
1818),  married  respectively  Ferdinand  de  Chabot,  prince  de  L6on 
and  afterwards  due  de  Rohan,  and  Francois,  comte  de  Bourbon- 
Busset.  She  herself  wrote  in  her  old  age  some  naive  memoirs, 
which  throw  an  odd  light  on  the  pretensions  of  the  "  governess 
of  the  children  of  France."  She  died  in  Paris  in  1857. 

See  her  Memoirs  (Eng.  ed.,  2  vols.,  1894), and  Lettresin6dites(i8gs). 
GONVILE,  EDMUND  (d.  1351),  founder  of  Gonville  Hall, 
now  Gonville  and  Caius  College,  at  Cambridge,  England,  is 
thought  to  have  been  the  son  of  William  de  Gonvile,  and  the 
brother  of  Sir  Nicholas  Gonvile.  In  1320  he  was  rector  of 
Thelnetham,  Suffolk,  and  steward  there  for  William,  earl  Warren 
and  the  earl  of  Lancaster.  Six  years  later  he  was  rector  of 
Rushworth,  and  in  1342  rector  of  Terrington  St  John  and  com- 
missioner for  the  marshlands  of  Norfolk.  In  this  year  he 
founded  and  endowed  a  collegiate  church  at  Rushworth,  sup- 
pressed in  1541.  The  foundation  of  Gonville  Hall  at  Cambridge 
was  effected  by  a  charter  granted  by  Edward  III.  in  1348. 
It  was  called,  officially,  the  Hall  of  the  Annunciation  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin,  but  was  usually  known  as  Gunnell  or  Gonville 
Hall.  Its  original  site  was  in  Free-school  Lane,  where  Corpus 
Christi  College  now  stands.  Gonvile  apparently  wished  it  to 
be  devoted  to  training  for  theological  study,  but  after  his  death 
the  foundation  was  completed  by  William  Bateman,  bishop  of 
Norwich  and  founder  of  Trinity  Hall,  on  a  different  site  and  with 
considerably  altered  statutes.  (See  also  CAIUS,  JOHN.) 

GONZAGA,  an  Italian  princely  family  named  after  the  town 
where  it  probably  had  its  origin.  Its  known  history  begins  with 
the  i3th  century,  when  Luigi  I.  (1267-1360),  after  fierce  struggles 
supplanted  his  brother-in-law  Rinaldo  (nicknamed  Passerino) 
Bonacolsi  as  lord  of  Mantua  in  August  1328,  with  the  title  of 
captain-general,  and  afterwards  of  vicar-general  of  the  empire, 
adding  the  designation  of  count  of  Mirandola  and  Concordia, 
which  fief  the  Gonzagas  held  from  1328  to  1354.  In  July  1335 
his  son  Guido,  with  the  help  of  Filippino  and  Feltrino  Gonzaga, 
wrested  Reggio  from  the  Scaligeri  and  held  it  until  1371.  Luigi 
was  succeeded  by  Guido  (d.  1369);  the  latter's  son  Luigi  II. 
came  next  in  succession  (d.  1382),  and  then  Giovan  Francesco  I. 
(d.  1407),  who,  although  at  one  time  allied  with  the  treacherous 
Gian  Galeazzo  Visconti,  incurred  the  latter's  enmity  and  all  but 
lost  his  estates  and  his  life  in  consequence;  eventually  he  joined 
the  Florentines  and  Bolognese,  enemies  of  Visconti.  He  pro- 
moted commerce  and  wisely  developed  the  prosperity  of  his 
dominions.  His  son  Giovan  Francesco  II.  (d.  1444)  succeeded  him 
under  the  regency  of  his  uncle  Carlo  Malatesta  and  the  protection 
of  the  Venetians.  He  became  a  famous  general,  and  was  rewarded] 
for  his  services  to  the  emperor  Sigismund  with  the  title  of 
marquess  of  Mantua  for  himself  and  his  descendants  (1432),  an 
investiture  which  legitimatized  the  usurpations  of  the  house  of 
Gonzaga.  His  son  Luigi  III.  "  il  Turco  "  (d.  1478)  likewise 
became  a  celebrated  soldier,  and  was  also  a  learned  and  liberal 
prince,  a  patron  of  literature  and  the  arts.  His  son  Federigo  I. 
(d.  1484)  followed  in  his  father's  footsteps,  and  served  under 
various  foreign  sovereigns,  including  Bona  of  Savoy  and  Lorenzo 
de'  Medici;  subsequently  he  upheld  the  rights  of  the  house  of 


236 


GONZAGA,  T.  A.— GONZALO  DE  BERCEO 


Este  against  Pope  Sixtus  IV.  and  the  Venetians,  whose  ambitious 
claims  were  a  menace  to  his  own  dominions  of  Ferrara  and 
Mantova.  His  son  Giovan  Francesco  III.  (d.  1519)  continued  the 
military  traditions  of  the  family,  and  commanded  the  allied 
Italian  forces  against  Charles  VIII.  at  the  battle  of  Fornovo; 
he  afterwards  fought  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples  and  in  Tuscany, 
until  captured  by  the  Venetians  in  1509.  On  his  liberation  he 
adopted  a  more  peaceful  and  conciliatory  policy,  and  with  the 
help  of  his  wife,  the  famous  Isabella  d'Este,  he  promoted  the 
fine  arts  and  letters,  collecting  pictures,  statues  and  other  works 
of  art  with  intelligent  discrimination.  He  was  succeeded  by  his 
son  Federigo  II.  (d.  1540),  captain-general  of  the  papal  forces. 
After  the  peace  of  Cambrai  (1529)  his  ally  and  protector,  the 
emperor  Charles  V.,  raised  his  title  to  that  of  duke  of  Mantua  in 
1530;  in  1536  the  emperor  decided  the  controversy  for  the 
succession  of  Monferrato  between  Federigo  and  the  house  of 
Savoy  in  favour  of  the  former.  His  son  Francesco  I.  succeeded 
him,  and,  being  a  minor,  was  placed  under  the  regency  of  his 
uncle  Cardinal  Ercole;  he  was  accidentally  drowned  in  1550, 
leaving  his  possessions  to  his  brother  Guglielmo.  The  latter 
was  an  extravagant  spendthrift,  but  having]  subdued  a  revolt 
in  Monferrato  was  presented  with  that  territory  by  the  emperor 
Maximilian  II.  At- his  death  in  1587  he  was  succeeded  by  his 
son  Vincenzo  I.  (d.  1612),  who  was  more  addicted  to  amusements 
than  to  warfare.  Then  followed  in  succession  his  sons  Francesco 
II.  (d.  i6i2),Ferdinando(d.  1626),  and  Vincenzo  II.  (d.  1627),  all 
three  incapable  and  dissolute  princes.  The  last  named  appointed 
as  his  successor  Charles,  the  son  of  Henriette,  the  heiress  of  the 
French  family  of  Nevers-Rethel,  who  was  only  able  to  take 
possession  of  the  ducal  throne  after  a  bloody  struggle;  his 
dominions  were  laid  waste  by  foreign  invasions  and  he  himself 
was  reduced  to  the  sorest  straits.  He  died  in  1637,  leaving  his 
possessions  to  his  grandson  Charles  (Carlo)  II.  under  the  regency 
of  the  latter's  mother  Maria  Gonzaga,  which  lasted  until  1647. 
Charles  died  in  consequence  of  his  own  profligacy  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  Ferdinand  Charles  (Ferdinando  Carlo), 
who  was  likewise  for  some  years  under  the  regency  of  his  mother 
Isabella  of  Austria.  Ferdinand  Charles,  another  extravagant 
and  dissolute  prince,  acquired  the  county  of  Guastalla  by 
marriage  in  1678,  but  lost  it  soon  afterwards;  he  involved  his 
country  in  useless  warfare,  with  the  result  that  in  1708  Austria 
annexed  the  duchy.  On  the  sth  of  July  of  the  same  year  he 
died  in  Venice,  and  with  him  the  Gonzagas  of  Mantua  came  to  an 
end. 

Of  the  cadet  branches  of  the  house  one  received  the  lordship 
of  Bozzolo,  another  the  counties  of  Novellara  and  Bagnolo,  a 
third,  of  which  the  founder  was  Ferrante  I.  (d.  1557),  retained 
the  county  of  Guastalla,  raised  to  a  duchy  in  1621,  and  came  to 
an  end  with  the  death  of  Giuseppe  Maria  on  the  i6th  of  August 

1746. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — S.  Maffei,  Annali  di  Mantova  (Tortona,  1675) ; 
G.  Veronesi,  Quadra  storico  della  Mirandola  (Modena,  1847) ;  T.  Affo, 
Storia  di  Guastalla  (Guastalla,  1875,  4  vols.);  Alessandro  Luzio, 
/  Precattori  d' Isabella  d'Este  (Ancona,  1887) ;  A.  Luzio  and  R.  Renier, 
"Francesco  Gonzaga  alia  battaglia  di  Fornovo  (1495),  secondo  i 
document!  Mantovani  "  (in  Archivio  storico  italiano,  ser.  v.  vol.  vi., 
205-246);  id.,  Mantova  e  Urbino,  Isabella  d'Este  e  Elisabeth  Gonzaga 
nelle  relazioni  famigliari  e  nelle  vicende  politiche  (Turin,  1893);  L.  G., 
Pelissier,  "  Les  Relations  de  Francois  de  Gonzague,  marquis  de 
Mantoue,  avec  Ludovico  Sforza  et  Louis  XII  "  (in  Annales  de  la 
faculte  de  Lettres  de  Bordeaux,  1893);  Antonino  Bertolotti,  "  Lettere 
del  duca  di  Savoia  Emanuele  Filiberto  a  Guglielmo  Gonzaga,  duca  di 
Mantova" (A rch.  star,  it.,  ser.  v.,  vol.ix.  pp.  250-283) ;  EdmpndoSolari, 
Lettere  inedite  del  card.  Gasparo  Contarini  nel  carteggio  del  card. 
Ercole  Gonzaga  (Venice,  1904);  Arturo  Segrd,  //  Richiamo  di  Don 
Ferrante  Gonzaga  dal  governo  di  Milano,  e  sue  conseguenze  (Turin, 
1904). 

GONZAGA,  THOMAZ  ANTONIO  (1744-1809),  Portuguese 
poet,  was  a  native  of  Oporto  and  the  son  of  a  Brazilian-born 
judge.  He  spent  a  part  of  his  boyhood  at  Bahia,  where  his 
father  was  disembargador  of  the  appeal  court,  and  returning  to 
Portugal  he  went  to  the  university  of  Coimbra  and  took  his  law 
degree  at  the  age  of  twenty-four.  He  remained  on  there  for  some 
years  and  compiled  a  treatise  of  natural  law  on  regalist  lines, 
'dedicating  it  to  Pombal,  but  the  fall  of  the  marquis  led  him  to 


leave  Coimbra  and  become  a  candidate  for  a  magistracy,  and  in 
1782  he  obtained  the  posts  of  ouvidor  and  provedor  of  the  goods  of 
deceased  and  absent  persons  at  Villa  Rica  in  the  province  of  Minas 
Geraes  in  Brazil.  In  1786  he  was  named  disembargador  of  the 
appeal  court  at  Bahia,  and  three  years  later,  as  he  was  about  to 
marry  a  young  lady  of  position,  D.  Maria  de  Seixas  Brandao,  the 
Marilia  of  his  verses,  he  suddenly  found  himself  arrested  on  the 
charge  of  being  the  principal  author  of  a  Republican  conspiracy  in 
Minas.  Conducted  to  Rio,  he  was  imprisoned  in  a  fortress  and 
interrogated,  but  constantly  asserted  his  innocence.  However, 
his  friendship  with  the  conspirators  compromised  him  in  the  eyes 
of  his  absolutist  judges,  who,  on  the  ground  that  he  had  known  of 
the  plot  and  not  denounced  it,  sentenced  him  in  April  1792  to 
perpetual  exile  in  Angola,  with  the  confiscation  of  his  property. 
Later,  this  penalty  was  commuted  into  one  of  ten  years  of  exile  to 
Mozambique,  with  a  death  sentence  if  he  should  return  to  America. 
After  having  spent  three  years  in  prison,  Gonzaga  sailed  in  May 
1792  for  Mozambique  and  shortly  after  his  arrival  a  violent  fever 
almost  ended  his  life.  A  wealthy  Portuguese  gentleman,  married 
to  a  lady  of  colour,  charitably  received  him  into  his  house,  and 
when  the  poet  recovered,  he  married  their  young  daughter  who 
had  nursed  him  through  the  attack.  He  lived  in  exile  until  his 
death,  practising  advocacy  at  intervals,  but  his  last  years  were 
embittered  by  fits  of  melancholia,  deepening  into  madness,  which 
were  brought  on  by  the  remembrance  of  his  misfortunes.  His 
reputation  as  a  poet  rests  on  a  little  volume  of  bucolics  entitled 
Marilia,  which  includes  all  his  published  verses  and  is  divided  into 
two  parts,  corresponding  with  those  of  his  life.  The  first  extends 
to  his  imprisonment  and  breathes  only  love  and  pleasure,  while 
the  main  theme  of  the  second  part,  written  in  prison,  is  his 
saudade  for  Marilia  and  past  happiness.  Gonzaga  borrowed  his 
forms  from  the  best  models,  Anacreon  and  Theocritus,  but  the 
matter,  except  for  an  occasional  imitation  of  Petrarch,  the 
natural,  elegant  style  and  the  harmonious  metrification,  are  all 
his  own.  The  booklet  comprises  the  most  celebrated  collection  of 
erotic  poetry  dedicated  to  a  single  person  in  the  Portuguese 
tongue ;  indeed  its  popularity  is  so  great  as  to  exceed  its  intrinsic 
merit. 

Twenty-nine  editions  had  appeared  up  to  1854,  but  the  Paris 
edition  of  1862  in  2  vols.  is  in  every  way  the  best,  although  the 
authenticity  of  the  verses  in  its  3rd  part,  which  do  not  relate  to 
Marilia,  is  doubtful.  A  popular  edition  of  the  first  two  parts  was 
published  in  1888  (Lisbon,  Corazzi).  A  French  version  of  Marilia  by 
Monglave  and  Chalas  appeared  in  Paris  in  1825,  an  Italian  by 
Vegezzi  Ruscalla  at  Turin  in  1844,  a  Latin  by  Dr  Castro  Lopes  at 
Rio  in  1868,  and  there  is  a  Spanish  one  by  Vedia. 

See  Innocencio  da  Silva,  Diccionario  biblipgraphico  porluguez, 
vol.  vii.  p.  320,  also  Dr  T.  Braga,  Filinto  Elysio  e  os  Disstdentas  da 
Arcadia  (Oporto,  1901).  (E.  PR.) 

GONZALEZ-CAR  VAJAL,  TOMAS  JOSE  (1753-1834),  Spanish 
poet  and  statesman,  was  born  at  Seville  in  1753.  He  studied  at 
the  university  of  Seville,  and  took  the  degree  of  LL.D.  at  Madrid. 
He  obtained  an  office  in  the  financial  department  of  the  govern- 
ment; and  in  1795  was  made  intendant  of  the  colonies  which  had 
just  been  founded  in  Sierra  Morena  and  Andalusia.  During 
1809-1811  he  held  an  intendancy  in  the  patriot  army.  Ha 
became,  in  1812,  director  of  the  university  of  San  Isidro ;  but 
having  offended  the  government  by  establishing  a  chair  of  inter- 
national law,  he  was  imprisoned  for  five  years  (1815-1820).  The 
revolution  of  1820  reinstated  him,  but  the  counter-revolution  of 
three  years  later  forced  him  into  exile.  After  four  years  he  was 
allowed  to  return,  and  Jie  died,  in  1834,  a  member  of  the  supreme 
council  of  war.  Gonzalez-Carvajal  enjoyed  European  fame  as 
author  of  metrical  translations  of  the  poetical  books  of  the  Bible. 
To  fit  himself  for  this  work  he  commenced  the  study  of  Hebrew  at 
the  age  of  fifty-four.  He  also  wrote  other  works  in  verse  and 
prose,  avowedly  taking  Luis  de  Leon  as  his  model. 

See  biographical  notice  in  Biblioteca  de  Rivadeneyra,  vol.  Ixvii., 
Poetas  del  siglo  18, 

GONZALO  DE  BERCEO  (c.  n8o-c.  1246),  the  earliest  Castilian 
poet  whose  name  is  known  to  us,  was  born  at  Berceo,  a  village  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Calahorra  in  the  province  of  Logrono.  In 
1 221  he  became  a  deacon  and  was  attached,  as  a  secular  priest, 
to  the  Benedictine  monastery  of  San  Millan  de  la  Cogolla,  in  the 


GOOCH— GOOD  FRIDAY 


237 


diocese  of  Calahorra.  His  name  is  to  be  met  with  in  a  number  of 
documents  between  the  years  1237  and  1246.  He  wrote  upwards 
of  13,000  verses,  all  on  devotional  subjects.  His  best  work  is  a 
life  of  St  Oria;  others  treat  of  the  life  of  St  Millan,  of  St  Dominic 
of  Silos,  of  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass,  the  Martyrdom  of  St  Laurence, 
the  visible  signs  preceding  the  Last  Judgment,  the  Praises  of 
Our  Lady,  the  Miracles  of  Our  Lady  and  the  Lamentations  of  the 
Virgin  on  the  Passion  of  her  Son.  He  writes  in  the  common 
tongue,  the  roman  paladino,  and  his  claim  to  the  name  of  poet 
rests  on  his  use  of  the  cuaderna  via  (single-rhymed  quatrains, 
each  verse  being  of  fourteen  syllables).  Sometimes,  however,  he 
takes  the  more  modest  title  of  juglar  (jongleur),  when  claiming 
payment  for  his  poems.  His  literary  attainments  are  not  great, 
and  he  lacks  imagination  and  animation  of  style,  but  he  has  a 
certain  eloquence,  and  in  speaking  of  the  Virgin  and  the  saints  a 
certain  charm,  while  his  verse  bears  at  times  the  imprint  of  a 
passionate  devotion,  recalling  the  lyrical  style  of  the  great 
Spanish  mystics.  There  is,  however,  a  very  strong  popular  element 
in  his  writings,  which  explains  his  long  vogue.  The  great 
majority  of  his  legends  of  the  Virgin  are  obviously  borrowed 
from  the  collection  of  a  Frenchman,  Gautier  de  Coinci;  but  he 
has  succeeded  in  making  this  material  entirely  his  own  by  reason 
of  a  certain  conciseness  and  a  realism  in  detail  which  make  his 
work  far  superior  to  the  tedious  and  colourless  narrative  of  his 
model. 

His  Poesias  are  in  the  Biblioteca  de  autores  espanoles  of  Riva- 
deneyra,  vol.  Ivii.  (1864) ;  La  Vida  de  San  Domingo  de  Silos  has  been 
edited  by  J.  D.  FitzGerald  (Paris,  1904;  see  the  Bibliotheque  de 
I'Ecole  des  Hautes  £,tudes,  part  149);  see  also  F.  Fernandez  y 
Gonzalez  in  the  Razon  (vol.  i.,  Madrid,  1860) ;  N.  Hergueta,  "  Docu- 
mentos  referentes  a  Gonzalo  de  Berceo,"  in  the  Revista  de  archives, 
(3rd  series,  Feb.-March,  1904,  pp.  178-179).  (P.  A.) 

GOOCH,  SIR  DANIEL,  Bart.  (1816-1889),  English  mechanical 
engineer,  was  born  at  Bedlington,  in  Northumberland,  on  the 
i6th  of  August  1816.  At  the  age  of  fifteen,  having  shown  a  taste 
for  mechanics,  he  was  put  to  work  at  the  Tredegar  Ironworks, 
Monmouthshire.  In  1834  he  went  to  Warrington,  where,  at  the 
Vulcan  foundry,  under  Robert  Stephenson,  he  acquired  the 
principles  of  locomotive  design.  Subsequently,  after  passing  a 
year  at  Dundee,  he  was  engaged  by  the  Stephensons  at  their 
Gateshead  works,  where  he  seems  to  have  conceived  that  predilec- 
tion for  the  broad  gauge  for  which  he  was  afterwards  distinguished, 
through  having  to  design  some  engines  for  a  6-foot  gauge  in 
Russia  and  noticing  the  advantages  it  offered  in  allowing  greater 
space  for  the  machinery,  &c.,  as  compared  with  the  standard 
gauge  favoured  by  Stephenson.  In  1837,  on  I.  K.  Brunei's 
recommendation,  he  was  appointed  locomotive  superintendent  to 
the  Great  Western  railway  at  a  time  when  the  engines  possessed 
by  the  railway  were  very  poor  and  inefficient.  He  soon  improved 
this  state  of  affairs,  and  gradually  provided  his  employers  with 
locomotives  which  were  unsurpassed  for  general  excellence  and 
economy  of  working.  One  of  the  most  famous,  the  "  Lord  of  the 
Isles,"  was  awarded  a  gold  medal  at  the  Great  Exhibition  of  1851, 
and  when,  thirty  years  afterwards,  it  was  withdrawn  from  active 
service  it  had  run  more  than  three-quarters  of  a  million  miles,  all 
with  its  original  boiler.  In  1864  he  left  the  Great  Western  and 
interested  himself  in  the  problem  of  laying  a  telegraph  cable 
across  the  Atlantic.  At  this  time  the  "  Great  Eastern  "  was  in 
the  hands  of  the  bondholders,  of  whom  he  himself  was  one  of  the 
most  important,  and  it  occurred  to  him  that  she  might  advan- 
tageously be  utilized  in  the  enterprise.  Accordingly,  at  his 
instance  she  was  chartered  by  the  Telegraph  Construction 
Company,  of  which  also  he  was  a  director,  and  in  1865  was 
employed  in  the  attempt  to  lay  a  cable,  Gooch  himself  super- 
intending operations.  The  cable,  however,  broke  in  mid-ocean, 
and  the  attempt  was  a  failure.  Next  year  it  was  renewed  with 
more  success,  for  not  only  was  a  new  cable  safely  put  in  place,  but 
the  older  one  was  picked  up  and  spliced,  so  that  there  were  two 
complete  lines  between  England  and  America.  For  this  achieve- 
ment Gooch  was  created  a  baronet.  Meanwhile  the  Great 
Western  railway  had  fallen  on  evil  days,  being  indeed  on  the 
verge  of  bankruptcy,  when  in  1866  the  directors  appealed  to  him 
to  accept  the  chairmanship  of  the  board  and  undertake  the 


rehabilitation  of  the  company.  He  agreed  to  the  proposal,  and 
was  so  successful  in  restoring  its  prosperity  that  in  1889,  at  the 
last  meeting  over  which  he  presided,  a  dividend  was  declared  at  the 
rate  of  7^%.  Under  his  administration  the  system  was  greatly 
enlarged  and  consolidated  by  the  absorption  of  various  smaller 
lines,  such  as  the  Bristol  and  Exeter  and  the  Cornwall  railways; 
and  his  appreciation  of  its  strategic  value  caused  him  to  be  a 
strenuous  supporter  of  the  construction  of  the  Severn  Tunnel. 
His  death  occurred  on  the  i5th  of  October  1889  at  his  residence, 
Clewer  Park,  near  Windsor. 

GOOD,  JOHN  MASON  (1764-1827),  English  writer  on  medical, 
religious  and  classical  subjects,  was  born  on  the  25th  of  May 
1764  at  Epping,  Essex.  After  attending  a  school  at  Romsey 
kept  by  his  father,  the  Rev.  Peter  Good,  who  was  a  Nonconformist 
minister,  he  was,  at  about  the  age  of  fifteen,  apprenticed  to  a 
surgeon-apothecary  at  Gosport.  In  1783  he  went  to  London  to 
prosecute  his  medical  studies,  and  in  the  autumn  of  1784  he 
began  to  practise  as  a  surgeon  at  Sudbury  in  Suffolk.  In  1793 
he  removed  to  London,  where  he  entered  into  partnership  with 
a  surgeon  and  apothecary.  But  the  partnership  was  soon 
dissolved,  and  to  increase  his  income  he  began  to  devote  attention 
to  literary  pursuits.  Besides  contributing  both  in  prose  and 
verse  to  the  Analytical  and  Critical  Reviews  and  the  British 
and  Monthly  Magazines,  and  other  periodicals,  he  wrote  a  large 
number  of  works  relating  chiefly  to  medical  and  religious  subjects. 
In  1794  he  became  a  member  of  the  British  Pharmaceutical 
Society,  and  in  that  connexion,  and  especially  by  the  publication 
of  his  work,  A  History  of  Medicine  (1795),  he  did  much  to  effect 
a  greatly  needed  reform  in  the  profession  of  the  apothecary. 
In  1820  he  took  the  diploma  of  M.D.  at  Marischal  College, 
Aberdeen.  He  died  at  Shepperton,  Middlesex,  on  the  2nd  of 
January  1827.  Good  was  not  only  well  versed  in  classical 
literature,  but  was  acquainted  with  the  principal  European 
languages,  and  also  with  Persian,  Arabic  and  Hebrew.  His 
prose  works  display  wide  erudition;  but  their  style  is  dull  and 
tedious.  His  poetry  never  rises  above  pleasant  and  well-versified 
commonplace.  His  translation  of  Lucretius,  The  Nature  of 
Things  (1805-1807),  contains  elaborate  philological  and  ex- 
planatory notes,  together  with  parallel  passages  and  quotations 
from  European  and  Asiatic  authors. 

GOOD  FRIDAY  (probably  "God's  Friday  "),"  the  English 
name  for  the  Friday  before  Easter,  kept  as  the  anniversary  of 
the  Crucifixion.  In  the  Greek  Church  it  has  been  or  is  known 
as  irdcrxa  [aTaupaxnjuoc],  irapaaKtwri,  irapcuTKfvfi  ntya^ij  or  ayia, 
(wnjpia  or  T&.  cxorijpia,  i^tpa  rov  craupoD,  while  among  the 
Latins  the  names  of  most  frequent  occurrence  are  Pascha  Crucis, 
Dies  Dominicae  Passionis,  Parasceve,  Feria  Sexta  Paschae, 
Feria  Sexta  Major  in  Hierusalem,  Dies  Absolutionis.  It  was 
called  Long  Friday  by  the  Anglo-Saxons1  and  Danes,  possibly  in 
allusion  to  the  length  of  the  services  which  marked  the  day. 
In  Germany  it  is  sometimes  designated  Stiller  Freitag  (compare 
Greek,  e/35o;uas  a^pa/cros;  Latin,  hebdomas  inofficiosa,  non 
laboriosa)',  but  more  commonly  Charfreitag.  The  etymology 
of  this  last  name  has  been  much  disputed,  but  there  seems  now 
to  be  little  doubt  that  it  is  derived  from  the  Old  High  German 
chara,  meaning  suffering  or  mourning. 

The  origin  of  the  custom  of  a  yearly  commemoration  of  the 
Crucifixion  is  somewhat  obscure.  It  may  be  regarded  as  certain 
that  among  Jewish  Christians  it  almost  imperceptibly  grew  out 
of  the  old  habit  of  annually  celebrating  the  Passover  on  the 
i4th  of  Nisan,  and  of  observing  the  "  days  of  unleavened  bread  " 
from  the  i  sth  to  the  2  ist  of  that  month.  In  the  Gentile  churches, 
on  the  other  hand,  it  seems  to  be  well  established  that  originally 
no  yearly  cycle  of  festivals  was  known  at  all.  (See  EASTER.) 

From  its  earliest  observance,  the  day  was  marked  by  a  specially 
rigorous  fast,  and  also,  on  the  whole,  by  a  tendency  to  greater 
simplicity  in  the  services  of  the  church.  Prior  to  the  4th  century 
there  is  no  evidence  of  non-celebration  of  the  eucharist  on  Good 
Friday;  but  after  that  date  the  prohibition  of  communion 

1  See  Johnson's  Collection  of  Ecclesiastical  Laws  (vol.  i.,  anno  057) : 
"  House!  ought  not  to  be  hallowed  on  Long  Friday,  because  Christ 
suffered  for  us  on  that  day." 


238 


GOODMAN— GOODSIR 


became  common.  In  Spain,  indeed,  it  became  customary  to 
close  the  churches  altogether  as  a  sign  of  mourning;  but  this 
practice  was  condemned  by  the  council  of  Toledo  (633).  In  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  the  Good  Friday  ritual  at  present 
observed  is  marked  by  many  special  features,  most  of  which 
can  be  traced  back  to  a  date  at  least  prior  to  the  close  of  the  8th 
century  (see  the  Ordo  Romanus  in  Muratori's  Liturg.  Rom.  Vet.). 
The  altar  and  officiating  clergy  are  draped  in  black,  this  being  the 
only  day  on  which  that  colour  is  permitted.  Instead  of  the 
epistle,  sundry  passages  from  Hosea,  Habakkuk,  Exodus  and 
the  Psalms  are  read.  The  gospel  for  the  day  consists  of  the 
history  of  the  Passion  as  recorded  by  St  John.  This  is  often 
sung  in  plain-chaunt  by  three  priests,  one  representing  the  "  nar- 
rator," the  other  two  the  various  characters  of  the  story.  The 
singing  of  this  is  followed  by  bidding  prayers  for  the  peace  and 
unity  of  the  church,  for  the  pope,  the  clergy,  all  ranks  and 
conditions  of  men,  the  sovereign,  for  catechumens,  the  sick  and 
afflicted,  heretics  and  schismatics,  Jews  and  heathen.  Then 
follows  the  "  adoration  of  the  cross  "  (a  ceremony  derived  from 
the  church  of  Jerusalem  and  said  to  date  back  to  near  the  time 
of  Helena's  "  invention  of  the  cross ") ;  the  hymns  Pange 
lingua  and  Vexilla  regis  are  sung,  and  then  follows  the  "  Mass 
of  the  Presanctified."  The  name  is  derived  from  the  fact  that 
it  is  celebrated  with  elements  consecrated  the  day  before,  the 
liturgy  being  omitted  on  this  day.  The  priest  merely  places  the 
Sacrament  on  the  altar,  censes  it,  elevates  and  breaks  the  host, 
and  communicates,  the  prayers  and  responses  interspersed  being 
peculiar  to  the  day.  This  again  is  followed  by  vespers,  with  a 
special  anthem;  after  which  the  altar  is  stripped  in  silence. 
In  many  Roman  Catholic  countries — in  Spain,  for  example — it  is 
usual  for  the  faithful  to  spend  much  time  in  the  churches  in 
meditation  on  the  "  seven  last  words  "  of  the  Saviour;  no 
carriages  are  driven  through  the  streets;  the  bells  and  organs 
are  silent;  and  in  every  possible  way  it  is  sought  to  deepen  the 
impression  of  a  profound  and  universal  grief.  In  the  Greek 
Church  also  the  Good  Friday  fast  is  excessively  strict;  as  in  the 
Roman  Church,  the  Passion  history  is  read  and  the  cross  adored; 
towards  evening  a  dramatic  representation  of  the  entombment 
takes  place,  amid  open  demonstrations  of  contempt  for  Judas 
and  the  Jews.  In  Lutheran  churches  the  organ  is  silent  on  this 
day,  and  altar,  font  and  pulpit  are  draped  in  black,  as  indeed 
throughout  Holy  Week.  In  the  Church  of  England  the  history 
of  the  Passion  from  the  gospel  according  to  John  is  also  read; 
the  collects  for  the  day  are  based  upon  the  bidding  prayers 
which  are  found  in  the  Ordo  Romanus.  The  "  three  hours  " 
service,  borrowed  from  Roman  Catholic  usage  and  consisting 
of  prayers,  addresses  on  the  "  seven  last  words  from  the  cross  " 
and  intervals  for  meditation  and  silent  prayer,  has  become  very 
popular  in  the  Anglican  Church,  and  the  observance  of  the  day 
is  more  marked  than  formerly  among  Nonconformist  bodies, 
even  in  Scotland. 

GOODMAN,  GODFREY  (1583-1656),  bishop  of  Gloucester, 
was  born  at  Ruthin,  Denbighshire,  and  educated  at  Westminster 
and  Cambridge.  He  took  orders  in  1603,  and  in  1606  obtained 
the  living  of  Stapleford  Abbots,  Essex,  which  he  held  together 
with  several  other  livings.  He  was  canon  of  Windsor  from  1617 
and  dean  of  Rochester  1620-1621,  and  became  bishop  of 
Gloucester  in  1625.  From  this  time  his  tendencies  towards 
Roman  Catholicism  constantly  got  him  into  trouble.  He 
preached  an  unsatisfactory  sermon  at  court  in  1626,  and  in 
1628  incurred  charges  of  introducing  popery  at  Windsor.  In 
1633  he  secured  the  see  of  Hereford  by  bribery,  but  Archbishop 
Laud  persuaded  the  king  to  refuse  his  consent.  In  1638  he  was 
said  to  be  converted  to  Rome,  and  two  years  later  he  was  im- 
prisoned for  refusing  to  sign  the  new  canons  denouncing  popery 
and  affirming  the  divine  right  of  kings.  He  afterwards  signed 
and  was  released  on  bail,  but  next  year  the  bishops  who  had 
signed  were  all  imprisoned  in  the  Tower,  by  order  of  parliament, 
on  the  charge  of  treason.  After  eighteen  weeks'  imprisonment 
Goodman  was  allowed  to  return  to  his  diocese.  About  1650  he 
settled  in  London,  where  he  died  a  confessed  Roman  Catholic. 
His  best  known  book  is  The  Fall  of  Man  (London,  1616). 


GOODRICH,  SAMUEL  GRISWOLD  (1793-1860),  American 
author,  better  known  under  the  pseudonym  of  "  Peter  Parley," 
was  born,  the  son  of  a  Congregational  minister,  at  Ridgefield, 
Connecticut,  on  the  ipth  of  August  1793.  He  was  largely 
self-educated,  became  an  assistant  in  a  country  store  at  Danbury, 
Conn.,  in  1808,  and  at  Hartford,  Conn.,  in  1811,  and  from  1816  to 
1822  was  a  bookseller  and  publisher  at  Hartford.  He  visited 
Europe  in  1823-1824,  and  in  1826  removed  to  Boston,  where 
he  continued  in  the  publishing  business,  and  from  1828  to  1842 
he  published  an  illustrated  annual,  the  Token,  to  which  he  was 
a  frequent  contributor  both  in  prose  and  verse.  A  selection 
from  these  contributions  was  published  in  1841  under  the  title 
Sketches  from  a.  Student's  Window.  The  Token  also  contained 
some  of  the  earliest  work  of  Nathaniel  Hawthorne,  N.  P.  Willis, 
Henry  W.  Longfellow  and  Lydia  Maria  Child.  In  1841  he 
established  Merry's  Museum,  which  he  continued  to  edit  till 
1854.  In  1827  he  began,  under  the  name  of  "  Peter  Parley,"  his 
series  of  books  for  the  young,  which  embraced  geography, 
biography,  history,  science  and  miscellaneous  tales.  Of  these 
he  was  the  sole  author  of  only  a  few,  but  in  1857  he  wrote  that  he 
was  "the  author  and  editor  of  about  170  volumes,"  and  that 
about  seven  millions  had  been  sold.  In  1857  he  published 
Recollections  of  a  Lifetime,  which  contains  a  list  both  of  the 
works  of  which  he  was  the  author  or  editor  and  of  the  spurious 
works  published  under  his  name.  By  his  writings  and  publica- 
tions he  amassed  a  large  fortune.  He  was  chosen  a  member  of 
the  Massachusetts  House  of  Representatives  in  1836,  and  of  the 
state  Senate  in  1837,  his  competitor  in  the  last  election  being 
Alexander  H.  Everett,  and  in  1851-1853  he  was  consul  at  Paris, 
where  he  remained  till  1855,  taking  advantage  of  his  stay  to  have 
several  of  his  works  translated  into  French.  After  his  return 
to  America*  he  published,  in  1859,  Illustrated  History  of  the 
Animal  Kingdom.  He  died,  in  New  York,  on  the  gth  of  May 
1860. 

His  brother,  CHARLES  AUGUSTUS  GOODRICH  (1790-1862),  a 
Congregational,  clergyman,  published  various  ephemeral  books, 
and  helped  to  compile  some  of  the  "  Peter  Parley  "  series. 

GOODRICH,  or  GOODRICKE,  THOMAS  (d.  1554),  English 
ecclesiastic,  was  a  son  of  Edward  Goodrich  of  East  Kirkby, 
Lincolnshire,  and  was  educated  at  Corpus  Christi  College, 
Cambridge,  afterwards  becoming  a  fellow  of  Jesus  College  in  the 
same  university.  He  was  among  the  divines.consulted  about  the 
legality  of  Henry  VIII. 's  marriage  with  Catherine  of  Aragon, 
became  one  of  the  royal  chaplains  about  1530,  and  was  conse- 
crated bishop  of  Ely  in  1 534.  He  was  favourable  to  the  Reforma- 
tion, helped  in  1537  to  draw  up  the  Institution  of  a  Christian 
Man  (known  as  the  Bishops'  Book),  and  translated  the  Gospel 
of  St  John  for  the  revised  New  Testament.  On  the  accession  of 
Edward  VI.  in  1547  the  bishop  was  made  a  privy  councillor, 
and  took  a  conspicuous  part  in  public  affairs  during  the  reign. 
"  A  busy  secular  spirited  man,"  as  Burnet  calls  him,  he  was 
equally  opposed  to  the  zealots  of  the  "  old  "  and  the  "  new 
religion."  He  assisted  to  compile  the  First  Prayer  Book  of 
Edward  VI.,  was  one  of  the  commissioners  for  the  trial  of  Bishop 
Gardiner,  and  in  January  1551-1552  succeeded  Rich  as  lord  high 
chancellor.  This  office  he  continued  to  hold  during  the  nine 
days'  reign  of  "  Queen  Jane  "  (Lady  Jane  Grey) ;  but  he  con- 
tinued to  make  his  peace  with  Queen  Mary,  conformed  to  the 
restored  religion,  and,  though  deprived  of  the  chancellorship, 
was  allowed  to  keep  his  bishopric  until  his  death  on  the  loth  of 
May  1554. 

See  the  Did.  Nat.  Biog.,  where  further  authorities  are  cited. 

GOODSIR,  JOHN  (1814-1867),  Scottish  anatomist,  born  at 
Anstruther,  Fife,  on  the  2oth  of  March  1814,  was  the  son  of  Dr 
John  Goodsir,  and  grandson  of  Dr  John  Goodsir  of  Largo.  He 
was  educated  at  the  burgh  and  grammar-schools  of  his  native 
place  and  at  the  university  of  St  Andrews.  In  1830  he  was 
apprenticed  to  a  surgeon-dentist  in  Edinburgh,  where  he  studied 
anatomy  under  Robert  Knox,  and  in  1835  he  joined  his  father 
in  practice  at  Anstruther.  Three  years  later  he  communicated 
to  the  British  Association  a  paper  on  the  pulps  and  sacs  of  the 
human  teeth,  his  researches  on  the  whole  process  of  dentition 


GOODWILL— GOODWIN,  T. 


239 


being  at  this  time  distinguished  by  their  completeness;  and 
about  the  same  date,  on  the  nomination  of  Edward  Forbes,  he 
was  elected  to  the  famous  coterie  called  the  "  Universal  Brother- 
hood of  the  Friends  of  Truth,"  which  comprised  artists,  scholars, 
naturalists  and  others,  whose  relationship  became  a  potent 
influence  in  scien'ce.  With  Forbes  he  worked  at  marine  zoology, 
but  human  anatomy,  pathology  and  morphology  formed  his 
chief  study.  In  1840  he  moved  to  Edinburgh,  where  in  the 
following  year  he  was  appointed  conservator  of  the  museum  of 
the  College  of  Surgeons,  in  succession  to  William  Macgillivray. 
Much  of  his  reputation  rested  on  his  knowledge  of  the  anatomy  of 
tissues.  In  his  lectures  in  the  theatre  of  the  college  in  1842-1843 
he  evidenced  the  largeness  of  his  observation  of  cell-life,  both 
physiologically  and  pathologically,  insisting  on  the  importance 
of  the  cell  as  a  centre  of  nutrition,  and  pointing  out  that  the 
organism  is  subdivided  into  a  number  of  departments.  R. 
Virchow  recognized  his  indebtedness  to  these  discoveries  by 
dedicating  his  Cellular  Pathologic  to  Goodsir,  as  "  one  of  the 
earliest  and  most  acute  observers  of  cell-life."  In  1843  Goodsir 
obtained  the  post  of  curator  in  the  university  of  Edinburgh; 
the  following  year  he  was  appointed  demonstrator  of  anatomy, 
and  in  1845  curator  of  the  entire  museum.  A  year  later  he  was 
elected  to  the  chair  of  anatomy  in  the  university,  and  devoted 
all  his  energies  to  anatomical  research  and  teaching. 

Human  myology  was  his  strong  point;  no  one  had  laboured 
harder  at  the  dissecting-table;  and  he  strongly  emphasized 
the  necessity  of  practice  as  a  means  of  research.  He  believed 
that  anatomy,  physiology  and  pathology  could  never  be  properly 
advanced  without  daily  consideration  and  treatment  of  disease. 
In  1848  he  became  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons, 
and  in  the  same  year  he  joined  the  Highland  and  Agricultural 
Society,  acting  as  chairman  of  the  veterinary  department,  and 
advising  on  strictly  agricultural  matters.  In  1847  he  delivered 
a  series  of  systematic  lectures  on  the  comparative  anatomy 
of  the  invertebrata;  and,  about  this  period,  as  member  of  an 
aesthetic  club,  he  wrote  papers  on  the  natural  principles  of 
beauty,  the  aesthetics  of  the  ugly,  of  smell,  the  approbation  or 
disapprobation  of  sounds,  &c.  Owing  to  the  failing  health  of 
Professor  Robert  Jameson,  Goodsir  was  induced  to  deliver  the 
course  of  lectures  on  natural  history  during  the  summer  of  1853. 

The  lectures  were  long  remembered  for  their  brilliancy,  but 
the  infinite  amount  of  thought  and  exertion  which  they  cost 
broke  down  the  health  of  the  lecturer.  Goodsir,  nevertheless, 
persevered  in  his  labours,  writing  in  1855  on  organic  electricity, 
in  1856  on  morphological  subjects,  and  afterwards  on  the  structure 
of  organized  forms.  His  speculations  in  the  latter  domain  gave 
birth  to  his  theory  of  a  triangle  as  the  mathematical  figure 
upon  which  nature  had  built  up  both  the  organic  and  inorganic 
worlds,  and  he  hoped  to  complete  this  triangle  theory  of  formation 
and  law  as  the  greatest  of  his  works.  In  his  lectures  on  the  skull 
and  brain  he  held  the  doctrine  that  symmetry  of  brain  had  more 
to  do  with  the  higher  faculties  than  bulk  or  form.  He  died  at 
Wardie,  near  Edinburgh,  on  the  6th  of  March  1867,  in  the  same 
cottage  in  which  his  friend  Edward  Forbes  died.  His  anatomical 
lectures  were  remarkable  for  their  solid  basis  of  fact ;  and  no  one 
in  Britain  took  so  wide  a  field  for  survey  or  marshalled  so  many 
facts  for  anatomical  tabulation  and  synthesis. 

See  Anatomical  Memoirs  of  John  Goodsir,  F.R.S.,  edited  by  W. 
Turner,  with  Memoir  by  H.  Lonsdale  (2  vols.,  Edinburgh,  1868),  in 
which  Goodsir's  lectures,  addresses  and  writings  are  epitomized; 
Proc.  Roy.  Soc.  vol.  iv.  (1868) ;  Trans.  Bot.  Soc.  Edin.  vol.  ix.  (1868). 

GOODWILL,  in  the  law  of  property,  a  term  of  somewhat 
vague  significance.  It  has  been  defined  as  every  advantage 
which  has  been  acquired  in  carrying  on  a  business,  whether 
connected  with  the  premises  in  which  the  business  has  been 
carried  on,  or  with  the  name  of  the  firm  by  whom  it  has  been 
conducted  (Churton  v.  Douglas,  1859,  Johns,  174).  Goodwill 
may  be  either  professional  or  trade.  Professional  goodwill 
usually  takes  the  form  of  the  recommendation  by  a  retiring 
professional  man,  doctor,  solicitor,  &c.,  to  his  clients  of  the  suc- 
cessor or  purchaser  coupled  generally  with  an  undertaking  not 
to  compete  with  him.  Trade  goodwill  varies  with  the  nature  of 


the  business  with  which  it  is  connected,  but  there  are  two  rights 
which,  whatever  the  nature  of  the  business  may  be,  are  invariably 
associated  with  it,  viz.  the  right  of  the  purchaser  to  represent 
himself  as  the  owner  of  the  business,  and  the  right  to  restrain 
competition.  For  the  purposes  of  the  Stamp  Act,  the  goodwill  of 
a  business  is  property,  and  the  proper  duty  must  be  paid  on  the 
conveyance  of  such.  (See  also  PARTNERSHIP;  PATENTS.) 

GOODWIN,  JOHN  (c.  1594-1665),  English  Nonconformist 
divine,  was  born  in  Norfolk  and  educated  at  Queens'  College, 
Cambridge,  where  he  was  elected  fellow  in  1617.  He  was  vicar 
of  St  Stephen's,  Coleman  Street,  London,  from  1633  to  1645, 
when  he  was  ejected  by  parliament  for  his  attacks  on  Presbyterian- 
ism,  especially  in  his  Geo/mxio.  (1644) .  He  thereupon  established 
an  independent  congregation,  and  put  his  literary  gifts  at  Oliver 
Cromwell's  service.  In  1648  he  justified  the  proceedings  of  the 
army  against  the  parliament  ("  Pride's  Purge  ")  in  a  pamphlet 
Might  and  Right  Well  Mel,  and  in  1649  defended  the  proceedings 
against  Charles  I.  (to  whom  he  had  offered  spiritual  advice)  in 
"T  PpuTTodLnai.  At  the  Restoration  this  tract,  with  some  that 
Milton  had  written  to  Monk  in  favour  of  a  republic,  was  publicly 
burnt,  and  Goodwin  was  ordered  into  custody,  though  finally  in- 
demnified. He  died  in  1665.  Among  his  other  writings  are  Anti- 
Cavalierisme  (1642),  a  translation  of  the  Stralagemata  Satanae  of 
Giacomo  Aconcio,  the  Elizabethan  advocate  of  toleration,  tracts 
against  Fifth-Monarchy  Men,  Cromwell's  "  Triers "  and 
Baptists,  and  Redemption  Redeemed,  containing  a  thorough 
discussion  of  .  .  .  election,  reprobation  and  the  perseverance  of 
the  saints  (1651,  reprinted  1840).  Goodwin's  strongly  Arminian 
tendencies  brought  him  into  conflict  with  Robert  Baillie,  professor 
of  divinity  of  Glasgow,  George  Kendall,  the  Calvinist  prebendary 
of  Exeter,  and  John  Owen  (q.i>.~),  who  replied  to  Redemption 
Redeemed  in  The  Doctrine  of  the  Saints'  Perseverance,  paying  a 
high  tribute  to  his  opponent's  learning  and  controversial  skill. 
Goodwin  answered  all  three  in  the  Triumviri  (1658).  John 
Wesley  in  later  days  held  him  in  much  esteem  and  published  an 
abridged  edition  of  his  Impulalio  fidei,  a  work  on  justification 
that  had  originally  appeared  in  1642. 

Life  by  T.  Jackson  (London,  1839). 

GOODWIN,  NATHANIEL  CARL  (1857-  ),  American  actor, 
was  born  in  Boston  on  the  25th  of  July  1857.  While  clerk  in  a 
large  shop  he  studied  for  the  stage,  and  made  his  first  appearance 
in  1873  in  Boston  in  Stuart  Robson's  company  as  the  newsboy 
in  Joseph  Bradford's  Law.  He  made  an  immediate  success  by  his 
imitations  of  popular  actors.  A  hit  in  the  burlesque  Black-eyed 
Susan  led  to  his  taking  part  in  Rice  arid  Goodwin's  Evangeline 
company.  It  was  at  this  time  that  he  married  Eliza  Weathersby 
(d.  1887),  an  English  actress  with  whom  he  played  in  B.  E. 
Woollf's  Hobbies.  It  was  not  until  1889,  however,  that  Nat 
Goodwin's  talent  as  a  comedian  of  the  "legitimate"  type  began 
to  be  recognized.  From  that  time  he  appeared  in  a  number  of 
plays  designed  to  display  his  drily  humorous  method,  such  as 
Brander  Matthews'  and  George  H.  Jessop's  A  Gold  Mine, 
Henry  Guy  Carleton's  A  Gilded  Fool  and  Ambition,  Clyde  Fitch's 
Nathan  Hale,  H.  V.  Esmond's  When  vie  were  Twenty-one,  &c. 
Till  1903  he  was  associated  in  his  performances  with  his  third 
wife,  the  actress  Maxine  Elliott  (b.  1873),  whom  he  married  in 
1898;  this  marriage  was  dissolved  in  1908. 

GOODWIN,  THOMAS  (1600-1680),  English  Nonconformist 
divine,  was  born  at  Rollesby,  Norfolk,  on  the  5th  of  October 
1600,  and  was  educated  at  Christ's  College,  Cambridge,  where  in 
1616  he  graduated  B.A.  In  1619  he  removed  to  Catharine  Hall, 
where  in  1620  he  was  elected  fellow.  In  1625  he  was  licensed 
a  preacher  of  the  university;  and  three  years  afterwards  he 
became  lecturer  of  Trinity  Church,  to  the  vicarage  of  which  he 
was  presented  by  the  king  in  1632.  Worried  by  his  bishop,  who 
was  a  zealous  adherent  of  Laud,  he  resigned  all  his  preferments  and 
left  the  university  in  1634.  He  lived  for  some  time  in  London, 
where  in  1638  he  married  the  daughter  of  an  alderman;  but  in  the 
following  year  he  withdrew  to  Holland,  and  for  some  time  was 
pastor  of  a  small  congregation  of  English  merchants  and  refugees 
atArnheim.  Returning toLondonsoon after Laud'simpeachment 
by  the  Long  Parliament,  he  ministered  for  some  years  to  the 


240 


GOODWIN,  W.  W.— GOODYEAR 


Independent  congregation  meeting  at  Paved  Alley  Church,  Lime 
Street,  in  the  parish  of  St  Dunstan's-in-the-East,  and  rapidly  rose 
to  considerable  eminence  as  a  preacher;  in  1643  he  was  chosen  a 
member  of  the  Westminster  Assembly,  and  at  once  identified 
himself  with  the  Congregational  party,  generally  referred  to  in 
contemporary  documents  as  "  the  dissenting  brethren."  He 
frequently  preached  by  appointment  before  the  Commons,  and  in 
January  1630  his  talents  and  learning  were  rewarded  by  the 
House  with  the  presidentship  of  Magdalen  College,  Oxford,  a  post 
which  he  held  until  the  Restoration.  He  rose  into  high  favour  with 
the  protector,  and  was  one  of  his  intimate  advisers,  attending  him 
on  his  death-bed.  He  was  also  a  commissioner  for  the  inventory 
of  the  Westminster  Assembly,  1650,  and  for  the  approbation  of 
preachers,  1653,  and  together  with  John  Owen  (q.v.)  drew  up  an 
amended  Westminster  Confession  in  1658.  From  1660  until  his 
death  on  the  23rd  of  February  1680  he  lived  in  London,  and 
devoted  himself  exclusively  to  theological  study  and  to  the 
pastoral  charge  of  the  Fetter  Lane  Independent  Church. 

The  works  published  by  Goodwin  during  his  lifetime  consist 
chiefly  of  sermons  printed  by  order  of  the  House  of  Commons;  but 
he  was  also  associated  with  Philip  Nye  and  others  in  the  preparation 
of  the  ApologeticaU  Narration  (1643).  His  collected  writings,  which 
include  expositions  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians  and  of  the 
Apocalypse,  were  published  in  five  folio  volumes  between  1681  and 
1704,  and  were  reprinted  in  twelve  8vo  volumes  (Edin.,  1861-1866). 
Characterized  by  abundant  yet  one-sided  reading,  remarkable  at  once 
for  the  depth  and  for  the  narrowness  of  their  observation  and  spiritual 
experience,  often  admirably  thorough  in  their  workmanship,  yet  in 
style  intolerably  prolix — they  fairly  exemplify  both  the  merits  and 
the  defects  of  the  special  school  of  religious  thought  to  which  they 
belong.  Calamy's  estimate  of  Goodwin's  qualities  may  be  quoted 
as  both  friendly  and  just.  "  He  was  a  considerable  scholar  and  an 
eminent  divine,  and  had  a  very  happy  faculty  in  descanting  upon 
Scripture  so  as  to  bring  forth  surprising  remarks,  which  yet  generally 
tended  to  illustration."  A  memoir,  derived  from  his  own  papers,  by 
his  son  (Thomas  Goodwin,  "the  younger,"  i6so?-i7i6?,  Inde- 
pendent minister  at  London  and  Pinner,  and  author  of  the  History 
of  the  Reign  of  Henry  V.)  is  prefixed  to  the  fifth  volume  of  his  collected 
works;  as  a  "patriarch  and  Atlas  of  Independency  "  he  is  also  noticed 
by  Anthony  Wood  in  the  Athenae  Oxonienses.  An  amusing  sketch, 
from  Addison's  point  of  view,  of  the  austere  and  somewhat  fanatical 
president  of  Magdalen  is  preserved  in  No.  494  of  the  Spectator. 

GOODWIN,  WILLIAM  WATSON  (1831-  ),  American 
classical  scholar,  was  born  in  Concord,  Massachusetts,  on  the 
gth  of  May  1831.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1851,  studied  in 
Germany,  was  tutor  in  Greek  at  Harvard  in  1856-1860,  and 
Eliot  professor  of  Greek  there  from  1860  until  his  resignation  in 
1901.  He  became  an  overseer  of  Harvard  in  1903.  In  1882- 
1883  he  was  the  first  director  of  the  American  School  for  Classical 
Studies  at  Athens.  Goodwin  edited  the  Panegyricus  of  Isocrates 
(1864)  and  Demosthenes  On  The  Crown  (1901);  and  assisted  in 
preparing  the  seventh  edition  of  Liddell  and  Scott's  Greek- 
English  Lexicon.  He  revised  an  .English  version  by  several 
writers  of  Plutarch's  Morals  (5  vols.,  1871;  6th  ed.,  1889),  and 
published  the  Greek  text  with  literal  English  version  of  Aeschylus' 
Agamemnon  (1906)  for  the  Harvard  production  of  that  play  in 
June  1906.  As  a  teacher  he  did  much  to  raise  the  tone  of  classical 
reading  from  that  of  a  mechanical  exercise  to  literary  study. 
But  his  most  important  work  was  his  Syntax  of  the  Moods  and 
Tenses  of  the  Greek  Verb  (1860),  of  which  the  seventh  revised 
edition  appeared  in  1877  and  another  (enlarged)  in  1890.  This, 
was  "  based  in  part  on  Madvig  and  Kriiger,"  but,  besides  making 
accessible  to  American  students  the  works  of  these  continental 
grammarians,  it  presented  original  matter,  including  a  "  radical 
innovation  in  the  classification  of  conditional  sentences,"  notably 
the  "  distinction  between  particular  and  general  suppositions." 
Goodwin's  Greek  Grammar  (elementary  edition,  1870;  enlarged 
1879;  revised  and  enlarged  1892)  gradually  superseded  in  most 
American  schools  the  Grammar  of  Hadley  and  Allen.  Both  the 
Moods  and  Tenses  and  the  Grammar  in  later  editions  are  largely 
dependent  on  the  theories  of  Gildersleeve  for  additions  and 
changes.  Goodwin  also  wrote  a  few  elaborate  syntactical 
studies,  to  be  found  in  Harvard  Studies  in  Classical  Philology, 
the  twelfth  volume  of  which  was  dedicated  to  him  upon  the 
completion  of  fifty  years  as  an  alumnus  of  Harvard  and  forty-one 
years  as  Eliot  professor. 


GOODWIN  SANDS,  a  dangerous  line  of  shoals  at  the  entrance 
to  the  Strait  of  Dover  from  the  North  Sea,  about  6  m.  from  the 
Kent  coast  of  England,  from  which  they  are  separated  by  the 
anchorage  of  the  Downs.  For  this  they  form  a  shelter.  They 
are  partly  exposed  at  low  water,  but  the  sands  are  shifting,  and 
in  spite  of  Lights  and  bell-buoys  the  Goodwins  are  frequently 
the  scene  of  wrecks,  while  attempts  to  erect  a  lighthouse  or 
beacon  have  failed.  Tradition  finds  in  the  Goodwins  the  remnant 
of  an  island  called  Lomea,  which  belonged  to  Earl  Godwine  in 
the  first  half  of  the  nth  century,  and  was  afterwards  submerged, 
when  the  funds  devoted  to  its  protection  were  diverted  to  build 
the  church  steeple  at  Tenterden  (q.v.).  Four  lightships  mark 
the  limits  of  the  sands,  and  also  signal  by  rockets  to  the  lifeboat 
stations  on  the  coast  when  any  vessel  is  in -distress  on  the  sands. 
Perhaps  the  most  terrible  catastrophe  recorded  here  was  the 
wreck  of  thirteen  ships  of  war  during  a  great  storm  in  November 

1703- 

GOODWOOD,  a  mansion  in  the  parish  of  Boxgrove,  in  the 
Chichester  parliamentary  division  of  Sussex,  England,  4  m. 
N.E.  of  Chichester.  It  was  built  from  designs  of  Sir  William 
Chambers  with  additions  by  Wyatt,  after  the  purchase  of  the 
property  by  the  first  duke  of  Richmond  in  1720.  The  park  is  in 
a  hilly  district,  and  is  enriched  with  magnificent  trees  of  many 
varieties,  including  some  huge  cedars.  In  it  is  a  building  con- 
taining a  Roman  slab  recording  the  construction  of  a  temple 
to  Minerva  and  Neptune  at  Chichester.  There  is  mention  of  a 
British  tributary  prince  named  Cogidubnus,  who  perhaps  served 
also  as  a  Roman  official.  A  reference  to  early  Christianity  in 
Britain  has  been  erroneously  read  into  this  inscription.  On  the 
racecourse  a  famous  annual  meeting,  dating  from  1802,  is  held 
in  July.  The  parish  church  of  SS.  Mary  and  Blaize,  Boxgrove, 
is  almost  entirely  a  rich  specimen  of  Early  English  work. 

GOODYEAR,  CHARLES  (1800-1860),  American  inventor, 
was  born  at  New  Haven,  Connecticut,  on  the  29th  of  December 
1800,  the  son  of  Amasa  Goodyear,  an  inventor  (especially  of 
farming  implements)  and  a  pioneer  in  the  manufacture  of  hard- 
ware in  America.  The  family  removed  to  Naugatuck,  Conn., 
when  Charles  was  a  boy;  he  worked  in  his  father's  button 
factory  and  studied  at  home  until  1816,  when  he  apprenticed 
himself  to  a  firm  of  hardware  merchants  in  Philadelphia.  In 
1821  he  returned  to  Connecticut  and  entered  into  a  partnership 
with  his  father  at  Naugatuck,  which  continued  till  1830,  when  it 
was  terminated  by  business  reverses.  Already  he  was  interested 
in  an  attempt  to  discover  a  method  of  treatment  by  which  india- 
rubber  could  be  made  into  merchandizable  articles  that  would 
stand  extremes  of  heat  and  cold.  To  the  solution  of  this  problem 
the  next  ten  years  of  his  life  were  devoted.  With  ceaseless 
energy  and  unwavering  faith  in  the  successful  outcome  of  his 
labours,  in  the  face  of  repeated  failures  and  hampered  by 
poverty,  which  several  times  led  him  to  a  debtor's  prison,  he 
persevered  in  his  endeavours.  For  a  time  he  seemed  to  have 
succeeded  with  a  treatment  (or  "  cure  ")  of  the  rubber  with 
aquafortis.  In  1836  he  secured  a  contract  for  the  manufacture 
by  this  process  of  mail  bags  for  the  U.S.  government,  but  the 
rubber  fabric  was  useless  at  high  temperatures.  In  1837  he  met 
and  worked  with  Nathaniel  Hayward  (1808-1865),  who  had  been 
an  employee  of  a  rubber  factory  in  Roxbury  and  had  made 
experiments  with  sulphur  mixed  with  rubber.  Goodyear  bought 
from  Hayward  the  right  to  use  this  imperfect  process.  In  1839, 
by  dropping  on  a  hot  stove  some  indiarubber  mixed  with  sulphur, 
he  discovered  accidentally  the  process  for  the  vulcanization  of 
rubber.  Two  years  more  passed  before  he  could  find  any  one  who 
had  faith  enough  in  his  discovery  to  invest  money  in  it.  At 
last,  in  1844,  by  which  time  he  had  perfected  his  process,  his 
first  patent  was  granted,  and  in  the  subsequent  years  more  than 
sixty  patents  were  granted  to  him  for  the  application  of  his 
original  process  to  various  uses.  Numerous  infringements  had 
to  be  fought  in  the  courts,  the  decisive  victory  coming  in  1852 
in  the  case  of  Goodyear  v.  Day,  in  which  his  rights  were  defended 
by  Daniel  Webster  and  opposed  by  Rufus  Choate.  In  1852  he 
went  to  England,  where  articles  made  under  his  patents  had 
been  displayed  at  the  International  Exhibition  of  1851,  but  he 


GOOGE— GOOSE 


241 


was  unable  to  establish  factories  there.  In  France  a  company 
for  the  manufacture  of  vulcanized  rubber  by  his  process  failed, 
and  in  December  1855  he  was  arrested  and  imprisoned  for  debt 
in  Paris.  Owing  to  the  expense  of  the  litigation  in  which  he  was 
engaged  and  to  bad  business  management,  he  profited  little  from 
his  inventions.  He  died  in  New  York  City  on  the  ist  of  July 
1860.  He  wrote  an  account  of  his  discovery  entitled  Gum- 
Elastic  and  its  Varieties  (2  vols.,  New  Haven,  1853-1855). 

See  also  B.  K.  Peirce,  Trials  of  an  Inventor,  Life  and  Discoveries  of 
Charles  Goodyear  (New  York,  1866);  James  Parton,  Famous 
Americans  of  Recent  Times  (Boston,  1867);  and  Herbert  L.  Terry, 
India  Rubber  and  its  Manufacture  (New  York,  1907). 

GOOGE,  BARNABE  (1540-1594),  English  poet,  son  of  Robert 
Googe,  recorder  of  Lincoln,  was  born  on  the  nth  of  June  1540 
at  Alvingham,  Lincolnshire.  He  studied  at  Christ's  College, 
Cambridge,  and  at  New  College,  Oxford,  but  does  not  seem  to 
have  taken  a  degree  at  either  university.  He  afterwards  removed 
to  Staple's  Inn,  and  was  attached  to  the  household  of  his  kinsman, 
Sir  William  Cecil.  In  1563  he  became  a  gentleman  pensioner 
to  Queen  Elizabeth.  He  was  absent  in  Spain  when  his  poems 
were  sent  to  the  printer  by  a  friend,  L.  Blundeston.  Googe  then 
gave  his  consent,  and  they  appeared  in  1563  as  Eglogs,  Epytaphes, 
and  Sonettes.  There  is  extant  a  curious  correspondence  on  the 
subject  of  his  marriage  with  Mary  Darrell,  whose  father  refused 
Googe's  suit  on  the  ground  that  she  was  bound  by  a  previous 
contract.  The  matter  was  decided  by  the  intervention  of  Sir 
William  Cecil  with  Archbishop  Parker,  and  the  marriage  took 
place  in  1564  or  1565.  Googe  was  provost-marshal  of  the  court 
of  Connaught,  and  some  twenty  letters  of  his  in  this  capacity 
are  preserved  in  the  record  office.  He  died  in  February  1594. 
He  was  an  ardent  Protestant,  and  his  poetry  is  coloured  by  his 
religious  and  political  views.  In  the  third  "  Eglog,"  for  instance, 
he  laments  the  decay  of  the  old  nobility  and  the  rise  of  a  new 
aristocracy  of  wealth,  and  he  gives  an  indignant  account  of  the 
sufferings  of  his  co-religionists  under  Mary.  The  other  eclogues 
deal  with  the  sorrows  of  earthly  love,  leading  up  to  a  dialogue 
between  Corydon  and  Cornix,  in  which  the  heavenly  love  is 
extolled.  The  volume  includes  epitaphs  on  Nicholas  Grimald, 
John  Bale  and  on  Thomas  Phaer,  whose  translation  of  Virgil 
Googe  is  uncritical  enough  to  prefer  to  the  versions  of  Surrey 
and  of  Gavin  Douglas.  A  much  more  charming  pastoral  than 
any  of  those  contained  in  this  volume,  "  Phyllida  was  a  fayer 
maid"  (Totlel's  Miscellany)  has  been  ascribed  to  Barnabe 
Googe.  He  was  one  of  the  earliest  English  pastoral  poets,  and 
the  first  who  was  inspired  by  Spanish  romance,  being  consider- 
ably indebted  to  the  Diana  Enamorada  of  Montemayor. 

His  other  works  include  a  translation  from  Marcellus  Palingenius 
(said  to  be  an  anagram  for  Pietro  Angelo  Manzolli)  of  a  satirical 
Latin  poem,  Zodiacus  vitae  (Venice,  1531?),  in  twelve  books,  under 
the  title  of  The  Zodyake  of  Life  (1560) ;  The  Popish  Kingdome,  or 
reign  of  Antichrist  (1570),  translated  from  Thomas  Kirchmayer  or 
Naogeorgus;  The  Spiritual  Husbandrie  from  the  same  author, 
printed  with  the  last;  Foure  Bookes  of  Husbandrie  (1577),  collected 
by  Conradus  Heresbachius;  and  The  Proverbes  of  ...  Lopes  de 
Mendoza  (1579). 

GOOLE,  a  market  town  and  port  in  the  Osgoldcross  parlia- 
mentary division  of  the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  England, 
at  the  confluence  of  the  Don  and  the  Ouse,  24  m.  W.  by  S.  from 
Hull,  served  by  the  North  Eastern,  Lancashire  &  Yorkshire, 
Great  Central  and  Asholme  joint  railways.  Pop.  of  urban 
district  (1901)  16,576.  The  town  owes  its  existence  to  the 
construction  of  the  Knottingley  canal  in  1826  by  the  Aire  and 
Calder  Navigation  Company,  after  which,  in  1829,  Goole  was 
made  a  bonding  port.  Previously  it  had  been  an  obscure  hamlet. 
The  port  was  administratively  combined  with  that  of  Hull  in 
1885.  It  is  47  m.  from  the  North  Sea  (mouth  of  the  Humber), 
and  a  wide  system  of  inland  navigation  opens  from  it.  There  are 
eight  docks  supplied  with  timber  ponds,  quays,  warehouses  and 
other  accommodation.  The  depth  of  water  is  21  or  22  ft.  at  high 
water,  spring  tides.  Chief  exports  are  coal,  stone,  woollen  good: 
and  machinery;  imports,  butter,  fruit,  indigo,  logwood,  timber 
and  wool.  Industries  include  the  manufacture  of  alum,  sugar 
rope  and  agricultural  instruments,  and  iron-founding.  Ship- 
building is  also  carried  on,  and  there  is  a  large  dry  dock  and  a 


patent  slip  for  repairing  vessels.  Passenger  steamship  services 
are  worked  in  connexion  with  the  Lancashire  &  Yorkshire  railway 
;o  Amsterdam,  Antwerp,  Bruges,  Copenhagen,  Rotterdam  and 
other  north  European  ports.  The  handsome  church  of  St  John 
the  Evangelist,  with  a  lofty  tower  and  spire,  dates  from  1844. 

GOOSE  (a  common  Teut.  word,  O.  Eng.  g6s,  pi.  gts,  Ger.  Cans, 
O.  Norse  g&s,  from  Aryan  root,  ghans,  whence  Sans,  hansd,  Lat. 
anser  (for  hanser),  Gr.  x^",  &c.),  the  general  English  name  for  a 
considerable  number  of  birds,  belonging  to  the  family  Anatidae 
of  modern  ornithologists,  which  are  mostly  larger  than  ducks 
and  less  than  swans.  Technically  the  word  goose  is  reserved 
Eor  the  female,  the  male  being  called  gander  (A.-S.  gandra). 

The  most  important  species  of  goose,  and  the  type  of  the 
genus  Anser,  is  undoubtedly  that  which  is  the  origin  of  the 
well-known  domestic  race  (see  POULTRY),  the  Anser  ferus  or 
A.  cinereus  of  most  naturalists,  commonly  called  in  English  the 
grey  or  grey  lag1  goose,  a  bird  of  exceedingly  wide  range  in  the 
Old  World,  apparently  breeding  where  suitable  localities  are 
to  be  found  in  most  European  countries  from  Lapland  to  Spain 
and  Bulgaria.  Eastwards  it  extends  to  China,  but  does  not 
seem  to  be  known  in  Japan.  It  is  the  only  species  indigenous 
to  the  British  Islands,  and  in  former  days  bred  abundantly  in 
the  English  Fen-country,  where  the  young  were  caught  in  large 
numbers  and  kept  in  a  more  or  less  reclaimed  condition  with  the 
vast  flocks  of  tame-bred  geese  that  at  one  time  formed  so  valuable 
a  property  to  the  dwellers  in  and  around  the  Fens.  It  is  im- 
possible to  determine  when  the  wild  grey  lag  goose  ceased  from 
breeding  in  England,  but  it  certainly  did  so  towards  the  end  of 
the  i8th  century,  for  Daniell  mentions  (Rural  Sports,  iii.  242) 
his  having  obtained  two  broods  in  one  season.  In  Scotland  this 
goose  continues  to  breed  sparingly  in  several  parts  of  the  High- 
lands and  in  certain  of  the  Hebrides,  the  nests  being  generally 
placed  in  long  heather,  and  the  eggs  seldom  exceeding  five  or 
six  in  number.  It  is  most  likely  the  birds  reared  here  that  are 
from  time  to  time  obtained  in  England,  for  at  the  present  day 
the  grey  lag  goose,  though  once  so  numerous,  is,  and  for  many 
years  has  been,  the  rarest  species  of  those  that  habitually  resort 
to  the  British  Islands.  The  domestication  of  this  species,  as 
Darwin  remarks  (Animals  and  Plants  under  Domestication,  i. 
287),  is  of  very  ancient  date,  and  yet  scarcely  any  other  animal 
that  has  been  tamed  for  so  long  a  period,  and  bred  so  largely  in 
captivity,  has  varied  so  little.  It  has  increased  greatly  in  size 
and  fecundity,  but  almost  the  only  change  in  plumage  is  that 
tame  geese  commonly  lose  the  browner  and  darker  tints  of  the 
wild  bird,  and  are  more  or  less  marked  with  white — being  often 
indeed  wholly  of  that  colour.2  The  most  generally  recognized 
breeds  of  domestic  geese  are  those  to  which  the  distinctive  names 
of  Emden  and  Toulouse  are  applied;  but  a  singular  breed,  said 
to  have  come  from  Sevastopol,  was  introduced  into  western 
Europe  about  the  year  1856.  In  this  the  upper  plumage  is 
elongated,  curled  and  spirally  twisted,  having  their  shaft 
transparent,  and  so  thin  that  it  often  splits  into  fine  filaments, 
which,  remaining  free  for  an  inch  or  more,  often  coalesce  again;3 
while  the  quills  are  aborted,  so  that  the  birds  cannot  fly. 

1  The  meaning  and  derivation  of  this  word  lag  had  long  been  a 
puzzle  until  Skeat  suggested  (Ibis,  1870,  p.  301)  that  it  signified 
late,  last,  or  slow,  as  in  laggard,  a  loiterer,  lagman,  the  last  man, 
lagteeth,  the  posterior  molar  or  "  wisdom  "  teeth  (as  the  last  to 
appear),  and  lagclock,  a  clock  that  is  behind  time.     Thus  the  grey 
lag  goose  is  the  grey  goose  which  in  England  when  the  name  was 
given  was  not  migratory  but  lagged  behind  the  other  wild  species  at 
the  season  when  they  betook  themselves  to  their  northern  breeding- 
quarters.     In  connexion  with  this  word,  however,  must  be  noticed 
the  curious  fact  mentioned  by  Rowley   (Orn.  Miscell.,  iii.  213), 
that  the  flocks  of  tame  geese  in  Lincolnshire  are  urged  on  by  their 
drivers  with  the  cry  of     lag'em,  lag'em." 

2  From  the  times  of  the  Romans  white  geese  have  been  held  in 
great  estimation,  and  hence,  doubtless,  they  have  been  preferred  as 
breeding  stock,  but  the  practice  of  plucking  geese  alive,  continued 
for  so  many  centuries,  has  not  improbably  also  helped  to  perpetuate 
this  variation,  for  it  is  well  known  to  many  bird-keepers  that  a 
white  feather  is  often  produced  in  place  of  one  of  the  natural  colour 
that  has  been  pulled  out. 

8  In  some  English  counties,  especially  Norfolk  and  Lincoln,  it 
was  no  uncommon  thing  formerly  for  a  man  to  keep  a  stock  of  a 
thousand  geese,  each  of  which  might  be  reckoned  to  rear  on  an 


242 


GOOSE 


The  other  British  species  of  typical  geese  are  the  bean-goose 
(A.  segetum),  the  pink-footed  (A.  brachyrhynchus)  and  the  white- 
fronted  (A.  albifrons).  On  the  continent  of  Europe,  but  not 
yet  recognized  as  occurring  in  Britain,  is  a  small  form  of  the  last 
(A.  erythropus)  which  is  known  to  breed  in  Lapland.  All  these, 
for  the  sake  of  discrimination,  may  be  divided  into  two  groups — • 
(i)  those  having  the  "  nail  "  at  the  tip  of  the  bill  white,  or  of  a 
very  pale  flesh  colour,  and  (2)  those  in  which  this  "nail"  is 
black.  To  the  former  belong  the  grey  lag  goose,  as  well  as  A. 
albifrons  and  A.  erythropus,  and  to  the  latter  the  other  two. 
A.  albifrons  and  A.  erythropus,  which  differ  little  but  in  size, — 
the  last  being  not  much  bigger  than  a  mallard  (Anas  boschas), — 
may  be  readily  distinguished  from  the  grey  lag  goose  by  their 
bright  orange  legs  and  their  mouse-coloured  upper  wing-coverts, 
to  say  nothing  of  their  very  conspicuous  white  face  and  the 
broad  black  bars  which  cross  the  belly,  though  the  last  two 
characters  are  occasionally  observable  to  some  extent  in  the 
grey  lag  goose,  which  has  the  bill  and  legs  flesh-coloured,  and 
the  upper  wing-coverts  of  a  bluish-grey.  Of  the  second  group, 
with  the  black  "  nail,"  A.  segetum  has  the  bill  long,  black  at  the 
base  and  orange  in  the  middle;  the  feet  are  also  orange,  and 
the  upper  wing-coverts  mouse-coloured,  as  in  A.  albifrons  and 
A.  erythropus,  while  A.  brachyrhynchus  has  the  bill  short,  bright 
pink  in  the  middle,  and  the  feet  also  pink,  the  upper  wing-coverts 
being  nearly  of  the  same  bluish-grey  as  in  the  grey  lag  goose. 
Eastern  Asia  possesses  in  A.  grandis  a  third  species  of  this  group, 
which  chiefly  differs  from  A.  segetum  in  its  larger  size.  In  North 
America  there  is  only  one  species  of  typical  goose,  and  that 
belongs  to  the  white-"  nailed  "  group.  It  very  nearly  resembles 
A.  albifrons,  but  is  larger,  and  has  been  described  as  distinct 
under  the  name  of  A .  gambeli.  Central  Asia  and  India  possess 
in  the  bar-headed  goose  (A.  indicus)  a  bird  easily  distinguished 
from  any  of  the  foregoing  by  the  character  implied  by  its  English 
name;  but  it  is  certainly  somewhat  abnormal,  and,  indeed, 
under  the  name  of  Eulabia,  has  been  separated  from  the  genus 
Anser,  which  has  no  other  member  indigenous  to  the  Indian 
Region,  nor  any  at  all  to  the  Ethiopian,  Australian  or  Neotropical 
Regions. 

America  possesses  by  far  the  greatest  wealth  of  Anserine  forms. 
Beside  others,  presently  to  be  mentioned,  its  northern  portions 
are  the  home  of  all  the  species  of  snow-geese  belonging  to  the 
genus  Chen.  The  first  of  these  is  C.  hyperboreus,  the  snow-goose 
proper,  a  bird  of  large  size,  and  when  adult  of  a  pure  white, 
except  the  primaries,  which  are  black.  This  has  long  been 
deemed  a  visitor  to  the  Old  World,  and  sometimes  in  considerable 
numbers,  but  the  later  discovery  of  a  smaller  form,  C.  albatus, 
scarcely  differing  except  in  size,  throws  some  doubt  on  the  older 
records,  especially  since  examples  which  have  been  obtained  in 
the  British  Islands  undoubtedly  belong  to  this  lesser  bird,  and 
it  would  be  satisfactory  to  have  the  occurrence  in  the  Old  World 
of  the  true  C.  hyperboreus  placed  on  a  surer  footing.  So  nearly 
allied  to  the  species  last  named  as  to  have  been  often  confounded 
with  it,  is  the  blue-winged  goose,  C.  coerulescens,  which  is  said 
never  to  attain  a  snowy  plumage.  Then  we  have  a  very  small 
species,  long  ago  described  as  distinct  by  Samuel  Hearne,  the 
Arctic  traveller,  but  until  1861  discredited  by  ornithologists. 
Its  distinctness  has  now  been  fully  recognized,  and  it  has  received, 
somewhat  unjustly,  the  name  of  C.  rossi.  Its  face  is  adorned 
with  numerous  papillae,  whence  it  has  been  removed  by  Elliot 
to  a  separate  genus,  Exanthemops,  and  for  the  same  reason  it 
has  long  been  known  to  the  European  residents  in  the  fur 
countries  as  the  "  horned  wavey  " — the  last  word  being  a 
rendering  of  a  native  name,  Wawa,  which  signifies  goose.  Finally, 
average  seven  goslings.  The  flocks  were  regularly  taken  to  pasture 
and  water,  just  as  sheep  are,  and  the  man  who  tended  them  was 
called  the  gooseherd,  corrupted  into  gozzerd.  The  birds  were 
plucked  five  times  in  the  year,  and  in  autumn  the  flocks  were  driven 
to  London  or  other  large  markets.  They  travelled  at  the  rate  of 
about  a  mile  an  hour,  and  would  get  over  nearly  10  m.  in  the  day. 
For  further  particulars  the  reader  may  be  referred  to  Pennant's 
British  Zoology;  Montagu's  Ornithological  Dictionary;  Latham's 
General  History  of  Birds;  and  Rowley's  Ornithological  Miscellany 
(iii.  206-215),  where  some  account  also  may  be  found  of  the  goose- 
fatting  at  Strassburg. 


there  appears  to  belong  to  this  section,  though  it  has  been 
frequently  referred  to  another  (Chloephaga),  and  has  also  been 
made  the  type  of  a  distinct  genus  (Philacte),  the  beautiful 
emperor  goose,  P.  canagica,  which  is  almost  peculiar  to  the 
Aleutian  Islands,  though  straying  to  the  continent  in  winter, 
and  may  be  recognized  by  the  white  edging  of  its  remiges. 

The  southern  portions  of  the  New  World  are  inhabited  by 
about  half  a  dozen  species  of  geese  not  nearly  akin  to  the  fore- 
going, and  separated  as  tMe  genus  Chloephaga.  The  most 
noticeable  of  them  are  the  rock  or  kelp  goose,  C.  antarctica,  and 
the  upland  goose,  C.  magellanica.  In  both  of  these  the  sexes 
are  totally  unlike  in  colour,  but  in  others  a  greater  similarity 
obtains.1  Formerly  erroneously  associated  with  the  birds  of 
this  group  comes  one  which  belongs  to  the  northern  hemisphere, 
and  is  common  to  the  Old  World  as  well  as  the  New.  It  contains 
the  geese  which  have  received  the  common  names  of  bernacles 
or  brents,2  and  the  scientific  appellations  of  Bernicla  and  Branta 
— for  the  use  of  either  of  which  much  may  be  said  by  nomen- 
claturists.  All  the  species  of  this  section  are  distinguished  by 
their  general  dark  sooty  colour,  relieved  in  some  by  white  of 
greater  or  less  purity,  and  by  way  of  distinction  from  the  members 
of  the  genus  Anser,  which  are  known  as  grey  geese,  are  frequently 
called  by  fowlers  black  geese.  Of  these,  the  best  known  both 
in  Europe  and  North  America  is  the  brent-goose — the  Anas 
bernicla  of  Linnaeus,  and  the  B.  lorquata  of  many  modern 
writers — a  truly  marine  bird,  seldom  (in  Europe  at  least)  quitting 
salt-water,  and  coming  southwards  in  vast  flocks  towards 
autumn,  frequenting  bays  and  estuaries  on  the  British  coasts, 
where  it  lives  chiefly  on  sea-grass  (Zostera  maritima).  It  is 
known  to  breed  in  Spitsbergen  and  in  Greenland.  A  form  which 
is  by  some  ornithologists  deemed  a  good  species,  and  called 
by  them  B.  nigricans,  occurs  chiefly  on  the  Pacific  coast  of 
North  America.  In  it  the  black  of  the  neck,  which  in  the  common 
brent  terminates  just  above  the  breast,  extends  over  most  of 
the  lower  parts.  The  true  bernacle-goose,3  the  B.  leucopsis  of 
most  authors,  is  but  a  casual  visitor  to  North  America,  but  is 
said  to  breed  in  Iceland,  and  occasionally  in  Norway.  Its  usual 
incunabula,  however,  still  form  one  of  the  puzzles  of  the  ornitho- 
logist, and  the  difficulty  is  not  lessened  by  the  fact  that  it  will 
breed  freely  in  semi-captivity,  while  the  brent-goose  will  not. 
From  the  latter  the  bernacle-goose  is  easily  distinguished  by  its 
larger  size  and  white  cheeks.  Hutchins's  goose  (B.  Hutchinsi) 
seems  to  be  its  true  representative  in  the  New  World.  In  this 
the  face  is  dark,  but  a  white  crescentic  or  triangular  patch 
extends  from  the  throat  on  either  side  upVards  behind  the  eye. 
Almost  exactly  similar  in  coloration  to  the  last,  but  greatly 
superior  in  size,  and  possessing  18  rectrices,  while  all  the  fore- 
going have  but  16,  is  the  common  wild  goose  of  America,  B. 
canadensis,  which,  for  more  than  two  centuries  has  been  intro- 
duced into  Europe,  where  it  propagates  so  freely  that  it  has  been 
included  by  nearly  all  the  ornithologists  of  this  quarter  of  the 
globe  as  a  member  of  its  fauna.  An  allied  form,  by  some 
deemed  a  species,  is  B.  leucopareia,  which  ranges  over  the  western 
part  of  North  America,  and,  though  having  18  rectrices,  is 
distinguished  by  a  white  collar  round  the  lower  part  of  the 
neck.  The  most  diverse  species  of  this  group  of  geese  are  the 
beautiful  B.  ruficollis,  a  native  of  north-eastern  Asia,  which 
occasionally  strays  to  western  Europe,  and  has  been  obtained 
more  than  once  in  Britain,  and  that  which  is  peculiar  to  the 
Hawaian  archipelago,  B.  sandvicensis. 

The  largest  living  goose  is  that  called  the  Chinese,  Guinea  or 
swan-goose,  Cygnopsis  cygnoides,  and  this  is  the  stock  whence 
the  domestic  geese  of  several  eastern  countries  have  sprung. 
It  may  often  be  seen  in  English  parks,  and  it  is  found  to  cross 
readily  with  the  common  tame  goose,  the  offspring  being  fertile, 

1  See  Sclater  and  Salvin,  Proc.  Zool.  Society  (1876),  pp.  361-369. 

2  The   etymology   of   these   two   words   is   exceedingly   obscure. 
The  ordinary  spelling  bernicle  seems  to  be  wrong,  if  we  may  judge 
from  the  analogy  of  the  French  Bernache.     In  both  words  the  e 
should  be  sounded  as  a. 

3  The  old  fable,  perhaps  still  believed  by  the  uneducated  in  some 
parts  of  the  world,  was  that  bernacle-geese  were  produced  from  the 
barnacles  (Lepadidae)  that  grow  on  timber  exposed  to  salt-water. 


GOOSE   (GAME  OF)— GOOSEBERRY 


243 


and  Blyth  has  said  that  these  crosses  are  very  abundant  in  India. 
The  true  home  of  the  species  is  in  eastern  Siberia  or  Mongolia. 
It  is  distinguished  by  its  long  smooth  neck,  marked  dorsally 
by  a  chocolate  streak.  The  reclaimed  form  is  usually  distin- 
guished by  the  knob  at  the  base  of  the  bill,  but  the  evidence  of 
many  observers  shows  that  this  is  not  found  in  the  wild  race. 
Of  this  bird  there  is  a  perfectly  white  breed. 

We  have  next  to  mention  a  very  curious  form,  Cereopsis 
novae-hollandiae,  which  is  peculiar  to  Australia,  and  is  a  more 
terrestrial  type  of  goose  than  any  other  now  existing.  Its  short, 
decurved  bill  and  green  cere  give  it  a  very  peculiar  expression, 
and  its  almost  uniform  grey  plumage,  bearing  rounded  black 
spots,  is  also  remarkable.  It  bears  captivity  well,  breeding  in 
confinement,  but  is  now  seldom  seen.  It  appears  to  have  been 
formerly  very  abundant  in  many  parts  of  Australia,  from  which 
it  has  of  late  been  exterminated.  Some  of  its  peculiarities  seem 
to  have  been  still  more  exaggerated  in  a  bird  that  is  wholly 
extinct,  the  Cnemiornis  calcitrant  of  New  Zealand,  the  remains 
of  which  were  described  in  full  by  Sir  R.  Owen  in  1873 
(Trans.  Zool.  Society,  ix.  253).  Among  the  first  portions  of  this 
singular  bird  that  were  found  were  the  tibiae,  presenting  an 
extraordinary  development  of  the  patella,  which,  united  with 
the  shank-bone,  gave  rise  to  the  generic  name  applied.  For  some 
time  the  affinity  of  the  owner  of  this  wonderful  structure  was 
in  doubt,  but  all  hesitation  was  dispelled  by  the  discovery  of  a 
nearly  perfect  skeleton,  now  in  the  British  Museum,  which  proved 
the  bird  to  be  a  goose,  of  great  size,  and  unable,  from  the  shortness 
of  its  wings,  to  fly.  In  correlation  with  this  loss  of  power  may 
also  be  noted  the  dwindling  of  the  keel  of  the  sternum.  Generally, 
however,  its  osteological  characters  point  to  an  affinity  to  Cere- 
opsis, as  was  noticed  by  Dr  Hector  (Trans.  New  Zeal.  Institute, 
vi.  76-84),  who  first  determined  its  Anserine  character. 

Birds  of  the  genera  Chenalopex  (the  Egyptian  and  Orinoco 
geese),  Plectropterus,  Sarcidiornis,  Chlamydochen  and  some  others, 
are  commonly  called  geese.  It  seems  uncertain  whether  they 
should  be  grouped  with  the  Anserinae.  The  males  of  all,  like 
those  of  the  above-mentioned  genus  Chloephaga,  appear  to  have 
that  curious  enlargement  at  the  junction  of  the  bronchial  tubes 
and  the  trachea  which  is  so  characteristic  of  the  ducks  or 
Anatinae.  (A.  N.) 

GOOSE  (GAME  or),  an  ancient  French  game,  said  to  have  been 
derived  from  the  Greeks,  very  popular  at  the  close  of  the  middle 
ages.  It  was  played  on  a  piece  of  card-board  upon  which  was 
drawn  a  fantastic  scroll,  called  the  jardin  de  I'Oie  (goose-garden) , 
divided  into  63  spaces  marked  with  certain  emblems,  such  as 
dice,  an  inn,  a  bridge,  a  labyrinth,  &c.  The  emblem  inscribed  on 
i  and  63,  as  well  as  every  ninth  space  between,  was  a  goose. 
The  object  was  to  land  one's  counter  in  number  63,  the  number 
of  spaces  moved  through  being  determined  by  throwing  two 
dice.  The  counter  was  advanced  or  retired  according  to  the  space 
on  which  it  was  placed.  For  instance  if  it  rested  on  the  inn  it 
must  remain  there  until  each  adversary,  of  which  there  might 
be  several,  had  played  twice;  if  it  rested  on  the' death's  head 
the  player  must  begin  over  again;  if  it  went  beyond  63  it  must 
be  retired  a  certain  number  of  spaces.  The  game  was  usually 
played  for  a  stake,  and  special  fines  were  exacted  for  resting  on 
certain  spaces.  At  the  end  of  the  i8th  century  a  variation  of 
the  game  was  called  the  jeu  de  la  Revolution  Franc,aise. 

GOOSEBERRY,  Ribes  Grossularia,  a  well-known  fruit-bush 
of  northern  and  central  Europe,  placed  in  the  same  genus  of 
the  natural  order  to  which  it  gives  name  (Ribesiaceae)  as  the 
closely  allied  currants.  It  forms  a  distinct  section  Grossularia, 
the  members  of  which  differ  from  the  true  currents  chiefly  in 
their  spinous  stems,  and  in  their  flowers  growing  on  short  foot- 
stalks, solitary,  or  two  or  three  together,  instead  of  in  racemes. 

The  wild  gooseberry  is  a  small,  straggling  bush,  nearly  re- 
sembling the  cultivated  plant, — the  branches  being  thickly 
set  with  sharp  spines,  standing  out  singly  or  in  diverging  tufts 
of  two  or  three  from  the  bases  of  the  short  spurs  or  lateral  leaf 
shoots,  on  which  the  bell-shaped  flowers  are  produced,  singly 
or  in  pairs,  from  the  groups  of  rounded,  deeply-crenated  3-  or  5- 
lobed  leaves.  The  fruit  is  smaller  than  in  the  garden  kinds, 


but  is  often  of  good  flavour;  it  is  generally  hairy,  but  in  one 
variety  smooth,  constituting  the  R.  Uva-crispa  of  writers;  the 
colour  is  usually  green,  but  plants  are  occasionally  met  with 
having  deep  purple  berries.  The  gooseberry  is  indigenous  in 
Europe  and  western  Asia,  growing  naturally  in  alpine  thickets 
and  rocky  woods  in  the  lower  country,  from  France  eastward, 
perhaps  as  far  as  the  Himalaya.  In  Britain  it  is  often  found  in 
copses  and  hedgerows  and  about  old  ruins,  but  has  been  so  long 
a  plant  of  cultivation  that  it  is  difficult  to  decide  upon  its  claim 
to  a  place  in  the  native  flora  of  the  island.  Common  as  it  is  now 
on  some  of  the  lower  slopes  of  the  Alps  of  Piedmont  and  Savoy, 
it  is  uncertain  whether  the  Romans  were  acquainted  with  the 
gooseberry,  though  it  may  possibly  be  alluded  to  in  a  vague 
passage  of  Pliny:  the  hot  summers  of  Italy,  in  ancient  times  as 
at  present,  would  be  unfavourable  to  its  cultivation.  Abundant 
in  Germany  and  France,  it  does  not  appear  to  have  been  much 
grown  there  in  the  middle  ages,  though  the  wild  fruit  was  held 
in  some  esteem  medicinally  for  the  cooling  properties  of  its  acid 
juice  in  fevers;  while  the  old  English  name,  Fea-berry,  still 
surviving  in  some  provincial  dialects,  indicates  that-  it  was 
similarly  valued  in  Britain,  where  it  was  planted  in  gardens 
at  a  comparatively  early  period.  William  Turner  describes  the 
gooseberry  in  his  Herball,  written  about  the  middle  of  the  i6th 
century,  and  a  few  years  later  it  is  mentioned  in  one  of  Thomas 
Tusser's  quaint  rhymes  as  an  ordinary  object  of  garden  culture. 
Improved  varieties  were  probably  first  raised  by  the  skilful 
gardeners  of  Holland,  whose  name  for  the  fruit,  Kruisbezie,  may 
have  been  easily  corrupted  into  the  present  English  vernacular 
word.1  Towards  the  end  of  the  i8th  century  the  gooseberry 
became  a  favourite  object  of  cottage-horticulture,  especially  in 
Lancashire,  where  the  working  cotton-spinners  have  raised 
numerous  varieties  from  seed,  their  efforts  having  been  chiefly 
directed  to  increasing  the  size  of  the  fruit.  Of  the  many  hundred 
sorts  enumerated  in  recent  horticultural  works,  few  perhaps  equal 
in  flavour  some  of  the  older  denizens  of  the  fruit-garden,  such 
as  the  "  old  rough  red  "  and  "  hairy  amber."  The  climate  of 
the  British  Islands  seems  peculiarly  adapted  to  bring  the  goose- 
berry to  perfection,  and  it  may  be  grown  successfully  even  in 
the  most  northern  parts  of  Scotland;  indeed,  the  flavour  of  the 
fruit  is  said  to  improve  with  increasing  latitude.  In  Norway 
even,  the  bush  flourishes  in  gardens  on  the  west  coast  nearly  up 
to  the  Arctic  circle,  and  it  is  found  wild  as  far  north  as  63°. 
The  dry  summers  of  the  French  and  German  plains  are  less 
suited  to  it,  though  it  is  grown  in  some  hilly  districts  with  tolerable 
success.  The  gooseberry  in  the  south  of  England  will  grow  well 
in  cool  situations,  and  may  be  sometimes  seen  in  gardens  near 
London  flourishing  under  the  partial  shade  of  apple  trees;  but 
in  the  north  it  needs  full  exposure  to  the  sun  to  bring  the  fruit 
to  perfection.  It  will  succeed  in  almost  any  soil,  but  prefers  a 
rich  loam  or  black  alluvium,  and,  though  naturally  a  plant  of 
rather  dry  places,  will  do  well  in  moist  land,  if  drained. 

The  varieties  are  most  easily  propagated  by  cuttings  planted 
in  the  autumn,  which  root  rapidly,  and  in  a  few  years  form 
good  fruit-bearing  bushes.  Much  difference  of  opinion  prevails 
regarding  the  mode  of  pruning  this  valuable  shrub;  it  is  probable 
that  in  different  situations  it  may  require  varying  treatment. 
The  fruit  being  borne  on  the  lateral  spurs,  and  on  the  shoots  of 
the  last  year,  it  is  the  usual  practice  to  shorten  the  side  branches 
in  the  winter,  before  the  buds  begin  to  expand ;  some  reduce  the 
longer  leading  shoots  at  the  same  time,  while  others  prefer  to 
nip  off  the  ends  of  these  in  the  summer  while  they  are  still 

1  The  first  part  of  the  word  has  been  usually  treated  as  an  ety- 
mological corruption  either  of  this  Dutch  word  or  the  allied  Ger. 
Krausbeere,  or  of  the  earlier  forms  of  the  Fr.  groseille.  The  New 
English  Dictionary  takes  the  obvious  derivation  from  "  goose  "  and 
"  berry  "  as  probable;  "  the  grounds  on  which  plants  and  fruits 
have  received  names  associating  them  with  animals  are  so  commonly 
inexplicable,  that  the  want  of  appropriateness  in  the  meaning  afford? 
no  sufficient  ground  for  assuming  that  the  word  is  an  etymologizing 
corruption."  Skeat  (Etym.  Diet.,  1898)  connects  the  French,  Dutch 
and  German  words,  and  finds  the  origin  in  the  M.H.G.  krus,  curling, 
crisped,  applied  here  to  the  hairs  on  the  fruit.  The  French  word 
was  latinized  as  grossularia  and  confused  with  groseus,  thick,  fat. 


244 


GOOSEBERRY 


succulent.  When  large  fruit  is  desired,  plenty  of  manure  should 
be  supplied  to  the  roots,  and  the  greater  portion  of  the  berries 
picked  off  while  still  small.  If  standards  are  desired,  the  goose- 
berry may  be  with  advantage  grafted  or  budded  on  stocks  of 
some  other  species  of  Ribes,  R.  aureum,  the  ornamental  golden 
currant  of  the  flower  garden,  answering  well  for  the  purpose.  The 
giant  gooseberries  of  the  Lancashire  "  fanciers  "  are  obtained 
by  the  careful  culture  of  varieties  specially  raised  with  this 
object,  the  growth  being  encouraged  by  abundant  manuring,  and 
the  removal  of  all  but  a  very  few  berries  from  each  plant.  Single 
gooseberries  of  nearly  2  oz.  in  weight  have  been  occasionally 
exhibited;  but  the  produce  of  such  fanciful  horticulture  is 
generally  insipid.  The  bushes  at  times  suffer  much  from  the 
ravages  of  the  caterpillars  of  the  gooseberry  or  magpie  moth, 
Abraxas  grossidariata,  which  often  strip  the  branches  of  leaves 
in  the  early  summer,  if  not  destroyed  before  the  mischief  is 
accomplished.  The  most  effectual  way  of  getting  rid  of  this 
pretty  but  destructive  insect  is  to  look  over  each  bush  carefully, 
and  pick  off  the  larvae  by  hand;  when  larger  they  may  be 
shaken  off  by  striking  the  branches,  but  by  that  time  the  harm 
is  generally  done — the  eggs  are  laid  on  the  leaves  of  the  previous 
season.  Equally  annoying  in  some  years  is  the  smaller  larva 
of  the  V-moth,  Halias  vanaria,  which  often  appears  in  great 
numbers,  and  is  not  so  readily  removed.  The  gooseberry  is 
sometimes  attacked  by  the  grub  of  the  gooseberry  sawfly, 
Nematus  ribesii,  of  which  several  broods  appear  in  the  course  of 
the  spring  and  summer,  and  are  very  destructive.  The  grubs 
bury  themselves  in  the  ground  to  pass  into  the  pupal  state; 
the  first  brood  of  flies,  hatched  just  as  the  bushes  are  coming  into 
leaf  in  the  spring,  lay  their  eggs  on  the  lower  side  of  the  leaves, 
where  the  small  greenish  larvae  soon  after  emerge.  For  the 
destruction  of  the  first  broods  it  has  been  recommended  to  syringe 
the  bushes  with  tar- water;  perhaps  a  very  weak  solution  of 
carbolic  acid  might  prove  more  effective.  The  powdered  root 
of  white  hellebore  is  said  to  destroy  both  this  grub  and  the 
caterpillars  of  the  gooseberry  moth  and  V-mbth;  infusion  of 
foxglove,  and  tobacco-water,  are  likewise  tried  by  some  growers. 
If  the  fallen  leaves  are  carefully  removed  from  the  ground  in  the 
autumn  and  burnt,  and  the  surface  of  the  soil  turned  over  with 
the  fork  or  spade,  most  eggs  and  chrysalids  will  be  destroyed. 

The  gooseberry  was  introduced  into  the  United  States  by  the 
early  settlers,  and  in  some  parts  of  New  England  large  quantities 
of  the  green  fruit  are  produced  and  sold  for  culinary  use  in  the 
towns;  but  the  excessive  heat  of  the  American  summer  is  not 
adapted  for  the  healthy  maturation  of  the  berries,  especially  of 
the  English  varieties.  Perhaps  if  some  of  these,  or  those  raised 
in  the  country,  could  be  crossed  with  one  of  the  indigenous 
species,  kinds  might  be  obtained  better  fitted  for  American 
conditions  of  culture,  although  the  gooseberry  does  not  readily 
hybridize.  The  attacks  of  the  American  gooseberry  mildew 

have  largely  con- 
tributed to  the 
failure  of  the  crop 
in  America. 

Occasionally  the 
gooseberry  is  at- 
tacked by  the 
fungus  till  recently 
called  Aecidium 
Gross ul  aria  e, 
which  forms  little 
cups  with  white 
torn  edges  clus- 

.  _..  tered  together  on 

FIG.  I. — A^Fungal  Disease  of  the  Gooseberry    recj,jjsjj 


spots  on 
the  leaves  or  fruits 
(fig.  i).  It  has 
recently  been  dis- 
covered that  the 
spores  contained  in  these  cups  will  not  reproduce  the  disease  on 
the  gooseberry,  but  infect  species  of  Carex  (sedges)  on  which 
they  produce  a  fungus  of  a  totally  different  appearance.  This 


(Aectdium  Grossulariae.) 

I,  Leaf  showing  patches  of  cluster-cups  on 
surface;  2,  Fruit,  showing  same;  3,  Cluster- 
cups  much  enlarged. 


stage  in  the  life-history  of  the  parasite  gives  its  name  to  the 
whole  fungus,  so  that  it  is  now  known  as  Puccinia  Pringsheimiana. 
Both  uredospores  and 
teleutospores  are  formed 
on  the  sedge,  and  the 
latter  live  through  the 
winter  and  produce  the 
disease  on  the  goose- 
berry in  the  succeeding 
year.  In  cases  where 
the  disease  proves 
troublesome  the  sedges 
in  the  neighbourhood 
should  be  destroyed. 

A  much  more  pre- 
valent disease  is  that 
caused  by  Micro- 
sphaeria  Grossulariae. 
This  is  a  mildew  grow- 
ing on  the  surface  of 
the  leaf  and  sending 
suckers  into  the  epi- 
dermis. The  white 
mycelium  gives  the  From  G^Ttf.  Massee's  Text-Boot  o)  Plant  zx«<»«, 

leaves  of  the  plant  the  bV  permission  of  Duckworth  &  Co. 
appearance   of    having  FIG.  2. — Gooseberry  Mildew  (Microsphaeria 
been  whitewashed  Grossulariae.) 

(fie  2^  Numerous  l'  Leaf  attacked  by  the  fungus;  2, 
15  Fructification  or  perithecium  (X7S);  the 
wmte  spores  are  pro-  gn(j  Of  one  Of  fa  numerous  appendages 
duced  in  the  summer  is  shown  more  highly  magnified  (Xsoo) 
which  are  able  to  ger-  in  3,  4.  5.  spore  sacs  (asci)  from  the  peri- 
m i n  a  t  e  immediately,  thecium<  containing  spores  ( X4<x>). 
and  later  small  blackish  fruits  (perithecia)  are  produced  that  pass 
uninjured  through  the  winter  liberating  the  spores  they  contain 
in  the  spring, 
which  infect  the 
young  developing 
leaves  of  the 
bush.  In  bad 
'cases  the  plants 
are  greatly  in- 
jured but  fre- 
quently little 
harm  is  done. 
Attacked  plants 
should  be  sprayed 
with  potassium 
sulphide. 

An  allied  fun- 
gus, Sphaerotheca 
mors-uvae,  of 
much  greater  vir- 
ulence, has  re- 
cently appeared  in 
England,  causing 
the  disease  known 
as  "American 
gooseberry  mil- 
dew "  (fig.  3 A).  In 
the  main  the  mode 
of  attack  is  simi- 
lar to  that  of  the 
last  -  mentioned, 
but  not  only  are 
the  leaves  at— 

,       ,  From   the  Journal  of  the  Board  of  Agriculture  (May  1907), 

taCKCQ,     DUt     tne  by  permission  of    the    Dept.  of  Agriculture  and  Technical 
tips  Of  the  young  ^""lion  for  Ireland. 

shoots   and  the     FIG.JA. — American GooseberryMildew(S£ftaer- 
fmito   K  A  r-  r.  m  o  othcca  mors-uvoe).     Plant  with  leaves  and  fruit 
become  attacked  b    the  fungus. 

covered    by    the 

cobweb-like  mycelium,  the  attack  frequently  resulting  in  the 

death  of  the  shoots  and  the  destruction  of  the  fruits.     After  a 


GOOTY— GORAKHPUR 


245 


ie  the  mycelium  becomes  rusty  brown  and  produces  the 
inter  form  of  the  fungus.  Through  the  winter  the  shoots 
Bre  covered  thickly  with  the  brown  mycelium  and  in  the  spring 
the  .spores  contained  in  the  perithecia  germinate  and  start  the 
infection  anew,  as  in  the  case  of  the  European  mildew.  This 
fungus  has  recently  been  the  subject  of  legislation,  and  when  it 
ippears  in  a  district  strong  repressive  measures  are  called  for. 
i  bad  cases  the  attacked  bushes  should  be  destroyed,  while  in 
wilder  attacks  frequent  spraying  with  potassium  sulphide  and 
.he  pruning  off  and  immediate  destruction  by  fire  of  all  the 
>ung  shoots  showing  the  mildew  should  be  resorted  to. 
The  gooseberry,  when  ripe,  yields  a  fine  wine  by  the  fermenta- 
.ion  of  the  juice  with  water  and  sugar,  the  resulting  sparkling 
liquor  retaining  much  of  the  flavour  of  the  fruit.  By  similarly 
treating  the  juice  of  the  green  fruit,  picked  just  before  it  ripens, 
an  effervescing  wine  is  produced,  nearly  resembling  some  kinds 
champagne,  and,  when  skilfully  prepared,  far  superior  to 


FlG.  SB. — I,  Fructification  (perithecium)  bursting,  ascus  containing 
spores  protruding  ( X4OO) ;  2,  Ascus  with  spores  more  highly  magnifiec 
(Xiooo). 

much  of  the  liquor  sold  under  that  name.  Brandy  has  been 
made  from  ripe  gooseberries  by  distillation;  by  exposing  the 
juice  with  sugar  to  the  acetous  fermentation  a  good  vinegar 
may  be  obtained.  The  gooseberry,  when  perfectly  ripe,  contains 
a  large  quantity  of  sugar,  most  abundant  in  the  red  and  amber 
varieties;  in  the  former  it  amounts  to  from  6  to  upwards  of 
8  %.  The  acidity  of  the  fruit  is  chiefly  due  to  malic  acid. 

Several  other  species  of  the  sub-genus  produce  edible  fruit, 
though  none  have  as  yet  been  brought  under  economic  culture. 
Among  them  may  be  noticed  R.  oxyacanthoides  and  R.  Cynosbati, 
abundant  in  Canada  and  the  northern  parts  of  the  United  States, 
and  R.  gracile,  common  along  the  Alleghany  range.  The 
group  is  a  widely  distributed  one  in  the  north  temperate  zone, — 
one  species  is  found  in  Europe  extending  to  the  Caucasus  and 
North  Africa  (Atlas  Mountains),  five  occur  in  Asia  and  nineteen 
in  North  America,  the  range  extending  southwards  to  Mexico 
and  Guatemala. 

GOOTY,  a  town  and  hill  fortress  in  southern  India,  in  the 
Anantapur  district  of  Madras,  48  m.  E.  of  Bellary.     Pop.  (1901] 
9682.     The  town  is  surrounded  by  a  circle  of  rocky  hills,  connectec 
by  a  wall.     On  the  highest  of  these  stands  the  citadel,  2100  ft 
above  sea-level  and  1000  ft.  above  the  surrounding  country 
Here  was  the  stronghold  of  Morari  Rao  Ghorpade,  a  famous 
Mahratta  warrior  and  ally  of  the  English,  who  was  ultimately 
starved  into  surrender  by  Hayder  AU  in  1775. 

GOPHER  (Testudo  polyphemus),  the  only  living  representativ 

•  on  the  North  American  continent  of  the  genus  Testudo  of  th 
family  Testudinidae  or  land  tortoises;  it  occurs  in  the  south 
eastern  parts  of  the  United  States,  from  Florida  in  the  south  t< 
the  river  Savannah  in  the  north.  Its  carapace,  which  is  oblonj 
and  remarkably  compressed,  measures  from  12-18  in.  in  extrem 
length,  the  shields  which  cover  it  being  grooved,  and  of  a  yellow 
brown  colour.  It  is  characterized  by  the  shape  of  the  front  lob 

I  of  the  plastron,  which  is  bent  upwards  and  extends  beyond  th 
carapace.  The  gopher  abounds  chiefly  in  the  forests,  bu 
occasionally  visits  the  open  plains,  where  it  does  great  damage 
especially  to  the  potato  crops,  on  which  it  feeds.  It  is  a  nocturna 
animal,  remaining  concealed  by  day  in  its  deep  burrow,  an 
coming  forth  at  night  to  feed.  The  eggs,  five  in  number,  almos 


ound  and  15  in.  in  diameter,  are  laid  in  a  separate  cavity  near 
he  entrance.  The  flesh  of  the  gopher  or  mungofa,  as  it  is  also 
ailed,  is  considered  excellent  eating. 

The  name  "  gopher  "  is  more  commonly  applied  to  certain 
mall  rodent  mammals,  particularly  the  pocket-gopher. 

GdPPINGEN,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  kingdom  of  Wurttem- 

>erg,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Fils,  22  m.  E.S.E.  of  Stuttgart  on 

he  railway  to  Friedrichshafen.    Pop.  (1905)  20,870.  It  possesses 

castle  built,  partly  with  stones  from  the  ruined  castle  of  Hohen- 

taufen,  by  Duke  Christopher  of  Wurttemberg  in  the  i6th  century 

and  now  used  as  public  offices,  two  Evangelical  churches,  a 

loman  Catholic  church,  a  synagogue,  a  classical  school,  and  a 

modern  school.  The  manufactures  are  considerable  and  include 

inen  and  woollen  cloth,  leather,  glue,  paper  and  toys.     There  are 

machine  shops  and  tanneries  in  the  town.    Three  m.  N.  of  the 

own  are  the  ruins  of  the  castle  of  Hohenstaufen.     Goppingen 

originally  belonged  to  the  house  of  Hohenstaufen,  and  in  1270 

came  into  possession  of  the  counts  of  Wurttemberg.     It  was 

surrounded  by  walls  in  1129,  and  was  almost  entirely  rebuilt  after 

a  fire  in  1782. 

See  Pfeiffer,  Beschreibung  und  Geschichte  der  Stadt  Goppingen 
1885). 

GORAKHPUR,  a  city,  district  and  division  of  the  United 
Provinces  of  British  India.  The  city  is  situated  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  river  Rapti.  Pop.  (1901)  64,148.  It  is  believed  to  have 
jeen  founded  about  1400  A.D.  It  is  the  civil  headquarters  of  the 
district  and  was  formerly  a  military  cantonment.  It  consists  of 
a  number  of  adjacent  village  sites,  sometimes  separated  by 
cultivated  land,  and  most  of  the  inhabitants  are  agriculturists. 

The  DISTRICT  OF  GORAKHPUR  has  an  area  of  4535  sq.  m.  It 
ies  immediately  south  of  the  lower  Himalayan  slopes,  but  itself 
forms  a  portion  of  the  great  alluvial  plain.  Only  a  few  sandhills 
break  the  monotony  of  its  level  surface,  which  is,  however,  inter- 
sected by  numerous  rivers  studded  with  lakes  and  marshes.  In 
the  north  and  centre  dense  forests  abound,  and  the  whole  country 
lias  a  verdant  appearance.  The  principal  rivers  are  the  Rapti, 
the  Gogra,  the  Gandak  and  Little  Gandak,  the  Kuana,  the  Robin, 
the  Ami  and  the  Gunghi.  Tigers  are  found  in  the  north,  and 
many  other  wild  animals  abound  throughout  the  district.  The 
lakes  are  well  stocked  with  fish.  The  district  is  not  subject  to 
very  intense  heat,  from  which  it  is  secured  by  its  vicinity  to  the 
hills  and  the  moisture  of  its  soil.  Dust-storms  are  rare,  and  cool 
breezes  from  the  north,  rushing  down  the  gorges  of  the  Himalayas, 
succeed  each  short  interval  of  warm  weather.  The  climate  is, 
however,  relaxing.  The  southern  and  eastern  portions  are  as 
healthy  as  most  parts  of  the  province,  but  the  tarai  and  forest- 
tracts  are  still  subject  to  malaria. 

Gautama  Buddha,  the  founder  of  the  religion  bearing  his  name, 
was  born,  and  died  near  the  boundaries  of  the  district.  From  the 
beginning  of  the  6th  century  the  country  was  the  scene  of  a  con- 
tinuous struggle  between  the  Bhars  and  their  Aryan  antagonists, 
the  Rathors.  About  900  the  Domhatars  or  military  Brahmans 
appeared,  and  expelled  the  Rathors  from  the  town  of  Gorakhpur, 
but  they  also  were  soon  driven  back  by  other  invaders.  During 
the  isth  and  i6th  centuries,  after  the  district  had  been  desolated 
by  incessant  war,  the  descendants  of  the  various  conquerors  held 
parts  of  the  territory,  and  each  seems  to  have  lived  quite  isolated, 
as  no  bridges  or  roads  attest  any  intercourse  with  each  other. 
Towards  the  end  of  the  i6th  century  Mussulmans  occupied 
Gorakhpur  town,  but  they  interfered  very  little  with  the  district, 
and  allowed  it  to  be  controlled  by  the  native  rajas.  In  the 
middle  of  the  i8th  century  a  formidable  foe,  the  Banjaras  from  the 
west,  so  weakened  the  power  of  the  rajas  that  they  could  not  resist 
the  fiscal  exactions  of  the  Oudh  officials,  who  plundered  the 
country  to  a  great  extent.  The  district  formed  part  of  the 
territory  ceded  by  Oudh  to  the  British  under  the  treaty  of  1801. 
During  the  Mutiny  it  was  lost  for  a  short  time,  but  under  the 
friendly  Gurkhas  the  rebels  were  driven  out.  The  population  in 
1901  was  2,957,074,  showing  a  decrease  of  3%  in  the  decade. 
The  district  is  traversed  by  the  main  line  and  several  branches  of 
the  Bengal  &  North- Western  railway,  and  the  Gandak,  the  Gogra 
and  the  Rapti  are  navigable. 


246 


GORAL— GORCHAKOV 


The  DIVISION  has  an  area  of  9534  sq.  m.  The  population  in 
1901  was  6,333,012,  giving  an  average  density  of  664  persons  per 
sq.  m.,  being  more  than  one  to  every  acre,  and  the  highest  for 
any  large  tract  in  India. 

GORAL,  the  native  name  of  a  small  Himalayan  rough-haired 
and  cylindrical-horned  ruminant  classed  in  the  same  group  as  the 
chamois.  Scientifically  this  animal  is  known  as  Urotragus  (or 
Cemas)  goral;  and  the  native  name  is  now  employed  as  the 
designation  of  all  the  other  members  of  the  same  genus.  In 
addition  to  certain  peculiarities  in  the  form  of  the  skull,  gorals 
are  chiefly  distinguished  from  serows  (q.v.)  by  not  possessing  a 
gland  below  the  eye,  nor  a  corresponding  depression  in  the  skull. 
Several  species  are  known,  ranging  from  the  Himalaya  to  Burma, 
Tibet  and  North  China.  Of  these,  the  two  Himalayan  gorals 
( U.  goral  and  U.  bedfordi)  are  usually  found  in  small  parties,  but 
less  commonly  in  pairs.  They  generally  frequent  grassy  hills,  or 
rocky  ground  clothed  with  forest;  in  fine  weather  feeding  only 
in  the  mornings  and  evenings,  but  when  the  sky  is  cloudy  grazing 
throughout  the  day. 

GORAMY,  or  GOURAMY  (Osphromenus  olfax),  reputed  to  be  one 
of  the  best-flavoured  freshwater  fishes  in  the  East  Indian  archi- 
pelago. Its  original  home  is  Java,  Sumatra,  Borneo  and  several 
other  East  Indian  islands,  but  thence  it  has  been  transported  to 
and  acclimatized  in  Penang,  Malacca,  Mauritius  and  even 
Cayenne.  Being  an  almost  omnivorous  fish  and  tenacious  of  life, 


Goramy. 

it  seems  to  recommend  itself  particularly  for  acclimatization  in 
other  tropical  countries;  and  specimens  kept  in  captivity  become 
as  tame  as  carps.  It  attains  the  size  of  a  large  turbot.  Its 
shape  is  flat  and  short,  the  body  covered  with  large  scales;  the 
dorsal  and  anal  fins  are  provided  with  numerous  spines,  and 
the  ventral  fins  produced  into  long  filaments.  Like  Anabas, 
the  climbing  perch,  it  possesses  a  suprabranchial  accessory 
respiratory  organ. 

GORBERSDORF,  a  village  and  climatic  health  resort  of 
Germany,  in  the  Prussian  province  of  Silesia,  romantically 
situated  in  a  deep  and  well-wooded  valley  of  the  Waldenburg 
range,  1900  ft.  above  the  sea,  60  m.  S.W.  of  Breslau  by  the 
railway  to  Friedland  and  3  m.  from  the  Austrian  frontier.  Pop. 
700.  It  has  four  large  sanatoria  for  consumptives,  the  earliest  of 
which  was  founded  in  1854  by  Hermann  Brehmer  (1826-1889). 

GORBODUC,  a  mythical  king  of  Britain.  He  gave  his  kingdom 
away  during  his  lifetime  to  his  two  sons,  Ferrex  and  Porrex. 
The  two  quarrelled  and  the  younger  stabbed  the  elder.  Their 
mother,  loving  the  latter  most,  avenged  his  death  by  murdering 
her  son,  and  the  people,  horrified  at  her  act,  revolted  and 
murdered  both  her  and  King  Gorboduc.  This  legend  was  the 
subject  of  the  earliest  regular  English  tragedy  which  in  1561 
was  played  before  Queen  Elizabeth  in  the  Inner  Temple  hall. 
It  was  written  by  Thomas  Sackville,  Lord  Buckhurst  and 
Thomas  Norton  in  collaboration.  Under  the  title  of  Gorboduc  it 
was  published  first  very  corruptly  in  1565,  and  in  better  form  as 
The  Tragedy  of  Ferrex  and  Porrex  in  1570. 

GORCHAKOV,  or  GORTCHAKOFF,  a  noble  Russian  family, 
descended  from  Michael  Vsevolodovich,  prince  of  Chernigov, 
who,  in  1 246,  was  assassinated  by  the  Mongols.  PRINCE  ANDREY 
IVANOVICH  (1768-1855),  general  in  the  Russian  army,-  took  a 
conspicuous  part  in  the  final  campaigns  against  Napoleon. 
ALEXANDER  IVANOVICH  (1760-1825)  served  with  distinction 


under  his  relative  Suvarov  in  the  Turkish  Wars,  and  took  part 
as  a  general  officer  in  the  Italian  and  Swiss  operations  of  1799, 
and  in  the  war  against  Napoleon  in  Poland  in  1806-1807  (battle 
of  Heilsberg).  PETR  DMITRIEVICH  (1790-1868)  served  under 
Kamenski  and  Kutusov  in  the  campaign  against  Turkey,  and 
afterwards  against  France  in  1813-1814.  In  1820  he  suppressed 
an  insurrection  in  the  Caucasus,  for  which  service  he  was  raised 
to  the  rank  of  major-general.  In  1828-1829  he  fought  under 
Wittgenstein  against  the  Turks,  won  an  action  at  Aidos,  and 
signed  the  treaty  of  peace  at  Adrianople.  In  1839  he  was  made 
governor  of  Eastern  Siberia,  and  in  1851  retired  into  private 
life.  When  the  Crimean  War  broke  out  he  offered  his  services 
to  the  emperor  Nicholas,  by  whom  he  was  appointed  general  of 
the  VI.  army  corps  in  the  Crimea.  He  commanded  the  corps 
in  the  battles  of  Alma  and  Inkerman.  He  retired  in  1855  and 
died  at  Moscow,  on  the  i8th  of  March  1868. 

PRINCE  MIKHAIL  DMITRIEVICH  (1795-1861),  brother  of  the 
last  named,  entered  the  Russian  army  in  1807  and  took  part 
in  the  campaigns  against  Persia  in  1810,  and  in  1812-1815 
against  France.  During  the  Russo-Turkish  War  of  1828-1829 
he  was  present  at  the  sieges  of  Silistria  and  Shumla.  After 
being  appointed,  in  1830,  a  general  officer,  he  was  present  in  the 
campaign  in  Poland,  and  was  wounded  at  the  battle  of  Grochow, 
on  the  25th  of  February  1831.  He  also  distinguished  himself 
at  the  battle  of  Ostrolenka  and  at  the  taking  of  Warsaw.  For 
these  services  he  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general. 
In  1846  he  was  nominated  military  governor  of  Warsaw.  In 
1840,  he  commanded  the  Russian  artillery  in  the  war  against  the 
Hungarians,  and  in  1852  he  visited  London  as  a  representative 
of  the  Russian  army  at  the  funeral  of  the  duke  of  Wellington. 
At  this  time  he  was  chief  of  the  staff  of  the  Russian  army  and 
adjutant-general  to  the  tsar.  Upon  Russia  declaring  war 
against  Turkey  in  1853,  he  was  appointed  commander-in-chief 
of  the  troops  which  occupied  Moldavia  and  Wallachia.  In  1854 
he  crossed  the  Danube  and  besieged  Silistria,  but  was  superseded 
in  April  by  Prince  Paskevich,  who,  however,  resigned  on  the  8th 
of  June,  when  Gorchakov  resumed  the  command.  In  July 
the  siege  of  Silistria  was  raised,  and  the  Russian  armies  recrossed 
the  Danube;  in  August  they  withdrew  to  Russia.  In  1855  he 
was  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  Russian  forces  in  the 
Crimea  in  place  of  Prince  Menshikov.  Gorchakov's  defence  of 
Sevastopol,  and  final  retreat  to  the  northern  part  of  the  town, 
which  he  continued  to  defend  till  peace  was  signed  in  Paris,  were 
conducted  with  skill  and  energy.  In  1856  he  was  appointed 
governor-general  of  Poland  in  succession  to  Prince  Paskevich. 
He  died  at  Warsaw  on  the  3oth  of  May  1861,  and  was  buried, 
in  accordance  with  his  own  wish,  at  Sevastopol. 

PRINCE  GORCHAKOV,  ALEXANDER  MIKHAILOVICH  (1798-1883), 
Russian  statesman,  cousin  of  Princes  Petr  and  Mikhail  Gorchakov, 
was  born  on  the  i6th  of  July  1798,  and  was  educated  at  the 
lyceum  of  Tsarskoye  Selo,  where  he  had  the  poet  Pushkin  as  a 
school-fellow.  He  became  a  good  classical  scholar,  and  learnt 
to  speak  and  write  in  French  with  facility  and  elegance.  Pushkin 
in  one  of  his  poems  described  young  Gorchakov  as  "  Fortune's 
favoured  son,"  and  predicted  his  success.  On  leaving  the  lyceum 
Gorchakov  entered  the  foreign  office  under  Count  Nesselrode. 
His  first  diplomatic  work  of  importance  was  the  negotiation  of  a 
marriage  between  the  grand  duchess  Olga  and  the  crown  prince 
Charles  of  Wiirttemberg.  He  remained  at  Stuttgart  for  some 
years  as  Russian  minister  and  confidential  adviser  of  the  crown 
princess.  He  foretold  the  outbreak  of  the  revolutionary  spirit 
in  Germany  and  Austria,  and  was  credited  with  counselling  the 
abdication  of  Ferdinand  in  favour  of  Francis  Joseph.  When  the 
German  confederation  was  re-established  in  1850  in  place  of  the 
parliament  of  Frankfort,  Gorchakov  was  appointed  Russian 
minister  to  the  diet.  It  was  here  that  he  first  met  Prince 
Bismarck,  with  whom  he  formed  a  friendship  which  was  after- 
wards renewed  at  St  Petersburg.  The  emperor  Nicholas  found 
that  his  ambassador  at  Vienna,  Baron  Meyendorff,  was  not  a 
sympathetic  instrument  for  carrying  out  his  schemes  in  the  East. 
He  therefore  transferred  Gorchakov  to  Vienna,  where  the  latter 
remained  through  the  critical  period  of  the  Crimean  War. 


GORDIAN— GORDIUM 


247 


Gorchakov  perceived  that  Russian  designs  against  Turkey, 
supported  by  Great  Britain  and  France,  were  impracticable, 
and  he  counselled  Russia  to  make  no  more  useless  sacrifices, 
but  to  accept  the  bases  of  a  pacification.  At  the  same  time, 
although  he  attended  the  Paris  conference  of  1856,  he  purposely 
abstained  from  affixing  his  signature  to  the  treaty  of  peace  after 
that  of  Count  Orlov,  Russia's  chief  representative.  For  the  time, 
however,  he  made  a  virtue  of  necessity,  and  Alexander  II., 
recognizing  the  wisdom  and  courage  which  Gorchakov  had 
exhibited,  appointed  him  minister  of  foreign  affairs  in  place  of 
Count  Nesselrode.  Not  long  after  his  accession  to  office  Gorcha- 
kov issued  a  circular  to  the  foreign  powers,  in  which  he  announced 
that  Russia  proposed,  for  internal  reasons,  to  keep  herself  as 
free  as  possible  from  complications  abroad,  and  he  added  the 
now  historic  phrase,  "  La  Russie  ne  boude  pas;  die  se  recueille." 
During  the  Polish  insurrection  Gorchakov  rebuffed  the  sugges- 
tions of  Great  Britain,  Austria  and  France  for  assuaging  the 
severities  employed  in  quelling  it,  and  he  was  especially  acrid 
in  his  replies  to  Earl  Russell's  despatches.  In  July  1863 
Gorchakov  was  appointed  chancellor  of  the  Russian  empire 
expressly  in  reward  for  his  bold  diplomatic  attitude  towards  an 
indignant  Europe.  The  appointment  was  hailed  with  enthusiasm 
in  Russia,  and  at  that  juncture  Prince  Chancellor  Gorchakov 
was  unquestionably  the  most  powerful  minister  in  Europe. 

An  approchement  now  began  between  the  courts  of  Russia  and 
Prussia;  and  in  1863  Gorchakov  smoothed  the  way  for  the 
occupation  of  Holstein  by  the  Federal  troops.  This  seemed 
equally  favourable  to  Austria  and  Prussia,  but  it  was  the  latter 
power  which  gained  all  the  substantial  advantages;  and  when 
the  conflict  arose  between  Austria  and  Prussia  in  1866,  Russia 
remained  neutral  and  permitted  Prussia  to  reap  the  fruits  and 
establish  her  supremacy  in  Germany.  When  the  Franco-German 
War  of  1870-71  broke  out  Russia  answered  for  the  neutrality 
of  Austria.  An  attempt  was  made  to  form  an  anti-Prussian 
coalition,  but  it  failed  in  consequence  of  the  cordial  understanding 
between  the  German  and  Russian  chancellors.  In  return  for 
Russia's  service  in  preventing  the  aid  of  Austria  from  being 
given  to  France,  Gorchakov  looked  to  Bismarck  for  diplomatic 
support  in  the  Eastern  Question,  and  he  received  an  instalment 
of  the  expected  support  when  he  successfully  denounced  the 
Black  Sea  clauses  of  the  treaty  of  Paris.  This  was  justly  regarded 
by  him  as  an  important  service  to  his  country  and  one  of  the 
triumphs  of  his  career,  and  he  hoped  to  obtain  further  successes 
with  the  assistance  of  Germany,  but  the  cordial  relations  between 
the  cabinets  of  St  Petersburg  and  Berlin  did  not  subsist  much 
longer.  In  1875  Bismarck  was  suspected  of  a  design  of  again 
attacking  France,  and  Gorchakov  gave  him  to  understand,  in  a 
way  which  was  not  meant  to  be  offensive,  but  which  roused  the 
German  chancellor's  indignation,  that  Russia  would  oppose  any 
such  scheme.  The  tension  thus  produced  between  the  two 
statesmen  was  increased  by  the  political  complications  of  1875- 
1878  in  south-eastern  Europe,  which  began  with  the  Herze- 
govinian  insurrection  and  culminated  at  the  Berlin  congress. 
Gorchakov  hoped  to  utilize  the  complications  in  such  a  way  as 
to  recover,  without  war,  the  portion  of  Bessarabia  ceded  by  the 
treaty  of  Paris,  but  he  soon  lost  control  of  events,  and  the 
Slavophil  agitation  produced  the  Russo-Turkish  campaign  of 
1877-78.  By  the  preliminary  peace  of  San  Stefano  the 
Slavophil  aspirations  seemed  to  be  realized,  but  the  stipulations 
of  that  peace  were  considerably  modified  by  the  congress  of 
Berlin  (i3th  June  to  I3th  July  1878),  at  which  the  aged  chancellor 
held  nominally  the  post  of  first  plenipotentiary,  but  left  to  the 
second  plenipotentiary,  Count  Shuvalov,  not  only  the  task  of 
defending  Russian  interests,  but  also  the  responsibility  and 
odium  for  the  concessions  which  Russia  had  to  make  to  Great 
Britain  and  Austria.  He  had  the  satisfaction  of  seeing  the  lost 
portion  of  Bessarabia  restored  to  his  country  by  the  Berlin 
treaty,  but  at  the  cost  of  greater  sacrifices  than  he  anticipated. 
After  the  congress  he  continued  to  hold  the  post  of  minister  for 
foreign  affairs,  but  lived  chiefly  abroad,  and  resigned  formally  in 
1882,  when  he  was  succeeded  by  M.  de  Giers.  He  died  at  Baden- 
Baden  on  the  nth  of  March  1883.  Prince  Gorchakov  devoted 


himself  entirely  to  foreign  affairs,  and  took  no  part  in  the  great 
internal  reforms  of  Alexander  II. 's  reign.  As  a  diplomatist  he 
displayed  many  brilliant  qualities — adroitness  in  negotiation, 
incisiveness  in  argument  and  elegance  in  style.  His  statesman- 
ship, though  marred  occasionally  by  personal  vanity  and  love 
of  popular  applause,  was  far-seeing  and  prudent.  In  the  latter 
part  of  his  career  his  main  object  was  to  raise  the  prestige  of 
Russia  by  undoing  the  results  of  the  Crimean  War,  and  it  may 
fairly  be  said  that  he  in  great  measure  succeeded.  (D.  M.  W.) 

GORDIAN,  or  GORDIANUS,  the  name  of  three  Roman 
emperors.  The  first,  Marcus  Antonius  Gordianus  Sempronianus 
Romanus  Africanus  (A.D.  150-238),  an  extremely  wealthy  man, 
was  descended  from  the  Gracchi  and  Trajan,  while  his  wife  was 
the  great-granddaughter  of  Antoninus  Pius.  While  he  gained 
unbounded  popularity  by  his  magnificent  games  and  shows,  his 
prudent  and  retired  life  did  not  excite  the  suspicion  of  Caracalla, 
in  whose  honour  he  wrote  a  long  epic  called  A  ntoninias.  Alexander 
Severus  called  him  to  the  dangerous  honours  of  government  in 
Africa,  and  during  his  proconsulship  occurred  the  usurpation  of 
Maximin.  The  universal  discontent  roused  by  the  oppressive  rule 
of  Maximin  culminated  in  a  revolt  in  Africa  in  238,  and  Gordian 
reluctantly  yielded  to  the  popular  clamour  and  assumed  the 
purple.  His  son,  Marcus  Antonius  Gordianus  (192-238),  was 
associated  with  him  in  the  dignity.  The  senate  confirmed  the 
choice  of  the  Africans,  and  most  of  the  provinces  gladly  sided 
with  the  new  emperors;  but,  even  while  their  cause  was  so 
successful  abroad,  they  had  fallen  before  the  sudden  inroad  of 
Cappellianus,  legatus  of  Numidia  and  a  supporter  of  Maximin. 
They  had  reigned  only  thirty-six  days.  Both  the  Gordians  had 
deserved  by  their  amiable  character  their  high  reputation;  they 
were  men  of  great  accomplishments,  fond  of  literature,  and 
voluminous  authors;  but  they  were  rather  intellectual  voluptu- 
aries than  able  statesmen  or  powerful  rulers.  Having  embraced 
the  cause  of  Gordian,  the  senate  was  obliged  to  continue  the 
revolt  against  Maximin,  and  appointed  Pupienus  Maximus 
and  Caelius  Balbinus,  two  of  its  noblest  and  most  esteemed 
members,  as  joint  emperors.  At  their  inauguration  a  sedition 
arose,  and  the  popular  outcry  for  a  Gordian  was  appeased 
by  the  association  with  them  of  M.  Antonius  Gordianus 
Pius  (224-244),  grandson  of  the  elder  Gordian,  then  a  boy  of 
thirteen.  Maximin  forthwith  invaded  Italy,  but  was  murdered 
by  his  own  troops  while  besieging  Aquileia,  and  a  revolt  of  the 
praetorian  guards,  to  which  Pupienus  and  Balbinus  fell  victims, 
left  Gordian  sole  emperor.  For  some  time  he  was  under  the 
control  of  his  mother's  eunuchs,  till  Timesitheus,1  his  father-in- 
law  and  praefect  of  the  praetorian  guard,  persuaded  him  to  assert 
his  independence.  When  the  Persians  under  Shapur  (Sapor)  I. 
invaded  Mesopotamia,  the  young  emperor  opened  the  temple  of 
Janus  for  the  last  time  recorded  in  history,  and  marched  in  person 
to  the  East.  The  Persians  were  driven  back  over  the  Euphrates 
and  defeated  in  the  battle  of  Resaena  (243),  and  only  the  death 
of  Timesitheus  (under  suspicious  circumstances)  prevented  an 
advance  into  the  enemy's  territory.  Philip  the  Arabian,  who 
succeeded  Timesitheus,  stirred  up  discontent  in  the  army,  and 
Gordian  was  murdered  by  the  mutinous  soldiers  in  Mesopotamia. 

See  lives  of  the  Gordians  by  Capitolinus  in  the  Scriptores  historiae 
Augustae;  Herodian  vii.  viii.;  Zosimus  i.  16,  18;  Ammianus 
Marcellinus  xxiii.  5;  Eutropius  ix.  2;  Aurelius  Victor,  Caesares, 
27;  article  SHAPUR  (I.);  Pauly-Wissowa,  Realencydopddie,  i. 
2619  f.  (von  Rohden). 

GORDIUM,  an  ancient  city  of  Phrygia  situated  on  the  Persian 
"  Royal  road  "  from  Pessinus  to  Ancyra,  and  not  far  from  the 
Sangarius.  It  lies  opposite  the  village  Pebi,  a  little  north  of 
the  point  where  the  Constantinople-Angora  railway  crosses  the 
Sangarius.  It  is  not  to  be  confused  with  Gordiou-kome,  refounded 
as  Juliopolis,  a  Bithynian  town  on  a  small  tributary  of  the 
Sangarius,  about  47  m.  in  an  air-line  N.W.  of  Gordium.  Accord- 
ing to  the  legend,  Gordium  was  founded  by  Gordius,  a  Phrygian 
peasant  who  had  been  called  to  the  throne  by  his  countrymen  in 
obedience  to  an  oracle  of  Zeus  commanding  them  to  select  the 
first  person  that  rode  up  to  the  temple  of  the  god  in  a  wagon. 
The  king  afterwards  dedicated  his  car  to  the  god,  and  another 
1  For  this  name  see  footnote  to  SHAPUR. 


248 


GORDON  (FAMILY)— GORDON,  A. 


oracle  declared  that  whoever  succeeded  in  untying  the  strangely 
entwined  knot  of  cornel  bark  which  bound  the  yoke  to  the  pole 
should  reign  over  all  Asia.  Alexander  the  Great,  according  to 
the  story,  cut  the  knot  by  a  stroke  of  his  sword.  Gordium  was 
captured  and  destroyed  by  the  Gauls  soon  after  189  B.C.  and 
disappeared  from  history.  In  imperial  times  only  a  small  village 
existed  on  the  site.  Excavations  made  in  1900  by  two  German 
scholars,  G.  and  A.  Koerte,  revealed  practically  no  remains  later 
than  the  middle  of  the  6th  century  B.C.  (when  Phrygia  fell  under 

Persian  power). 

See  Jahrbuch des Instituts,  Erganzungsheft  v.  (1904).  (J.  G.  C.  A.) 
GORDON,  the  name  of  a  Scottish  family,  no  fewer  than  157 
main  branches  of  which  are  traced  by  the  family  historians.  A 
laird  of  Gorden,  in  Berwickshire,  near  the  English  border,  is  said 
to  have  fallen  in  the  battle  of  the  Standard  (1138).  The  families 
of  the  two  sons  ascribed  to  him  by  tradition,  Richard  Gordon  of 
Gordon  and  Adam  Gordon  of  Huntly,  were  united  by  the  marriage 
of  their  great-grandchildren  Alicia  and  Sir  Adam,  whose  grandson 
Sir  Adam  (killed  at  Halidon  Hill,  1333)  at  first  took  the  English 
side  in  the  Scottish  struggle  for  independence,  and  is  the  first 
member  of  the  family  definitely  to  emerge  into  history.  He  was 
justiciar  of  Scotland  in  1310,  but  after  Bannockburn  he  attached 
himself  to  Robert  Bruce,  who  granted  him  in  1318  the  lordship  of 
Strathbogie  in  Aberdeenshire,  to  which  Gordon  gave  the  name  of 
Huntly  from  a  village  on  the  Gordon  estate  in  Berwickshire.  He 
had  two  sons,  Adam  and  William.  The  younger  son,  laird  of 
Stitchel  in  Roxburghshire,  was  the  ancestor  of  William  de 
Gordon  of  Stitchel  and  Lochinvar,  founder  of  the  Galloway 
branch  of  the  family  represented  in  the  Scottish  peerage  by  the 
dormant  viscounty  of  Kenmure  (q.v.),  created  in  1633;  most  of 
the  Irish  and  Virginian  Gordons  are  offshoots  of  this  stock.  The 
elder  son,  Adam,  inherited  the  Gordon-Huntly  estates.  He  had 
two  grandsons,  Sir  John  (d.  1394)  and  Sir  Adam  (slain  at  Homildon 
Hill,  1403).  Sir  John  had  two  illegitimate  sons,  Jock  of  Scur- 
dargue,  the  ancestor  of  the  earls  of  Aberdeen,  and  Tarn  of 
Ruthven.  From  these  two  stocks  most  of  the  northern  Gordon 
families  are  derived.  Sir  Adam's  daughter  and  heiress,  Elizabeth, 
married  Sir  Alexander  Seton,  and  with  her  husband  was  confirmed 
in  1408  in  the  possession  of  the  barony  of  Gordon  and  Huntly  in 
Berwickshire  and  of  the  Gordon  lands  in  Aberdeen.  The  Seton- 
Gordons  are  their  descendants.  Their  son  Alexander  was  created 
earl  of  Huntly  (see  HUNTLY,  EARLS  AND  MARQUESSES  or), 
probably  in  1445;  and  his  heirs  became  dukes  of  Gordon,  George 
Gordon  (c.  1650-1716),  4th  marquess  of  Huntly,  being  created 
duke  of  Gordon  in  1684.  He  had  been  educated  in  a  French 
Catholic  seminary,  and  served  in  the  French  army  in  the  cam- 
paigns of  1673  to  1675.  Under  James  II.  he  was  made  keeper  of 
Edinburgh  Castle  on  account  of  his  religion,  but  he  refused  to 
support  James's  efforts  to  impose  Roman  Catholicism  on  his 
subjects.  He  offered  little  active  resistance  when  the  castle  was 
besieged  by  William  III.'s  forces.  After  his  submission  he  was 
more  than  once  imprisoned  on  suspicion  of  Jacobite  leanings,  and 
was  ordered  by  George  I.  to  reside  on  parole  in  Edinburgh.  For 
some  time  before  his  death  he  was  separated  from  his  wife  Elizabeth 
Howard,  daughter  of  the  6th  duke  of  Norfolk.  His  son  Alexander, 
and  duke  of  Gordon  (c.  1678-1728),  joined  the  Old  Pretender,  but 
gained  the  royal  pardon  after  the  surrender  of  Gordon  Castle  in 
1716.  Of  his  children  by  his  wife  Henrietta  Mordaunt,  second 
daughter  of  Charles  Mordaunt,  earl  of  Peterborough,  Cosmo 
George  (c.  1720-1752)  succeeded  as  3rd  duke;  Lord  Lewis  Gordon 
(d.  1754)  took  an  active  part  in  the  Jacobite  rising  of  1745;  and 
General  Lord  Adam  Gordon  (c.  1726-1801)  became  commander  of 
the  forces  in  Scotland  in  1782,  and  governor  of  Edinburgh  Castle 
in  1786.  Lord  George  Gordon  (g.v.)  was  a  younger  son  of  the 
3rd  duke. 

The  title,  with  the  earldom  of  Norwich  and  the  barony  of 
Gordon  Huntly,  became  extinct  on  the  death  of  George,  5th 
duke  (1770-1836),  a  distinguished  soldier  who  raised  the  corps 
now  known  as  the  2nd  battalion  of  the  Gordon  Highlanders. 
The  marquessate  of  Huntly  passed  to  his  cousin  and  heir-male, 
George,  5th  earl  of  Aboyne.  Lady  Charlotte  Gordon,  sister  of 
and  co-heiress  with  the  5th  duke,  married  Charles  Lennox,  4th 


duke  of  Richmond,  whose  son  took  the  name  of  Gordon-Lennox. 
The  dukedom  of  Gordon  was  revived  in  1876  in  favour  of  the 
6th  duke  of  Richmond,  who  thenceforward  was  styled  duke  of 
Richmond  and  Gordon.  Adam  Gordon  of  Aboyne  (d.  1537) 
took  the  courtesy  title  of  earl  of  Sutherland  in  right  of  his  wife 
Elizabeth,  countess  of  Sutherland  in  her  own  right,  sister  of  the 
9th  earl.  The  lawless  and  turbulent  Gordons  of  Gight  were  the 
maternal  ancestors  of  Lord  Byron. 

Among  the  many  soldiers  of  fortune  bearing  the  name  of 
Gordon  was  Colonel  John  Gordon,  one  of  the  murderers  of 
Wallenstein.  Patrick  Gordon  (1635-1699)  was  born  at  Auch- 
leuchries  in  Aberdeenshire,  entered  the  service  of  Charles  X. 
of  Sweden  in  1651  and  served  against  the  Poles.  He  changed 
sides  more  than  once  before  he  found  his  way  to  Moscow  in  1661 
and  took  service  under  the  tsar  Alexis.  He  became  general  in 
1687;  in  1688  he  helped  to  secure  Peter  the  Great's  ascendancy; 
and  later  he  crushed  the  revolt  of  the  Streltzi.  His  diary  was 
published  in  German  (3  vols.,  1849-1853,  Moscow  and  St  Peters- 
burg), and  selections  from  the  English  original  by  the  Spalding 
Club  (Aberdeen,  1859). 

The  Gordons  fill  a  considerable  place  in  Scottish  legend  and 
ballad.  "  Captain  Car,"  or"  Edom  (Adam)  of  Gordon"  describes 
an  incident  in  the  struggle  between  the  Forbeses  and  Gordons 
in  Aberdeenshire  in  1571;  "  The  Duke  of  Gordon's  Daughter  " 
has  apparently  no  foundation  in  fact,  though  "  Geordie  "  of  the 
ballad  is  sometimes  said  to  have  been  George,  4th  earl  of  Huntly; 
"  The  Fire  of  Frendraught  "  goes  back  to  a  feud  (1630)  between 
James  Crichton  of  Frendraught  and  William  Gordon  of  Rothie- 
may;  the  "  Gallant  Gordons  Gay  "  figure  in  "  Chevy  Chase  "; 
William  Gordon  of  Earlston,  the  Covenanter,  appears  in  "  Both- 
well  Bridge  "  &c. 

See  William  Gordon  (of  old  Aberdeen),  The  History  of  the  Ancient, 
Noble,  and  Illustrious  House  of  Gordon  (2  vols.,  Edinburgh,  1726- 
1727),  of  which  A  Concise  History  of  the  .  .  .  House  of  Gordon,  by 
C.  A.  Gordon  (Aberdeen,  1754)  is  iittle  more  than  an  abridgment; 
The  Records  of  Aboyne,  1230-^1081,  edited  by  Charles,  nth  marquess 
of  Huntly,  &c.  (New  Spalding  Club,  Aberdeen,  1894);  The  Gordon 
Book,  ed.  J.  M.  Bulloch  (1902);  The  House  of  Gordon,  ed.  J.  M. 
Bulloch  (Aberdeen,  vol.  i.,  1903) ;  and  Mr  Bulloch's  The  First  Duke 
of  Gordon  (1909). 

GORDON,  ADAM  LINDSAY  (1833-1870),  Australian  poet, 
was  born  at  Fayal,  in  the  Azores,  in  1833,  the  son  of  a  retired 
Indian  officer  who  taught  Hindustani  at  Cheltenham  College. 
Young  Gordon  was  educated  there  and  at  Merton  College, 
Oxford,  but  a  youthful  indiscretion  led  to  his  being  sent  in  1853 
to  South  Australia,  where  he  joined  the  mounted  police.  He  then 
became  a  horsebreaker,  but  on  his  father's  death  he  inherited 
a  fortune  and  obtained  a  seat  in  the  House  of  Assembly.  At 
this  time  he  had  the  reputation  of  being  the  best  non-professional 
steeplechase  rider  in  the  colony.  In  1867  he  moved  to  Victoria 
and  set  up  a  livery  stable  at  Ballarat.  Two  volumes  of  poems, 
Sea  Spray  and  Smoke  Drift  and  Ashlar oth,  were  published  in  this 
year,  and  two  years  later  he  gave  up  his  business  and  settled 
at  New  Brighton,  near  Melbourne.  A  second  volume  of  poetry, 
Bush  Ballads  and  Galloping  Rhymes,  appeared  in  1870.  It 
brought  him  more  praise  than  emolument,  and,  thoroughly 
discouraged  by  his  failure  to  make  good  his  claim  to  some 
property  in  Scotland  to  which  he  believed  himself  entitled, 
he  committed  suicide  on  the  24th  of  June  1870.  His  reputation 
rose  after  his  death,  and  he  became  the  best  known  and  most 
widely  popular  of  Australian  poets.  Much  of  Gordon's  poetry 
might  have  been  written  in  England;  when,  however,  it  is 
really  local,  it  is  vividly  so;  his  genuine  feeling  frequently 
kindles  into  passion;  his  versification  is  always  elastic  and 
sonorous,  but  sometimes  too  reminiscent  of  Swinburne.  Hisj 
compositions  are  almost  entirely  lyrical,  and  their  merit  is 
usually  in  proportion  to  the  degree  in  which  they  partake  of  the 
character  of  the  ballad. 

Gordon's  poems  were  collected  and  published  in  1880  with  a 
biographical  introduction  by  Marcus  Clarke. 

GORDON,  ALEXANDER  (c.  1692-^  1754),  Scottish  antiquary, 
is  believed  to  have  been  born  in  Aberdeen  in  1692.  He  is 
the  "  Sandy  Gordon  "  of  Scott's  Antiquary.  Of  his  parentage 
and  early  history  nothing  is  known.  He  appears  to  have 


distinguished  himself  in  classics  at  Aberdeen  University,  and  to 
have  made  a  living  at  first  by  teaching  languages  and  music. 
When  still  young  he  travelled  abroad,  probably  in  the  capacity  of 
tutor.  He  returned  to  Scotland  previous  to  1726,  and  devoted 
himself  to  antiquarian  work.  In  1726  appeared  the  Itinerarium 
Septentrionale,  his  greatest  and  best-known  work.  He  was  already 
the  friend  of  Sir  John  Clerk,  of  Penicuik,  better  known  as  Baron 

I  Clerk  (a  baron  of  the  exchequer) ;  and  the  baron  and  Roger  Gale 
(vice-president  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries)  are  the  "  two 
gentlemen,  the  honour  of  their  age  and  country,"  whose  letters 
were  published,  without  their  consent  it  appears,  as  an  appendix 
to  the  Itinerarium.  Subsequently  Gordon  was  appointed  secre- 
tary to  the  Society  for  the  Encouragement  of  Learning,  with  an 
annual  salary  of  £50.  Resigning  this  post,  or,  as  there  seems 
reason  for  believing,  being  dismissed  for  carelessness  in  his 
accounts,  he  succeeded  Dr  Stukeley  as  secretary  to  the  Society 
of  Antiquaries,  and  also  acted  for  a  short  time  as  secretary  to 
the  Egyptian  Club,  an  association  composed  of  gentlemen  who 
had  visited  Egypt.  In  1741  he  accompanied  James  Glen  (after- 
wards governor),  to  South  Carolina.  Through  his  influence  Gor- 
Idon,  besides  receiving  a  grant  of  land  in  South  Carolina,  became 
registrar  of  the  province  and  justice  of  the  peace,  and  filled 
several  other  offices.  From  his  will,  dated  the  22nd  of  August 
1754,  it  appears  he  had  a  son  Alexander  and  a  daughter  Frances, 
to  whom  he  bequeathed  most  of  his  property,  among  which  were 
portraits  of  himself  and  of  friends  painted  by  his  own  hand. 

See  Sir  Daniel  Wilson,  Alexander  Gordon,  the  Antiquary;  and  his 
Papers  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries  of  Scotland, 
with  Additional  Notes  and  an  Appendix  of  Original  Letters  by 
Dr  David  Laing  (Proc.  Soc.  of  Anliq.  of  Scot.  x.  363-382). 

GORDON,  CHARLES  GEORGE  (1833-1885),  British  soldier 
and  administrator,  fourth  son  of  General  H.  W.  Gordon,  Royal 
Artillery,  was  born  at  Woolwich  on  the  28th  of  January  1833. 
He  received  his  early  education  at  Taunton  school,  and  was 
given  a  cadetship  in  the  Royal  Military  Academy,  Woolwich, 
in  1848.  He  was  commissioned  as  second  lieutenant  in  the 
corps  of  Royal  Engineers  on  the  23rd  of  June  1852.  After 
passing  through  a  course  of  instruction  at  the  Royal  Engineers' 
establishment,  Chatham,  he  was  promoted  lieutenant  in  1854, 
and  was  sent  to  Pembroke  dock  to  assist  in  the  construction  of 
the  fortifications  then  being  erected  for  the  defence  of  Milford 
Haven.  The  Crimean  War  broke  out  shortly  afterwards,  and 
Gordon  was  ordered  on  active  service,  and  landed  at  Balaklava 
on  the  ist  of  January  1855.  The  siege  of  Sevastopol  was  in 
progress,  and  he  had  his  full  share  of  the  arduous  work  in  the 
trenches.  He  was  attached  to  one  of  the  British  columns  which 
assaulted  the  Redan  on  the  i8th  of  June,  and  was  also  present 
at  the  capture  of  that  work  on  the  8th  of  September.  He  took 
part  in  the  expedition  to  Kinburn,  and  then  returned  to  Sevas- 
topol to  superintend  a  portion  of  the  demolition  of  the  Russian 
dockyard.  After  peace  with  Russia  had  been  concluded,  Gordon 
was  attached  to  an  international  commission  appointed  to  de- 
limit the  new  boundary,  as  fixed  by  treaty,  between  Russia  and 
Turkey  in  Bessarabia;  and  on  the  conclusion  of  this  work  he 
was  ordered  to  Asia  Minor  on  similar  duty,  with  reference  to 
the  eastern  boundary  between  the  two  countries.  While  so 
employed  Gordon  took  the  opportunity  to  make  himself  well 
acquainted  with  the  geography  and  people  of  Armenia,  and 
the  knowledge  of  dealing  with  eastern  nations  then  gained 
was  of  great  use  to  him  in  after  life. 

He  returned  to  England  towards  the  end  of  1858,  and  was 
then  selected  for  the  appointment  of  adjutant  and  field-works 
instructor  at  the  Royal  Engineers'  establishment, 
and  took  up  his  new  duties  at  Chatham  after  promotion 
to  the  rank  of  captain  in  April  1859.  But  his  stay  in  England 
was  brief,  for  in  1860  war  was  declared  against  China,  and 
Gordon  was  ordered  out  there,  arriving  at  Tientsin  in  September. 
He  was  too  late  for  the  attack  on  the  Taku  forts,  but  was  present 
at  the  occupation  of  Peking  and  destruction  of  the  Summer 
Palace.  He  remained  with  the  British  force  of  occupation  in 
northern  China  until  April  1862,  when  the  British  troops, 
under  the  command  of  General  Staveley,  proceeded  to  Shanghai, 


GORDON,  C.  G. 


249 


In  China. 


in  order  to  protect  the  European  settlement  at  that  place  from 
the  Taiping  rebels.  The  Taiping  revolt,  which  had  some  remark- 
able points  of  similarity  with  the  Mahdist  rebellion  in  the  Sudan, 
had  commenced  in  1850  in  the  province  of  Kwangsi.  The 
leader,  Hung  Sin  Tsuan,  a  semi-political,  semi-religious  en- 
thusiast, assumed  the  title  of  Tien  Wang,  or  Heavenly  King, 
and  by  playing  on  the  feelings  of  the  lower  class  of  people  gradu- 
ally collected  a  considerable  force.  The  Chinese  authorities 
endeavoured  to  arrest  him,  but  the  imperialist  troops  were 
defeated.  The  area  of  revolt  extended  northwards  through 
the  provinces  of  Hunan  and  Hupeh,  and  down  the  valley  of 
the  Yangtsze-kiang  as  far  as  the  great  city  of  Nanking,  which 
was  captured  by  the  rebels  in  1853.  Here  the  Tien  Wang 
established  his  court,  and  while  spending  his  own  time  in  heavenly 
contemplation  and  earthly  pleasures,  sent  the  assistant  Wangs 
on  warlike  expeditions  through  the  adjacent  provinces.  For 
some  years  a  constant  struggle  was  maintained  between  the 
Chinese  imperialist  troops  and  the  Taipings,  with  varying  success 
on  both  sides.  The  latter  gradually  advanced  eastwards,  and  ap- 
proaching the  important  city  of,  Shanghai,  alarmed  the  European 
inhabitants,  who  subscribed  to  raise  a  mixed  force  of  Europeans 
and  Manila  men  for  the  defence  of  the  town.  This  force,  which 
was  placed  under  the  command  of  an  American,  Frederick 
Townsend  Ward  (1831-1862),  took  up  a  position  in  the  country 
west  of  Shanghai  to  check  the  advance  of  the  rebels.  Fighting 
continued  round  Shanghai  for  about  two  years,  but  Ward's 
force  was  not  altogether  successful,  and  when  General  Staveley 
arrived  from  Tientsin  affairs  were  in  a  somewhat  critical  con- 
dition. He  decided  to  clear  the  district  of  rebels  within  a  radius 
of  30  m.  from  Shanghai,  and  Gordon  was  attached  to  his  staff 
as  engineer  officer.  A  French  force,  under  the  command  of 
Admiral  Protet,  co-operated  with  Staveley  and  Ward,  with  his 
little  army,  also  assisted.  Kahding,  Singpo  and  other  towns 
were  occupied,  and  the  country  was  fairly  cleared  of  rebels 
by  the  end  of  1862.  Ward  was,  unfortunately,  killed  in  the 
assault  of  Tseki,  and  his  successor,  Burgevine,  having  had  a 
quarrel  with  the  Chinese  authorities,  Li  Hung  Chang,  the  gover- 
nor of  the  Kiang-su  province,  requested  General  Staveley  to 
appoint  a  British  officer  to  command  the  contingent.  Staveley 
selected  Gordon,  who  had  been  made  a  brevet-major  in  December 
1862  for  his  previous  services,  and  the  nomination  was  approved 
by  the  British  government.  The  choice  was  judicious  as 
further  events  proved.  In  March  1863  Gordon  proceeded  to 
Sungkiang  to  take  command  of  the  force,  which  had  received 
the  name  of  "  The  Ever- Victorious  Army,"  an  encouraging 
though  somewhat  exaggerated  title,  considering  its  previous 
history.  Without  waiting  to  reorganize  his  troops  he  marched 
at  once  to  the  relief  of  Chansu,  a  town  40  m.  north-west  of 
Shanghai,  which  was  invested  by  the  rebels.  The  relief  was 
successfully  accomplished,  and  the  operation  established  Gordon 
in  the  confidence  of  his  troops.  He  then  reorganized  his  force, 
a  matter  of  no  small  difficulty,  and  advanced  against  Quinsan, 
which  was  captured,  though  with  considerable  loss.  Gordon 
then  marched  through  the  country,  seizing  town  after  town 
from  the  rebels  until  at  length  the  great  city  of  Suchow  was 
invested  by  his  army  and  a  body  of  Chinese  imperialist  troops. 
The  city  was  taken  on  the  29th  of  November,  and  after  its 
capture  Gordon  had  a  serious  dispute  with  Li  Hung  Chang, 
as  the  latter  had  beheaded  certain  of  the  rebel  leaders  whose 
lives  the  former  had  promised  to  spare  if  they  surrendered.  This 
action,  though  not  opposed  to  Chinese  ethics,  was  so  opposed 
to  Gordon's  ideas  of  honour  that  he  withdrew  his  force  from 
Suchow  and  remained  inactive  at  Quinsan  until  February 
1864.  He  then  came  to  the  conclusion  that  the  subjugation  of 
the  rebels  was  more  important  than  his  dispute  with  Li,  and 
visited  the  latter  in  order  to  arrange  for  further  operations. 
By  mutual  consent  no  allusion  was  made  to  the  death  of  the 
Wangs.  This  was  a  good  example  of  one  of  Gordon's  marked 
characteristics,  that,  though  a  man  of  strong  personal  feelings, 
he  was  always  prepared  to  subdue  them  for  the  public  benefit. 
He  declined,  however,  to  take  any  decoration  or  reward  from 
the  emperor  for  his  services  at  the  capture  of  Suchow.  After 


25° 


GORDON,  C.  G. 


the  meeting  with  Li  Hung  Chang  the  "  Ever- Victorious  Army  " 
again  advanced  and  took  a  number  of  towns  from  the  rebels, 
ending  with  Chanchufu,  the  principal  military  position  of  the 
Taipings.  This  fell  in  May,  when  Gordon  returned  to  Quinsan 
and  disbanded  his  force.  In  June  the  Tien  Wang,  seeing  his 
cause  was  hopeless,  committed  suicide,  and  the  capture  of  Nan- 
king by  the  imperialist  troops  shortly  afterwards  brought  the 
Taiping  revolt  to  a  conclusion.  The  suppression  of  this  serious 
movement  was  undoubtedly  due  in  great  part  to  the  skill  and 
energy  of  Gordon,  who  had  shown  remarkable  qualities  as  a 
leader  of  men.  The  emperor  promoted  him  to  the  rank  of  Titu, 
the  highest  grade  in  the  Chinese  army,  and  also  gave  him  the 
Yellow  Jacket,  the  most  important  decoration  in  China.  He 
wished  to  give  him  a  large  sum  of  money,  but  this  Gordon  refused. 
He  was  promoted  lieutenant-colonel  for  his  Chinese  services, 
and  made  a  Companion  of  the  Bath.  Henceforth  he  was  often 
familiarly  spoken  of  as  "  Chinese  "  Gordon. 

Gordon  was  appointed  on  his  return  to  England  Commanding 
Royal  Engineer  at  Gravesend,  where  he  was  employed  in  super- 
intending the  erection  of  forts  for  the  defence  of  the  Thames. 
He  devoted  himself  with  energy  to  his  official  duties,  and  his 
leisure  hours  to  practical  philanthropy.  All  the  acts  of  kindness 
which  he  did  for  the  poor  during  the  six  years  he  was  stationed 
at  Gravesend  will  never  be  fully  known.  In  October  1871  he 
was  appointed  British  representative  on  the  international 
commission  which  had  been  constituted  after  the  Crimean  War 
to  maintain  the  navigation  of  the  mouth  of  the  river  Danube, 
with  headquarters  at  Galatz.  During  1872  Gordon  was  sent  to 
inspect  the  British  military  cemeteries  in  the  Crimea,  and  when 
passing  through  Constantinople  on  his  return  to  Galatz  he  made 
the  acquaintance  of  Nubar  Pasha,  prime  minister  of  Egypt, 
who  sounded  him  as  to  whether  he  would  take  service  under  the 
khedive.  Nothing  further  was  settled  at  the  time,  but  the 
following  year  he  received  a  definite  offer  from  the  khedive, 
which  he  accepted  with  the  consent  of  the  British  government, 
and  proceeded  to  Egypt  early  in  1874.  He  was  then  a  colonel 
in  the  army,  though  still  only  a  captain  in  the  corps  of  Royal 
Engineers. 

To  understand  the  object  of  the  appointment  which  Gordon 
accepted  in  Egypt,  it  is  necessary  to  give  a  few  facts  with  refer- 
ence to  the  Sudan.  In  1820-22  Nubia,  Sennar  and  Kordofan 
had  been  conquered  by  Egypt,  and  the  authority  of  the  Egyptians 
was  subsequently  extended  southward,  eastward  to  the  Red 
Sea  and  westward  over  Darfur  (conquered  by  Zobeir  Pasha  in 
1874).  One  result  of  the  Egyptian  occupation  of  the  country 
was  that  the  slave  trade  was  largely  developed,  especially  in  the 
White  Nile  and  Bahr-el-Ghazal  districts.  Captains  Speke  and 
Grant,  who  had  travelled  through  Uganda  and  came  down  the 
White  Nile  in  1863,  and  Sir  Samuel  Baker,  who  went  up  the 
same  river  as  far  as  Albert  Nyanza,  brought  back  harrowing 
tales  of  the  misery  caused  by  the  slave-hunters.  Public  opinion 
was  considerably  moved,  and  in  1869  the  khedive  Ismail  decided 
to  send  an  expedition  up  the  White  Nile,  with  the  double  object 
of  limiting  the  evils  of  the  slave  trade  and  opening  up  the  district 
to  commerce.  The  command  of  the  expedition  was  given  to 
Sir  Samuel  Baker,  who  reached  Khartum  in  February  1870,  but, 
owing  to  the  obstruction  of  the  river  by  the  sudd  or  grass  barrier, 
did  not  reach  Gondokoro,  the  centre  of  his  province,  for  fourteen 
months.  He  met  with  great  difficulties,  and  when  his  four  years' 
service  came  to  an  end  little  had  been  effected  beyond  establishing 
a  few  posts  along  the  Nile  and  placing  some  steamers  on  the  river. 
It  was  to  succeed  Baker  as  governor  of  the  equatorial  regions 
that  the  khedive  asked  for  Gordon's  services,  having  come  to 
the  conclusion  that  the  latter  was  the  most  likely  person  to  bring 
the  affair  to  a  satisfactory  conclusion.  After  a  short  stay  in 
Cairo,  Gordon  proceeded  to  Khartum  by  way  of  Suakin  and 
Berber,  a  route  which  he  ever  afterwards  regarded  as  the  best 
mode  of  access  to  the  Sudan.  From  Khartum  he  proceeded  up 
the  White  Nile  to  Gondokoro,  where  he  arrived  in  twenty-four 
days,  the  sudd,  which  had  proved  such  an  obstacle  to  Baker, 
having  been  removed  since  the  departure  of  the  latter  by  the 
Egyptian  governor-general.  Gordon  remained  in  the  equatorial 


provinces  until  October  1876,  and  then  returned  to  Cairo.  The 
two  years  and  a  half  thus  spent  in  Central  Africa  was  a  time  of 
incessant  toil.  A  line  of  stations  was  established  from  the  Sobat 
confluence  on  the  White  Nile  to  the  frontier  of  Uganda — to 
which  country  he  proposed  to  open  a  route  from  Mombasa — and 
considerable  progress  was  made  in  the  suppression  of  the  slave 
trade.  The  river  and  Lake  Albert  were  mapped  by  Gordon  and 
his  staff,  and  he  devoted  himself  with  wonted  energy  to  improving 
the  condition  of  the  people.  Greater  results  might  have  been 
obtained  but  for  the  fact  that  Khartum  and  the  whole  of  the 
Sudan  north  of  the  Sobat  were  in  the  hands  of  an  Egyptian 
governor,  independent  of  Gordon,  and  not  too  well  disposed 
towards  his  proposals  for  diminishing  the  slave  trade.  On 
arriving  in  Cairo  Gordon  informed  the  khedive  of  his  reasons 
for  not  wishing  to  return  to  the- Sudan,  but  did  not  definitely 
resign  the  appointment  of  governor  of  the  equatorial  provinces. 
But  on  reaching  London  he  telegraphed  to  the  British  consul- 
general  in  Cairo,  asking  him  to  let  the  khedive  know  that  he 
would  not  go  back  to  Egypt.  Ismail  Pasha,  feeling,  no  doubt, 
that  Gordon's  resignation  would  injure  his  prestige,  wrote  to  him 
saying  that  he  had  promised  to  return,  and  that  he  expected  him 
to' keep  his  word.  Upon  this  Gordon,  to  whom  the  keeping  of  a 
promise  was  a  sacred  duty,  decided  to  return  to  Cairo,  but  gave 
an  assurance  to  some  friends  that  he  would  not  go  back  to  the 
Sudan  unless  he  was  appointed  governor-general  of  the  entire 
country.  After  some  discussion  the  khedive  agreed,  and  made 
him  governor-general  of  the  Sudan,  inclusive  of  Darfur  and  the 
equatorial  provinces. 

One  of  the  most  important  questions  which  Gordon  had  to 
take  up  on  his  appointment  was  the  state  of  the  political  relations 
between  Egypt  and  Abyssinia,  which  had  been  in  an 
unsatisfactory  condition  for  some  years.  The  dispute 
centred  round  the  district  of  Bogos,  lying  not  far 
inland  from  Massawa,  which  both  the  khedive  and  King  John  of 
Abyssinia  claimed  as  belonging  to  their  respective  dominions. 
War  broke  out  in  1875,  when  an  Egyptian  expedition  was 
despatched  to  Abyssinia,  and  was  completely  defeated  by  King 
John  near  Gundet.  A  second  and  larger  expedition,  under 
Prince  Hassan,  the  son  of  the  khedive,  was  sent  the  following  year 
from  Massawa.  The  force  was  routed  by  the  Abyssinians  at 
Gura,  but  Prince  Hassan  and  his  staff  got  back  to  Massawa. 
Matters  then  remained  quiet  until  March  1877,  when  Gordon 
proceeded  to  Massawa  to  endeavour  to  make  peace  with  King 
John.  He  went  up  to  Bogos,  and  had  an  interview  with  Walad 
Michael,  an  Abyssinian  chief  and  the  hereditary  ruler  of  Bogos, 
who  had  joined  the  Egyptians  with  a  view  to  raiding  on  his,  own 
account.  Gordon,  with  his  usual  powers  of  diplomacy,  persuaded 
Michael  to  remain  quiet,  and  wrote  to  the  king  proposing  terms 
of  peace.  But  he  received  no  reply  at  that  time,  as  John,  feeling 
pretty  secure  on  the  Egyptian  frontier  after  his  two  successful 
actions  against  the  khedive's  troops,  had  gone  southwards  to 
fight  with  Menelek,  king  of  Shoa.  Gordon,  seeing  that  the 
Abyssinian  difficulty  could  wait  for  a  few  months,  proceeded  to 
Khartum.  Here  he  took  up  the  slavery  question,  and  proposed 
to  issue  regulations  making  the  registration  of  slaves  compulsory, 
but  his  proposals  were  not  approved  by  the  Cairo  government. 
In  the  meantime  an  insurrection  had  broken  out  in  Darfur,  and 
Gordon  proceeded  to  that  province  to  relieve  the  Egyptian 
garrisons,  which  were  considerably  stronger  than  the  force  he 
had  available,  the  insurgents  also  being  far  more  numerous  than 
his  little  army.  On  coming  up  with  the  main  body  of  rebels  he 
saw  that  diplomacy  gave  a  better  chance  of  success  than  fighting, 
and,  accompanied  only  by  an  interpreter,  rode  into  the  enemy's 
camp  to  discuss  the  situation.  This  bold  move,  which  probably 
no  one  but  Gordon  would  have  attempted,  proved  quite  success- 
ful, as  part  of  the  insurgents  joined  him,  and  the  remainder 
retreated  to  the  south.  The  relief  of  the  Egyptian  garrisons  was 
successfully  accomplished,  and  Gordon  visited  the  provinces  of 
Berber  and  Dongola,  whence  he  had  again  to  return  to  the 
Abyssinian  frontier  to  treat  with  King  John.  But  no  satisfactory 
settlement  was  arrived  at,  and  Gordon  came  back  to  Khartum 
in  January  1878.  There  he  had  scarcely  a  week's  rest  when  the 


GORDON,  C.  G. 


251 


hedive  summoned  him  to  Cairo  to  assist  in  settling  the  financial 
ffairs  of  Egypt.  He  reached  Cairo  in  March,  and  was  at  once 
appointed  by  Ismail  as  president  of  a  commission  of  inquiry  into 
the  finances,  on  the  understanding  that  the  European  com- 
issioners  of  the  debt,  who  were  the  representatives  of  the  bond- 
olders,  and  whom  Ismail  regarded  as  interested  parties,  should 
be  members  of  the  commission.  Gordon  accepted  the  post 
n  these  terms,  but  the  consuls-general  of  the  different  powers 
refused  to  agree  to  the  constitution  of  the  commission,  and  it  fell 
to  the  ground,  as  the  khedive  was  not  strong  enough  to  carry 
his  point.  The  attempt  of  the  latter  to  utilize  Gordon  as  a 
counterpoise  to  the  European  financiers  having  failed,  Ismail 
fell  into  the  hands  of  his  creditors,  and  was  deposed  by  the 
sultan  in  the  following  year  in  favour  of  his  son  Tewfik.  After 
the  conclusion  of  the  financial  episode,  Gordon  proceeded  to  the 
province  of  Harrar,  south  of  Abyssinia,  and,  finding  the  adminis- 
tration in  a  bad  condition,  dismissed  Raouf  Pasha,  the  governor. 
He  then  returned  to  Khartum,  and  in  1879  went  again  into 
Darfur  to  pursue  the  slave  traders,  while  his  subordinate,  Gessi 
Pasha,  fought  them  with  great  success  in  the  Bahr-el-Ghazal 
district  and  killed  Suleiman,  their  leader  and  a  son  of  Zobeir. 
This  put  an  end  to  the  revolt,  and  Gordon  went  back  to  Khartum. 
Shortly  afterwards  he  went  down  to  Cairo,  and  when  there  was 
requested  by  the  new  khedive  to  pay  a  visit  to  King  John  and 
make  a  definite  treaty  of  peace  with  Abyssinia.  Gordon  had  an 
interesting  interview  with  the  king,  but  was  not  able  to  do  much, 
as  the  king  wanted  great  concessions  from  Egypt,  and  the 
khedive's  instructions  were  that  nothing  material  was  to  be 
conceded.  The  matter  ended  by  Gordon  being  made  a  prisoner 
and  sent  back  to  Massawa.  Thence  he  returned  to  Cairo  and 
resigned  his  Sudan  appointment.  He  was  considerably  ex- 
hausted by  the  three  years'  incessant  work,  during  which  he  had 
ridden  no  fewer  than  8500  m.  on  camels  and  mules,  and  was 
constantly  engaged  in  the  task  of  trying  to  reform  a  vicious 
system  of  administration. 

In  March  1880  Gordon  visited  the  king  of  the  Belgians  at 
Brussels,  and  King  Leopold  suggested  that  he  should  at  some 
future  date  take  charge  of  the  Congo  Free  State. 
In  April  the  government  of  the  Cape  Colony  telegraphed 
to  him  offering  the  position  of  commandant  of  the 
Cape  local  forces,  but  he  declined  the  appointment.  In  May 
the  marquess  of  Ripon,  who  had  been  given  the  post  of  governor- 
general  of  India,  asked  Gordon  to  go  with  him  as  private  secretary. 
This  he  agreed  to  do,  but  a  few  days  later,  feeling  that  he  was 
not  suitable  for  the  position,  asked  Lord  Ripon  to  release  him. 
The  latter  refused  to  do  so,  and  Gordon  accompanied  him  to 
India,  but  definitely  resigned  his  post  on  Lord  Ripon's  staff 
shortly  afterwards.  Hardly  had  he  resigned  when  he  received 
a  telegram  from  Sir  Robert  Hart,  inspector-general  of  customs 
in  China,  inviting  him  to  go  to  Peking.  He  started  at  once 
and  arrived  at  Tientsin  in  July,  where  he  met  Li  Hung  Chang, 
and  learnt  that  affairs  were  in  a  critical  condition,  and  that  there 
was  risk  of  war  with  Russia.  Gordon  proceeded  to  Peking  and 
used  all  his  influence  in  favour  of  peace.  His  arguments,  which 
were  given  with  much  plainness  of  speech,  appear  to  have 
convinced  the  Chinese  government,  and  war  was  avoided. 
Gordon  returned  to  England,  and  in  April  1881  exchanged 
with  a  brother  officer,  who  had  been  ordered  to  Mauritius  as 
Commanding  Royal  Engineer,  but  who  for  family  reasons  was 
unable  to  accept  the  appointment.  He  remained  in  Mauritius 
until  the  March  following,  when,  on  promotion  to  the  rank  of 
major-general,  he  had  to  vacate  the  position  of  Commanding 
Royal  Engineer.  Just  at  the  same  time  the  Cape  ministry 
telegraphed  to  him  to  ask  if  he  would  go  to  the  Cape  to  consult 
with  the  government  as  regards  settling  affairs  in  Basutoland. 
The  telegram  stated  that  the  position  of  matters  was  grave, 
and  that  it  was  of  the  utmost  importance  that  the  colony  should 
secure  the  services  of  someone  of  proved  ability,  firmness  and 
energy.  Gordon  sailed  at  once  for  the  Cape,  and  saw  the  governor, 
Sir  Hercules  Robinson,  Mr  Thos.  Scanlen,  the  premier,  and 
Mr.  J.  X.  Merriman,  a  member  of  the  ministry,  who,  for  political 
reasons,  asked  him  not  to  go  to  Basutoland,  but  to  take  the 


1880- 
1884. 


appointment  of  commandant  of  the  colonial  forces  at  King 
William's  Town.  After  a  few  months,  which  were  spent  in 
reorganizing  the  colonial  forces,  Gordon  was  requested  to  go  up 
to  Basutoland  to  try  to  arrange  a  settlement  with  the  chief 
Masupha,  one  of  the  most  powerful  of  the  Basuto  leaders. 
Greatly  to  his  surprise,  at  the  very  time  he  was  with  Masupha, 
Mr.  J.  W.  Sauer,  a  member  of  the  Cape  government,  was  taking 
steps  to  induce  Lerethodi,  another  chief,  to  advance  against 
Masupha.  This  not  only  placed  Gordon  in  a  position  of  danger, 
but  was  regarded  by  him  as  an  act  of  treachery.  He  advised 
Masupha  not  to  deal  with  the  Cape  government  until  the  hostile 
force  was  withdrawn,  and  resigned  his  appointment.  He  con- 
sidered that  the  Basuto  difficulty  was  due  to  the  bad  system 
of  administration  by  the  Cape  government.  That  Gordon's 
views  were  correct  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  a  few  years  later 
Basutoland  was  separated  from  Cape  Colony  and  placed  directly 
under  the  imperial  government.  After  his  return  to  England 
from  the  Cape,  being  unemployed,  Gordon  decided  to  go  to 
Palestine,  a  country  he  had  long  desired  to  visit.  Here  he 
remained  for  a  year,  and  devoted  his  time  to  the  study  of  Biblical 
history  and  of  the  antiquities  of  Jerusalem.  The  king  of  the 
Belgians  then  asked  him  to  take  charge  of  the  Congo  Free  State, 
and  he  accepted  the  mission  and  returned  to  London  to  make 
the  necessary  preparations.  But  a  few  days  after  his  arrival  he 
was  requested  by  the  British  government  to  proceed  immediately 
to  the  Sudan.  To  understand  the  reasons  for  this,  it  is  necessary 
briefly  to  recapitulate  the  course  of  events  in  that  country  since 
Gordon  had  left  it  in  1879. 

After  his  resignation  of  the  post  of  governor-general,  Raouf 
Pasha,  an  official  of  the  ordinary  type,  who,  as  already  mentioned, 
had  been  dismissed  by  Gordon  for  misgovernment  in  1878,  was 
appointed  to  succeed  him.  As  Raouf  was  instructed  to  increase 
the  receipts  and  diminish  the  expenditure,  the  system  of  govern- 
ment naturally  reverted  to  the  old  methods,  which  Gordon  had 
endeavoured  to  improve.  The  fact  that  justice  and  firmness 
were  succeeded  by  injustice  and  weakness  tended  naturally 
to  the  outbreak  of  revolt,  and  unfortunately  there  was  a  leader 
ready  to  head  a  rebellion — one  Mahommed  Ahmed,  already 
known  for  some  years  as  a  holy  man,  who  was  insulted  by  an 
Egyptian  official,  and  retiring  with  some  followers  to  the  island 
of  Abba  on  the  White  Nile,  proclaimed  himself  as  the  mahdi, 
a  successor  of  the  prophet.  Raouf  endeavoured  to  take  him 
prisoner  but  without  success,  and  the  revolt  spread  rapidly. 
Raouf  was  recalled,  and  succeeded  by  Abdel  Kader  Pasha,  a 
much  stronger  governor,  who  had  some  success,  but  whose 
forces  were  quite  insufficient  to  cope  with  the  rebels.  The 
Egyptian  government  was  too  busily  engaged  in  suppressing 
Arabi's  revolt  to  be  able  to  send  any  help  to  Abdel  Kader,  and 
in  September  1882,  when  the  British  troops  entered  Cairo, 
the  position  in  the  Sudan  was  very  perilous.  Had  the  British 
government  listened  to  the  representations  then  made  to  them, 
that,  having  conquered  Egypt,  it  was  imperative  at  once  to 
suppress  the  revolt  in  the  Sudan,  the  rebellion  could  have  been 
crushed,  but  unfortunately  Great  Britain  would  do  nothing 
herself,  while  the  steps  she  allowed  Egypt  to  take  ended  in  the 
disaster  to  Hicks  Pasha's  expedition.  Then,  in  December  1883, 
the  British  government  saw  that  something  must  be  done,  and 
ordered  Egypt  to  abandon  the  Sudan.  .But  abandonment  was 
a  policy  most  difficult  to  carry  out,  as  it  involved  the  withdrawal 
of  thousands  of  Egyptian  soldiers,  civilian  employes  and  their 
families.  Abdel  Kader  Pasha  was  asked  to  undertake  the  work, 
and  he  agreed  on  the  understanding  that  he  would  be  supported, 
and  that  the  policy  of  abandonment  was  not  to  be  announced. 
But  the  latter  condition  was  refused,  and  he  declined  the  task. 
The  British  government  then  asked  General  Gordon  to  proceed 
to  Khartum  to  report  on  the  best  method  of  carrying  out  the 
evacuation.  The  mission  was  highly  popular  in  England. 
Sir  Evelyn  Baring  (Lord  Cromer)  was,  however,  at  first  opposed 
to  Gordon's  appointment.  His  objections  were  overcome,  and 
Gordon  received  his  instructions  in  London  on  the  i8th  of 
January  1884,  and  started  at  once  for  Cairo,  accompanied  by 
Lieut.-Colonel  J.  D.  H.  Stewart. 


252 


GORDON,  C.  G. 


At  Cairo  he  received  further  instructions  from  Sir  Evelyn 
Baring,  and  was  appointed  by  the  khedive  as  governor-general, 

with  executive  powers.  Travelling  by  Korosko  and 
turn.  Berber,  he  arrived  at  Khartum  on  the  1 8th  of  February, 

and  was  well  received  by  the  inhabitants,  who  believed 
that  he  had  come  to  save  the  country  from  the  rebels.  Gordon 
at  once  commenced  the  task  of  sending  the  women  and  children 
and  the  sick  and  wounded  to  Egypt,  and  about  two  thousand 
five  hundred  had  been  removed  before  the  mahdi's  forces  closed 
upon  Khartum.  At  the  same  time  he  was  impressed  with  the 
necessity  of  making  some  arrangement  for  the  future  government 
of  the  country,  and  asked  for  the  help  of  Zobeir  (q.v.),  who  had 
great  influence  in  the  Sudan,  and  had  been  detained  in  Cairo 
for  some  years.  This  request  was  made  on  the  very  day  Gordon 
reached  Khartum,  and  was  in  accordance  with  a  similar  proposal 
he  had  made  when  at  Cairo.  But,  after  delays  which  involved 
the  loss  of  much  precious  time,  the  British  government  refused 
(i3th  of  March)  to  sanction  the  appointment,  because  Zobeir 
had  been  a  notorious  slave-hunter.  With  this  refusal  vanished 
all  hope  of  a  peaceful  retreat  of  the  Egyptian  garrisons.  Waver- 
ing tribes  went  over  to  the  mahdi.  The  advance  of  the  rebels 
against  Khartum  was  combined  with  a  revolt  in  the  eastern 
Sudan,  and  the  Egyptian  troops  in  the  vicinity  of  Suakin  met 
with  constant  defeat.  At  length  a  British  force  was  sent  to 
Suakin  under  the  command  of  General  Sir  Gerald  Graham,  and 
routed  the  rebels  in  several  hard-fought  actions.  Gordon 
telegraphed  to  Sir  Evelyn  Baring  urging  that  the  road  from 
Suakin  to  Berber  should  be  opened  by  a  small  force.  But  this 
request,  though  strongly  supported  by  Baring  and  the  British 
military  authorities  in  Cairo,  was  refused  by  the  government  in 
London.  In  April  General  Graham  and  his  forces  were  withdrawn 
from  Suakin,  and  Gordon  and  the  Sudan  were  seemingly 
abandoned  to  their  fate.  The  garrison  of  Berber,  seeing  that 
there  was  no  chance  of  relief,  surrendered  a  month  later  and 
Khartum  was  completely  isolated.  Had  it  not  been  for  the 
presence  of  Gordon  the  city  would  also  soon  have  fallen,  but  with 
an  energy  and  skill  that  were  almost  miraculous,  he  so  organized 
the  defence  that  Khartum  held  out  until  January  1885.  When 
it  is  remembered  that  Gordon  was  of  a  different  nationality 
and  religion  to  the  garrison  and  population,  that  he  had  only 
one  British  officer  to  assist  him,  and  that  the  town  was  badly 
fortified  and  insufficiently  provided  with  food,  it  is  just  to  say 
that  the  defence  of  Khartum  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
episodes  in  military  history.  The  siege  commenced  on  the  i8th 
of  March,  but  it  was  not  until  August  that  the  British  govern- 
ment under  the  pressure  of  public  opinion  decided  to  take  steps 
to  relieve  Gordon.  General  Stephenson,  who  was  in  command 
of  the  British  troops  in  Egypt,  wished  to  send  a  brigade  at  once 
to  Dongola,  but  he  was  overruled,  and  it  was  not  until  the 
beginning  of  November  that  the  British  relief  force  was  ready 
to  start  from  Wadi  Haifa  under  the  command  of  Lord  Wolseley. 
The  force  reached  Korti  towards  the  end  of  December,  and  from 
that  place  a  column  was  despatched  across  the  Bayuda  desert 
to  Metemma  on  the  Nile.  After  some  severe  fighting  in  which 
the  leader  of  the  column,  Sir  Herbert  Stewart,  was  mortally 
wounded,  the  force  reached  the  river  on  the  aoth  of  January, 
and  the  following  day  four  steamers,  which  had  been  sent  down 
by  Gordon  to  meet  the  British  advance,  and  which  had  been 
waiting  for  them  for  four  months,  reported  to  Sir  Charles  Wilson, 
who  had  taken  command  after  Sir  Herbert  Stewart  was  wounded. 

On  the  24th  Wilson  started  with  two  of  the  steamers 

for  Khartum,  but  on  arriving  there  on  the  z8th  he 
found  that  the  place  had  been  captured  by  the  rebels  and  Gordon 
killed  two  days  before.  A  belief  has  been  entertained  that 
Wilson  might  have  started  earlier  and  saved  the  town,  but  this 
is  quite  groundless.  In  the  first  place,  Wilson  could  not  have 
started  sooner  than  he  did;  and  in  the  second,  even  if  he  had 
been  able  to  do  so,  it  would  have  made  no  difference,  as  the  rebels 
could  have  taken  Khartum  any  time  they  pleased  after  the  5th 
of  January,  when  the  provisions  were  exhausted.  Another 
popular  notion,  that  the  capture  of  the  place  was  due  to  treachery 
on  the  part  of  the  garrison,  is  equally  without  foundation.  The 


Death. 


attack  was  made  at  a  point  in  the  fortifications  where  the 
rampart  and  ditch  had  been  destroyed  by  the  rising  of  the  Nile, 
and  when  the  mahdi's  troops  entered  the  soldiers  were  too  weak 
to  make  any  effectual  resistance.  Gordon  himself  expected  the 
town  to  fall  before  the  end  of  December,  and  it  is  really  difficult 
to  understand  how  he  succeeded  in  holding  out  until  the  26th 
of  January.  Writing  on  the  I4th  of  December  he  said,  "  Now, 
mark  this,  if  the  expeditionary  force — and  I  ask  for  no  more 
than  two  hundred  men — does  not  come  in  ten  days,  the  town 
may  fall,  and  I  have  done  my  best  for  the  honour  of  my  country." 
He  had  indeed  done  his  best,  and  far  more  than  could  have  been 
regarded  as  possible.  To  understand  what  he  went  through 
during  the  latter  months  of  the  siege,  it  is  only  necessary  to  read 
his  own  journal,  a  portion  of  which,  dating  from  loth  September 
to  1 4th  December  1884,  was  fortunately  preserved  and  published. 
Gordon  was  not  an  author,  but  he  wrote  many  short 
memoranda  on  subjects  that  interested  him,  and  a  considerable 
number  of  these  have  been  utilized,  especially  in  the  work  by 
his  brother,  Sir  Henry  Gordon,  entitled  Events  in  the  Life  oj 
Charles  George  Gordon,  from  Us  Beginning  to  Us  End.  He  was 
a  voluminous  letter-writer,  and  much  of  his  correspondence  has 
been  published.  His  character  was  remarkable,  and  the  influence 
he  had  over  those  with  whom  he  came  in  contact  was  very 
striking.  His  power  to  command  men  of  non-European  races 
was  probably  unique.  He  had  no  fear  of  death,  and  cared  but 
little  for  the  opinion  of  others,  adhering  tenaciously  to  the  course 
he  believed  to  be  right  in  the  face  of  all  opposition.  Though 
not  holding  to  outward  forms  of  religion,  he  was  a  truly  religious 
man  in  the  highest  sense  of  the  word,  and  was  a  constant  student 
of  the  Bible.  To  serve  God  and  to  do  his  duty  were  the  great 
objects  of  his  life,  and  he  died  as  he  had  lived,  carrying  out  the 
work  that  lay  before  him  to  the  best  of  his  ability.  The  last 
words  of  his  last  letter  to  his  sister,  written  when  he  knew  that 
death  was  very  near,  sum  up  his  character:  "  I  am  quite  happy, 
thank  God,  and,  like  Lawrence,  I  have  tried  to  do  my  duty."1 

1  With  this  estimate  of  Gordon's  character  may  be  contrasted 
those  of  Lord  Cromer  (the  most  severe  of  Gordon's  critics),  and  of 
Lord  Morley  of  Blackburn;  in  their  strictures  as  in  their  praise 
they  help  to  explain  both  the  causes  of  the  extraordinary  influence 
wielded  by  Gordon  over  all  sorts  and  conditions  of  men  and  also 
his  difficulties.  Lord  Cromer's  criticism,  it  should  be  remembered, 
does  not  deal  with  Gordon's  career  as  a  whole  but  solely  with  his  last 
mission  to  the  Sudan;  Lord  Morley 's  is  a  more  general  judgment. 

Lord  Cromer  (Modern  Egypt,  vol.  i.,  ch.  xxvii.,  p.  565-571)  says: 
"  We  may  admire,  and  for  my  own  part  I  do  very  much  admire 
General  Gordon's  personal  courage,  his  disinterestedness  and  his 
chivalrous  feeling  in  favour  of  the  beleaguered  garrisons,  but  ad- 
miration of  these  qualities  is  no  sufficient  plea  against  a  condemna- 
tion of  his  conduct  on  the  ground  that  it  was  quixotic.  In  his  last 
letter  to  his  sister,  dated  December  14,  1884,  he  wrote:  '  I  am 
quite  happy,  thank  God,  and,  like  Lawrence,  I  have  tried  to  do  my 
duty  '  .  .  .  I  am  not  now  dealing  with  General  Gordon's  character, 
which  was  in  many  respects  noble,  or  with  his  military  defence  of 
Khartoum,  which  was  heroic,  but  with  the  political  conduct  of  his 
mission,  and  from  this  point  of  view  I  have  no  hesitation  in  saying 
that  General  Gordon  cannot  be  considered  to  have  tried  to  do  his 
duty  unless  a  very  strained  and  mistaken  view  be  taken  of  what 
his  duty  was.  ...  As  a  matter  of  public  morality  I  cannot  think 
that  General  Gordon's  process  of  reasoning  is  defensible.  ...  I 
do  not  think  that  it  can  be  held  that  General  Gordon  made  any 
serious  effort  to  carry  out  the  main  ends  of  British  and  Egyptian 
policy  in  the  Sudan.  He  thought  more  of  his  personal  opinions 
than  of  the  interests  of  the  state.  ...  In  fact,  except  personal 
courage,  great  fertility  in  military  resource,  a  lively  though  some- 
times ill-directed  repugnance  to  injustice,  oppression  and  meanness 
of  every  description,  and  a  considerable  power  of  acquiring  influence 
over  those,  necessarily  limited  in  numbers,  with  whom  he  was 
brought  into  personal  contact,  General  Gordon  does  not  appear  to 
have  possessed  any  of  the  qualities  which  would  have  fitted  him 
to  undertake  the  difficult  task  he  had  in  hand." 

Lord  Morley  (Life  of  Gladstone,  vol.  iii.,  1st  ed.,  1903,  ch.  9, 
p.  151)  says:  "  Gordon,  as  Mr  Gladstone  said,  was  a  hero  of  heroes. 
He  was  a  soldier  of  infinite  personal  courage  and  daring,  of  striking 
military  energy,  initiative  and  resource;  a  high,  pure  and  single 
character,  dwelling  much  in  the  region  of  the  unseen.  But  as  all 
who  knew  him  admit,  and  as  his  own  records  testify,  notwithstand- 
ing an  undercurrent  of  shrewd  common  sense,  he  was  the  creature, 
almost  the  sport,  of  impulse;  his  impressions  and  purposes  changed 
with  the  speed  of  lightning;  anger  often  mastered  him;  he  went 
very  often  by  intuitions  and  inspirations  rather  than  by  cool 


GORDON,  LORD  G.— GORDON,  SIR  J.  W. 


253 


AUTHORITIES.— The  Journals  of  Major-General  Gordon  at  Khartoum 
(1885);  Lord  Cromer,  Modern  Egypt  (2  vols.,  1908);  F.  R.  Wingate, 
Mahdiism  and  the  Egyptian  Sudan  (1891);  the  British  Parlia- 
mentary Paper  on  Egypt  (1884-1885);  C.  G.  Gordon,  Reflections 
Tn  Palestine  (1884);  edited  by  D.  C.  Boulger,  General  Gordons 
Letters  from  the  Crimea,  the  Danube,  and  Armenia  (1884);  edited  by 
G  B  Hill  Colonel  Gordon  in  Central  Africa  (1881);  Letters  of 
General  C  G.  Gordon  to  his  Sister  (1888);  H.  W.  Gordon,  Events  in 
the  Life  of  C.  G.  Gordon  (1886);  Commander  L.  Brine,  The  Taeping 
Rebellion  in  China  (1862);  A.  Wilson,  Gordon's  Campaigns  and  the 
Taeping  Rebellion  (1868);  D.  C.  Boulger,  Life  of  Gordon  (1896): 
A.  Egmont  Hake,  The  Story  of  Chinese  Gordon  (ist  vol.  1884,  2nd 
vol  1885):  Colonel  Sir  W.  F.  Butler,  Charles  George  Gordon  (1889); 
Archibald  Forbes,  Chinese  Gordon  (1884) ;  edited  by  A  Egmont  Hake, 
Events  in  the  Taeping  Rebellion  (1891) ;  S.  Mossman,  General  Gordon  s 
Diary  in  China  (1885) ;  Lieutenant  T.  Lister,  R.E.,  With  Gordon  in 
the  Crimea  (1891);  Lieutenant-General  Sir  G.  Graham,  Last  Words 
•with  Gordon  (1887);  "War  Correspondent,"  Why  Gordon  Perished 
(1896).  (L-  M'  "'••J 

GORDON,  LORD  GEORGE  (1751-1793),  ^ird  and  youngest 
son  of  Cosmo  George,  duke  of  Gordon,  was  born  in  London  on 
the  26th  of  December  1751.     After  completing  his  education  at 
Eton,  he  entered  the  navy,  where  he  rose  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant 
in  1772,  but  Lord  Sandwich,  then  at  the  head  of  the  admiralty, 
would  not  promise  him  the  command  of  a  ship,  and  he  resigned 
his  commission  shortly  before  the  beginning  of  the  American 
War.     In  1774  the  pocket  borough  of  Ludgershall  was  bought 
for  him  by  General  Eraser,  whom  he  was  opposing  in  Inverness- 
shire,  in  order  to  bribe  him  not  to  contest  the  county.     He  was 
considered  flighty,  and  was  not  looked  upon  as  being  of  any 
importance.     In  1779  he  organized,  and  made  himself  head  of 
the  Protestant  associations,  formed  to  secure  the  repeal  of  the 
Catholic  Relief  Act  of  1778.     On  the  2nd  of  June  1780  hfe  headed 
the  mob  which  marched  in  procession  from  St  George's  Fields 
to  the  Houses  of  Parliament  in  order  to  present  the  monster 
petition  against  the  acts.     After  the  mob  reached  Westminster  a 
terrific  riot  ensued,  which  continued  several  days,  during  which 
the  city  was  virtually  at  their  mercy.     At  first  indeed  they 
dispersed  after  threatening  to  make  a  forcible  entry  into  the 
House  of   Commons,    but   reassembled   soon   afterwards   and 
destroyed  several  Roman  Catholic  chapels,  pillaged  the  private 
dwellings  of  many  Roman  Catholics,  set  fire  to  Newgate  and 
broke  open  all  the  other  prisons,  attacked  the  Bank  of  England 
and  several  other  public  buildings,  and  continued  the  work  of 
violence  and  conflagration  until  the  interference  of  the  military, 
by  whom  no  fewer  than  450  persons  were  killed  and  wounded 
before  the  riots  were  quelled.     For  his  share  in  instigating  the 
riots  Lord  Gordon  was  apprehended  on  a  charge  of  high  treason ; 
but, -mainly  through  the  skilful  and  eloquent  defence  of  Erskine, 
he  was  acquitted  on  the  ground  that  he  had  no  treasonable 
intentions.    His  life  was  henceforth  full  of  crack-brained  schemes, 
political  and  financial.     In  1786  he  was  excommunicated  by  the 
archbishop  of  Canterbury  for  refusing  to  bear  witness  in  an 
ecclesiastical  suit;  and  in  1787  he  was  convicted  of  libelling  the 
queen  of  France,  the  French  ambassador  and  the  administration 
of  justice  in  England.     He  was,  however,  permitted  to  withdraw 
from  the  court  without  bail,  and  made  his  escape  to  Holland; 
but  on  account  of  representations  from  the  court  of  Versailles 
he  was  commanded  to  quit  that  country,  and,  returning  to 
England,  was  apprehended,  and  in  January  1 788  was  sentencec 

inference  from  carefully  surveyed  fact;  with  many  variations  o 
mood  he  mixed,  as  we  often  see  in  people  less  famous,  an  invincible 
faith  in  his  own  rapid  prepossessions  while  they  lasted.  Everybody 
now  discerns  that  to  despatch  a  soldier  of  this  temperament  on  a 
piece  of  business  [the  mission  to  the  Sudan  in  1884]  that  was  not 
only  difficult  and  dangerous,  as  Sir  E.  Baring  said,  but  profoundl> 
obscure,  and  needing  vigilant  sanity  and  self-control,  was  littlf 
better  than  to  call  in  a  wizard  with  his  magic.  Mr  Gladstone  alway 
professed  perplexity  in  understanding  why  the  violent  end  of  the 
gallant  Cavagnari  in  Afghanistan  stirred  the  world  so  little  in 
comparison  with  the  fate  of  Gordon.  The  answer  is  that  Gordon 
seized  the  imagination  of  England,  and  seized  it  on  its  higher  side 
His  religion  was  eccentric,  but  it  was  religion;  the  Bible  was  th 
rock  on  which  he  founded  himself,  both  old  dispensation  and  new 
he  was  known  to  hate  forms,  ceremonies  and  all  the  '  solemn  plausi 
bilities';  his  speech  was  sharp,  pithy,  rapid  and  ironic;  abov 
all,  he  knew  the  ways  of  war  and  would  not  bear  the  sword  fo 
nought." 


o  five  years'  imprisonment  in  Newgate,  where  he  lived  at  his 
ase,  giving  dinners  and  dances.  As  he  could  not  obtain  securities 
or  his  good  behaviour  on  the  termination  of  his  term  of  imprison- 
ment, he  was  not  allowed  to  leave  Newgate,  and  there  he  died 
f  delirious  fever  on  the  ist  of  November  1 793.     Some  time  before 
tis  apprehension  he  had  become  a  convert  to  Judaism,  and  had 
undergone  the  initiatory  rite. 

A  serious  defence  of  most  of  his  eccentricities  is  undertaken  in 
The  Life  of  Lord  George  Gordon,  with  a  Philosophical  Review  of  his 
^olilical  Conduct,  by  Robert  Watson,  M.D.  (London,  1795).  The 
jest  accounts  of  Lord  George  Gordon  are  to  be  found  in  the  Annual 
Registers  from  1780  to  the  year  of  his  death. 

GORDON,  SIR  JOHN  WATSON  (1788-1864),  Scottish  painter, 
ivas  the  eldest  son  of  Captain  Watson,  R.N.,  a  cadet  of  the 
amily  of  Watson  of  Overmains,  in  the  county  of  Berwick.  He 
was  born  in  Edinburgh  in  1788,  and  was  educated  specially  with 
a  view  to  his  joining  the  Royal  Engineers.  He  entered  as  a 
.tudent  in  the  government  school  of  design,  under  the  manage- 
ment of  the  Board  of  Manufactures.  His  natural  taste  for  art 
quickly  developed  itself,  and  his  father  was  persuaded  to  allow 
lim  to  adopt  it  as  his  profession.  Captain  Watson  was  himself 
skilful  draughtsman,  and  his  brother  George  Watson,  after- 
wards president  of  the  Scottish  Academy,  stood  high  as  a  portrait 
winter,  second  only  to  Sir  Henry  Raeburn,  who  also  was  a 
riend  of  the  family.  In  the  year  1808  John  sent  to  the  exhibition 
of  the  Lyceum  in  Nicolson  Street  a  subject  from  the  Lay  of  the 
Last  Minstrel,  and  continued  for  some  years  to  exhibit  fancy 
subjects;  but,  although  freely  and  sweetly  painted,  they  were 
altogether  without  the  force  and  character  which  stamped  his 
portrait  pictures  as  the  works  of  a  master.  After  the  death  of 
Sir  Henry  Raeburn  in  1823,  he  succeeded  to  much  of  his  practice. 
He  assumed  in  1826  the  name  of  Gordon.  One  of  the  earliest 
of  his  famous  sitters  was  Sir  Walter  Scott,  who  sat  for  a  first 
portrait  in  1820.  Then  came  J.  G.  Lockhart  in  1821;  Professor 
Wilson,  1822  and  1850,  two  portraits;  Sir  Archibald  Alison, 
1839;  Dr  Chalmers,  1844;  a  little  later  De  Quincey,  and  Sir 
David  Brewster,  1864.  Among  his  most  important  works  may 
be  mentioned  the  earl  of  Dalhousie  (1833),  in  the  Archers'  Hall, 
Edinburgh;  Sir  Alexander  Hope  (1835),  in  the  county  buildings, 
Linlithgow;  Lord  President  Hope,  in  the  Parliament  House; 
and  Dr  Chalmers.  These,  unlike  his  later  works,  are  gener- 
ally rich  in  colour.  The  full  length  of  Dr  Brunton  (1844), 
and  Dr  Lee,  the  principal  of  the  university  (1846),  both  on  the 
staircase  of  the  college  library,  mark  a  modification  of  his  style, 
which  ultimately  resolved  itself  into  extreme  simplicity,  both 
of  colour  and  treatment. 

During  the  last  twenty  years  of  his  life  he  painted  many 
distinguished  Englishmen  who  came  to  Edinburgh  to  sit  to  him. 
And  it  is  significant  that  David  Cox,  the  landscape  painter,  on 
being  presented  with  his  portrait,  subscribed  for  by  many 
friends,  chose  to  go  to  Edinburgh  to  have  it  executed  by  Watson 
Gordon,  although  he  neither  knew  the  painter  personally  nor 
had  ever  before  visited  the  country.  Among  the  portraits 
painted  during  this  period,  in  what  may  be  termed  his  third  style, 
are  De  Quincey,  in  the  National  Portrait  Gallery,  London; 
General  Sir  Thomas  Macdougall  Brisbane,  in  the  Royal  Society; 
the  prince  of  Wales,  Lord  Macaulay,  Sir  M.  Packington,  Lord 
Murray,  Lord  Cockburn,  Lord  Rutherford  and  Sir  John  Shaw 
Lefevre,  in  the  Scottish  National  Gallery.  These  latter  pictures 
are  mostly  clear  and  grey,  sometimes  showing  little  or  no  positive 
colour,  the  flesh  itself  being  very  grey,  and  the  handling  extremely 
masterly,  though  never  obtruding  its  cleverness.  He  was  very 
successful  in  rendering  acute  observant  character.  A  good 
example  of  his  last  style,  showing  pearly  flesh-painting  freely 
handled,  yet  highly  finished,  is  his  head  of  Sir  John  Shaw 
Lefevre. 

John  Watson  Gordon  was  one  of  the  earlier  members  of  the 
Royal  Scottish  Academy,  and  was  elected  its  president  in  1850; 
he  was  at  the  same  time  appointed  limner  for  Scotland  to  the 
queen,  and  received  the  honour  of  knighthood.  Since  1841  he 
had  been  an  associate  of  the  Royal  Academy,  and  in  1851  he 
was  elected  a  royal  academician.  He  died  on  the  ist  of  June 
1864. 


254 


GORDON,  L.— GORE,  C. 


GORDON,  LEON,  originally  JUDAH  LOEB  BEN  ASHER  (1831- 
1892),  Russian-Jewish  poet  and  novelist  (Hebrew),  was  born  at 
Wilna  in  1831  and  died  at  St  Petersburg  in  1892.  He  took 
a  leading  part  in  the  modern  revival  of  the  Hebrew  language 
and  culture.  His  satires  did  much  to  rouse  the  Russian  Jews 
to  a  new  sense  of  the  reality  of  life,  and  Gordon  was  the  apostle 
of  enlightenment  in  the  Ghettos.  His  Hebrew  style  is  classical 
and  pure.  His  poems  were  collected  in  four  volumes,  Kol  Shire 
Yehudah  (St  Petersburg,  1883-1884);  his  novels  in  Kol  Kithbe 
Yehuda  (Odessa,  1889). 

For  his  works  see  Jewish  Quarterly  Review,  xviii.  437  seq. 

GORDON,  PATRICK  (1635-1699),  Russian  general,  was 
descended  from  a  Scottish  family  of  Aberdeenshire,  who 
possessed  the  small  estate  of  Auchleuchries',  and  were  connected 
with  the  house  of  Haddo.  He  was  born  in  1635,  and  after 
completing  his  education  at  the  parish  schools  of  Cruden  and 
Ellon,  entered,  in  his  fifteenth  year,  the  Jesuit  college  at  Brauns- 
berg,  Prussia;  but,  as  "  his  humour  could  not  endure  such  a 
still  and  strict  way  of  living,"  he  soon  resolved  to  return  home. 
He  changed  his  mind,  however,  before  re-embarking,  and  after 
journeying  on  foot  in  several  parts  of  Germany,  ultimately,  in 
1655,  enlisted  at  Hamburg  in  the  Swedish  service.  In  the 
course  of  the  next  five  years  he  served  alternately  with  the 
Poles  and  Swedes  as  he  was  taken  prisoner  by  either.  In  1661, 
after  further  experience  as  a  soldier  of  fortune,  he  took  service 
in  the  Russian  army  under  Alexis  I.,  and  in  1665  he  was  sent 
on  a  special  mission  to  England.  After  his  return  he  distin- 
guished himself  in  several  wars  against  the  Turks  and  Tatars  in 
southern  Russia,  and  in  recognition  of  his  services  he  in  1678  was 
made  major-general,  in  1679  was  appointed  to  the  chief  command 
at  Kiev,  and  in  1683  was  made  lieutenant-general.  He  visited 
England  in  1686,  and  in  1687  and  1689  took  part  as  quarter- 
master-general in  expeditions  against  the  Crim  Tatars  in  the 
Crimea,  being  made  full  general  for  his  services,  in  spite  of  the 
denunciations  of  the  Greek  Church  to  which,  as  a  heretic,  he 
was  exposed.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the  revolution  in  Moscow 
in  1689,  Gordon  with  the  troops  he  commanded  virtually  decided 
events  in  favour  of  the  tsar  Peter  I.,  and  against  the  tsaritsa 
Sophia.  He  was  therefore  during  the  remainder  of  his  life  in 
high  favour  with  the  tsar,  who  confided  to  him  the  command  of 
his  capital  during  his  absence  from  Russia,  employed  him  in 
organizing  his  army  according  to  the  European  system,  and 
latterly  raised  him  to  the  rank  of  general-in-chief.  He  died 
on  the  2gth  of  November  1699.  The  tsar,  who  had  visited  him 
frequently  during  his  illness,  was  with  him  when  he  died,  and 
with  his  own  hands  closed  his  eyes. 

General  Gordon  left  behind  him  a  diary  of  his  life,  written  in 
English.  This  is  preserved  in  MS.  in  the  archives  of  the  Russian 
foreign  office.  A  complete  German  translation,  edited  by  Dr 
Maurice  Possalt  (Tagebuchdes  Generals  PatrickGordon)  was  published, 
the  first  volume  at  Moscow  in  1849,  the  second  at  St  Petersburg  in 
1851,  and  the  third  at  St  Petersburg  in  1853;  and  Passages  from 
the  Diary  of  General  Patrick  Gordon  of  Auchleuchries  (1635-1699), 
was  printed,  under  the  editorship  of  Joseph  Robertson,  for  the 
Spalding  Club,  Aberdeen,  1859. 

GORDON-GUMMING,  ROUALEYN  GEORGE  (1820-1866), 
Scottish  traveller  and  sportsman,  known  as  the  "  lion  hunter," 
was  born  on  the  isth  of  March  1820.  He  was  the  second  son  of 
Sir  William  G.  Gordon-Gumming,  2nd  baronet  of  Altyre  and 
Gordonstown,  Elginshire.  From  his  early  years  he  was  distin- 
guished by  his  passion  for  sport.  He  was  educated  at  Eton,  and 
at  eighteen  joined  the  East  India  Co.'s  service  as  a  cornet  in  the 
Madras  Light  Cavalry.  The  climate  of  India  not  suiting  him, 
after  two  years'  experience  he  retired  from  the  service  and 
returned  to  Scotland.  During  his  stay  in  the  East  he  had  laid 
the  foundation  of  his  collection  of  hunting  trophies  and  specimens 
of  natural  history.  In  1843  he  joined  the  Cape  Mounted  Rifles, 
but  for  the  sake  of  absolute  freedom  sold  out  at  the  end  of  the 
year  and  with  an  ox  wagon  and  a  few  native  followers  set  out 
for  the  interior.  He  hunted  chiefly  in  Bechuanaland  and  the 
Limpopo  valley,  regions  then  swarming  with  big  game.  In 
1848  he  returned  to  England.  The  story  of  his  remarkable 
exploits  is  vividly  told  in  his  book,  Five  Years  of  a  Hunter's 


Life  in  the  Far  Interior  of  South  Africa  (London,  1850,  3rd 
ed.  1851).  Of  this  volume,  received  at  first  with  incredulity 
by  stay-at-home  critics,  David  Livingstone,  who  furnished 
Gordon-Cumming  with  most  of  his  native  guides,  wrote:  "  I 
have  no  hesitation  in  saying  that  Mr  Cumming's  book  conveys  a 
truthful  idea  of  South  African  hunting  "  (Missionary  Travels, 
chap.  vii.).  His  collection  of  hunting  trophies  was  exhibited 
in  London  in  1851  at  the  Great  Exhibition,  and  was  illustrated 
by  a  lecture  delivered  by  Gordon-Cumming.  The  collection, 
known  as  "  The  South  Africa  Museum,"  was  afterwards  exhibited 
in  various  parts  of  the  country.  In  1858  Gordon-Cumming  went 
to  live  at  Fort  Augustus  on  the  Caledonian  Canal,  where  the 
exhibition  of  his  trophies  attracted  many  visitors.  He  died 
there  on  the  24th  of  March  1866. 

An  abridgment  of  his  book  was  published  in  1856  under  the  title 
of  The  Lion  Hunter  of  South  Africa,  and  in  this  form  was  frequently 
reprinted,  a  new  edition  appearing  in  1904. 

GORE,  CATHERINE  GRACE  FRANCES  (1790-186^,  English 
novelist  and  dramatist,  the  daughter  of  Charles  Moody,  a  wine- 
merchant,  was  born  in  1799  at  East  Retford,  Nottinghamshire. 
In  1823  she  was  married  to  Captain  Charles  Gore;  and,  in  the 
next  year,  she  published  her  first  work,  Theresa  Marchmont,  or 
the  Maid  of  Honour.  Then  followed,  among  others,  the  Lettre 
de  Cachet  (1827),  The  Reign  of  Terror  (1827),  Hungarian  Tales 
(1829),  Manners  of  the  Day  (1830),  Mothers  and  Daughters  (1831), 
and  The  Fair  of  May  Fair  (1832),  Mrs  Armytage  (1836).  Every 
succeeding  year  saw  several  volumes  from  her  pen :  The  Cabinet 
Minister  and  The  Courtier  of  the  Days  of  Charles  II.,  in  1839; 
Preferment  in  1840.  In  1841  Cecil,  or  the  Adventures  of  a  Cox- 
comb, attracted  considerable  attention.  Greville,  or  a  Season  in 
Paris  appeared  in  the  same  year;  then  Ormington,  or  Cecil  a 
Peer,  Fascination,  The  Ambassador's  Wife;  and  in  1843  The 
Banker's  Wife.  Mrs  Gore  continued  to  write,  with  unfailing 
fertility  of  invention,  till  her  death  on  the  29th  of  January  1861. 
She  also  wrote  some  dramas  of  which  the  most  successful  was 
the  School  for  Coquettes,  produced  at  the  Haymarket  (1831). 
She  was  a  woman  of  versatile  talent,  and  set  to  music  Burns's 
"  And  ye  shall  walk  in  silk  attire,"  one  of  the  most  popular  songs 
of  her  day.  Her  extraordinary  literary  industry  is  proved  by 
the  existence  of  more  than  seventy  distinct  works.  Her  best 
novels  are  Cecil,  or  the  Adventures  of  a  Coxcomb,  and  The  Banker's 
Wife.  Cecil  gives  extremely  vivid  sketches  of  London  fashionable 
life,  and  is  full  of  happy  epigrammatic  touches.  For  the  know- 
ledge of  London  clubs  displayed  in  it  Mrs  Gore  was  indebted  to 
William  Beckford,  the  author  of  Vathek.  The  Banker's  Wife 
is  distinguished  by  some  clever  studies  of  character,  especially 
in  the  persons  of  Mr  Hamlyn,  the  cold  calculating  money-maker, 
and  his  warm-hearted  country  neighbour,  Colonel  Hamilton. 

Mrs  Gore's  novels  had  an  immense  temporary  popularity; 
they  were  parodied  by  Thackeray  in  Punch,  in  his  "  Lords  and 
Liveries  by  the  author  of  Dukes  and  Dejeuners  ";  but,  tedious 
as  they  are  to  present-day  readers,  they  presented  on  the  whole 
faithful  pictures  of  the  contemporary  life  and  pursuits  of  the 
English  upper  classes. 

GORE,  CHARLES  (1853-  ),  English  divine,  was  born  in 
1853,  the  3rd  son  of  the  Hon.  Charles  Alexander  Gore,  brother 
of  the  4th  earl  of  Arran.  His  mother  was  a  daughter  of  the  4th 
earl  of  Bessborough.  He  was  educated  at  Harrow  and  at  Balliol 
College,  Oxford,  and  was  elected  fellow  of  Trinity  College  in  1873. 
From  1880  to  1883  he  was  vice-principal  of  the  theological 
college  at  Cuddesdon,  and,  when  in  1884  Pusey  House  was 
founded  at  Oxford  as  a  home  for  Dr  Pusey's  library  and  a  centre 
for  the  propagation  of  his  principles,  he  was  appointed  principal, 
a  position  which  he  held  until  1893.  As  principal  of  Pusey  House 
Mr  Gore  exercised  a  wide  influence  over  undergraduates  and  the 
younger  clergy,  and  it  was  largely,  if  not  mainly,  under  this 
influence  that  the  "  Oxford  Movement  "  underwent  a  change 
which  to  the  survivors  of  the  old  school  of  Tractarians  seemed 
to  involve  a  break  with  its  basic  principles.  "  Puseyism  "  had 
been  in  the  highest  degree  conservative,  basing  itself  on  authority 
and  tradition,  and  repudiating  any  compromise  with  the  modern 
critical  and  liberalizing  spirit.  Mr  Gore,  starting  from  the  same 


GORE— GORGE 


255 


all 

I 

M 


basis  of  faith  and  authority,  soon  found  from  his  practical  experi- 
ence in  dealing  with  the  "  doubts  and  difficulties  "  of  the  younger 
generation  that  this  uncompromising  attitude  was  untenable, 
and  set  himself  the  task  of  reconciling  the  principle  of  authority 
in  religion  with  that  of  scientific  authority  by  attempting  to 
define  the  boundaries  of  their  respective  spheres  of  influence. 
To  him  the  divine  authority  of  the  Catholic  Church  was  an 
axiom,  and  in  1889  he  published  two  works,  the  larger  of  which, 
The  Church  and  the  Ministry,  is  a  learned  vindication  of  the 
'rinciple  of  Apostolic  Succession  in  the  episcopate  against  the 
'resbyterians  and  other  Protestant  bodies,  while  the  second, 

'man  Catholic  Claims,  is  a  defence,  couched  in  a  more  popular 
form,  of  the  Anglican  Church  and  Anglican  orders  against  the 
attacks  of  the  Romanists. 

So  far  his  published  views  had  been  in  complete  consonance 
ith  those  of  the  older  Tractarians.  But  in  1890  a  great  stir 
•as  created  by  the  publication,  under  his  editorship,  of  Lux 

undi,  a  series  of  essays  by  different  writers,  being  an  attempt 
"  to  succour  a  distressed  faith  by  endeavouring  to  bring  the 
Christian  Creed  into  its  right  relation  to  the  modern  growth  of 
knowledge,  scientific,  historic,  critical;  and  to  modern  problems 
of  politics  and  ethics."  Mr  Gore  himself  contributed  an  essay 
on  "  The  Holy  Spirit  and  Inspiration."  The  book,  which  ran 
through  twelve  editions  in  a  little  over  a  year,  met  with  a  some- 
what mixed  reception.  Orthodox  churchmen,  Evangelical  and 
Tractarian  alike,  were  alarmed  by  views  on  the  incarnate  nature 
of  Christ  that  seemed  to  them  to  impugn  his  Divinity,  and  by 
concessions  to  the  Higher  Criticism  in  the  matter  of  the  inspira- 
tion of  Holy  Scriptures  which  appeared  to  them  to  convert  the 
"  impregnable  rock,"  as  Gladstone  had  called  it,  into  a  founda- 
tion of  sand;  sceptics,  on  the  other  hand,  were  not  greatly 
impressed  by  a  system  of  defence  which  seemed  to  draw  an 
artificial  line  beyond  which  criticism  was  not  to  advance.  None 
the  less  the  book  produced  a  profound  effect,  and  that  far  beyond 
the  borders  of  the  English  Church,  and  it  is  largely  due  to  its 
influence,  and  to  that  of  the  school  it  represents,  that  the  High 
Church  movement  developed  thenceforth  on  "  Modernist " 
rather  than  Tractarian  lines. 

In  1891  Mr  Gore  was  chosen  to  deliver  the  Bampton  lectures 
before  the  university,  and  chose  for  his  subject  the  Incarnation. 
In  these  lectures  he  developed  the  doctrine,  the  enunciation  of 
which  in  Lux  Mundi  had  caused  so  much  heart-searching.  This  is 
an  attempt  to  explain  how  it  came  that  Christ,  though  incarnate 
God,  could  be  in  error,  e.g.  in  his  citations  from  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. The  orthodox  explanation  was  based  on  the  principle  of 
accommodation  (q.v.).  This,  however,  ignored  the  difficulty  that 
if  Christ  during  his  sojourn  on  earth  was  not  subject  to  human 
limitations,  especially  of  knowledge,  he  was  not  a  man  as  other 
men,  and  therefore  not  subject  to  their  trials  and  temptations. 
This  difficulty  Gore  sought  to  meet  through  the  doctrine  of  the 
Ktvuais.  Ever  since  the  Pauline  epistles  had  been  received  into 
the  canon  theologians  had,  from  various  points  of  view,  at- 
tempted to  explain  what  St  Paul  meant  when  he  wrote  of 
Christ  (2  Phil.  ii.  7)  that  "  he  emptied  himself  and  took  upon 
him  the  form  of  a  servant  "  (lavrbv  tKevuvtv  [Lop^v  5ov\ov 
\aPuv).  According  to  Mr  Gore  this  means  that  Christ,  on  his 
incarnation,  became  subject  to  all  human  limitations,  and  had, 
so  far  as  his  life  on  earth  was  concerned,  stripped  himself  of  all 
the  attributes  of  the  Godhead,  including  the  Divine  omniscience, 
the  Divine  nature  being,  as  it  were,  hidden  under  the  human.1 

Lux  Mundi  and  the  Bampton  lectures  led  to  a  situation  of 
some  tension  which  was  relieved  when  in  1893  Dr  Gore  resigned 
his  principalship  and  became  vicar  of  Radley,  a  small  parish 
near  Oxford.  In  1894  he  became  canon  of  Westminster.  Here 
he  gained  commanding  influence  as  a  preacher  and  in  1898  was 
appointed  one  of  the  court  chaplains.  In  1902  he  succeeded 

1  Cf.  the  Lutheran  theologian  Ernst  Sartorius  in  his  Lehre  von 
der  heiligen  Liebe  (1844),  Lehre  ii.  pp.  21  et  seq. :  "  the  Son  of  God 
veils  his  all-seeing  eye  and  descends  into  human  darkness  and  as 
child  of  man  opens  his  eye  as  the  gradually  growing  light  of  the 
world  of  humanity,  until  at  the  right  hand  of  the  Father  he  allows 
it  to  shine  forth  in  all  its  glory."  See  Loofs,  Art.  "  Kenosis  "  in 
Herzog-Hauck,  Realencyklopddie  (ed.  1901),  x.  247. 


J.  J.  S.  Perowne  as  bishop  of  Worcester  and  in  1905  was  installed 
bishop  of  Birmingham,  a  new  see  the  creation  of  which  had  been 
mainly  due  to  his  efforts.  While  adhering  rigidly  to  his  views 
on  the  divine  institution  of  episcopacy  as  essential  to  the 
Christian  Church,  Dr  Gore  from  the  first  cultivated  friendly 
relations  with  the  ministers  of  other  denominations,  and  advo- 
cated co-operation  with  them  in  all  matters  when  agreement 
was  possible.  In  social  questions  he  became  one  of  the  leaders 
of  the  considerable  group  of  High  Churchmen  known,  somewhat 
loosely,  as  Christian  Socialists.  He  worked  actively  against  the 
sweating  system,  pleaded  for  European  intervention  in  Mace- 
donia, and  was  a  keen  supporter  of  the  Licensing  Bill  of  1908. 
In  1892  he  founded  the  clerical  fraternity  known  as  the  Com- 
munity of  the  Resurrection.  Its  members  are  priests,  who  are 
bound  by  the  obligation  of  celibacy,  live  under  a  common  rule 
and  with  a  common  purse.  Their  work  is  pastoral,  evangelistic, 
literary  and  educational.  In  1898  the  House  of  the  Resurrection 
at  Mirfield,  near  Huddersfield,  became  the  centre  of  the  com- 
munity; in  1903  a  college  for  training  candidates  for  orders  was 
established  there,  and  in  the  same  year  a  branch  house,  for 
missionary  work,  was  set  up  in  Johannesburg  in  South  Africa. 

Dr  Gore's  works  include  The  Incarnation  (Bampton  Lectures, 
1891),  The  Creed  of  the  Christian  (1895),  The  Body  of  Christ  (1901), 
The  New  Theology  and  the  Old  Religion  (1908),  and  expositions  of 
The  Sermon  on  the  Mount  (1896),  Ephesians  (1898),  and  Romans 
(1899),  while  in  1910  he  published  Orders  and  Unity. 

GORE,  (i)  (O.  Eng.  gor,  dung  or  filth),  a  word  formerly 
used  in  the  sense  of  dirt,  but  now  confined  to  blood  that  has 
thickened  after  being  shed.  (2)  (O.  Eng.  gdra,  probably  con- 
nected with  gare,  an  old  word  for  "  spear  "),  something  of 
triangular  shape,  resembling  therefore  a  spear-head.  The  word 
is  used  for  a  tapering  strip  of  land,  in  the  "  common  or  open 
field  "  system  of  agriculture,  where  from  the  shape  of  the  land 
the  acre  or  half-acre  strips  could  not  be  portioned  out  in  straight 
divisions.  Similarly  "  gore  "  is  used  in  the  United  States, 
especially  in  Maine  and  Vermont,  for  a  strip  of  land  left  out 
in  surveying  when  divisions  are  made  and  boundaries  marked. 
The  triangular  sections  of  material  used  in  forming  the  covering 
of  a  balloon  or  an  umbrella  are  also  called  "  gores,"  and  in 
dressmaking  the  term  is  used  for  a  triangular  piece  of  material 
inserted  in  a  dress  to  adjust  the  difference  in  widths.  To  gore, 
i.e.  to  stab  or  pierce  with  any  sharp  instrument,  but  more 
particularly  used  of  piercing  with  the  horns  of  a  bull,  is  probably 
directly  connected  with  gare,  a  spear. 

GOREE,  an  island  off  the  west  coast  of  Africa,  forming  part 
of  the  French  colony  of  Senegal.  It  lies  at  the  entrance  of  the 
large  natural  harbour  formed  by  the  peninsula  of  Cape  Verde. 
The  island,  some  900  yds.  long  by  330  broad,  and  3  m.  distant 
from  the  nearest  point  of  the  mainland,  is  mostly  barren  rock. 
The  greater  part  of  its  surface  is  occupied  by  a  town,  formerly 
a  thriving  commercial  entrepot  and  a  strong  military  post. 
Until  1906  it  was  a  free  port.  With  the  rise  of  Dakar  (q.v.), 
c.  1860,  on  the  adjacent  coast,  Goree  lost  its  trade  and  its 
inhabitants,  mostly  Jolofs,  had  dwindled  in  1905  to  about  1500. 
Its  healthy  climate,  however,  makes  it  useful  as  a  sanatorium. 
The  streets  are  narrow,  and  the  houses,  mainly  built  of  dark- 
red  stone,  are  flat-roofed.  The  castle  of  St  Michael,  the  gover- 
nor's residence,  the  hospital  and  barracks,  testify  to  the  former 
importance  of  the  town.  Within  the  castle  is  an  artesian  well, 
the  only  water-supply,  save  that  collected  in  rain  tanks,  on  the 
island.  Goree  was  first  occupied  by  the  Dutch,  who  took  posses- 
sion of  it  early  in  the  I7th  century  and  called  it  Goeree  or  Goede- 
reede,  in  memory  of  the  island  on  their  own  coast  now  united  . 
with  Overflakkee.  Its  native  name  is  Bir,  i.e.  a  belly,  in  allusion 
to  its  shape.  It  was  captured  by  the  English  under  Commodore 
(afterwards  Admiral  Sir  Robert)  Holmes  in  1663,  but  retaken 
in  the  following  year  by  de  Ruyter.  The  Dutch  were  finally 
expelled  in  1677  by  the  French  under  Admiral  d'Estr6es. 
Goree  subsequently  fell  again  into  the  hands  of  the  English,  ' 
but  was  definitely  occupied  by  France  in  1817  (see  SENEGAL: 
History). 

GORGE,  strictly  the  French  word  for  the  throat  considered 
externally.  Hence  it  is  applied  in  falconry  to  a  hawk's  crop. 


256 


GORGEI— GORGES 


and  thus,  with  the  sense  of  something  greedy  or  ravenous,  to 
food  given  to  a  hawk  and  to  the  contents  of  a  hawk's  crop  or 
stomach.  It  is  from  this  sense  that  the  expression  of  a  person's 
"  gorge  rising  at  "  anything  in  the  sense  of  loathing  or  disgust 
is  derived.  "  Gorge,"  from  analogy  with  "  throat,"  is  used 
with  the  meaning  of  a  narrow  opening  as  of  a  ravine  or  valley 
between  hills;  in  fortification,  of  the  neck  of  an  outwork  or 
bastion;  and  in  architecture,  of  the  narrow  part  of  a  Roman 
Doric  column,  between  the  echinus  and  the  astragal.  From 
"  gorge  "  also  comes  a  diminutive  "  gorget,"  a  portion  of  a 
woman's  costume  in  the  middle  ages,  being  a  close  form  of 
wimple  covering  the  neck  and  upper  part  of  the  breast,  and  also 
that  part  of  the  body  armour  covering  the  neck  and  collar- 
bone (see  GORGET).  The  word  "  gorgeous,"  of  splendid  or 
magnificent  appearance,  comes  from  the  O.  Fr.  gorgias,  with 
the  same  meaning,  and  has  very  doubtfully  been  connected 
with  gorge,  a  ruffle  or  neck-covering,  of  a  supposed  elaborate 
kind. 

GORGEI,  ARTHUR  (1818-  ),  Hungarian  soldier,  was 
born  at  Toporcz,  in  Upper  Hungary,  on  the  3Oth  of  January 
1818.  He  came  of  a  Saxon  noble  family  who  were  converts  to 
Protestantism.  In  1837  he  entered  the  Bodyguard  of  Hungarian 
Nobles  at  Vienna,  where  he  combined  military  service  with  a 
course  of  study  at  the  university.  In  1845,  on  the  death  of  his 
father,  he  retired  from  the  army  and  devoted  himself  to  the 
study  of  chemistry  at  Prague,  after  which  he  retired  to  the 
family  estates  in  Hungary.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  revolutionary 
war  of  1848,  Gorgei  offered  his  sword  to  the  Hungarian  govern- 
ment. Entering  the  Honved  army  with  the  rank  of  captain,  he 
was  employed  in  the  purchase  of  arms,  and  soon  became  major 
and  commandant  of  the  national  guards  north  of  the  Theiss. 
Whilst  he  was  engaged  in  preventing  the  Croatian  army  from 
crossing  the  Danube,  at  the  island  of  Csepel,  below  Pest,  the 
wealthy  Hungarian  magnate  Count  Eugene  Zichy  fell  into  his 
hands,  and  Gorgei  caused  him  to  be  arraigned  before  a  court- 
martial  on  a  charge  of  treason  and  immediately  hanged.  After 
various  successes  over  the  Croatian  forces,  of  which  the  most 
remarkable  was  that  at  Ozora,  where  10,000  prisoners  fell  into 
his  hands,  Gorgei  was  appointed  commander  of  the  army  of  the 
Upper  Danube,  but,  on  the  advance  of  Prince  Windischgratz 
across  the  Leitha,  he  resolved  to  fall  back,  and  in  spite  of  the 
remonstrances  of  Kossuth  he  held  to  his  resolution  and  retreated 
upon  Waitzen.  Here,  irritated  by  what  he  considered  undue 
interference  with  his  plans,  he  issued  (January  sth,  1849)  a  pro- 
clamation throwing  the  blame  for  the  recent  want  of  success 
upon  the  government,  thus  virtually  revolting  against  their 
authority.  Gorgei  retired  to  the  Hungarian  Erzgebirge  and 
conducted  operations  on  his  own  initiative.  Meanwhile  the 
supreme  command  had  been  conferred  upon  the  Pole  Dembinski, 
but  the  latter  fought  without  success  the  battle  of  Kapolna, 
at  which  action  Gorgei's  corps  arrived  too  late  to  take  an  effective 
part,  and  some  time  after  this  the  command  was  again  conferred 
upon  Gorgei.  The  campaign  in  the  spring  of  1849  was  brilliantly 
conducted  by  him,  and  in  a  series  of  engagements,  he  defeated 
Windischgratz.  In  April  he  won  the  victories  of  Godollo  Izaszeg 
and  Nagy  Sarlo,  relieved  Komorn,  and  again  won  a  battle  at 
Acs  or  Waitzen.  Had  he  followed  up  his  successes  by  taking 
the  offensive  against  the  Austrian  frontier,  he  might  perhaps 
have  dictated  terms  in  the  Austrian  capital  itself.  As  it  was, 
he  contented  himself  with  reducing  Ofen,  the  Hungarian  capital, 
in  which  he  desired  to  re-establish  the  diet,  and  after  effecting 
this  capture  he  remained  inactive  for  some  weeks.  Meanwhile, 
^at  a  diet  held  at  Debreczin,  Kossuth  had  formally  proposed  the 
/dethronement  of  the  Habsburg  dynasty  and  Hungary  had  been 
proclaimed  a  republic.  Gorgei  had  refused  the  field-marshal's 
baton  offered  him  by  Kossuth  and  was  by  no  means  in  sympathy 
with  the  new  regime.  However,  he  accepted  the  portfolio  of 
minister  of  war,  while  retaining  the  command  of  the  troops  in 
the  field.  The  Russians  had  now  intervened  in  the  struggle  and 
made  common  cause  with  the  Austrians;  the  allies  were  advanc- 
ing into  Hungary  on  all  sides,  and  Gorgei  was  defeated  by 
Haynau  at  Pered  (2oth-2ist  of  June).  Kossuth,  perceiving 


the  impossibility  of  continuing  the  struggle  and  being  unwilling 
himself  to  make  terms,  resigned  his  position  as  dictator;  and  was 
succeeded  by  Gorgei,  who  meanwhile  had  been  fighting  hard 
against  the  various  columns  of  the  enemy.  Gorgei,  convinced 
that  he  could  not  break  through  the  enemy's  lines,  surrendered, 
with  his  army  of  20,000  infantry  and  2000  cavalry,  to  the 
Russian  general  Riidiger  at  Vilagos.  Gorgei  was  not  court- 
martialled,  as  were  his  generals,  but  kept  in  confinement  at 
Klagenfurt,  where  he  lived,  chiefly  employed  in  chemical  work, 
until  1867,  when  he  was  pardoned  and  returned  to  Hungary. 
The  surrender,  and  particularly  the  fact  that  his  life  was  spared 
while  his  generals  and  many  of  his  officers  and  men  were  hanged 
or  shot,  led,  perhaps  naturally,  to  his  being  accused  of  treason 
by  public  opinion  of  his  countrymen.  After  his  release  he 
played  no  further  part  in  public  life.  Even  in  1885  an  attempt 
which  was  made  by  a  large  number  of  his  old  comrades  to  re- 
habilitate him  was  not  favourably  received  in  Hungary.  After 
some  years'  work  as  a  railway  engineer  he  retired  to  Visegrad, 
where  he  lived  thenceforward  in  retreat.  (See  also  HUNGARY: 
History.) 

General  Gorgei  wrote  a  justification  of  his  operations  (Mein 
Leben  und  Wirken  in  Ungarn  1848-1859,  Leipzig,  1852),  an 
anonymous  paper  under  the  title  Was  verdanken  ivir  der  Revolu- 
tion? (1875),  and  a  reply  to  Kossuth's  charges  (signed  "  Job. 
Demar  ")  in  Budapesti  Szemle,  1881,  25-26.  Amongst  those 
who  wrote  in  his  favour  were  Captain  Stephan  Gorgei  (1848  is 
1849  bol,  Budapest,  1885),  and  Colonel  Aschermann  (Ein  ojfenes 
Wort  in  der  Sache  des  Homied-Generals  A  rthur  Gorgei,  Klausenburg, 
1867). 

See  also  A.  G.  Horn,  Gorgei,  Oberkommandant  d.  ung.  Armee 
(Leipzig,  1850) ;  Kinety,  Gorgei's  Life  and  Work  in  Hungary  (London, 
1853) ;  Szinyei,  in  Magyar  Irak  (iii.  1378),  Hentaller,  Gorgei  as  a 
Statesman  (Hungarian) ;  Elemar,  Gorgei  in  1848-1849  (Hungarian, 
Budapest,  1886). 

GORGES,  SIR  FERDINANDO  (c.  1566-1647),  English  colonial 
pioneer  in  America  and  the  founder  of  Maine,  was  born  in 
Somersetshire,  England,  probably  in  1566.  From  youth  both 
a  soldier  and  a  sailor,  he  was  a  prisoner  in  Spain  at  the  age  of 
twenty-one,  having  been  captured  by  a  ship  of  the  Spanish 
Armada.  In  1 589  he  was  in  command  of  a  small  body  of  troops 
fighting  for  Henry  IV.  of  France,  and  after  distinguishing  him- 
self at  the  siege  of  Rouen  was  knighted  there  in  1591.  In  1596 
he  was  commissioned  captain  and  keeper  of  the  castle  and  fort 
at  Plymouth  and  captain  of  St  Nicholas  Isle;  in  1597  he  accom- 
panied Essex  on  the  expedition  to  the  Azores;  in  1599  assisted 
him  in  the  attempt  to  suppress  the  Tyrone  rebellion  in  Ireland, 
and  in  1600  was  implicated  in  Essex's  own  attempt  at  rebellion 
in  London.  In  1603,  on  the  accession  of  James  I.,  he  was 
suspended  from  his  post  at  Plymouth,  but  was  restored  in  the 
same  year  and  continued  to  serve  as  "  governor  of  the  forts 
and  island  of  Plymouth"  until  1629,  when,  his  garrison  having 
been  without  pay  for  three  and  a  half  years,  his  fort  a  ruin, 
and  all  his  applications  for  aid  having  been  ignored,  he  resigned. 
About  1605  he  began  to  be  greatly  interested  in  the  New  World; 
in  1606  he  became  a  member  of  the  Plymouth  Company,  and  he 
laboured  zealously  for  the  founding  of  the  Popham  colony  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Sagadahoc  (now  the  Kennebec)  river  in  1607. 
For  several  years  following  the  failure  of  that  enterprise  in  1608 
.he  continued  to  fit  out  ships  for  fishing,  trading  and  exploring, 
with  colonization  as  the  chief  end  in  view.  He  was  largely 
instrumental  in  procuring  the  new  charter  of  1620  for  the 
Plymouth  Company,  and  was  at  all  times  of  its  existence  perhaps 
the  most  influential  member  of  that  body.  He  was  the  recipient, 
either  solely  or  jointly,  of  several  grants  of  territory  from  it, 
for  one  of  which  he  received  in  1639  the  royal  charter  of  Maine 
(see  MAINE).  In  1635  he  sought  to  be  appointed  governor-general 
of  all  New  England,  but  the  English  Civil  War — in  which  he 
espoused  the  royal  cause — prevented  him  from  ever  actually 
holding  that  office.  A  short  time  before  his  death  at  Long 
Ashton  in  1647  ne  wrote  his  Brief e  Narration  of  the  'Originall 
Undertakings  of  the  Advancement  of  Plantations  into  the  Parts  of 
America.  He  was  an  advocate,  especially  late  in  life,  of  the 
feudal  type  of  colony. 


GORGET— GORILLA 


257 


See  J.  P.  Baxter  (ed.),  Sir  Ferdinando  Gorges  and  his  Province  of 
Maine  (3  vols.,  Boston,  1890;  in  the  Prince  Society  Publications), 
the  first  -volume  of  which  is  a  memoir  of  Gorges,  and  the  other 
volumes  contain  a  reprint  of  the  Briefe  Narration,  Gorges's  letters, 
and  other  documentary  material. 

GORGET  (O.  Fr.  gorgete,  dim.  of  gorge,  throat),  the  name 
applied  after  about  1480  to  the  collar-piece  of  a  suit  of  armour. 
It  was  generally  formed  of  small  overlapping  rings  of  plate,  and 
attached  either  to  the  body  armour  or  to  the  armet.  It  was 
worn  in  the  i6th  and  iyth  centuries  with  the  half-armour, 
with  the  plain  cuirass,  and  even  occasionally  without  any 
body  armour  at  all.  During  these  times  it  gradually  became  a 
distinctive  badge  for  officers,  and  as  such  it  survived  in  several 
armies  —  in  the  form  of  a  small  metal  plate  affixed  to  the  front 
of  the  collar  of  the  uniform  coat  —  until  after  the  Napoleonic  wars. 
In  the  German  army  to-day  a  gorget-plate  of  this  sort  is  the 
distinctive  mark  of  military  police,  while  the  former  officer's 
gorget  is  represented  in  British  uniforms  by  the  red  patches  or 
tabs  worn  on  the  collar  by  staff  officers  and  by  the  white  patches 
of  the  midshipmen  in  the  Royal  Navy. 

GORGIAS  (c.  483-375  B.C.),  Greek  sophist  and  rhetorician, 
was  a  native  of  Leontini  in  Sicily.  In  427  he  was  sent  by  his 
fellow-citizens  at  the  head  of  an  embassy  to  ask  Athenian 
protection  against  the  aggression  of  the  Syracusans.  He  subse- 
quently settled  in  Athens,  and  supported  himself  by  the  practice 
of  oratory  and  by  teaching  rhetoric.  He  died  at  Larissa  in 
Thessaly.  His  chief  claim  to  recognition  consists  in  the  fact  that 
he  transplanted  rhetoric  to  Greece,  and  contributed  to  the 
diffusion  of  the  Attic  dialect  as  the  language  of  literary  prose. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  lost  work  On  Nature  or  the  Non-existent 
(Ilepi  TOV  nfi  OVTOS  ^  Trtpl  <£for«i)S,  fragments  edited  by  M.  C. 
Valeton,  1876),  the  substance  of  which  may  be  gathered  from 
the  writings  of  Sextus  Empiricus,  and  also  from  the  treatise 
(ascribed  to  Theophrastus)  De  Melisso,  Xenophane,  Gorgia. 
Gorgias  is  the  central  figure  in  the  Platonic  dialogue  Gorgias. 
The  genuineness  of  two  rhetorical  exercises  (The  Encomium 
of  Helen  and  The  Defence  of  Palamedes,  edited  with  Antiphon  by 
F.  Blass  in  the  Teubner  series,  1881),  which  have  come  down 
under  his  name,  is  disputed. 

For  his  philosophical  opinions  see  SOPHISTS  and  SCEPTICISM. 
See  also  Gomperz,  Greek  Thinkers,  Eng.  trans,  vol.  i.  bk.  iii.  chap. 
vii.;  Jebb's  Attic  Orators,  introd.  to  vol.  i.  (1893);  F.  Blass,  Die 
attische  Beredsamkeit,  i.  (1887);  and  article  RHETORIC. 


GORGON,  GORGONS  (Gr.  IVytb,  Topybves,  the  "terrible," 
or,  according  to  some,  the  "  loud-roaring  "),  a  figure  or  figures 
in  Greek  mythology.  Homer  speaks  of  only  one  Gorgon,  whose 
head  is  represented  in  the  Iliad  (v.  741)  as  fixed  in  the  centre  of 
the  aegis  of  Zeus.  In  the  Odyssey  (xi.  633)  she  is  a  monster  of  the 
under-world.  Hesiod  increases  the  number  of  Gorgons  to  three  — 
Stheno  (the  mighty),  *Luryale  (the  far-springer)  and  Medusa 
(the  queen),  and  makes  them  the  daughters  of  the  sea-god 
Phorcys  and  of  Keto.  Their  home  is  on  the  farthest  side  of  the 
western  ocean;  according  to  later  authorities,  in  Libya  (Hesiod, 
Theog.  274;  Herodotus  ii.  91;  Pausanias  ii.  21).  The  Attic 
tradition,  reproduced  in  Euripides  (Ion  1002),  regarded  the 
Gorgon  as  a  monster,  produced  by  Gaea  to  aid  her  sons  the 
giants  against  the  gods  and  slain  by  Athena  (the  passage  is  a 
locus  classicus  on  the  aegis  of  Athena). 

The  Gorgons  are  represented  as  winged  creatures,  having 
the  form  of  young  women;  their  hair  consists  of  snakes;  they 
are  round-faced,  flat-nosed,  with  tongues  lolling  out  and  large 
projecting  teeth.  Sometimes  they  have  wings  of  gold,  brazen 
claws  and  the  tusks  of  boars.  Medusa  was  the  only  one  of  the 
three  who  was  mortal;  hence  Perseus  was  able  to  kill  her  by 
cutting  off  her  head.  From  the  blood  that  spurted  from  her  neck 
sprang  Chrysaor  and  Pegasus,  her  two  sons  by  Poseidon.  The 
head,  which  had  the  power  of  turning  into  stone  all  who  looked 
upon  it,  was  given  to  Athena,  who  placed  it  in  her  shield; 
according  to  another  account,  Perseus  buried  it  in  the  market- 
place of  Argos.  The  hideously  grotesque  original  type  of  the 
Gorgoneion,  as  the  Gorgon's  head  was  called,  was  placed  on  the 
walls  of  cities,  and  on  shields  and  breastplates  to  terrify  an  enemy 
(cf.  the  hideous  faces  on  Chinese  soldiers'  shields),  and  used 
xn.  9 


generally  as  an  amulet,  a  protection  against  the  evil  eye.  Heracles 
is  said  to  have  obtained  a  lock  of  Medusa's  hair  (which  possessed 
the  same  powers  as  the  head)  from  Athena  and  given  it  to 
Sterope,  the  daughter  of  Cepheus,  as  a  protection  for  the  town 
of  Tegea  against  attack  (Apollodorus  ii.  7.  3).  According  to 
Roscher,  it  was  supposed,  when  exposed  to  view,  to  bring  on  a 
storm,  which  put  the  enemy  to  flight.  Frazer  (Golden  Bough,  i. 
378)  gives  examples  of  the  superstition  that  cut  hair  caused 
storms.  According  to  the  later  idea  of  Medusa  as  a  beautiful 
maiden,  whose  hair  had  been  changed  into  snakes  by  Athena, 
the  head  was  represented  in  works  of  art  with  a  wonderfully 
handsome  face,  wrapped  in  the  calm  repose  of  death.  The 
Rondanini  Medusa  at  Munich  is  a  famous  specimen  of  this 
conception.  Various  accounts  of  the  Gorgons  were  given  by 
later  ancient  writers.  According  to  Diod.  Sic.  (iii.  54.  55) 
they  were  female  warriors  living  near  Lake  Tritonis  in  Libya, 
whose  queen  was  Medusa;  according  to  Alexander  of  Myndus, 
quoted  in  Athenaeus  (v.  p.  221),  they  were  terrible  wild  animals 
whose  mere  look  turned  men  to  stone.  Pliny  (Nat.  Hist.  vi. 
36  [31])  describes  them  as  savage  women,  whose  persons  were 
covered  with  hair,  which  gave  rise  to  the  story  of  their  snaky 
hair  and  girdle.  Modern  authorities  have  explained  them  as  the 
personification  of  the  waves  of  the  sea  or  of  the  barren,  un- 
productive coast  of  Libya;  or  as  the  awful  darkness  of  the 
storm-cloud,  which  comes  from  the  west  and  is  scattered  by  the 
sun-god  Perseus.  More  recent  is  the  explanation  of  anthro- 
pologists that  Medusa,  whose  virtue  is  really  in  her  head,  is 
derived  from  the  ritual  mask  common  to  primitive  cults. 

See  Jane  E.  Harrison,  Prolegomena  to  the  Study  of  Greek  Religion 
(1903);  W.  H.  Roscher,  Die  Gorgonen  und  Verwandtes  (1879); 
J.  Six,  De  Gorgone  (1885),  on  the  types  of  the  Gorgon's  head ;  articles 
by  Roscher  and  Furtwangler  in  Roscher's  Lexikon  der  Mythologie, 
by  G.  Glotz  in  Daremberg  and  Saglio's  Dictionnaire  des  antiquites, 
and  by  R.  Gadechens  in  Ersch  and  Gruber's  Allgemeine  Encyclopddie ; 
N.G.  Polites  ('O  Trcpl  TWV  Yopybvutv  juD0os  Trapa  rig  'EXXT^uojj  Xaw,  1878) 
gives  an  account  of  the  Gorgons,  and  of  the  various  superstitions 
connected  with  them,  from  the  modern  Greek  point  of  view,  which 
regards  them  as  malevolent  spirits  of  the  sea. 

GORGONZOLA,  a  town  of  Lombardy,  Italy,  in  the  province 
of  Milan,  from  which  it  is  n  m.  E.N.E.  by  steam  tramway. 
Pop.  (1901)  5134.  It  is  the  centre  of  the  district  in  which  is 
produced  the  well-known  Gorgonzola  cheese. 

GORI,  a  town  of  Russian  Transcaucasia,  in  the  government 
of  Tiflis  and  49  m.  by  rail  N.W.  of  the  city  of  Tiflis,  on  the  river 
Kura;  altitude,  2010  ft.  Pop.  (1897)  10,457.  The  surrounding 
country  is  very  picturesque.  Gori  has  a  high  school  for  girls,  und 
a  school  for  Russian  and  Tatar  teachers.  At  one  time  celebrated 
for  its  silk  and  cotton  stuffs,  it  is  now  famous  for  corn,  reputed 
the  best  in  Georgia,  and  the  wine  is  also  esteemed.  The  climate 
is  excellent,  delightfully  cool  in  summer,  owing  to  the  refreshing 
breezes  from  the  mountains,  though  these  are,  however,  at  times 
disagreeable  in  winter.  Gori  was  founded  (1123)  by  the  Georgian 
king  David  II.,  the  Renovater,  for  the  Armenians  who  fled  their 
country  on  the  Persian  invasion.  The  earliest  remains  of  the 
fortress  are  Byzantine;  it  was  thoroughly  restored  in  1634- 
1658,  but  destroyed  by  Nadir  Shah  of  Persia  in  the  i8th  century. 
There  is  a  church  constructed  in  the  I7th  century  by  Capuchin 
missionaries  from  Rome.  Five  miles  east  of  Gori  is  the  remark- 
able rock-cut  town  of  Uplis-tsykhe,  which  was  a  fortress  in  the 
time  of  Alexander  the  Great  of  Macedon,  and  an  inhabited  city 
in  the  reign  of  the  Georgian  king  Bagrat  III.  (980-1014). 

GORILLA  (or  PONGO),  the  largest  of  the  man-like  apes,  and 
a  native  of  West  Africa  from  the  Congo  to  Cameroon,  whence 
it  extends  eastwards  across  the  continent  to  German  East  Africa. 
Many  naturalists  regard  the  gorilla  as  best  included  in  the  same 
genus  as  the  chimpanzee,  in  which  case  it  should  be  known  as 
Anthropopithecus  gorilla,  but  by  others  it  is  regarded  as  the 
representative  of  a  genus  by  itself,  when  its  title  will  be  Gorilla 
savagei,  or  G.  gorilla.  That  there  are  local  forms  of  gorilla  is 
quite  certain:  but  whether  any  of  these  are  entitled  to  rank  as 
distinct  species  may  be  a  matter  of  opinion.  It  was  long  supposed 
that  the  apes  encountered  on  an  island  off  the  west  coast  of 
Africa  by  Hanno,  the  Carthaginian,  were  gorillas,  but  in  the 


GORINCHEM— GORING 


opinion  of  some  of  those  best  qualified  to  judge,  it  is  probable 
that  the  creatures  in  question  were  really  baboons.  The  first 
real  account  of  the  gorilla  appears  to  be  the  one  given  by  an 
English  sailor,  Andrew  Battel,  who  spent  some  time  in  the  wilds 
of  West  Africa  during  and  about  the  year  1590;  his  account 
being  presented  in  Purchas's  Pilgrimage,  published  in  the  year 
1613.  From  this  it  appears  that  Battel  was  familiar  with  both 
the  chimpanzee  and  the  gorilla,  the  former  of  which  he  terms 
engeco  and  the  latter  pongo — names  which  ought  apparently 
to  be  adopted  for  these  two  species  in  place  of  those  now  in  use. 
Between  Battel's  time  and  1846  nothing  appears  to  have  been 
heard  of  the  gorilla  or  pongo,  but  in  that  year  a  missionary  at 
the  Gabun  accidentally  discovered  a  skull  of  the  huge  ape; 
and  in  1847  a  sketch  of  that  specimen,  together  with  two  others, 
came  into  the  hands  of  Sir  R.  Owen,  by  whom  the  name  Gorilla 
savagei  was  proposed  for  the  new  ape  in  1848.  Dr  Thomas 
Savage,  a  missionary  at  the  Gabun,  who  sent  Owen  information 
with  regard  to  the  original  skull,  had,  however,  himself  proposed 
the  name  Troglodytes  gorilla  in  1847.  The  first  complete  skeleton 
of  a  gorilla  sent  to  Europe  was  received  at  the  museum  of  the 
Royal  College  of  Surgeons  in  1851,  and  the  first  complete  skin 
appears  to  have  reached  the  British  Museum  in  1858.  Paul  B. 
du  Chaillu's  account  (1861)  of  his  journeys  in  the  Gabun 
region  popularized  the  knowledge  of  the  existence  of  the  gorilla. 
Male  gorillas  largely  exceed  the  females  in  size,  and  attain  a 
height  of  from  s|  ft.  to  65  ft.,  or  perhaps  even  more.  Some  of 
the  features  distinguishing  the  gorilla  from  the  mere  gorilla-like 
chimpanzees  will  be  found  mentioned  in  the  article  PRIMATES. 
Among  them  are  the  small  ears,  elongated  head,  the  presence  of 
a  deep  groove  alongside  the  nostrils,  the  small  size  of  the  thumb, 
and  the  great  length  of  the  arm,  which  reaches  half-way  down 
the  shin-bone  (tibia)  in  the  erect  posture.  In  old  males  the  eyes 
are  overhung  by  a  beetling  penthouse  of  bone,  the  hinder  half 
of  the  middle  line  of  the  skull  bears  a  wall-like  bony  ridge  for 
the  attachment  of  the  powerful  jaw-muscles,  and  the  tusks,  or 
canines,  are  of  monstrous  size,  recalling  those  of  a  carnivorous 
animal.  The  general  colour  is  blackish,  with  a  more  or  less 
marked  grey  or  brownish  tinge  on  the  hair  of  the  shoulders,  and 
sometimes  of  chestnut  on  the  head.  Mr  G.  L.  Bates  (in  Proc. 
Zool.  Soc.,  1905,  vol.  i.)  states  that  gorillas  only  leave  the  depths 
of  the  forest  to  enter  the  outlying  clearings  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  human  settlements  when  they  are  attracted  by  some  special 
fruit  or  succulent  plant;  the  favourite  being  the  fruit  of  the 
"  mejom,"  a  tall  cane-like  plant  (perhaps  a  kind  of  Amomum) 
which  grows  abundantly  on  deserted  clearings.  At  one  isolated 
village  the  natives,  who  were  unarmed,  reported  that  they  not 
unfrequently  saw  and  heard  the  gorillas,  which  broke  down  the 
stalks  of  the  plantains  in  the  rear  of  the  habitations  to  tear  out 
and  eat  the  tender  heart.  On  the  old  clearings  of  another  village 
Mr  Bates  himself,  although  he  did  not  see  a  gorilla,  saw  the  fresh 
'  tracks  of  these  great  apes  and  the  torn  stems  and  discarded 
fruit  rinds  of  the  "  mejoms,"  as  well  as  the  broken  stalks  of  the 
latter,  which  had  been  used  for  beds.  On  another  occasion  he 
came  across  the  bed  of  an  old  gorilla  which  had  been  used  only 
the  night  before,  as  was  proved  by  a  negro  woman,  who  on  the 
previous  evening  had  heard  the  animal  breaking  and  treading 
down  the  stalks  to  form  its  couch.  According  to  native  report, 
the  gorillas  sleep  on  these  beds,  which  are  of  sufficient  thickness 
to  raise  them  a  foot  or  two  above  the  ground,  in  a  sitting  posture, 
with  the  head  inclined  forwards  on  the  breast.  In  the  first  case 
Mr  Bates  states  that  the  tracks  and  beds  indicated  the  presence 
of  three  or  four  gorillas,  some  of  which  were  small.  This  account 
does  not  by  any  means  accord  with  one  given  by  von  Koppenfels, 
in  which  it  is  stated  that  while  the  old  male  gorilla  sleeps  in  a 
sitting  posture  at  the  base  of  a  tree-trunk  (no  mention  being 
made  of  a  bed),  the  female  and  young  ones  pass  the  night  in  a 
nest  in  the  tree  several  yards  above  the  ground,  made  by  bending 
the  boughs  together  and  covering  them  with  twigs  and  moss. 
Mr  Bates's  account,  as  being  based  on  actual  inspection  of  the 
beds,  is  probably  the  more  trustworthy.  Even  when  asleep  and 
snoring,  gorillas  are  difficult  to  approach,  since  they  awake  at 
the  slightest  rustle,  and  an  attempt  to  surround  the  one  heard 


making  his  bed  by  the  woman  resulted  in  failure.  Most  gorillas 
killed  by  natives  are  believed  by  Mr  Bates  to  have  been  en- 
countered suddenly  in  the  daytime  on  the  ground  or  in  low  trees 
in  the  outlying  clearings.  Many  natives,  even  if  armed,  refuse, 
however,  to  molest  an  adult  male  gorilla,  on  account  of  its 
ferocity  when  wounded.  Mr  Bates,  like  Mr  Winwood  Reade, 
refused  to  credit  du  Chaillu's  account  of  his  having  killed  gorillas, 
and  stated  that  the  only  instance  he  knew  of  one  of  these  animals 
being  slain  by  a  European  was  an  old  male  (now  in  Mr  Walter 
Rothschild's  museum  at  Tring)  shot  by  the  German  trader 
Paschen  in  the  Yaunde  district,  of  which  an  illustrated  account 
was  published  in  1901.  Mr  E.  J.  Corns  states,  however,  that 
two  European  traders,  apparently  in  the  "  'eighties  "  of  the  I9th 
century,  were  in  the  habit  of  surrounding  and  capturing  these 
animals  as  occasion  offered.1  Fully  adult  gorillas  have  never 
been  seen  alive  in  captivity — and  perhaps  never  will  be,  as  the 
creature  is  ferocious  and  morose  to  a  degree.  So  long  ago  as  the 
year  1855,  when  the  species  was  known  to  zoologists  only  by  its 
skeleton,  a  gorilla  was  actually  living  in  England.  This  animal, 
a  young  female,  came  from  the  Gabun,  and  was  kept  for  some 
months  in  Wombwell's  travelling  menagerie,  where  it  was  treated 
as  a  pet.  On  its  death,  the  body  was  sent  to  Mr  Charles  Waterton, 
of  Walton  Hall,  by  whom  the  skin  was  mounted  in  a  grotesque 
manner,  and  the  skeleton  given  to  the  Leeds  museum.  Appar- 
ently, however,  it  was  not  till  several  years  later  that  the  skin 
was  recognized  by  Mr  A.  D.  Bartlett  as  that  of  a  gorilla;  the 
animal  having  probably  been  regarded  by  its  owner  as  a  chim- 
panzee. A  young  male  was  purchased  by  the  Zoological  Society 
in  October  1887,  from  Mr  Cross,  the  Liverpool  dealer  in  animals. 
At  the  time  of  arrival  it  was  supposed  to  be  about  three  years  old, 
and  stood  i\  ft.  high.  A  second,  a  male,  supposed  to  be  rather 
older,  was  acquired  in  March  1896,  having  been  brought  to 
Liverpool  from  the  French  Congo.  It  is  described  as  having 
been  thoroughly  healthy  at  the  date  of  its  arrival,  and  of  an 
amiable  and  tractable  disposition.  Neither  survived  long.  Two 
others  were  received  in  the  Zoological  Society's  menagerie  in 
1904,  and  another  was  housed  there  for  a  short  time  in  the 
following  year,  while  a  fifth  was  received  in  1906.  Falkenstein's 
gorilla,  exhibited  at  the  Westminster  aquarium  under  the  name 
of  pongo,  and  afterwards  at  the  Berlin  aquarium,  survived  for 
eighteen  months.  "  Pussi,"  the  gorilla  of  the  Breslau  Zoological 
Gardens,  holds  a  record  for  longevity,  with  over  seven  years 
of  menagerie  life.  Writing  in  1903  Mr  W.  T.  Hornaday  stated 
that  but  one  live  gorilla,  and  that  a  tiny  infant,  had  ever 
landed  in  the  United  States;  and  it  lived  only  five  days  after 
arrival.  (R.  L.*) 

GORINCHEM,  or  GORCUM,  a  fortified  town  of  Holland  in  the 
province  of  south  Holland,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Merwede 
at  the  confluence  of  the  Linge,  16  m.  by  rail  W.  of  Dordrecht. 
It  is  connected  by  the  Zederik  and  Merwede  canals  with  Amster- 
dam, and  steamers  ply  hence  in  every  direction.  Pop.  (1900) 
11,987.  Gorinchem  possesses  several  interesting  old  houses,  and 
overlooking  the  river  are  some  fortified  gateways  of  the  i7th 
century.  The  principal  buildings  are  the  old  church  of  St 
Vincent,  containing  the  monuments  of  the  lords  of  Arkel;  the 
town  hall,  a  prison,  custom-house,  barracks  and  a  military 
hospital.  The  charitable  and  benevolent  institutions  are 
numerous,  and  there  are  also  a  library  and  several  learned 
associations.  Gorinchem  possesses  a  good  harbour,  and  besides 
working  in  gold  and  silver,  carries  on  a  considerable  trade  in 
grain,  hemp,  cheese,  potatoes,  cattle  and  fish,  the  salmon  fishery 
being  noted.  Woerkum,  or  Woudrichem,  a  little  below  the  town 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Merwede,  is  famous  for  its  quaint  old 
buildings,  which  are  decorated  with  mosaics. 

GORING,  GEORGE  GORING,  LORD  (1608-1657),  English 
Royalist  soldier,  son  of  George  Goring,  earl  of  Norwich,  was  born 
on  the  I4th  of  July  1608.  He  soon  became  famous  at  court 
for  his  prodigality  and  dissolute  manners.  His  father-in-law, 
Richard  Boyle,  earl  of  Cork,  procured  for  him  a  post  in  the  Dutch 

1  In  1905  the  Rev.  Geo.  Grenfell  reported  that  he  had  that  summer 
shot  a  gorilla  in  the  Bwela  country,  east  of  the  Mongala  affluent  of 
the  Congo. 


GORKI— GORLITZ 


259 


army  with  the  rank  of  colonel.  He  was  permanently  lamed 
by  a  wound  received  at  Breda  in  1637,  and  returned  to  England 
early  in  1639,  when  he  was  made  governor  of  Portsmouth.  He 
served  in  the  Scottish  war,  and  already  had  a  considerable 
reputation  when  he  was  concerned  in  the  "  Army  Plot."  Officers 
of  the  army  stationed  at  York  proposed  to  petition  the  king  and 
parliament  for  the  maintenance  of  the  royal  authority.  A 
second  party  was  in  favour  of  more  violent  measures,  and 
Goring,  in  the  hope  of  being  appointed  lieutenant-general, 
proposed  to  march  the  army  on  London  and  overawe  the  parlia- 
ment during  Stafford's  trial.  This  proposition  being  rejected 
by  his  fellow  officers,  he  betrayed  the  proceedings  to  Mountjoy 
Blount,  earl  of  Newport,  who  passed  on  the  information  in- 
directly to  Pym  in  April.  Colonel  Goring  was  thereupon  called 
on  to  give  evidence  before  the  Commons,  who  commended  him 
for  his  services  to  the  Commonwealth.  This  betrayal  of  his 
comrades  induced  confidence  in  the  minds  of  the  parliamentary 
leaders,  who  sent  him  back  to  his  Portsmouth  command.  Never- 
theless he  declared  for  the  king  in  August.  He  surrendered 
Portsmouth  to  the  parliament  in  September  1642  and  went  to 
Holland  to  recruit  for  the  Royalist  army,  returning  to  England 
in  December.  Appointed  to  a  cavalry  command  by  the  earl  of 
Newcastle,  he  defeated  Fairfax  at  Seacroft  Moor  near  Leeds 
in  March  1643,  but  in  May  he  was  taken  prisoner  at  Wakefield 
on  the  capture  of  the  town  by  Fairfax.  In  April  1644  he  effected 
an  exchange.  At  Marston  Moor  he  commanded  the  Royalist 
left,  and  charged  with  great  success,  but,  allowing  his  troopers 
to  disperse  in  search  of  plunder,  was  routed  by  Cromwell  at  the 
close  of  the- battle.  In  November  1644,  on  his  father's  elevation 
to  the  earldom  of  Norwich,  he  became  Lord  Goring.  The 
parliamentary  authorities,  however,  refused  to  recognize  the 
creation  of  the  earldom,  and  continued  to  speak  of  the  father  as 
Lord  Goring  and  the  son  as  General  Goring.  In  August  he  had 
been  despatched  by  Prince  Rupert,  who  recognized  his  ability, 
to  join  Charles  in  the  south,  and  in  spite  of  his  dissolute  and 
insubordinate  character  he  was  appointed  to  supersede  Henry, 
Lord  Wilmot,  as  lieut.-general  of  the  Royalist  horse  (see  GREAT 
REBELLION).  He  secured  some  successes  in  the  west,  and  in 
January  1645  advanced  through  Hampshire  and  occupied 
Farnham;  but  want  of  money  compelled  him  to  retreat  to 
Salisbury  and  thence  to  Exeter.  The  excesses  committed  by  his 
troops  seriously  injured  the  Royalist  cause,  and  his  exactions 
made  his  name  hated  throughout  the  west.  He  had  himself 
prepared  to  besiege  Taunton  in  March,  yet  when  in  the  next 
month  he  was  desired  by  Prince  Charles,  who  was  at  Bristol, 
to  send  reinforcements  to  Sir  Richard  Grenville  for  the  siege  of 
Taunton,  he  obeyed  the  order  only  with  ill-humour.  Later  in 
the  month  he  was  summoned  with  his  troops  to  the  relief  of  the 
king  at  Oxford.  Lord  Goring  had  long  been  intriguing  for  an 
independent  command,  and  he  now  secured  from  the  king  what 
was  practically  supreme  authority  in  the  west.  It  was  alleged 
by  the  earl  of  Newport  that  he  was  willing  to  transfer  his 
allegiance  once  more  to  the  parliament.  It  is  not  likely  that  he 
meditated  open  treason,  but  he  was  culpably  negligent  and 
occupied  with  private  ambitions  and  jealousies.  He,  was  still 
engaged  in  desultory  operations  against  Taunton  when  the 
main  campaign  of  1645  opened.  For  the  part  taken  by  Goring's 
army  in  the  operations  of  the  Naseby  campaign  see  GREAT 
REBELLION.  After  the  decisive  defeat  of  the  king,  the  army  of 
Fairfax  marched  into  the  west  and  defeated  Goring  in  a  disastrous 
fight  at  Langport  on  the  loth  of  July.  He  made  no  further 
serious  resistance  to  the  parliamentary  general,  but  wasted  his 
time  in  frivolous  amusements,  and  in  November  he  obtained 
leave  to  quit  his  disorganized  forces  and  retire  to  France  on  the 
ground  of  health.  His  father's  Services  secured  him  the  command 
of  some  English  regiments  in  the  Spanish  service.  He  died  at 
Madrid  in  July  or  August  1657.  Clarendon  gives  him  a  very 
unpleasing  character,  declaring  that  "  Goring  .  .  .  would, 
without  hesitation,  have  broken  any  trust,  or  done  any  act  of 
treachery  to  have  satisfied  an  ordinary  passion  or  appetite;  and 
in  truth  wanted  nothing  but  industry  (for  he  had  wit,  and 
courage,  and  understanding  and  ambition,  uncontrolled  by  any 


fear  of  God  or  man)  to  have  been  as  eminent  and  successful  in 
the  highest  attempt  of  wickedness  as  any  man  in  the  age  he 
lived  in  or  before.  Of  all  his  qualifications  dissimulation  was 
his  masterpiece;  in  which  he  so  much  excelled,  that  men  were 
not  ordinarily  ashamed,  or  out  of  countenance,  with  being 
deceived  but  twice  by  him." 

See  the  life  by  C.  H.  Firth  in  the  Dictionary  of  National  Biography; 
Dugdale's  Baronage,  where  there  are  some  doubtful  stories  of  his 
life  in  Spain;  the  Clarendon  State  Papers;  Clarendon's  History  of  the 
Great  Rebellion ;  and  S.  R.  Gardiner's  History  of  the  Great  Civil  War. 

GORKI,  MAXIM  (1868-  ),  the  pen-name  of  the  Russian 
novelist  Alexei  Maximovich  Pyeshkov,  who  was  born  at  Nizhni- 
Novgorod  on  the  26th  of  March  1868.  His  father  was  a  dyer, 
but  he  lost  both  his  parents  in  childhood,  and  in  his  ninth  year 
was  sent  to  assist  in  a  boot-shop.  We  find  him  afterwards  in  a 
variety  of  callings,  but  devouring  books  of  all  sorts  greedily, 
whenever  they  fell  into  his  hands.  He  ran  away  from  the  boot- 
shop  and  went  to  help  a  land-surveyor.  He  was  then  a  cook 
on  board  a  steamer  and  afterwards  a  gardener.  In  his  fifteenth 
year  he  tried  to  enter  a  school  at  Kazan,  but  was  obliged  to  betake 
himself  again  to  his  drudgery.  He  became  a  baker,  than  hawked 
about  kvas,  and  helped  the  barefooted  tramps  and  labourers 
at  the  docks.  From  these  he  drew  some  of  his  most  striking 
pictures,  and  learned  to  give  sketches  of  humble  life  generally 
with  the  fidelity  of  a  Defoe.  After  a  long  course  of  drudgery 
he  had  the  good  fortune  to  obtain  the  place  of  secretary  to  a 
barrister  at  Nizhni-Novgorod.  This  was  the  turning-point  of 
his  fortunes,  as  he  found  a  sympathetic  master  who  helped  him. 
He  also  became  acquainted  with  the  novelist  Korolenko,  who 
assisted  him  in  his  literary  efforts.  His  first  story  was  Makar 
Chudra,  which  was  published  in  the  journal  Kavkaz.  He  con- 
tributed to  many  periodicals  and  finally  attracted  attention  by 
his  tale  called  Chelkash,  which  appeared  in  Russkoe  Bogatsvo 
("  Russian  wealth  ").  This  was  followed  by  a  series  of  tales 
in  which  he  drew  with  extraordinary  vigour  the  life  of  the 
bosniaki,  or  tramps.  He  has  sometimes  described  other  classes 
of  society,  tradesmen  and  the  educated  classes,  but  not  with 
equal  success.  There  are  some  vigorous  pictures,  however, 
of  the  trading  class  in  his  Foma  Gordeyev.  But  his  favourite 
type  is  the  rebel,  the  man  in  revolt  against  society,  and  him  he 
describes  from  personal  knowledge,  and  enlists  our  sympathies 
with  him.  We  get  such  a  type  completely  in  Konovalov.  Gorki 
is  always  preaching  that  we  must  have  ideals — something  better 
than  everyday  life,  and  this  view  is  brought  out  in  his  play 
At  the  Lowest  Depths,  which  had  great  success  at  Moscow,  but 
was  coldly  received  at  St  Petersburg. 

For  a  good  criticism  of  Gorki  see  Ideas  and  Realities  in  Russian 
Literature,  by  Prince  Kropotkin.  Many  of  his  works  have  been 
translated  into  English. 

GORLITZ,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  Prussian  province  of 
Silesia,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Neisse,  62  m.  E.  from  Dresden 
on  the  railway  to  Breslau,  and  at  the  junction  of  lines  to  Berlin, 
Zittau  and  Halle.  Pop.  (1885)  55,702,  (1005)  80,931.  The 
Neisse  at  this  point  is  crossed  by  a  railway  bridge  1650  ft.  long 
and  120  ft.  high,  with  32  arches.  Gorlitz  is  one  of  the  hand- 
somest, and,  owing  to  the  extensive  forests  of  70,000  acres, 
which  are  the  property  of  the  municipality,  one  of  the  wealthiest 
towns  in  Germany.  It  is  surrounded  by  beautiful  walks  and 
fine  gardens,  and  although  its  old  walls  and  towers  have  now 
been  demolished,  many  of  its  ancient  buildings  remain  to  form 
a  picturesque  contrast  with  the  signs  of  modern  industry.  From 
the  hill  called  Landskrone,  about  1500  ft.  high,  an  extensive 
prospect  is  obtained  of  the  surrounding  country.  The  principal 
buildings  are  the  fine  Gothic  church  of  St  Peter  and  St  Paul, 
dating  from  the  isth  century,  with  two  stately  towers,  a  famous 
organ  and  a  very  heavy  bell;  the  Frauen  Kirche,  erected  about 
the  end  of  the  isth  century,  and  possessing  a  fine  portal  and 
choir  in  pierced  work;  the  Kloster  Kirche,  restored  in  1868, 
with  handsome  choir  stalls  and  a  carved  altar  dating  from  1383; 
and  the  Roman  Catholic  church,  founded  in  1853,  in  the  Roman 
style  of  architecture,  with  beautiful  glass  windows  and  oil-paint- 
ings. The  old  town  hall  (Rathaus)  contains  a  very  valuable 
library,  having  at  its  entrance  a  fine  flight  of  steps.  There  is 


260 


GORRES 


also  a  new  town  hall  which  was  erected  in  1904-1906.  Other 
buildings  are:  the  old  bastion,  named  Kaisertrutz,  now  used 
as  a  guardhouse  and  armoury;  the  gymnasium  buildings  in 
the  Gothic  style  erected  in  1851;  the  Ruhmeshalle  with  the 
Kaiser  Friedrich  museum,  the  house  of  the  estates  of  the  province 
(Standehaus),  two  theatres  and  the  barracks.  Near  the  town 
is  the  chapel  of  the  Holy  Cross,  where  there  is  a  model  of  the 
Holy  Sepulchre  at  Jerusalem  made  during  the  isth  century. 
In  the  public  park  there  is  a  bust  of  Schiller,  a  monument  to 
Alexander  von  Humboldt,  and  a  statue  of  the  mystic  Jakob 
Bohme  (1575-1624);  a  monument  has  been  erected  in  the  town 
in  commemoration  of  the  war  of  1870-71,  and  also  one  to  the 
emperor  William  I.  and  a  statue  of  Prince  Frederick  Charles. 
In  connexion  with  the  natural  history  society  there  is  a  valuable 
museum,  and  the  scientific  institute  possesses  a  large  library 
and  a  rich  collection  of  antiquities,  coins  and  articles  of  virtu. 
Gorlitz,  next  to  Breslau,  is  the  largest  and  most  flourishing 
commercial  town  of  Silesia,  and  is  also  regarded  as  classic  ground 
for  the  study  of  German  Renaissance  architecture.  Besides 
cloth,  which  forms  its  staple  article  of  commerce,  it  has  manu- 
factories of  various  linen  and  woollen  wares,  machines,  railway 
wagons,  glass,  sago,  tobacco,  leather,  chemicals  and  tiles. 

Gorlitz  existed  as  a  village  from  a  very  early  period,  and  at 
the  beginning  of  the  iath  century  received  civic  rights.  It  was 
then  known  as  Drebenau,  but  on  being  rebuilt  after  its  destruc- 
tion by  fire  in  1131  it  received  the  name  of  Zgorzelice.  About 
the  end  of  the  I2th  century  it  was  strongly  fortified,  and  for  a 
short  time  it  was  the  capital  of  a  duchy  of  Gorlitz.  It  was 
several  times  besieged  and  taken  during  the  Thirty  Years'  War, 
and  it  also  suffered  considerably  in  the  Seven  Years'  War.  In  the 
battle  which  took  place  near  it  between  the  Austrians  and 
Prussians  on  the  7th  of  September  1757,  Hans  Karl  von  Winter- 
feldt,  the  general  of  Frederick  the  Great,  was  slain.  In  1815  the 
town,  with  the  greater  part  of  Upper  Lusatia,  came  into  the 
possession  of  Prussia. 

See  Neumann,  Geschichte  von  Gorlitz  (1850). 

GORRES,  JOHANN  JOSEPH  VON  (1776-1848),  German 
writer,  was  born  on  the  25th  of  January  1776,  at  Coblenz.  His 
father  was  a  man  of  moderate  means,  who  sent  his  son  to  a  Latin 
college  under,  the  direction  of  the  Roman  Catholic  clergy.  The 
sympathies  of  the  young  Gorres  were  from  the  first  strongly 
with  the  French  Revolution,  and  the  dissoluteness  and  irreligion 
of  the  French  exiles  in  the  Rhineland  confirmed  him  in  his  hatred 
of  princes.  He  harangued  the  revolutionary  clubs,  and  insisted 
on  the  unity  of  interests  which  should  ally  all  civilized  states  to 
one  another.  He  then  commenced  a  republican  journal  called  Das 
rote  Blatt,  and  afterwards  Riibezahl,  in  which  he  strongly  con- 
demned the  administration  of  the  Rhenish  provinces  by  France. 

After  the  peace  of  Campo  Formio  (1797)  there  was  some  hope 
that  the  Rhenish  provinces  would  be  constituted  into  an  inde- 
pendent republic.  In  1799  the  provinces  sent  an  embassy,  of 
which  Gorres  was  a  member,  to  Paris  to  put  their  case  before  the 
directory.  The  embassy  reached  Paris  on  the  zoth  of  November 
1799;  two  days  before  this  Napoleon  had  assumed  the  supreme 
direction  of  affairs.  After  much  delay  the  embassy  was  received 
by  him;  but  the  only  answer  they  obtained  was  "  that  they 
might  rely  on  perfect  justice,  and  that  the  French  government 
would  never  lose  sight  of  their  wants."  Gorres  on  his  return 
published  a  tract  called  Resultate  meiner  Sendung  nach  Paris,  in 
which  he  reviewed  the  history  of  the  French  Revolution.  During 
the  thirteen  years  of  Napoleon's  dominion  Gorres  lived  a  retired 
life,  devoting  himself  chiefly  to  art  or  science.  In  1801  he 
married  Catherine  de  Lasaulx,  and  was  for  some  years  teacher 
at  a  secondary  school  in  Coblenz;  in  1806  he  moved  to  Heidel- 
berg, where  he  lectured  at  the  university.  As  a  leading  member 
of  the  Heidelberg  Romantic  group,  he  edited  together  with 
K.  Brentano  and  L.  von  Arnim  the  famous  Zeitungfiir  Einsiedler 
(subsequently  re-named  Trost-Einsamkeit),  and  in  1807  he 
published  Die  teutschen  Volksbucher.  He  returned  to  Coblenz 
in  1808,  and  again  found  occupation  as  a  teacher  in  a  secondary 
school,  supported  by  civic  funds.  He  now  studied  Persian,  and 
in  two  years  published  a  Mythengeschichte  der  asiatischen  Welt, 


which  was  followed  ten  years  later  by  Das  Heldenbuch  von  Iran, 
a  translation  of  part  of  the  Shahnama,  the  epic  of  Firdousi.  In 
1813  he  actively  took  up  the  cause  of  national  independence, 
and  in  the  following  year  founded  Der  rheinische  Merkur.  The 
intense  earnestness  of  the  paper,  the  bold  outspokenness  of  its 
hostility  to  Napoleon,  and  its  fiery  eloquence  secured  for  it 
almost  instantly  a  position  and  influence  unique  in  the  history 
of  German  newspapers.  Napoleon  himself  called  it  la  cinquieme 
puissance.  The  ideal  it  insisted  on  was  a  united  Germany,  with 
a  representative  government,  but  under  an  emperor  after  the 
fashion  of  other  days, — for  Gorres  now  abandoned  his  early 
advocacy  of  republicanism.  When  Napoleon  was  at  Elba, 
Gorres  wrote  an  imaginary  proclamation  issued  by  him  to  the 
people,  the  intense  irony  of  which  was  so  well  veiled  that  many 
Frenchmen  mistook  it  for  an  original  utterance  of  the  emperor. 
He  inveighed  bitterly  against  the  second  peace  of  Paris  (1815), 
declaring  that  Alsace  and  Lorraine  should  have  been  demanded 
back  from  France. 

Stein  was  glad  enough  to  use  the  Merkur  at  the  time  of  the 
meeting  of  the  congress  of  Vienna  as  a  vehicle  for  giving  expres- 
sion to  his  hopes.  But  Hardenberg,  in  May  1815,  warned  Gorres 
to  remember  that  he  was  not  to  arouse  hostility  against  France, 
but  only  against  Bonaparte.  There  was  also  in  the  Merkur  an 
antipathy  to  Prussia,  a  continual  expression  of  the  desire  that 
an  Austrian  prince  should  assume  the  imperial  title,  and'also  a 
tendency  to  pronounced  liberalism — all  of  which  made  it  most 
distasteful  to  Hardenberg,  and  to  his  master  King  Frederick 
William  III.  Gorres  disregarded  warnings  sent  to  him  by  the 
censorship  and  continued  the  paper  in  all  its  fierceness.  Accord- 
ingly it  was  suppressed  early  in  1816,  at  the  instance  of  the 
Prussian  government;  and  soon  after  Gorres  was  dismissed  from 
his  post  as  teacher  at  Coblenz.  From  this  time  his  writings 
were  his  sole  means  of  support,  and  he  became  a  most  diligent 
political  pamphleteer.  In  the  wild  excitement  which  followed 
Kotzebue's  assassination,  the  reactionary  decrees  of  Carlsbad 
were  framed,  and  these  were  the  subject  of  Gorres's  celebrated 
pamphlet  Teutschland  und  die  Revolution  (1820).  In  this  work 
he  reviewed  the  circumstances  which  had  led  to  the  murder  of 
Kotzebue,  and,  while  expressing  all  possible  horror  at  the  deed 
itself,  he  urged  that  it  was  impossible  and  undesirable  to  repress 
the  free  utterance  of  public  opinion  by  reactionary  measures. 
The  success  of  the  work  was  very  marked,  despite  its  ponderous 
style.  It  was  suppressed  by  the  Prussian  government,  and 
orders  were  issued  for  the  arrest  of  Gorres  and  the  seizure  of  his 
papers.  He  escaped  to  Strassburg,  and  thence  went  to  Switzer- 
land. Two  more  political  tracts,  Europa  und  die  Revolution 
(1821)  and  In  Sachen  der  Rheinprovinzen  und  in  eigener  Angele- 
genheit  (1822),  also  deserve  mention. 

In  Gorres's  pamphlet  Die  heilige  Allianz  und  die  Volker  auf 
dent  Kongress  zu  Verona  he  asserted  that  the  princes  had  met 
together  to  crush  the  liberties  of  the  people,  and  that  the  people 
must  look  elsewhere  for  help.  The  "  elsewhere  "  was  to  Rome; 
and  from  this  time  Gorres  became  a  vehement  Ultramontane 
writer.  He  was  summoned  to  Munich  by  King  Ludwig  of  Bavaria 
as  Professor  of  History  in  the  university,  and  there  his  writing 
enjoyed  very  great  popularity.  His  Christliche  Mystik  (1836- 
1842)  gave  a  series  of  biographies  of  the  saints,  together  with  an 
exposition  of  Roman  Catholic  mysticism.  But  his  most  cele- 
brated ultramontane  work  was  a  polemical  one.  Its  occasion 
was  the  deposition  and  imprisonment  by  the  Prussian  govern- 
ment of  the  archbishop  Clement  Wenceslaus,  in  consequence  of 
the  refusal  of  that  prelate  to  sanction  in  certain  instances  the 
marriages  of  Protestants  and  Roman  Catholics.  Gorres  in  his 
Athanasius  (1837)  fiercely  upheld  the  power  of  the  church, 
although  the  liberals  of  later  date  who  have  claimed  Gorres  as 
one  of  their  own  school  deny  that  he  ever  insisted  on  the  absolute 
supremacy  of  Rome.  Alhanasius  went  through  several  editions, 
and  originated  a  long  and  bitter  controversy.  In  the  Historisch- 
politische  Blatter,  a  Munich  journal,  Gorres  and  his  son  Guido 
(1805-1852)  continually  upheld  the  claims  of  the  church. 
Gorres  received  from  the  king  the  order  of  merit  for  his  services. 
He  died  on  the  29th  of  January  1848. 


GORSAS— GORTON 


261 


Gorres's  Gesammelte  Schriften  (only  his  political  writings)  appeared 
in  six  volumes  (1854-1860),  to  which  three  volumes  of  Gesammelte 
Briefe  were  subsequently  added  (1858-1874).  Cp.  J.  Galland, 
Joseph  von  Carres  (1876,  2nd  ed.  1877);  J.  N.  Sepp,  Carres  und  seine 
Zeitgenossen  (1877),  and  by  the  same  author,  Carres,  in  the  series 
Geisteshelden  (1896).  A  Gorres-Gesellschaft  was  founded  in  1876. 

GORSAS,  ANTOINE  JOSEPH  (1752-1793),  French  publicist 
and  politician,  was  born  at  Limoges  (Haute-Vienne)  on  the  24th 
of  March  1752,  the  son  of  a  shoemaker.  He  established  himself 
as  a  private  tutor  in  Paris,  and  presently  set  up  a  school  for  the 
army  at  Versailles,  which  was  attended  by  commoners  as  well 
as  nobles.  In  1781  he  was  imprisoned  for  a  short  time  in  the 
Bicetre  on  an  accusation  of  corrupting  the  morals  of  his  pupils, 
his  real  offence  being  the  writing  of  satirical  verse.  These 
circumstances  explain  the  violence  of  his  anti-monarchical 
sentiment.  At  the  opening  of  the  states-general  he  began  to 
publish  the  Courrier  de  Versailles  a  Paris  et  de  Paris  d  Versailles, 
in  which  appeared  on  the  4th  of  October  1789  the  account  of  the 
banquet  of  the  royal  bodyguard.  Gorsas  is  said  to  have  himself 
read  it  in  public  at  the  Palais  Royal,  and  to  have  headed  one  of 
the  columns  that  marched  on  Versailles.  He  then  changed  the 
name  of  his  paper  to  the  Courrier  des  quatre-vingt-lrois  departe- 
ments,  continuing  his  incendiary  propaganda,  which  had  no 
small  share  in  provoking  the  popular  insurrections  of  June  and 
August  1792.  During  the  September  massacres  he  wrote  in 
his  paper  that  the  prisons  were  the  centre  of  an  anti-national 
conspiracy  and  that  the  people  exercised  a  just  vengeance  on 
the  guilty.  On  the  loth  of  September  1792  he  was  elected  to 
the  Convention  for  the  department  of  Seine-et-Oise,  and  on  the 
loth  of  January  1793  was  elected  one  of  its  secretaries.  He  sat 
at  first  with  the  Mountain,  but  having  been  long  associated 
with  Roland  and  Brissot,  his  agreement  with  the  Girondists 
became  gradually  more  pronounced ;  during  the  trial  of  Louis  XVI. 
he  dissociated  himself  more  and  more  from  the  principles  of  the 
Mountain,  and  he  voted  for  the  king's  detention  during  the  war 
and  subsequent  banishment.  A  violent  attack  on  Marat  in 
the  Courrier  led  to  an  armed  raid  on  his  printing  establishment 
on  the  gth  of  March  1793.  The  place  was  sacked,  but  Gorsas 
escaped  the  popular  fury  by  flight.  The  facts  being  reported  to 
the  Convention,  little  sympathy  was  shown  to  Gorsas,  and  a 
resolution  (which  was  evaded)  was  passed  forbidding  repre- 
sentatives to  occupy  themselves  with  journalism.  On  the  2nd 
of  June  he  was  ordered  by  the  Convention  to  hold  himself  under 
arrest  with  other  members  of  his  party.  He  escaped  to  Nor- 
mandy to  join  Buzot,  and  after  the  defeat  of  the  Girondists  at 
Pacy-sur-Eure  he  found  shelter  in  Brittany.  He  was  imprudent 
enough  to  return  to  Paris  in  the  autumn,  where  he  was  arrested 
on  the  6th  of  October  and  guillotined  the  next  day. 

See  the  Moniteur,  No.  268  (1792),  Nos.  20,  70  new  series  18  (1793) ; 
M.  Tourneux,  Bibl.  de  I'hist.  de  Paris,  10,291  seq.  (1894). 

GORST,  SIR  JOHN  ELDON  (1835-  ),  English  statesman, 
was  born  at  Preston  in  1835,  the  son  of  Edward  Chaddock 
Gorst,  who  took  the  name  of  Lowndes  on  succeeding  to  the 
family  estate  in  1853.  He  graduated  third  wrangler  from  St 
John's  College,  Cambridge,  in  1857,  and  was  admitted  to  a 
fellowship.  After  beginning  to  read  for  the  bar  in  London,  his 
father's  illness  and  death  led  to  his  sailing  to  New  Zealand,  where 
he  married  in  1860  Mary  Elizabeth  Moore.  The  Maoris  had  at 
that  time  set  up  a  king  of  their  own  in  the  Waikato  district  and 
Gorst,  who  had  made  friends  with  the  chief  Tamihana  (William 
Thomson),  acted  as  an  intermediary  between  the  Maoris  and 
the  government.  Sir  George  Grey  made  him  inspector  of 
schools,  then  resident  magistrate,  and  eventually  civil  com- 
missioner in  Upper  Waikato.  Tamihana's  influence  secured  his 
safety  in  the  Maori  outbreak  of  1863.  In  1908  he  published  a 
volume  of  recollections,  under  the  title  of  New  Zealand  Revisited: 
Recollections  of  the  Days  of  my  Youth.  He  then  returned  to 
England  and  was  called  to  the  bar  at  the  Inner  Temple  in  1865, 
becoming  Q.C.  in  1875.  He  stood  unsuccessfully  for  Hastings 
in  the  Conservative  interest  in  1865,  and  next  year  entered 
parliament  as  member  for  the  borough  of  Cambridge,  but  failed 
to  secure  re-election  at  the  dissolution  of  1868.  After  the 
Conservative  defeat  of  that  year  he  was  entrusted  by  Disraeli 


with  the  reorganization  of  the  party  machinery,  and  in  five  years 
of  hard  work  he  paved  the  way  for  the  Conservative  success  at 
the  general  election  of  1874.  At  a  bye-election  in  1875  he  re- 
entered  parliament  as  member  for  Chatham,  which  he  continued 
to  represent  until  1892.  He  joined  Sir  Henry  Drummond- 
Wolff,  Lord  Randolph  Churchill  and  Mr  Arthur  Balfour  in  the 
"  Fourth  Party,"  and  he  became  solicitor-general  in  the  ad- 
ministration of  1885-1886  and  was  knighted.  On  the  formation 
of  the  second  Salisbury  administration  (1886)  he  became  under- 
secretary  for  India  and  in  1891  financial  secretary  to  the 
Treasury.  At  the  general  election  of  1892  he  became  member 
for  Cambridge  University.  He  was  deputy  chairman  of  com- 
mittees in  the  House  of  Commons  from  1888  to  1891,  and  on  the 
formation  of  the  third  Salisbury  administration  in  1895  he 
became  vice-president  of  the  committee  of  the  council  on  educa- 
tion (until  1902).  Sir  John  Gorst  adhered  to  the  principles  of 
Tory  democracy  which  he  had  advocated  in  the  days  of  the 
fourth  party,  and  continued  to  exhibit  an  active  interest  in  the 
housing  of  the  poor,  the  education  and  care  of  their  children, 
and  in  social  questions  generaUy,  both  in  parliament  and  in  the 
press.  But  he  was  always  exceedingly  "  independent  "  in  his 
political  action.  He  objected  to  Mr  Chamberlain's  proposals 
for  tariff  reform,  and  lost  his  seat  at  Cambridge  at  the  general 
election  of  1906  to  a  tariff  reformer.  He  then  withdrew  from 
the  vice-chancellorship  of  the  Primrose  League,  of  which  he 
had  been  one  of  the  founders,  on  the  ground  that  it  no  longer 
represented  the  policy  of  Lord  Beaconsfield.  In  1910  he  con- 
tested Preston  as  a  Liberal,  but  failed  to  secure  election. 

His  elder  son,  SIR  J.  ELDON  GORST  (b.  1861),  was  financial 
adviser  to  the  Egyptian  government  from  1898  to  1904,  when 
he  became  assistant  under-secretary  of  state  for  foreign  affairs. 
In  1907  he  succeeded  Lord  Cromer  as  British  agent  and  consul- 
general  in  Egypt. 

An  account  of  Sir  John  Gorst's  connexion  with  Lord  Randolph 
Churchill  will  be  found  in  the  Fourth  Party  (1906),  by  his  younger 
son,  Harold  E.  Gorst. 

GORTON,  SAMUEL  (c.  1600-1677),  English  sectary  and 
founder  of  the  American  sect  of  Gortonites,  was  born  about 
1600  at  Gorton,  Lancashire.  He  was  first  apprenticed  to  a 
clothier  in  London,  but,  fearing  persecution  for  his  religious 
convictions,  he  sailed  for  Boston,  Massachusetts,  in  1636.  Cpnr 
stantly  involved  in  religious  disputes,  he  fled  in  turn  to  PJyr 
mouth,  and  (in  1637-1638)  to  Aquidneck  (Newport),  where  he 
was  publicly  whipped  for  insulting  the  clergy  and  magistrates. 
In  1643  ne  bought  land  from  the  Narraganset  Indians  at 
Shawomet — now  Warwick — where  he  was  joined  by  a  number 
of  his  followers;  but  he  quarrelled  with  the  Indians  and  the 
authorities  at  Boston  sent  soldiers  to  arrest  Gorton  and  six  of  his 
companions.  He  served  a  term  of  imprisonment  for  heresy  at 
Charlestown,  after  which  he  was  ejected  from  the  colony. 
In  England  in  1646  he  published  the  curious  tract  "  Simpli- 
cities Defence  against  Seven  Headed  Policy "  (reprinted  in 
I835),  giving  an  account  of  his  grievances  against  the  Massa- 
chusetts government.  In  1648  he  returned  to  New  England 
with  a  letter  of  protection  from  the  earl  of  Warwick,  and  joining 
his  former  companions  at  Shawomet,  which  he  named  Warwick, 
in  honour  of  the  earl,  he  remained  there  till  his  death  at  the  end 
of  1677.  He  is  chiefly  remembered  as  the  founder  of  a  small 
sect  called  the  Gortonites,  which  survived  till  the  end  of  the 
1 8th  century.  They  had  a  great  contempt  for  the  regular  clergy 
and  for  all  outward  forms  of  religion,  holding  that  the  true 
believers  partook  of  the  perfection  of  God. 

Among  his  quaint  writings  are:  An  Incorruptible  Key  composed 
of  the  CX.  Psalms  wherewith  you  may  open  the  rest  of  the  Scriptures 
(1647),  and  Saltmarsh  returned  from  the  Dead,  with  its  sequel,  An 
Antidote  against  the  Commqn  Plague  of  the  World  (1657).  See  L.  -G. 
Jones,  Samuel  Gorton:  a  for  gotten  Founder  of  our  Liberties  (Providence, 
1896). 

GORTON,  an  urban  district  in  the  Gorton  parliamentary 
division  of  Lancashire,  England,  forming  an  eastern  suburb 
of  Manchester.  Pop.  (1901)  26,564.  It  is  largely  a  manufactur- 
ing district,  having  cotton  mills  and  iron,  engineering  and 
chemical  works. 


262 


GORTYNA— GORZ  AND  GRADISCA 


GORTYNA,  or  GORTYN,  an  important  ancient  city  on  the 
southern  side  of  the  island  of  Crete.  It  stood  on  the  banks 
of  the  small  river  Lethaeus  (Mitropolipotamo),  about  three  hours 
distant  from  the  sea,  with  which  it  communicated  by  means  of 
its  two  harbours,  Metallum  and  Lebena.  It  had  temples  of 
Apollo  Pythius,  Artemis  and  Zeus.  Near  the  town  was  the 
famous  fountain  of  Sauros,  inclosed  by  fruit-bearing  poplars; 
and  not  far  from  this  was  another  spring,  overhung  by  an  ever- 
green plane  tree  which  in  popular  belief  marked  the  scene  of 
the  amours  of  Zeus  and  Europa.  Gortyna  was,  next  to  Cnossus, 
the  largest  and  most  powerful  city  of  Crete.  The  two  cities 
combined  to  subdue  the  rest  of  the  island;  but  when  they  had 
gained  their  object  they  quarrelled  with  each  other,  and  the 
history  of  both  towns  is  from  this  time  little  more  than  a  record 
of  their  feuds.  Neither  plays  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  history 
of  Greece.  Under  the  Romans  Gortyna  became  the  metropolis 
of  the  island.  Extensive  ruins  may  still  be  seen  at  the  modern 
village  of  Hagii  Deka,  and  here  was  discovered  the  great  inscrip- 
tion containing  chapters  of  its  ancient  laws.  Though  partly 
ruinous,  the  church  of  St  Titus  is  a  very  interesting  monument 
of  early  Christian  architecture,  dating  from  about  the  4th  century. 

See  also  CRETE,  and  for  a  full  account  of  the  laws  see  GREEK 
LAW. 

GO'RTZ,  GEORG  HEINRICH  VON,  BARON  VON  SCHLITZ 
(1668-1719),  Holstein  statesman,  was  educated  at  Jena.  He 
entered  the  Holstein-Gottorp  service,  and  after  the  death  of 
the  duchess  Hedwig  Sophia,  Charles  XII. 's  sister,  became  very 
influential  during  the  minority  of  her  son  Duke  Charles  Frederick. 
His  earlier  policy  aimed  at  strengthening  Holstein-Gottorp 
at  the  expense  of  Denmark.  With  this  object,  during  Charles 
XII.'s  stay  at  Altranstadt  (1706-1707),  he  tried  to  divert  the 
king's  attention  to  the  Holstein  question,  and  six  years  later, 
when  the  Swedish  commander,  Magnus  Stenbock,  crossed  the 
Elbe,  Gortz  rendered  him  as  much  assistance  as  was  compatible 
with  not  openly  breaking  with  Denmark,  even  going  so  far 
as  to  surrender  the  fortress  of  Tonning  to  the  Swedes.  Gortz 
next  attempted  to  undermine  the  grand  alliance  against  Sweden 
by  negotiating  with  Russia,  Prussia  and  Saxony  for  the  purpose 
of  isolating  Denmark,  or  even  of  turning  the  arms  of  the  allies 
against  her,  a  task  by  no  means  impossible  in  view  of  the  strained 
relations  between  Denmark  and  the  tsar.  The  plan  foundered, 
however,  on  the  refusal  of  Charles  XII.  to  save  the  rest  of  his 
German  domains  by  ceding  Stettin  to  Prussia.  Another  simul- 
taneous plan  of  procuring  the  Swedish  crown  for  Duke  Charles 
Frederick  also  came  to  nought.  Gortz  first  suggested  the 
marriage  between  the  duke  of  Holstein  and  the  tsarevna  Anne 
of  Russia,  and  negotiations  were  begun  in  St  Petersburg  with 
that  object.  On  the  arrival  of  Charles  XII.  from  Turkey  at 
Stralsund,  Gortz  was  the  first  to  visit  him,  and  emerged  from 
his  presence  chief  minister  or  "  grand-vizier  "  as  the  Swedes 
preferred  to  call  the  bold  and  crafty  satrap,  whose  absolute 
devotion  to  the  Swedish  king  took  no  account  of  the  intense 
wretchedness  of  the  Swedish  nation.  Gortz,  himself  a  man  of 
uncommon  audacity,  seems  to  have  been  fascinated  by  the 
heroic  element  in  Charles's  nature  and  was  determined,  if 
possible,  to  save  him  from  his  difficulties.  He  owed  his  extra- 
ordinary influence  to  the  fact  that  he  was  the  only  one  of  Charles's 
advisers  who  believed,  or  pretended  to  believe,  that  Sweden 
was  still  far  from  exhaustion,  or  at  any  rate  had  a  sufficient 
reserve  of  power  to  give  support  to  an  energetic  diplomacy — 
Charles's  own  opinion,  in  fact.  Gortz's  position,  however, 
was  highly  peculiar.  Ostensibly,  he  was  only  the  Holstein 
minister  at  Charles's  court,  in  reality  he  was  everything  in  Sweden 
except  a  Swedish  subject — finance  minister,  plenipotentiary 
to  foreign  powers,  factotum,  and  responsible  to  the  king  alone, 
though  he  had  not  a  line  of  instructions.  But  he  was  just  the 
man  for  a  hero  in  extremities,  and  his  whole  course  of  procedure 
was,  of  necessity,  revolutionary.  His  chief  financial  expedient 
was  to  debase,  or  rather  ruin,  the  currency  by  issuing  copper 
tokens  redeemable  in  better  times;  but  it  was  no  fault  of  his 
that  Charles  XII.,  during  his  absence,  flung  upon  the  market 
too  enormous  an  amount  of  this  copper  money  for  Gortz  to  deal 


with.  By  the  end  of  1718  it  seemed  as  if  Gortz's  system  could 
not  go  on  much  longer,  and  the  hatred  of  the  Swedes  towards 
him  was  so  intense  and  universal  that  they  blamed  him  for 
Charles  XII.'s  tyranny  as  well  as  for  his  own.  Gortz  hoped, 
however,  to  conclude  peace  with  at  least  some  of  Sweden's 
numerous  enemies  before  the  crash  came  and  then,  by  means 
of  fresh  combinations,  to  restore  Sweden  to  her  rank  as  a  great 
power.  It  must  be  admitted  that,  in  pursuance  of  his  "  system," 
Gortz  displayed  a  genius  for  diplomacy  which  would  have  done 
honour  to  a  Metternich  or  a  Talleyrand.  He  desired  peace  with 
Russia  first  of  all,  and  at  the  congress  of  Aland  even  obtained 
relatively  favourable  terms,  only  to  have  them  rejected  by  his 
obstinately  optimistic  master.  Simultaneously,  Gortz  was  negoti- 
ating with  Cardinal  Alberoni  and  with  the  whigs  in  England;  but 
all  his  ingenious  combinations  collapsed  like  a  house  of  cards  on 
the  sudden  death  of  Charles  XII.  The  whole  fury  of  the  Swedish 
nation  instantly  fell  upon  Gortz.  After  a  trial  before  a  special 
commission  which  was  a  parody  of  justice — the  accused  was 
not  permitted  to  have  any  legal  assistance  or  the  use  of  writing 
materials — he  was  condemned  to  decapitation  and  promptly 
executed.  Perhaps  Gortz  deserved  his  fate  for  "  unnecessarily 
making  himself  the  tool  of  an  unheard-of  despotism,"  but  his 
death  was  certainly  a  judicial  murder,  and  some  historians  even 
regard  him  as  a  political  martyr. 

See  R.  N.  Bain,  Charles  XII.  (London,  1895),  and  Scandinavia, 
chap.  12  (Cambridge,  1905) ;  B.  von  Beskow,  Freherre  Georg 
Heinrich  von  Gortz  (Stockholm,  1868).  (R.  N.  B.) 

GORZ  (Ital.  Gorizia;  Slovene,  Gorica),  the  capital  of  the 
Austrian  crownland  of  Gorz  and  Gradisca,  about  390  m.  S.W. 
of  Vienna  by  rail.  Pop  (1900)  25,432,  two-thirds  Italians, 
the  remainder  mostly  Slovenes  and  Germans.  It  is  picturesquely 
situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Isonzo  in  a  fertile  valley,  35  m. 
N.N.W.  of  Trieste  by  rail.  It  is  the  seat  of  an  archbishop  and 
possesses  an  interesting  cathedral,  built  in  the  I4th  century 
and  the  richly  decorated  church  of  St  Ignatius,  built  in  the 
1 7th  century  by  the  Jesuits.  On  an  eminence,  which  dominates 
the  town,  is  situated  the  old  castle,  formerly  the  seat  of  the 
counts  of  Gorz,  now  partly  used  as  barracks.  Owing  to  the 
mildness  of  its  climate  Gorz  has  become  a  favourite  winter- 
resort,  and  has  received  the  name  of  the  Nice  of  Austria.  Its 
mean  annual  temperature  is  55°  F.;  while  the  mean  winter 
temperature  is  38-7°  F.  It  is  adorned  with  several  pretty  gardens 
with  a  luxuriant  southern  vegetation.  On  a  height  to  the  N. 
of  the  town  is  situated  the  Franciscan  convent  of  Castagnavizza, 
in  whose  chapel  lie  the  remains  of  Charles  X.  of  France(d.  1836), 
the  last  Bourbon  king,  of  the  duke  of  Angouleme  (d.  1844), 
his  son,  and  of  the  duke  of  Chambord  (d.  1883).  Seven  miles 
to  the  north  of  Gorz  is  the  Monte  Santo  (2275  ft.),  a  much- 
frequented  place  on  which  stands  a  pilgrimage  church.  The 
industries  include  cotton  and  silk  weaving,  sugar  refining, 
brewing,  the  manufacture  of  leather  and  the  making  of  rosoglio. 
There  is  also  a  considerable  trade  in  wooden  work,  vegetables, 
early  fruit  and  wine.  Gorz  is  mentioned  for  the  first  time  at 
the  beginning  of  the  nth  century,  and  received  its  charter  as 
a  town  in  1307.  During  the  middle  ages  the  greater  part  of 
its  population  was  German. 

GORZ  AND  GRADISCA,  a  county  and  crownland  of  Austria, 
bounded  E.  by  Carniola,  S.  by  Istria,  the  Triestine  territory 
and  the  Adriatic,  W.  by  Italy  and  N.  by  Carinthia.  It  has 
an  area  of  1140  sq.  m.  The  coast  line,  though  extending  for 
25  m.,  does  not  present  any  harbour  of  importance.  It  is  fringed 
by  alluvial  deposits  and  lagoons,  which  are  for  the  most  part 
of  very  modern  formation,  for  as  late  as  the  4th  or  sth  centuries 
Aquileia  was  a  great  seaport.  The  harbour  of  Grado  is  the  only 
one  accessible  to  the  larger  kind  of  coasting  craft.  On  all  sides, 
except  towards  the  south-west  where  it  unites  with  the  Friulian 
lowland,  it  is  surrounded  by  mountains,  and  about  four-sixths 
of  its  area  is  occupied  by  mountains  and  hills.  From  the  Julian 
Alps,  which  traverse  the  province  in  the  north,  the  country 
descends  in  successive  terraces  towards  the  sea,  and  may  roughly 
be  divided  into  the  upper  highlands,  the  lower  highlands,  the 
hilly  district  and  the  lowlands.  The  principal  peaks  in  the 


GOSCHEN,  VISCOUNT 


263 


Julian  Alps  are  the  Monte  Canin  (8469  ft.),  the  Manhart  (8784  ft.) , 
the  Jalouc  (8708  ft.),  the  Krn  (7367  ft.),  the  Matajur  (5386  ft.), 
and  the  highest  peak  in  the  whole  range,  the  Triglav  or 
Terglou  (9394  ft.).  The  Julian  Alps  are  crossed  by  the  Predil 
Pass  (3811  ft.),  through  which  passes  the  principal  road  from 
Carinthia  to  the  Coastland.  The  southern  part  of  the  province 
belongs  to  the  Karst  region,  and  here  are  situated  the  famous 
cascades  and  grottoes  of  Sankt  Kanzian,  where  the  river  Reka 
begins  its  subterranean  course.  The  principal  river  of  the 
province  is  the  Isonzo,  which  rises  in  the  Triglav,  and  pursues 
a  strange  zigzag  course  for  a  distance  of  78  m.  before  it  reaches 
the  Adriatic.  At  Gorz  the  Isonzo  is  still  138  ft.  above  the  sea, 
and  it  is  navigable  only  in  its  lowest  section,  where  it  takes  the 
name  of  the  Sdobba.  Its  principal  affluents  are  the  Idria, 
the  Wippach  and  the  Torre  with  its  tributary  the  Judrio, 
which  forms  for  a  short  distance  the  boundary  between  Austria 
and  Italy.  Of  special  interest  not  only  in  itself  but  for  the 
frequent  allusions  to  it  in  classical  literature  is  the  Timavus 
or  Timavo,  which  appears  near  Duino,  and  after  a  very  short 
course  flows  into  the  Gulf  of  Trieste.  In  ancient  times  it  appears, 
according  to  the  well-known  description  of  Virgil  (Aen.  i.  244) 
to  have  rushed  from  the  mountain  by  nine  separate  mouths 
and  with  much  noise  and  commotion,  but  at  present  it  usually 
issues  from  only  three  mouths  and  flows  quiet  and  still.  It 
is  strange  enough,  however,  to  see  the  river  coming  out  full 
formed  from  the  rock,  and  capable  at  its  very  source  of  bearing 
vessels  on  its  bosom.  According  to  a  probable  hypothesis  it 
is  a  continuation  of  the  above-mentioned  river  Reka,  which  is 
lost  near  Sankt  Kanzian. 

Agriculture,  and  specially  viticulture,  is  the  principal  occupa- 
tion of  the  population,  and  the  vine  is  here  planted  not  only 
in  regular  vineyards,  but  is  introduced  in  long  lines  through 
the  ordinary  fields  and  carried  up  the  hills  in  terraces  locally 
called  ronchi.  The  rearing  of  the  silk-worm,  especially  in  the 
lowlands,  constitutes  another  great  source  of  revenue,  and 
furnishes  the  material  for  the  only  extensive  industry  of  the 
country.  The  manufacture  of  silk  is  carried  on  at  Gorz,  and  in 
and  around  the  village  of  Haidenschaft.  Gorz  and  Gradisca 
had  in  1900  a  population  of  232,338,  which  is  equivalent  to 
203  inhabitants  per  square  mile.  According  to  nationality  about 
two-thirds  were  Slovenes,  and  the  remainder  Italians,  with  only 
about  2200  Germans.  Almost  the  whole  of  the  population 
(99-6%)  belongs  to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  The  local 
diet,  of  which  the  archbishop  of  Gorz  is  a  member  ex-officio, 
is  composed  of  22  members,  and  the  crownland  sends  5  deputies 
to  the  Reichsrat  at  Vienna.  For  administrative  purposes  the 
province  is  divided  into  4  districts  and  an  autonomous  munici- 
pality, Gorz  (pop.  25,432),  the  capital.  Other  principal  places 
are  Cormons  (5824),  Monfalcone  (5536),  Kirchheim  (5699), 
Gradisca  (3843)  and  Aquileia  (2319). 

Gorz  first  appears  distinctly  in  history  about  the  close  of  the 
loth  century,  as  part  of  a  district  bestowed  by  the  emperor 
Otto  III.  on  John,  patriarch  of  Aquileia.  In  the  nth  century 
it  became  the  seat  of  the  Eppenstein  family,  who  frequently 
bore  the  title  of  counts  of  Gorizia;  and  in  the  beginning  of  the 
1 2th  century  the  countship  passed  from  them  to  the  Lurngau 
family  which  continued  to  exist  till  the  year  1500,  and  acquired 
possessions  in  Tirol,  Carinthia,  Friuli  and  Styria.  On  the 
death  of  Count  Leonhard  (i2th  April  1500)  the  fief  reverted  to 
the  house  of  Habsburg.  The  countship  of  Gradisca  was  united 
with  it  in  1754.  The  province  was  occupied  by  the  French  in 
1809,  but  reverted  again  to  Austria  in  1815.  It  formed  a  district 
of  the  administrative  province  of  Trieste  until  1861,  when  it 
became  a  separate  crownland  under  its  actual  name. 

GOSCHEN,  GEORGE  JOACHIM  GOSCHEN,  ist  VISCOUNT 
(1831-1907),  British  statesman,  son  of  William  Henry  Goschen, 
a  London  merchant  of  German  extraction,  was  born  in  London 
on  the  loth  of  August  1831.  He  was  educated  at  Rugby  under 
Dr  Tait,  and  at  Oriel  College,  Oxford,  where  he  took  a  first- 
class  in  classics.  He  entered  his  father's  firm  of  Friihling  & 
Goschen,  of  Austin  Friars,  in  1853,  and  three  years  later  became 
a  director  of  the  Bank  of  England.  His  entry  into  public  life 


took  place  in  1863,  when  he  was  returned  without  opposition 
as  member  for  the  city  of  London  in  the  Liberal  interest, 
and  this  was  followed  by  his  re-election,  at  the  head  of  the  poll, 
in  the  general  election  of  1865.  In  November  of  the  same  year 
he  was  appointed  vice-president  of  the  Board  of  Trade  and 
paymaster-general,  and  in  January  1866  he  was  made  chancellor 
of  the  duchy  of  Lancaster,  with  a  seat  in  the  cabinet.  When 
Mr  Gladstone  became  prime  minister  in  December  1868,  Mr 
Goschen  joined  the  cabinet  as  president  of  the  Poor  Law  Board, 
and  continued  to  hold  that  office  until  March  1871,  when  he 
succeeded  Mr  Childers  as  first  lord  of  the  admiralty.  In  1874 
he  was  elected  lord  rector  of  the  university  of  Aberdeen.  Being 
sent  to  Cairo  in  1876  as  delegate  for  the  British  holders  of 
Egyptian  bonds,  in  order  to  arrange  for  the  conversion  of 
the  debt,  he  succeeded  in  effecting  an  agreement  with  the 
Khedive. 

In  1878  his  views  upon  the  county  franchise  question  pre- 
vented him  from  voting  uniformly  with  his  party,  and  he  in- 
formed his  constituents  in  the  city  that  he  would  not  stand 
again  at  the  forthcoming  general  election.  In  1880  he  was 
elected  for  Ripon,  and  continued  to  represent  that  constituency 
until  the  general  election  of  1885,  when  he  was  returned  for  the 
Eastern  Division  of  Edinburgh.  Being  opposed  to  the  extension 
of  the  franchise,  he  was  unable  to  join  Mr  Gladstone's  govern- 
ment in  1880;  declining  the  post  of  viceroy  of  India,  he  accepted 
that  of  special  ambassador  to  the  Porte,  and  was  successful  in 
settling  the  Montenegrin  and  Greek  frontier  questions  in  1880 
and  1881.  He  was  made  an  ecclesiastical  commissioner  in  1882, 
and  when  Sir  Henry  Brand  was  raised  to  the  peerage  in  1884, 
the  speakership  of  the  House  of  Commons  was  offered  to  him, 
but  declined.  During  the  parliament  of  1880-1885  ne  frequently 
found  himself  unable  to  concur  with  his  party,  especially  as 
regards  the  extension  of  the  franchise  and  questions  of  foreign 
policy;  and  when  Mr  Gladstone  adopted  the  policy  of  Home 
Rule  for  Ireland,  Mr  Goschen  followed  Lord  Hartington  (after- 
wards duke  of  Devonshire)  and  became  one  of  the  most  active  of 
the  Liberal  Unionists.  His  vigorous  and  eloquent  opposition  to 
Mr  Gladstone's  Home  Rule  Bill  of  1886  brought  him  into  greater 
public  prominence  than  ever,  but  he  failed  to  retain  his  seat  for 
Edinburgh  at  the  election  in  July  of  that  year.  On  the  resigna- 
tion of  Lord  Randolph  Churchill  in  December  1886,  Mr  Goschen, 
though  a  Liberal  Unionist,  accepted  Lord  Salisbury's  invitation 
to  join  his  ministry,  and  became  chancellor  of  the  exchequer. 
Being  defeated  at  Liverpool,  26th  of  January  1887,  by  seven 
votes,  he  was  elected  for  St  George's,  Hanover  Square,  on  the 
9th  of  February.  His  chancellorship  of  the  exchequer  during 
the  ministry  of  1886  to  1892  was  rendered  memorable  by  his 
successful  conversion  of  the  National  Debt  in  1888  (see  NATIONAL 
DEBT).  With  that  financial  operation,  under  which  the  new 
2j%  Consols  became  known  as  "  Goschens,"  his  name  will 
long  be  connected.  Aberdeen  University  again  conferred  upon 
him  the  honour  of  the  lord  rectorship  in  1888,  and  he  received 
a  similar  honour  from  the  University  of  Edinburgh  in  1890. 
In  the  Unionist  opposition  of  1893  to  1895  Mr  Goschen  again 
took  a  vigorous  part,  his  speeches  both  in  and  out  of  the  House 
of  Commons  being  remarkable  for  their  eloquence  and  debating 
power.  From  1895  to  1900  Mr  Goschen  was  first  lord  of  the 
admiralty,  and  in  that  office  he  earned  the  highest  reputation 
for  his  businesslike  grasp  of  detail  and  his  statesmanlike  outlook 
on  the  naval  policy  of  the  country.  He  retired  in  1900,  and  was 
raised  to  the  peerage  by  the  title  of  Viscount  Goschen  of  Hawk- 
hurst,  Kent.  Though  retired  from  active  politics  he  continued 
to  take  a  great  interest  in  public  affairs;  and  when  Mr  Chamber- 
lain started  his  tariff  reform  movement  in  1903,  Lord  Goschen 
was  one  of  the  weightiest  champions  of  free  trade  on  the  Unionist 
side.  He  died  on  the  7th  of  February  1907,  being  succeeded  in 
the  title  by  his  son  George  Joachim  (b.  1866),  who  was  Con- 
servative M.P.  for  East  Grinstead  from  1895  to  1900,  and 
married  a  daughter  of  the  ist  earl  of  Cranbrook. 

In  educational  subjects  Goschen  had  always  taken  the  greatest 
interest,  his  best  known,  but  by  no  means  his  only,  contribution 
to  popular  culture  being  his  -participation  in  the  University 


264 


GOS-HAWK— GOSLAR 


Extension  Movement;  and  his  first  efforts  in  parliament  were 
devoted  to  advocating  the  abolition  of  religious  tests  and  the 
admission  of  Dissenters  to  the  universities.  His  published 
works  indicate  how  ably  he  combined  the  wise  study  of  econo- 
mics with  a  practical  instinct  for  business-like  progress,  without 
neglecting  the  more  ideal  aspects  of  human  life.  In  addition  to 
his  well-known  work  on  The  Theory  of  the  Foreign  Exchanges, 
he  published  several  financial  and  political  pamphlets  and 
addresses  on  educational  and  social  subjects,  among  them  being 
that  on  Cultivation  of  the  Imagination,  Liverpool,  1877,  and  that 
on  Intellectual  Interest,  Aberdeen,  1888.  He  also  wrote  The  Life 
and  Times  of  Georg  Joachim  Goschen,  publisher  and  printer  of 
Leipzig  (1903).  (H.  CH.) 

GOS-HAWK,  i.e.  goose-hawk,  the  Astur  palumbarius  of 
ornithologists,  and  the  largest  of  the  short-winged  hawks  used 
in  falconry.  Its  English  name,  however,  has  possibly  been 
transferred  to  this  species  from  one  of  the  long-winged  hawks 
or  true  falcons,  since  there  is  no  tradition  of  the  gos-hawk,  now 
So  called,  having  ever  been  used  in  Europe  to  take  geese  or  other 
large  and  powerful  birds.  The  genus  Astur  may  be  readily 
distinguished  from  Falco  by  the  smooth  edges  of  its  beak, 
its  short  wings  (not  reaching  beyond  about  the  middle  of  the  tail) , 
and  its  long  legs  and  toes — though  these  last  are  stout  and  com- 
paratively shorter  than  in  the  sparrow-hawks  (Accipiter).  In 
plumage  the  gos-hawk  has  a  general  resemblance  to  the  pere- 
grine falcon,  and  it  undergoes  a  corresponding  change  as  it 
advances  from  youth  to  maturity — the  young  being  longitudin- 
ally streaked  beneath,  while  the  adults  are  transversely  barred. 
The  irides,  however,  are  always  yellow,  or  in  old  birds  orange, 
while  those  of  the  falcons  are  dark  brown.  The  sexes  differ 
greatly  in  size.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  gos-hawk, 
nowadays  very  rare  in  Britain,  was  once  common  in  England, 
and  even  towards  the  end  of  the  i8th  century  Thornton  obtained 
a  nestling  in  Scotland,  while  Irish  gos-hawks  were  of  old  highly 
celebrated.  Being  strictly  a  woodland-bird,  its  disappearance 
may  be  safely  connected  with  the  disappearance  of  the  ancient 
forests  in  Great  Britain,  though  its  destructiveness  to  poultry 
and  pigeons  has  doubtless  contributed  to  its  present  scarcity. 
In  many  parts  of  the  continent  of  Europe  it  still  abounds.  It 
ranges  eastward  to  China  and  is  much  valued  in  India.  In 
North  America  it  is  represented  by  a  very  nearly  allied  species, 
A.  atricapillus,  chiefly  distinguished  by  the  closer  barring  of 
the  breast.  Three  or  four  examples  corresponding  with  this 
form  have  been  obtained  in  Britain.  A  good  many  other  species 
of  Astur  (some  of  them  passing  into  Accipiter)  are  found  in 
various  parts  of  the  world,  but  the  only  one  that  need  here  be 
mentioned  is  the  A.  novae-hollandiae  of  Australia,  which  is 
remarkable  for  its  dimorphism — one  form  possessing  the  normal 
dark-coloured  plumage  of  the  genus  and  the  other  being  perfectly 
white,  with  crimson  irides.  Some  writers  hold  these  two  forms 
to  be  distinct  species  and  call  the  dark-coloured  one  A.  cinereus 
or  A.  rait.  (A.  N.) 

GOSHEN,  a  division  of  Egypt  settled  by  the  Israelites  between 
Jacob's  immigration  and  the  Exodus.  Its  exact  delimitation 
is  a  difficult  problem.  The  name  may  possibly  be  of  Semitic, 
or  at  least  non-Egyptian  origin,  as  in  Palestine  we  meet  with  a 
district  (Josh.  x.  41)  and  a  city  (ib.  xv.  51)  of  the  same  name. 
The  Septuagint  reads  Tto-fn  'Apa/3ias  in  Gen.  xlv.  10,  and 
xlvi.  34,  elsewhere  simply  Fecre/i.  In  xlvi.  28  "  Goshen  .  .  . 
the  land  of  Goshen  "  are  translated  respectively  "  Heroopolis 
.  .  .  the  land  of  Rameses."  This  represents  a  late  Jewish 
identification.  Ptolemy  defines  "  Arabia  "  as  an  Egyptian  nome 
on  the  eastern  border  of  the  delta,  with  capital  Phacussa, 
corresponding  to  the  Egyptian  nome  Sopt  and  town  Kesem. 
It  is  doubtful  whether  Phacussa  be  situated  at  the  mounds  of 
Fakus,  or  at  another  place,  Saft-el-Henneh,  which  suits  Strabo's 
description  of  its  locality  rather  better.  The  extent  of  Goshen, 
according  to  the  apocryphal  book  of  Judith  (i.  9,  10),  included 
Tanis  and  Memphis;  this  is  probably  an  overstatement.  It 
is  indeed  impossible  to  say  more  than  that  it  was  a  place  of 
good  pasture,  on  the  frontier  of  Palestine,  and  fruitful  in  edible 
vegetables  and  in  fish  (Numbers  xi.  5).  (R.  A.  S.  M.) 


GOSHEN,  a  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Elkhart  county, 
Indiana,  U.S.A.,  on  the  Elkhart  river,  about  95  m.  E.  by  S. 
of  Chicago,  at  an  altitude  of  about  800  ft.  Pop.  (1890) 
6033;  (1900)  7810  (462  foreign-born);  (1910)  8514.  Goshen  is 
served  by  the  Cleveland.  Cincinnati,  Chicago  &  St  Louis,  and 
the  Lake  Shore  &  Michigan  Southern  railways,  and  is  connected 
by  electric  railway  with  Warsaw  and  South  Bend.  The  city 
has  a  Carnegie  library,  and  is  the  seat  of  Goshen  College  (under 
Mennonite  control),  chartered  as  Elkhart  Institute,  at  Elkhart, 
Ind.,  in  1895,  and  removed  to  Goshen  and  opened  under  its 
present  name  in  1903.  The  college  includes  a  collegiate  depart- 
ment, an  academy,  a  Bible  school,  a  normal  school,  a  summer 
school  and  correspondence  courses,  and  schools  of  business, 
of  music  and  of  oratory,  and  in  1908-1909  had  331  students, 
73  of  whom  were  in  the  Academy.  Goshen  is  situated  in 
a  good  farming  region  and  is  an  important  lumber  market. 
There  is  a  good  water-power.  Among  the  city's  manufactures 
are  wagons  and  carriages,  furniture,  wooden-ware,  veneer- 
ing, sash  and  doors,  ladders,  lawn  swings,  rubber  goods, 
flour,  foundry  products  and  agricultural  machinery.  The 
municipality  owns  its  water  works  and  its  electric-lighting 
system.  Goshen  was  first  settled  in  1828  and  was  first  chartered 
as  a  city  in  1868. 

GOSLAR,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  Prussian  province  of 
Hanover,  romantically  situated  on  the  Gose,  an  affluent  of  the 
Oker,  at  the  north  foot  of  the  Harz,  24  m.  S.E.  of  Hildesheim 
and  31  m.  S.W.  from  Brunswick,  by  rail.  Pop.  (1905)  17,817. 
It  is  surrounded  by  walls  and  is  of  antique  appearance.  Among 
the  noteworthy  buildings  are  the  "  Zwinger,"  a  tower  with 
walls  23  ft.  thick;  the  market  church,  in  the  Romanesque 
style,  restored  since  its  partial  destruction  by  fire  in  1844,  and 
containing  the  town  archives  and  a  library  in  which  are  some 
of  Luther's  manuscripts;  the  old  town  hall  (Rathaus),  possessing 
many  interesting  antiquities;  the  Kaiserworth  (formerly  the 
hall  of  the  tailors'  gild  and  now  an  inn)  with  the  statues  of 
eight  of  the  German  emperors;  and  the  Kaiserhaus,  the  oldest 
secular  building  in  Germany,  built  by  the  emperor  Henry  III. 
before  1050  and  often  the  residence  of  his  successors.  This  was 
restored  in  1867-1878  at  the  cost  of  the  Prussian  government, 
and  was  adorned  with  frescoes  portraying  events  in  German 
history.  Other  buildings  of  interest  are: — the  small  chapel 
which  is  all  that  remains  since  1820  of  the  old  and  famous 
cathedral  of  St  Simon  and  St  Jude  founded  by  Henry  III.  about 
1040,  containing  among  other  relics  of  the  cathedral  an  old 
altar  supposed  to  be  that  of  the  idol  Krodo  which  formerly 
stood  on  the  Burgberg  near  Neustadt-Harzburg;  the  church 
of  the  former  Benedictine  monastery  of  St  Mary,  or  Neuwerk, 
of  the  1 2th  century,  in  the  Romanesque  style,  with  wall-paintings 
of  considerable  merit;  and  the  house  of  the  bakers'  gild  now 
an  hotel,  the  birthplace  of  Marshal  Saxe.  There  are  four 
Evangelical  churches,  a  Roman  Catholic  church,  a  synagogue, 
several  schools,  a  natural  science  museum,  containing  a  collection 
of  Harz  minerals,  the  Fenkner  museum  of  antiquities  and  a 
number  of  small  foundations.  The  town  has  equestrian  statues 
of  the  emperor  Frederick  I.  and  of  the  German  emperor  William 
I.  The  population  is  chiefly  occupied  in  connexion  with  the 
sulphur,  copper,  silver  and  other  mines  in  the  neighbourhood. 
The  town  has  also  been  long  noted  for  its  beer,  and  possesses 
some  small  manufactures  and  a  considerable  trade  in  fruit. 

Goslar  is  believed  to  have  been  founded  by  Henry  the  Fowler 
about  920,  and  when  in  the  time  of  Otto  the  Great  the  mineral 
treasures  in  the  neighbourhood  were  discovered  it  increased 
rapidly  in  prosperity.  It  was  often  the  meeting-place  of  German 
diets,  twenty-three  of  which  are  said  to  have  been  held  here, 
and  was  frequently  the  residence  of  the  emperors.  About  1350 
it  joined  the  Hanseatic  League.  In  the  middle  of  the  I4th 
century  the  famous  Goslar  statutes,  a  code  of  laws,  which  was 
adopted  by  many  other  towns,  was  published.  The  town  was 
unsuccessfully  besieged  in  1625,  during  the  Thirty  Years'  War, 
but  was  taken  by  the  Swedes  in  1632  and  nearly  destroyed  by 
fire.  Further  conflagrations  in  1728  and  1780  gave  a  severe 
blow  to  its  prosperity.  It  was  a  free  town  till  1802,  when  it 


came  into  th< 


GOSLICKI— GOSPEL 


265 


ie  into  the  possession  of  Prussia.  In  1807  it  was  joined  to 
Westphalia,  in  1816  to  Hanover  and  in  1866  it  was,  along  with 
Hanover,  re-united  to  Prussia. 

See  T.  Erdmann,  Die  alte  Kaiserstadt  Goslar  und  ihre  Umgebung 
in  Ceschichte,  Sage  und  Bild  (Goslar,  1892);  Crusius,  Geschichte 
der  vormals  kaiserlichen  freien  Reichstadt  Goslar  (1842-1843);  A. 
Wolfstieg,  Verfassungsgeschichte  von  Goslar  (Berlin,  1885);  T.  Asche, 
Die  Kaiserpfalz  zu  Goslar  (1892);  Neuburg,  Goslars  Bergbau  bis 
/5?2  (Hanover,  1892);  and  the  Urkundenbuch  der  Stadt  Goslar, 
edited  by  G.  Bode  (Halle,  1893-1900).  For  the  Goslarische  Statuten 
see  the  edition  published  by  Goschen  (Berlin,  1840). 

GOSLICKI,  WAWRZYNIEC  (  ?  1533-1607),  Polish  bishop, 
better  known  under  his  Latinized  name  of  Laurentius  Grimalius 
Goslicius,  was  bom  about  1 533.  After  having  studied  at  Cracow 
and  Padua,  he  entered  the  church,  and  was  successively  appointed 
bishop  of  Kaminietz  and  of  Posen.  Goslicki  was  an  active  man 
of  business,  was  held  in  high  estimation  by  his  contemporaries 
and  was  frequently  engaged  in  political  affairs.  It  was  chiefly 
through  his  influence,  and  through  the  letter  he  wrote  to  the 
pope  against  the  Jesuits,  that  they  were  prevented  from  establish- 
ing their  schools  at  Cracow.  He  was  also  a  strenuous  advocate 
of  religious  toleration  in  Poland.  He  died  on  the  3ist  of  October 
1607. 

His  principal  work  is  De  optima  senatore,  &c.  (Venice,  1568). 
There  are  two  English  translations  published  respectively  under 
the  titles  A  commonwealth  of  good  counsaile,  &c.  (1607),  and  The 
Accomplished  Senator,  done  into  English  by  Mr  Oldisworth  (1733). 

GOSLIN,  or  GAUZLINUS  (d.  c.  886),  bishop  of  Paris  and  defender 
of  the  city  against  the  Northmen  (885),  was,  according  to  some 
authorities,  the  son  of  Roricon  II.,  count  of  Maine,  according 
to  others  the  natural  son  of  the  emperor  Louis  I.  In  848  he 
became  a  monk,  and  entered  a  monastery  at  Reims,  later  he 
became  abbot  of  St  Denis.  Like  most  of  the  prelates  of  his 
time  he  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  struggle  against  the 
Northmen,  by  whom  he  and  his  brother  Louis  were  taken 
prisoners  (858),  and  he  was  released  only  after  paying  a  heavy 
ransom  (Prudentii  Trecensis  episcopi  Annales,  ann.  858).  From 
855  to  867  he  held  intermittently,  and  from  867  to  881  regularly, 
the  office  of  chancellor  to  Charles  the  Bald  and  his  successors. 
In  883  or  884  he  was  elected  bishop  of  Paris,  and  foreseeing  the 
dangers  to  which  the  city  was  to  be  exposed  from  the  attacks 
of  the  Northmen,  he  planned  and  directed  the  strengthening 
of  the  defences,  though  he  also  relied  for  security  on  the  merits 
of  the  relics  of  St  Germain  and  St  Genevieve.  When  the  attack 
finally  came  (885),  the  defence  of  the  city  was  entrusted  to  him 
and  to  Odo,  count  of  Paris,  and  Hugh,  abbot  of  St  Germain 
1'Auxerrois.  The  city  was  attacked  on  the  26th  of  November, 
and.  the  struggle  for  the  possession  of  the  bridge  (now  the  Pont- 
au-Change)  lasted  for  two  days;  but  Goslin  repaired  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  wooden  tower  overnight,  and  the  Normans  were 
obliged  to  give  up  the  attempt  to  take  the  city  by  storm.  The 
siege  lasted  for  about  a  year  longer,  while  the  emperor  Charles 
the  Fat  was  in  Italy.  Goslin  died  soon  after  the  preliminaries 
of  the  peace  had  been  agreed  on,  worn  out  by  his  exertions,  or 
killed  by  a  pestilence  which  raged  in  the  city. 

See  Amaury  Duval,  L'Eveque  Gozlin  ou  le  siege  de  Paris  par  les 
Normands,  chronique  du  IX'  siecle  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1832,  3rd  ed.  ib. 
1835). 

GOSNOLD,  BARTHOLOMEW  (d.  1607),  English  navigator. 
Nothing  is  known  of  his  birth,  parentage  or  early  life.  In  1602, 
in  command  of  the  "  Concord,"  chartered  by  Sir  Walter  Raleigh 
and  others,  he  crossed  the  Atlantic;  coasted  from  what  is  now 
Maine  to  Martha's  Vineyard,  landing  at  and  naming  Cape  Cod 
and  Elizabeth  Island  (now  Cuttyhunk)  and  giving  the  name 
Martha's  Vineyard  to  the  island  now  called  No  Man's  Land; 
and  returned  to  England  with  a  cargo  of  furs,  sassafras  and  other 
commodities  obtained  in  trade  with  the  Indians  about  Buzzard's 
Bay.  In  London  he  actively  promoted  the  colonization  of 
the  regions  he  had  visited  and,  by  arousing  the  interest  of  Sir 
Ferdinando  Gorges  and  other  influential  persons,  contributed 
toward  securing  the  grants  of  the  charters  to  the  London  and 
Plymouth  Companies  in  1606.  In  1606-1607  he  was  associated 
with  Christopher  Newport  in  command  of  the  three  vessels 
by  which  the  first  Jamestown  colonists  were  carried  to  Virginia. 


As  a  member  of  the  council  he  took  an  active  share  in  the  affairs 
of  the  colony,  ably  seconding  the  efforts  of  John  Smith  to  intro- 
duce order,  industry  and  system  among  the  motley  array  of 
adventurers  and  idle  "  gentlemen  "  of  which  the  little  band  was 
composed.  He  died  from  swamp  fever  on  the  22nd  of  August  1607. 

See  The  Works  of  John  Smith  (Arber's  Edition,  London,  1884); 
and  J.  M.  Brereton,  Brief  and  True  Relation  of  the  North  Part  of 
Virginia  (reprinted  by  B.  F.  Stevens,  London,  1901),  an  account  of 
Gosnold's  voyage  of  1602. 

GOSPATRIC  (fl.  1067),  earl  of  Northumberland,  belonged  to 
a  family  which  had  connexions  with  the  royal  houses  both  of 
Wessex  and  Scotland.  Before  the  Conquest  he  accompanied 
Tostig  on  a  pilgrimage  to  Rome  (1061);  and  at  that  time 
was  a  landholder  in  Cumberland.  About  1067  he  bought  "the 
earldom  of  Northumberland  from  William  the  Conqueror;  but, 
repenting  of  his  submission,  fled  with  other  Englishmen  to  the 
court  of  Scotland  (1068).  He  joined  the  Danish  army  of  in- 
vasion in  the  next  year;  but  was  afterwards  able,  from  his 
possession  of  Bamburgh  castle,  to  make  terms  with  the  con- 
queror, who  left  him  undisturbed  till  1072.  The  peace  concluded 
in 'that  year  with  Scotland  left  him  at  William's  mercy.  He 
lost  his  earldom  and  took  refuge  in  Scotland,  where  Malcolm 
seems  to  have  provided  for  him. 

See  E.  A.  Freeman,  Norman  Conquest,  vol.  i.  (Oxford,  1877), 
and  the  English  Hist.  Review,  vol.  xix.  (London,  1904). 

GOSPEL  (0.  Eng.  godspel,  i.e.  good  news,  a  translation  of  Lat. 
bona  annuntiatio,  or  evangelium,  Gr.  fvayyf\tov;  cf.  Goth: 
iu  spillon,  "  to  announce  good  news,"  Ulfilas'  translation  of 
the  Greek,  from  iu,  that  which  is  good,  and  spellon  to  announce); 
primarily  the  "  glad  tidings  "  announced  to  the  world  by  Jesus 
Christ.  The  word  thus  came  to  be  applied  to  the  whole  body  of 
doctrine  taught  by  Christ  and  his  disciples,  and  so  to  the  Christian 
revelation  generally  (see  CHRISTIANITY);  by  analogy  the  term 
"  gospel  "  is  also  used  in  other  connexions  as  equivalent  to 
"  authoritative  teaching."  In  a  narrower  sense  each  of  the 
records  of  the  life  and  teaching  of  Christ  preserved  in  the  writings 
of  the  four  "  evangelists  "  is  described  as  a  Gospel.  The  many 
more  or  less  imaginative  lives  of  Christ  which  are  not  accepted 
by  the  Christian  Church  as  canonical  are  known  as  "  apocryphal 
gospels  "  (see  APOCRYPHAL  LITERATURE).  The  present  article 
is  concerned  solely  with  general  considerations  affecting  the 
four  canonical  Gospels;  see  for  details  of  each,  the  articles 
under  MATTHEW,  MARK,  LUKE  and  JOHN. 

The  Four  Gospels. — The  disciples  of  Jesus  proclaimed  the 
Gospel  that  He  was  the  Christ.  Those  to  whom  this  message 
was  first  delivered  in  Jerusalem  and  Palestine  had  seen  and 
heard  Jesus,  or  had  heard  much  about  Him.  They  did  not 
require  to  be  told  who  He  was.  But  more  and  more  as  the  work 
of  preaching  and  teaching  extended  to  such  as  had  not  this 
knowledge,  it  became  necessary  to  include  in  the  Gospel  delivered 
some  account  of  the  ministry  of  Jesus.  Moreover,  ab'ke  those 
who  had  followed  Him  during  His  life  on  earth,  and  all  who 
joined  themselves  to  them,  must  have  felt  the  need  of  dwelling 
on  His  precepts,  so  that  these  must  have  been  often  repeated, 
and  also  in  ail  probability  from  an  early  time  grouped  together 
according  to  their  subjects,  and  so  taught.  For  some  time; 
probably  for  upwards  of  thirty  years,  both  the  facts  of  the  life 
of  Jesus  and  His  words  were  only  related  orally.  This  would 
be  in  accordance  with  the  habits  of  mind  of  the  early  preachers 
of  the  Gospel.  Moreover,  they  were  so  absorbed  in  the  expecta- 
tion of  the  speedy  return  of  Christ  that  they  did  not  feel  called 
to  make  provision  for  the  instruction  of  subsequent  generations. 
The  Epistles  of  the  New  Testament  contain  no  indications  of 
the  existence  of  any  written  record  of  the  life  and  teaching 
of  Christ.  Tradition  indicates  A.D.  60-70  as  the  period  when 
written  accounts  of  the  life  and  teaching  of  Jesus  began  to  be 
made  (see  MARK,  GOSPEL  OF,  and  MATTHEW,  GOSPEL  OF). 
This  may  be  accepted  as  highly  probable.  We  cannot  but 
suppose  that  at  a  time  when  the  number  of  the  original  band 
of  disciples  of  Jesus  who  survived  must  have  been  becoming 
noticeably  smaller,  and  all  these  were  advanced  in  life,  the 
importance  of  writing  down  that  which  had  been  orally  delivered 
concerning  the  Gospel-history  must  have  been  realized.  We  also 


266 


GOSPEL 


gather  from  Luke's  preface  (i.  1-4)  that  the  work  of  writing 
was  undertaken  in  these  circumstances  and  under  the  influence 
of  this  feeling,  and  that  various  records  had  already  in  con- 
sequence been  made. 

But  do  our  Gospels,  or  any  of  them,  in  the  form  in  which 
we  actually  have  them,  belong  to  the  number  of  those  earliest 
records  ?  Or,  if  not,  what  are  the  relations  in  which  they 
severally  stand  to  them  ?  These  are  questions  which  in  modern 
criticism  have  been  greatly  debated.  With  a  view  to  obtaining 
answers  to  them,  it  is  necessary  to  consider  the  reception  of  the 
Gospels  in  the  early  Church,  and  also  to  examine  and  compare 
the  Gospels  themselves.  Some  account  of  the  evidence  supplied 
in  these  two  ways  must  be  given  in  the  present  article,  so  far 
as  it  is  common  to  all  four  Gospels,  or  to  three  or  two  of  them, 
and  in  the  articles  on  the  several  Gospels  so  far  as  it  is  especial 
to  each. 

i.  The  Reception  of  the  Gospels  in  the  Early  Church. — The 
question  of  the  use  of  the  Gospels  and  of  the  manner  in  which 
they  were  regarded  during  the  period  extending  from  the  latter 
years  of  the  ist  century  to  the  beginning  of  the  last  quarter 
of  the  2nd  is  a  difficult  one.  There  is  a  lack  of  explicit  references 
to  the  Gospels;1  and  many  of  the  quotations  which  may  be 
taken  from  them  are  not  exact.  At  the  same  time  these  facts 
can  be  more  or  less  satisfactorily  accounted  for  by  various 
circumstances.  In  the  first  place,  it  would  be  natural  that 
the  habits  of  thought  of  the  period  when  the  Gospel  was  delivered 
orally  should  have  continued  to  exert  influence  even  after  the 
tradition  had  been  committed  to  writing.  Although  documents 
might  be  known  and  used,  they  would  not  be  regarded  as  the 
authorities  for  that  which  was  independently  remembered,  and 
would  not,  therefore,  necessarily  be  mentioned.  Consequently, 
it  is  not  strange  that  citations  of  sayings  of  Christ — and  these 
are  the  only  express  citations  in  writings  of  the  Subapostolic 
Age — should  be  made  without  the  source  whence  they  were 
derived  being  named,  and  (with  a  single  exception)  without 
any  clear  indication  that  the  source  was  a  document.  The 
exception  is  in  the  little  treatise  commonly  called  the  Epistle 
of  Barnabas,  probably  composed  about  A.D.  130,  where  (c.  iv. 
14)  the  words  "  many  are  called  but  few  chosen  "  are  intro- 
duced by  the  formula  "  as  it  is  written." 

For  the  identification,  therefore,  of  the  source  or  sources 
used  we  have  to  rely  upon  the  amount  of  correspondence  with 
our  Gospels  in  the  quotations  made,  and  in  respect  to  other 
parallelisms  of  statement  and  of  expression,  in  these  early 
Christian  writers.  The  correspondence  is  in  the  main  full  and 
true  as  regards  spirit  and  substance,  but  it  is  rarely  complete 
in  form.  The  existence  of  some  differences  of  language  may, 
however,  be  too  readily  taken  to  disprove  derivation.  Various 
forms  of  the  same  saying  occurring  in  different  documents, 
or  remembered  from  oral  tradition  and  through  catechetical 
instruction,  would  sometimes  be  purposely  combined.  Or, 
again,  the  memory  might  be  confused  by  this  variety,  and  the 
verification  of  quotations,  especially  of  brief  ones,  was  difficult, 
not  only  from  the  comparative  scarcity  of  the  copies  of  books, 
but  also  because  ancient  books  were  not  provided  with  ready 
means  of  reference  to  particular  passages.  On  the  whole  there 
is  clearly  a  presumption  that  where  we  have  striking  expressions 
which  are  known  to  us  besides  only  in  one  of  our  Gospel-records, 
that  particular  record  has  been  the  source  of  it.  And  where 
there  are  several  such  coincidences  the  ground  for  the  supposition 
that  the  writing  in  question  has  been  used  may  become  very 
strong.  There  is  evidence  of  this  kind,  more  or  less  clear  in  the 
several  cases,  that  all  the  four  Gospels  were  known  in  the  first 
two  or  three  decades  of  the  2nd  century.  It  is  fullest  as  to  our 
first  Gospel  and,  next  to  this  one,  as  to  our  third. 

After  this  time  it  becomes  manifest  that,  as  we  should  expect, 
documents  were  the  recognized  authorities  for  the  Gospel  history; 
but  there  is  still  some  uncertainty  as  to  the  documents  upon 
which  reliance  was  placed,  and  the  precise  estimation  in  which 

1  For  the  only  two  that  can  be  held  to  be  such  in  the  first  half 
of  the  2nd  century,  and  the  doubts  whether  they  refer  to  our  present 
Gospels,  see  MARK,  GOSPEL  OF,  and  MATTHEW,  GOSPEL  OF. 


they  were  severally  held.  This  is  in  part  at  least  due  to  the 
circumstance  that  nearly  all  the  writings  which  have  remained 
of  the  Christian  literature  belonging  to  the  period  circa  A.D. 
130-180  are  addressed  to  non-Christians,  and  that  for  the  most 
part  they  give  only  summaries  of  the  teaching  of  Christ  and  of 
the  facts  of  the  Gospel,  while  terms  that  would  not  be  under- 
stood by,  and  names  that  would  not  carry  weight  with,  others 
than  Christians  are  to  a  large  extent  avoided.  The  most  im- 
portant of  the  writings  now  in  question  are  two  by  Justin 
Martyr  (circa  A.D.  145-160),  viz.  his  Apology  and  his  Dialogue 
with  Trypho.  In  the  former  of  these  works  he  shows  plainly 
his  intention  of  adapting  his  language  and  reasoning  to  Gentile, 
and  in  the  latter  to  Jewish,  readers.  In  both  his  name  for  the 
Gospel-records  is  "  Memoirs  of  the  Apostles."  After  a  great 
deal  of  controversy  there  has  come  to  be  very  wide  agreement 
that  he  reckoned  the.  first  three  Gospels  among  these  Memoirs. 
In  the  case  of  the  second  and  third  there  are  indications,  though 
slight  ones,  that  he  held  the  view  of  their  composition  and 
authorship  which  was  common  from  the  last  quarter  of  the 
century  onwards  (see  MARK,  GOSPEL  or,  and  LUKE,  GOSPEL 
OF),  but  he  has  made  the  largest  use  of  our  first  Gospel.  It  is 
also  generally  allowed  that  he  was  acquainted  with  the  fourth 
Gospel,  though  some  think  that  he  used  it  with  a  certain  reserve. 
Evidence  may,  however,  be  adduced  which  goes  far  to  show 
that  he  regarded  it,  also,  as  of  apostolic  authority.  There  is  a 
good  deal  of  difference  of  opinion  still  as  to  whether  Justin 
reckoned  other  sources  for  the  Gospel-history  besides  our 
Gospels  among  the  Apostolic  Memoirs.  'In  this  connexion, 
however,  as  well  as  on  other  grounds,  it  is  a  significant  fact  that 
within  twenty  years  or  so  after  the  death  of  Justin,  which  prob- 
ably occurred  circa  A.D.  160,  Tatian,  who  had  been  a  hearer  of 
Justin,  produced  a  continuous  narrative  of  the  Gospel-history 
which  received  the  name  Diatessaron  ("  through  four  "),  in 
the  main  a  compilation  from  our  four  Gospels.1 

Before  the  close  of  the  2nd  century  the  four  Gospels  had 
attained  a  position  of  unique  authority  throughout  the  greater 
part  of  the  Church,  not  different  from  that  which  they  have 
held  since,  as  is  evident  from  the  treatise  of  Irenaeus  Against 
Heresies  (c.  A.D.  180;  see  esp.  iii.  i.  i  f.  and  x.,  xi.)  and  from  other 
evidence  only  a  few  years  later.  The  struggle  against  Gnosticism, 
which  had  been  going  on  during  the  middle  part  of  the  century, 
had  compelled  the  Church  both  to  define  her  creed  and  to  draw 
a  sharper  line  of  demarcation  than  heretofore  between  those 
writings  whose  authority  she  regarded  as  absolute  and  all  others. 
The  effect  of  this  was  no  doubt  to  enhance  the  sense  generally 
entertained  of  the  value  of  the  four  Gospels.  At  the  same  time 
in  the  formal  statements  now  made  it  is  plainly  implied  that  the 
belief  expressed  is  no  new  one.  And  it  is,  indeed,  difficult  to 
suppose  that  agreement  on  this  subject  between  different 
portions  of  the  Church  could  have  manifested  itself  at  this  time 
in  the  spontaneous  manner  that  it  does,  except  as  the  consequence 
of  traditional  feelings  and  convictions,  which  went  back  to  the 
early  part  of  the  century,  and  which  could  hardly  have  arisen 
without  good  foundation,  with  respect  to  the  special  value  of 
these  works  as  embodiments  of  apostolic  testimony,  although 
all  that  came  to  be  supposed  in  regard  to  their  actual  authorship 
cannot  be  considered  proved. 

2.  The  Internal  Criticism  of  the  Gospels. — In  the  middle  of  the 
ipth  century  an  able  school  of  critics,  known  as  the  Tubingen 
school,  sought  to  show  from  indications  in  the  several  Gospels 
that  they  were  composed  well  on  in  the  2nd  century  in  the 
interests  of  various  strongly  marked  parties  into  which  the  Church 
was  supposed  to  have  been  divided  by  differences  in  regard  to 
the  Judaic  and  Pauline  forms  of  Christianity.  These  theories 
are  now  discredited.  It  may  on  the  contrary  be  confidently 
asserted  with  regard  to  the  first  three  Gospels  that  the  local 
colouring  in  them  is  predominantly  Palestinian,  and  that  they 

1  The  character  of  Tatian's  Diatessaron  has  been  much  disputed 
in  the  past,  but  there  can  no  longer  be  any  reasonable  doubt  on  the 
subject  after  recent  discoveries  and  investigations.  (An  account 
of  these  may  be  seen  most  conveniently  in  The  Diatessaron  of  Tatian, 
by  S.  Hemphill;  see  under  TATIAN.) 


GOSPORT 


267 


show  no  signs  of  acquaintance  with  the  questions  and  the 
circumstances  of  the  2nd  century;  and  that  the  character  even 
of  the  Fourth  Gospel  is  not  such  as  to  justify  its  being  placed, 
at  furthest,  much  after  the  beginning  of  that  century. 

We  turn  to  the  literary  criticism  of  the  Gospels,  where  solid 
results  have  been  obtained.  The  first  three  Gospels  have  in 
consequence  of  the  large  amount  of  similarity  between  them 
in  contents,  arrangement,  and  even  in  words  and  the  forms  of 
sentences  and  paragraphs,  been  called  Synoptic  Gospels.  It 
has  long  been  seen  that,  to  account  for  this  similarity,  relations 
of  interdependence  between  them,  or  of  common  derivation, 
must  be  supposed.  And  the  question  as  to  the  true  theory  of 
these  relations  is  known  as  the  Synoptic  Problem.  Reference 
has  already  been  made  to  the  fact  that  during  the  greater  part 
of  the  Apostolic  age  the  Gospel  history  was  taught  orally.  Now 
some  have  held  that  the  form  of  this  oral  teaching  was  to  a  great 
extent  a  fixed  one,  and  that  it  was  the  common  source  of  our 
first  three  Gospels.  This  oral  theory  was  for  a  long  time  the 
favourite  one  in  England ;  it  was  never  widely  held  in  Germany, 
and  in  recent  years  the  majority  of  English  students  of  the 
Synoptic  Problem  have  come  to  feel  that  it  does  not  satisfactorily 
explain  the  phenomena.  Not  only  are  the  resemblances  too 
close,  and  their  character  in  part  not  of  a  kind,  to  be  thus 
accounted  for,  but  even  many  of  the  differences  between  parallel 
contexts  are  rather  such  as  would  arise  through  the  revision 
of  a  document  than  through  the  freedom  of  oral  delivery. 

It  is  now  and  has  for  many  years  been  widely  held  that  a 
document  which  is  most  nearly  represented  by  the  Gospel  of 
Mark,  or  which  (as  some  would  say)  was  virtually  identical 
with  it,  has  been  used  in  the  composition  of  our  first  and  third 
Gospels.  This  source  has  supplied  the  Synoptic  Outline,  and  in 
the  main  also  the  narratives  common  to  all  three.  Questions 
connected  with  the  history  of  this  document  are  treated  in  the 
article  on  MARK,  GOSPEL  OF. 

There  is  also  a  considerable  amount  of  matter  common  to 
Matthew  and  Luke,  but  not  found  in  Mark.  It  is  introduced 
into  the  Synoptic  Outline  very  differently  in  those  two  Gospels, 
which  clearly  suggests  that  it  existed  in  a  separate  form,  and 
was  independently  combined  by  the  first  and  third  evangelists 
with  their  other  document.  This  common  matter  has  also  a 
character  of  its  own;  it  consists  mainly  of  pieces  of  discourse. 
The  form  in  which  it  is  given  in  the  two  Gospels  is  in  several 
passages  so  nearly  identical  that  we  must  suppose  these  pieces 
at  least  to  have  been  derived  immediately  or  ultimately  from 
the  same  Greek  document.  In  other  cases  there  is  more  diver- 
gence, but  in  some  of  them  this  is  accounted  for  by  the 
consideration  that  in  Matthew  passages  from  the  source  now 
in  question  have  been  interwoven  with  parallels  in  the  other 
chief  common  source  before  mentioned.  There  are,  however, 
instances  in  which  no  such  explanation  will  serve,  and  it  is 
possible  that  our  first  and  third  evangelists  may  have  used 
two  documents  which  were  not  in  all  respects  identical,  but  which 
corresponded  very  closely  on  the  whole.  The  ultimate  source 
of  the  subject  matter  in  question,  or  of  the  most  distinctive 
and  larger  part  of  it,  was  in  all  probability  an  Aramaic  one, 
and  in  some  parts  different  translations  may  have  been  used. 

This  second  source  used  in  the  composition  of  Matthew  and 
Luke  has  frequently  been  called  "  The  Logia  "  in  order  to  signify 
that  it  was  a  collection  of  the  sayings  and  discourses  of  Jesus. 
This  name  has  been  suggested  by  Schleiermacher's  interpretation 
of  Papias'  fragment  on  Matthew  (see  MATTHEW,  GOSPEL  OF). 
But  some  have  maintained  that  the  source  in  question  also 
contained  a  good  many  narratives,  and  in  order  to  avoid  any 
premature  assumption  as  to  its  contents  and  character  several 
recent  critics  have  named  it  "  Q."  It  may,  however,  fairly 
be  called  "  the  Logian  document,"  as  a  convenient  way  of 
indicating  the  character  of  the  greater  part  of  the  matter  which 
our  first  and  third  evangelists  have  taken  from  it,  and  this 
designation  is  used  in  the  articles  on  the  Gospels  of  Luke 
and  Matthew.  The  reconstruction  of  this  document  has  been 
attempted  by  several  critics.  The  arrangement  of  its  contents 
,  it  seems,  best  be  learned  from  Luke. 


can 


3.  One  or  two  remarks  may  here  be  added  as  to  the  bearing 
of  the  results  of  literary  criticism  upon  the  use  of  the  Gospels. 
Their  effect  is  to  lead  us,  especially  when  engaged  in  historical 
inquiries,  to  look  beyond  our  Gospels  to  their  sources,  instead 
of  treating  the  testimony  of  the  Gospels  severally  as  independent 
and  ultimate.  Nevertheless  it  will  still  appear  that  each  Gospel 
has  its  distinct  value,  both  historically  and  in  regard  to  the 
moral  and  spiritual  instruction  afforded.  And  the  fruits  of 
much  of  that  older  study  of  the  Gospels,  which  was  largely 
employed  in  pointing  out  the  special  characteristics  of  each, 
will  still  prove  serviceable. 

AUTHORITIES. — I.  German  Books:  Introductions  to  the  New 
Testament — H.  J.  Holtzmann  (3rd  ed.,  1892),  B.  Weiss  (Eng.  trans., 
1887),  Th.  Zahn  (2nd  ed.,  1900),  G.  A.  Julicher  (6th  ed.,  1906;  Eng. 
trans.,  1904);  H.  v.  Soden,  Urchrislliche  Literaturgeschichte,  vol.  i. 
(1905;  Eng.  trans.,  1906).  Books  on  the  Synoptic  Gospels,  especi- 
ally the  Synoptic  Problem:  H.  J.  Holtzmann,  Die  synoptischen 
Evangelien  (1863);  Weizsacker,  Untersuchungen  uber  die  evaneelische 
Geschichte  (1864);  B.  Weiss,  Das  Marcus-Evangelium  und'  seine 
synoptischen  Parallelen  (1872);  Das  Matthdus-Evangelium  und  seine 
Lucas-Parallelen  (1876);  H.  H.  Wendt,  Die  Lehre  Jesu  (1886); 
A.  Resch,  Agrapha  (1889),  &c. ;  P.  Wernle,  Die  synoptische  Frage 
(1899);  W.  Soltau,  Unsere  Evangelien,  ihre  Quellen  und  ihr  Quellen- 
wert  (1901);  H.  J.  Holtzmann,  Hand-Commentar  zum  N.T.,  vol.  i. 
(1889);  J.  Wellhausen,  Das  Evangelium  Marci,  Das  Evangelium 
Matlhdi,  Das  Evangelium  Lucas  (1904),  Einleitung  in  die  drei  ersten 
Evangelien  (1905);  A.  Harnack,  Spruche  und  Reden  Jesu,  die 
zweite  Quelle  des  Matthdus  und  Lukas  (1907). 

2.  French  Books:  A.  Loisy,  Les  Evangiles  synoptiques  (1907-1908). 

3.  English  Books:  G.  Salmon,  Introduction  to  the  New  Testament 
(ist  ed.,  1885;  oth  ed.,  1904);  W.  Sanday,  Inspiration  (Lect.  vi., 
3rd  ed.,  1903);  B.  F.  Westcott,  An  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  the 
Gospels  (ist  ed.,  1851;  8th  ed.,  1895);  A.  Wright,  The  Composition 
of  the  Four  Gospels  (1890);  J.  E.  Carpenter,  The  First  Three  Gospels, 
their  Origin  and  Relations  (1890) ;  A.  J.  Jolley,  The  Synoptic  Problem 
(1893);  J.  C.  Hawkins,  Horae  synopticae  (1899);  W.  Alexander, 
Leading  Ideas  of  the  Gospels  (new  ed.,  1892);  E.  A.  Abbott,  Clue 
(1900);  J.  A.  Robinson,   The  Study  of  the  Gospels  (1902);  F.   C. 
Burkitt,  The  Gospel  History  and  its  Transmission  (1906) ;  G.  Salmon, 
The  Human  Element  in  the  Gospels  (1907);   V.  H.  Stanton,    The 
Gospels  as  Historical  Documents:  Pt.  I.,  The  Early  Use  of  the  Gospels 
(1903);  Pt.  II.,  The  Synoptic  Gospels  (1908). 

4.  Synopses. — W.  G.  Rushbrooke,  Synopticon,  An  Exposition  of 
the  Common  Matter  of  the  Synoptic  Gospels  (1880);  A.  Wright,  The 
Synopsis  of  the  Gospels  in  Greek  (2nd  ed.,  1903). 

See  also  the  articles  on  each  Gospel,  and  the  article  BIBLE,  section 
New  Testament.  (V.  H.  S.) 

GOSPORT.  a  seaport  in  the  Fareham  parliamentary  division 
of  Hampshire,  England,  facing  Portsmouth  across  Portsmouth 
harbour,  81  m.  S.W.  from  London  by  the  London  &  South- 
western railway.  Pop.  of  urban  district  of  Gosport  and  Alver- 
stoke  (1901),  28,884.  A  ferry  and  a  floating  bridge  connect  it 
with  Portsmouth.  It  is  enclosed  within  a  double  line  of  fortifica- 
tions, consisting  of  the  old  Gosport  lines,  and,  about  3000  yds. 
to  the  east,  a  series  of  forts  connected  by  strong  lines  with 
occasional  batteries,  forming  part  of  the  defence  works  of  Ports- 
mouth harbour.  The  principal  buildings  are  the  town  hall  and 
market  hall,  and  the  church  of  Holy  Trinity,  erected  in  the  time  of 
William  III.  To  the  south  at  Haslar  there  is  a  magnificent 
naval  hospital,  capable  of  containing  2000  patients,  and  adjoin- 
ing it  a  gunboat  slipway  and  large  barracks.  To  the  north  is 
the  Royal  Clarence  victualling  yard,  with  brewery,  cooperage, 
powder  magazines,  biscuit-making  establishment,  and  store- 
houses for  various  kinds  of  provisions  for  the  royal  navy. 

Gosport  (Goseporte,  Gozeport,  Gosberg,  Godsport)  was 
originally  included  in  Alverstoke  manor,  held  in  1086  by  the 
bishop  and  monks  of  Winchester  under  whom  villeins  farmed  the 
land.  In  1284  the  monks  agreed  to  give  up  Alverstoke  with 
Gosport  to  the  bishop,  whose  successors  continued  to  hold  them 
until  the  lands  were  taken  over  by  the  ecclesiastical  commis- 
sioners. After  the  confiscation  of  the  bishop's  lands  in  1641, 
however,  the  manor  of  Alverstoke  with  Gosport  was  granted  to 
George  Withers,  but  reverted  to  the  bishop  at  the  Restoration. 
In  the  i6th  century  Gosport  was  "  a  little  village  of  fishermen." 
It  was  called  a  borough  in  1461,  when  there  are  also  traces  of 
burgage  tenure.  From  1462  one  bailiff  was  elected  annually 
in  the  borough  court,  and  government  by  a  bailiff  continued 
until  1682,  when  Gosport  was  included  in  Portsmouth  borough 


268 


GOSS,  SIR  J.— GOSSE,  P.  H. 


under  the  charter  of  Charles  II.  to  that  town.  This  was  annulled 
in  1688,  since  which  time  there  is  no  evidence  of  the  election  of 
bailiffs.  With  this  exception  no  charter  of  incorporation  is 
known,  although  by  the  i6th  century  the  inhabitants  held  common 
property  in  the  shape  of  tolls  of  the  ferry.  The  importance  of 
Gosport  increased  during  the  i6th  and  lyth  centuries  owing  to 
its  position  at  the  mouth  of  Portsmouth  harbour,  and  its  con- 
venience as  a  victualling  station.  For  this  reason  also  the  town 
was  particularly  prosperous  during  the  American  and  Peninsular 
Wars.  About  1 540  fortifications  were  built  there  for  the  defence 
of  the  harbour,  and  in  the  i?th  century  it  was  a  garrison  town 
under  a  lord-lieutenant. 

GOSS,  SIR  JOHN  (1800-1880),  English  composer,  was  born 
at  Fareham,  Hampshire,  on  the  27th  of  December  1800.  He 
was  elected  a  chorister  of  the  Chapel  Royal  in  1811,  and  in  1816, 
on  the  breaking  of  his  voice,  became  a  pupil  of  Attwood.  A 
few  early  compositions,  some  for  the  theatre,  exist,  and  some 
glees  were  published  before  1825.  He  was  appointed  organist 
of  St  Luke's,  Chelsea,  in  1824,  and  in  1838  became  organist  of 
St  Paul's  in  succession  to  Attwood;  he  kept  the  post  until 
1872,  when  he  resigned  and  was  knighted.  His  position  in  the 
London  musical  world  of  the  time  was  an  influential  one,  and  he 
did  much  by  his  teaching  and  criticism  to  encourage  the  study  and 
appreciation  of  good  music.  In  1876  he  was  given  the  degree 
of  Mus.D.  at  Cambridge.  Though  his  few  orchestral  works 
have  very  small  importance,  his  church  music  includes  some 
fine  compositions,  such  as  the  anthems  "  O  taste  and  see," 
"  O  Saviour  of  the  world  "  and  others.  He  was  the  last  of  the 
great  English  school  of  church  composers  who  devoted  themselves 
almost  exclusively  to  church  music;  and  in  the  history  of  the  glee 
his  is  an  honoured  name,  if  only  on  account  of  his  finest  work 
in  that  form,  the  five-part  glee,  Ossian's  "Hymn  to  the  sun." 
He  died  at  Brixton,  London,  on  the  loth  of  May  1880. 

GOSSAMER,  a  fine,  thread-like  and  filmy  substance  spun 
by  small  spiders,  which  is  seen  covering  stubble  fields  and  gorse 
bushes,  and  floating  in  the  air  in  clear  weather;  especially  in  the 
autumn.  By  transference  anything  light,  unsubstantial  or 
flimsy  is  known  as  "gossamer."  A  thin  gauzy  material  used 
for  trimming  and  millinery,  resembling  the  "  chiffon  "  of  to-day, 
was  formerly  known  as  gossamer;  and  in  the  early  Victorian 
period  it  was  a  term  used  in  the  hat  trade,  for  silk  hats  of  very 
light  weight. 

The  word  is  obscure  in  origin,  it  is  found  in  numerous  forms 
in  English,  and  is  apparently  taken  from  gose,  goose  and 
somere,  summer.  The  Germans  have  Mddchensommer,  maidens' 
summer,  and  Allweibersommer,  old  women's  summer,  as  well 
as  Sommerfiiden,  summer-threads,  as  equivalent  to  the  English 
gossamer,  the  connexion  apparently  being  that  gossamer  is 
seen  most  frequently  in  the  warm  days  of  late  autumn  (St 
Martin's  summer)  when  geese  are  also  in  season.  Another 
suggestion  is  that  the  word  is  a  corruption  of  gaze  a  Marie 
(gauze  of  Mary)  through  the  legend  that  gossamer  was  origin- 
ally the  threads  which  fell  away  from  the  Virgin's  shroud  on  her 
assumption. 

GOSSE,  EDMUND  (1840-  ),  English  poet  and  critic,  was 
born  in  London  on  the  2ist  of  September  1849,  son  of  the  zoolo- 
gist P.  H.  Gosse.  In  1867  he  became  an  assistant  in  the  depart- 
ment of  printed  books  in  the  British  Museum,  where  he  remained 
until  he  became  in  1875  translator  to  the  Board  of  Trade.  In 
1904  he  was  appointed  librarian  to  the  House  of  Lords.  In 
1884-1890  he  was  Clark  Lecturer  in  English  literature  at  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge.  Himself  a  writer  of  literary  verse  of  much 
grace,  and  master  of  a  prose  style  admirably  expressive  of  a  wide 
and  appreciative  culture,  he  was  conspicuous  for  his  valuable 
work  in  bringing  foreign  literature  home  to  English  readers. 
Northern  Studies  (1879),  a  collection  of  essays  on  the  literature 
of  Holland  and  Scandinavia,  was  the  outcome  of  a  prolonged 
visit  to  those  countries,  and  was  followed  by  later  work  in  the 
same  direction.  He  translated  Ibsen's  Hedda  Gabler  (1891), 
and,  with  W.  Archer,  The  Master- Builder  (1893),  and  in  1907 
he  wrote  a  life  of  Ibsen  for  the  "  Literary  Lives  "  series.  He 
also  edited  the  English  translation  of  the  works  of  Biornson. 


His  services  to  Scandinavian  letters  were  acknowledged  in  1901, 
when  he  was  made  a  knight  of  the  Norwegian  order  of  St  Olaf 
of  the  first  class.  Mr  Gosse's  published  volumes  of  verse  include 
On  Viol  and  Flute  (1873),  King  Erik  (1876),  New  Poems  (1879), 
Firdausi  in  Exile  (1885),  In  Russet  and  Silver  (1894),  Collected 
Poems  (1896).  Hypolympia,  or  the  Gods  on  the  Island  (1901), 
an  "  ironic  phantasy,"  the  scene  of  which  is  laid  in  the  zoth 
century,  though  the  personages  are  Greek  gods,  is  written  in 
prose,  with  some  blank  verse.  His  Seventeenth  Century  Studies 
(1883),  Life  of  William  Congreve  (1888),  The  Jacobean  Poets 
(1894),  Life  and  Letters  of  Dr  John  Donne,  Dean  of  St  Paul's 
(1899),  Jeremy  Taylor  (1904,  "  English  Men  of  Letters  "),  and 
Life  of  Sir  Thomas  Browne  (1905)  form  a  very  considerable 
body  of  critical  work  on  the  English  17th-century  writers.  He 
also  wrote  a  life  of  Thomas  Gray,  whose  works  he  edited  (4  vols., 
1884);  A  History  of  Eighteenth  Century  Literature  (1889);  a 
History  of  Modern  English  Literature  (1897),  and  vols.  iii.  and  iv. 
of  an  Illustrated  Record  of  English  Literature  (1903-1904)  under- 
taken in  connexion  with  Dr  Richard  Garnett.  Mr  Gosse  was 
always  a  sympathetic  student  of  the  younger  school  of  French 
and  Belgian  writers,  some  of  his  papers  on  the  subject  being 
collected  as  French  Profiles  (1905).  Critical  Kit-Kats  (1896) 
contains  an  admirable  criticism  of  J.  M.  de  Heredia,  reminiscences 
of  Lord  de  Tabley  and  others.  He  edited  Heinemann's  series 
of  "  Literature  of  the  World  "  and  the  same  publisher's  "  Inter- 
national Library."  To  the  gth  edition  of  the  Encyclopaedia, 
Britannica  he  contributed  numerous  articles,  and  his  services 
as  chief  literary  adviser  in  the  preparation  of  the  loth  and  nth 
editions  incidentally  testify  to  the  high  position  held  by  him 
in  the  contemporary  world  of  letters.  In  1905  he  was  entertained 
in  Paris  by  the  leading  litterateurs  as  a  representative  of  English 
literary  culture.  In  1907  Mr  Gosse  published  anonymously 
Father  and  Son,  an  intimate  study  of  his  own  early  family  life. 
He  married  Ellen,  daughter  of  Dr  G.  W.  Epps,  and  had  a  son  and 
two  daughters. 

GOSSE,  PHILIP  HENRY  (1810-1888),  English  naturalist, 
was  born  at  Worcester  on  the  6th  of  April  1810,  his  father, 
Thomas  Gosse  (1765-1844)  being  a  miniature  painter.  In  his 
youth  the  family  settled  at  Poole,  where  Gosse's  turn  for  natural 
history  was  noticed  and  encouraged  by  his  aunt,  Mrs  Bell,  the 
mother  of  the  zoologist,  Thomas  BeU  (1792-1880).  He  had, 
however,  little  opportunity  for  developing  it  until,  in  1827, 
he  found  himself  clerk  in  a  whaler's  office  at  Carbonear,  in 
Newfoundland,  where  he  beguiled  the  tedium  of  his  life  by 
observations,  chiefly  with  the  microscope.  After  a  brief  and 
unsuccessful  interlude  of  farming  in  Canada,  during  which  he 
wrote  an  unpublished  work  on  the  entomology  of  Newfoundland, 
he  travelled  in  the  United  States,  was  received  and  noticed 
by  men  of  science,  was  employed  as  a  teacher  for  some  time 
in  Alabama,  and  returned  to  England  in  1839.  His  Canadian 
Naturalist  (1840),  written  on  the  voyage  home,  was  followed 
in  1843  by  his  Introduction  to  Zoology.  His  first  widely  popular 
book  was  The  Ocean  (1844).  In  1844  Gosse,  who  had  meanwhile 
been  teaching  in  London,  was  sent  by  the  British  Museum  to 
collect  specimens  of  natural  history  in  Jamaica.  He  spent 
nearly  two  years  on  that  island,  and  after  his  return  published 
his  Birds  of  Jamaica  (1847)  and  his  Naturalist's  Sojourn  in 
Jamaica  (1851).  He  also  wrote  about  this  time  several  zoological 
works  for  the  S.P.C.K.,  and  laboured  to  such  an  extent  as  to 
impair  his  health.  While  recovering  at  Ilfracombe,  he  was 
attracted  by  the  forms  of  marine  life  so  abundant  on  that  shore, 
and  in  1853  published  A  Naturalist's  Rambles  on  the  Devonshire 
Coast,  accompanied  by  a  description  of  the  marine  aquarium 
invented  by  him,  by  means  of  which  he  succeeded  in  preserving 
zoophytes  and  other  marine  animals  of  the  humbler  grades 
alive  and  in  good  condition  away  from  the  sea.  This  arrange- 
ment was  more  fully  set  forth  and  illustrated  in  his  Aquarium 
(1854),  succeeded  in  1855-1856  by  A  Manual  of  Marine  Zoology, 
in  two  volumes,  illustrated  by  nearly  700  wood  engravings 
after  the  author's  drawings.  A  volume  on  the  marine  fauna 
of  Tenby  succeeded  in  1856.  In  June  of  the  same  year  he  was 
elected  F.R.S.  Gosse,  who  was  a  most  careful  observer,  but  who 


GOSSEC— GOTA 


269 


t:d  the  philosophical  spirit,  was  now  tempted  to  essay  work 
more  ambitious  order,  publishing  in  1857  two  books,  Life 
Omphalos,  embodying  his  speculations  on  the  appearance 
ui  ,..e  on  the  earth,  which  he  considered  to  have  been  instan- 
taneous, at  least  as  regarded  its  higher  forms.  His  views  met 
I  with  no  favour  from  scientific  men,  and  he  returned  to  the 
field  of  observation,  which  he  was  better  qualified  to  cultivate. 
Taking  up  his  residence  at  St  Marychurch,  in  South  Devon,  he 
produced  from  1858  to  1860  his  standard  work  on  sea-anemones, 
the  Actinologia  Britannica.  The  Romance  of  Natural  History 
and  other  popular  works  followed.  In  1865  he  abandoned 
authorship,  and  chiefly  devoted  himself  to  the  cultivation  of 
orchids.  Study  of  the  Rotifera,  however,  also  engaged  his 
attention,  and  his  results  were  embodied  in  a  monograph  by 
Dr  C.  T.  Hudson  (1886).  He  died  at  St  Marychurch  on  the 
23rd  of  August  1888. 

His  life  was  written  by  his  son,  Edmund  Gosse. 

GOSSEC,  FRANCOIS  JOSEPH  (1734-1829),  French  musical 
composer,  son  of  a  small  farmer,  was  born  at  the  village  of 
Vergnies,  in  Belgian  Hainaut,  and  showing  early  a  taste  for 
music  became  a  choir-boy  at  Antwerp.  He  went  to  Paris  in 
1751  and  was  taken  up  by  Rameau.  He  became  conductor 
of  a  private  band  kept  by  La  Popeliniere,  a  wealthy  amateur, 
and  gradually  determined  to  do  something  to  revive  the  study 
of  instrumental  music  in  France.  He  had  his  own  first  symphony 
performed  in  1754,  and  as  conductor  to  the  Prince  de  Conde's 
orchestra  he  produced  several  operas  and  other  compositions 
of  his  own.  He  imposed  his  influence  upon  French  music  with 
remarkable  success,  founded  the  Concert  des  Amateurs  in  1770, 
organized  the  Ecole  de  Chant  in  1784,  was  conductor  of  the  band 
of  the  Garde  Nationale  at  the  Revolution,  and  was  appointed 
(with  Mehul  and  Cherubini)  inspector  of  the  Conservatoire  de 
Musique  when  this  institution  was  created  in  1795.  He  was  an 
original  member  of  the  Institute  and  a  chevalier  of  the  legion 
of  honour.  Outside  France  he  was  but  little  known,  and  his 
own  numerous  compositions,  sacred  and  secular,  were  thrown 
into  the  shade  by  those  of  men  of  greater  genius;  but  he  has  a 
place  in  history  as  the  inspirer  of  others,  and  as  having  powerfully 
stimulated  the  revival  of  instrumental  music.  He  died  at 
Passy  on  the  i6th  of  February  1829. 

See  the  Lives  by  P.  Hddouin  (1852)  and  E.  G.  J.  Gregoir  (1878). 

GOSSIP  (from  the  O.E.  godsibb,  i.e.  God,  and  sib,  akin,  standing 
in  relation  to),  originally  a  god-parent,  i.e.  one  who  by  taking  a 
sponsor's  vows  at  a  baptism  stands  in  a  spiritual  relationship 
to  the  child  baptized.  The  common  modern  meaning  is  of  light 
personal  or  social  conversation,  or,  with  an  invidious  sense,  of 
idle  tale-bearing.  "  Gossip  "  was  early  used  with  the  sense  of 
a  friend  or  acquaintance,  either  of  the  parent  of  the  child 
baptized  or  of  the  other  god-parents,  and  thus  came  to  be  used, 
with  little  reference  to  the  position  of  sponsor,  for  women  friends 
of  the  mother  present  at  a  birth;  the  transition  of  meaning 
to  an  idle  chatterer  or  talker  for  talking's  sake  is  easy.  The 
application  to  the  idle  talk  of  such  persons  does  not  appear  to 
be  an  early  one. 

GOSSNER,  JOHANNES  EVANGELISTA  (1773-1858),  German 
divine  and  philanthropist,  was  born  at  Hausen  near  Augsburg 
on  the  i4th  of  December  1773,  and  educated  at  the  university 
of  Dillingen.  Here  like  Martin  Boos  and  others  he  came  under 
the  spell  of  the  Evangelical  movement  promoted  by  Johann 
Michael  Sailer,  the  professor  of  pastoral  theology.  After  taking 
priest's  orders,  Gossner  held  livings  at  Dirlewang  (1804-1811) 
and  Munich  (1811-1817),  but  his  evangelical  tendencies  brought 
about  his  dismissal  and  in  1826  he  formally  left  the  Roman 
Catholic  for  the  Protestant  communion.  As  minister  of  the 
Bethlehem  church  in  Berlin  (1829-1846)  he  was  conspicuous 
not  only  for  practical  and  effective  preaching,  but  for  the  founding 
of  schools,  asylums  and  missionary  agencies.  He  died  on  the 
2oth  of  March  1858. 

Lives  by  Bethmann-Hollweg  (Berlin,  1858)  and  H.  Dalton 
(Berlin,  1878). 

GOSSON,  STEPHEN  (1554-1624),  English  satirist,  was 
baptized  at  St  George's,  Canterbury,  on  the  I7th  of  April  1554. 


He  entered  Corpus  Christi  College,  Oxford,  1572,  and  on  leaving 
the  university  in  1576  he  went  to  London.  In  1598  Francis 
Meres  in  his  Palladis  Tamia  mentions  him  with  Sidney,  Spenser, 
Abraham  Fraunce  and  others  among  the  "  best  for  pastorall," 
but  no  pastorals  of  his  are  extant.  He  is  said  to  have  been  an 
actor,  and  by  his  own  confession  he  wrote  plays,  for  he  speaks 
of  Catilines  Conspiracies  as  a  "  Pig  of  mine  own  Sowe."  To 
this  play  and  some  others,  on  account  of  their  moral  intention, 
he  extends  indulgence  in  the  general  condemnation  of  stage 
plays  contained  in  his  Schoole  of  Abuse,  containing  a  pleasant 
invective  against  Poets,  Pipers,  Plaiers,  Jesters  and  such  like 
Caterpillars  of  the  Commonwealth  (1579).  The  euphuistic  style 
of  this  pamphlet  and  its  ostentatious  display  of  learning  were 
in  the  taste  of  the  time,  and  do  not  necessarily  imply  insincerity. 
Gosson  justified  his  attack  by  considerations  of  the  disorder 
which  the  love  of  melodrama  and  of  vulgar  comedy  was  intro- 
ducing into  the  social  life  of  London.  It  was  not  only  by 
extremists  like  Gosson  that  these  abuses  were  recognized. 
Spenser,  in  his  Teares  of  the  Muses  (1591),  laments  the  same 
evils,  although  only  in  general  terms.  The  tract  was  dedicated 
to  Sir  Philip  Sidney,  who  seems  not  unnaturally  to  have 
resented  being  connected  with  a  pamphlet  which  opened  with 
a  comprehensive  denunciation  of  poets,  for  Spenser,  writing 
to  Gabriel  Harvey  (Oct.  16,  1579)  of  the  dedication,  says  the* 
author  "  was  for  hys  labor  scorned."  He  dedicated,  however, 
a  second  tract,  The  Ephemerides  of  Phialo  .  .  .  and  A  Short 
Apologie  of  the  Schoole  of  Abuse,  to  Sidney  on  Oct.  28th,  1579. 
Gosson's  abuse  of  poets  seems  to  have  had  a  large  share  in 
inducing  Sidney  to  write  his  Apologie  for  Poelrie,  which  probably 
dates  from  1581.  After  the  publication  of  the  Schoole  of  Abuse 
Gosson  retired  into  the  country,  where  he  acted  as  tutor  to  the 
sons  of  a  gentleman  (Plays  Confuted.  "  To  the  Reader,"  1582). 
Anthony  a  Wood  places  this  earlier  and  assigns  the  termination 
of  his  tutorship  indirectly  to  his  animosity  against  the  stage, 
which  apparently  wearied  his  patron  of  his  company.  The 
publication  of  his  polemic  provoked  many  retorts,  the  most 
formidable  of  which  was  Thomas  Lodge's  Defence  of  Playes 
(1580).  The  players  themselves  retaliated  by  reviving  Gosson's 
own  plays.  Gosson  replied  to  his  various  opponents  in  1582 
by  his  Playes  Confuted  in  Five  Actions,  dedicated  to  Sir  Francis 
Walsingham.  Meanwhile  he  had  taken  orders,  was  made 
lecturer  of  the  parish  church  at  Stepney  (1585),  and  was  pre- 
sented by  the  queen  to  the  rectory  of  Great  Wigborough,  Essex, 
which  he  exchanged  in  1600  for  St  Botolph's,  Bishopsgate.  He 
died  on  the  I3th  of  February  1624.  Pleasant  Quippesfor  Upstart 
New-fangled  Gentlewomen  (1595),  a  coarse  satiric  poem,  is  also 
ascribed  to  Gosson. 

The  Schoole  of  Abuse  and  Apologie  were  edited  (1868)  by  Prof.  E. 
Arber  in  his  English  Reprints.  Two  poems  of  Gosson's  are  included. 

GOT,  FRANCOIS  JULES  EDMOND  (1822-1901),  French  actor, 
was  born  at  Lignerolles  on  the  ist  of  October  1822,  and  entered 
the  Conservatoire  in  1841,  winning  the  second  prize  for  comedy 
that  year  and  the  first  in  1842.  After  a  year  of  military  service 
he  made  his  debut  at  the  Comedie  Francaise  on  the  I7th  of  July 
1844,  as  Alexis  in  Les  Heritiers  and  Mascarelles  in  Les  Precieuses 
ridicules.  He  was  immediately  admitted  pensionnaire,  and  be- 
came societaire  in  1850.  By  special  permission  of  the  emperor 
in  1866  he  played  at  the  Odeon  in  Emile  Augier's  Contagion. 
His  golden  jubilee  at  the  Theatre  Francais  was  celebrated  in 
1894,  and  he  made  his  final  appearance  the  year  after.  Got 
was  a  fine  representative  of  the  grand  style  of  French  acting, 
and  was  much  admired  in  England  as  well  as  in  Paris.  He 
wrote  the  libretto  of  the  opera  Francois  Villon  (1857)  and  also 
of  L'Esclave  (1874).  In  1881  he  was  decorated  with  the  cross 
of  the  Legion  of  Honour. 

GOTA,  a  river  of  Sweden,  draining  the  great  Lake  Vener. 
The  name,  however,  is  more  familiar  in  its  application  to  the 
canal  which  affords  communication  between  Gothenburg  and 
Stockholm.  The  river  flows  out  of  the  southern  extremity 
of  the  lake  almost  due  south  to  the  Cattegat,  which  it  enters 
by  two  arms  enclosing  the  island  of  Hisingen,  the  eastern  forming 
the  harbour  and  bearing  the  heavy  sea-traffic  of  the  port  of 


270 


GOTARZES— GOTHA 


Gothenburg.  The  Gota  river  is  50  m.  in  length,  and  is  navigable 
for  large  vessels,  a  series  of  locks  surmounting  the  famous  falls 
of  Trollhattan  (?.».)•  'Passing  the  abrupt  wooded  Halleberg 
and  Hunneberg  (royal  shooting  preserves)  Lake  Vener  is  reached 
at  Venersborg.  Several  important  ports  lie  on  the  north,  east 
and  south  shores  (see  VENER).  From  Sjotorp,  midway  on  the 
eastern  shore,  the  western  Gota  canal  leads  S.E.  to  Karlsborg. 
Its  course  necessitates  over  twenty  locks  to  raise  it  from  the 
Vener  level  (144  ft.)  to  its  extreme  height  of  300  ft.,  and  lower 
it  over  the  subsequent  fall  through  the  small  lakes  Viken  and 
Botten  to  Lake  Vetter  (q.v.;  289  ft.),  which  the  route  crosses  to 
Motala.  The  eastern  canal  continues  eastward  from  this  point, 
and  a  descent  is  followed  through  five  locks  to  Lake  Boren, 
after  which  the  canal,  carried  still  at  a  considerable  elevation, 
overlooks  a  rich  and  beautiful  plain.  The  picturesque  Lake 
Roxen  with  its  ruined  castle  of  Stjernarp  is  next  traversed.  At 
Norsholm  a  branch  canal  connects  Lake  Glan  to  the  north, 
giving  access  to  the  important  manufacturing  centre  of  Norrko- 
ping.  Passing  Lake  Asplangen,  the  canal  follows  a  cut  through 
steep  rocks,  and  then  resumes  an  elevated  course  to  the  old  town 
of  Soderkoping,  after  which  the  Baltic  is  reached  at  Mem. 
Vessels  plying  to  Stockholm  run  N.E.  among  the  coastal  island- 
fringe  (skdrg&rd),  and  then  follow  the  Sodertelge  canal  into 
'  Lake  Malar.  The  whole  distance  from  Gothenburg  to  Stockholm 
is  about  360  m.,  and  the  voyage  takes  about  25  days.  The  length 
of  artificial  work  on  the  Gota  canal  proper  is  54  m.,  and  there 
are  58  locks.  The  scenery  is  not  such  as  will  bear  adverse 
weather  conditions;  that  of  the  western  canal  is  without  any 
interest  save  in  the  remarkable  engineering  work.  The  idea 
of  a  canal  dates  from  1516,  but  the  construction  was  organized 
by  Baron  von  Flatten  and  engineered  by  Thomas  Telford  in 
1810-1832.  The  falls  of  Trollhattan  had  already  been  locked 
successfully  in  1800. 

GOTARZES,  or  GOTERZES,  king  of  Parthia  (c.  A.D.  42-51). 
In  an  inscription  at  the  foot  of  the  rock  of  Behistun1  he  is 
called  roxnlpf'jp  Ytdnrodpos,  i.e.  "  son  of  Gew,"  and  seems 
to  be  designated  as  "  satrap  of  satrap."  This  inscription 
therefore  probably  dates  from  the  reign  of  Artabanus  II.  (A.D. 
10-40),  to  whose  family  Gotarzes  must  have  belonged.  From 
a  very  barbarous  coin  of  Gotarzes  with  the  inscription  /Sacri- 
Xeatt  (SaatXtajv  Apaavofr  vos  KeKa\ov/j£vos  Aprafiavov  IWepfr/s 
(Wroth,  Catalogue  of  the  Coins  of  Parthia,  p.  165;  Numism. 
Chron.,  1900,  p.  95;  the  earlier  readings  of  this  inscription  are 
wrong),  which  must  be  translated  "  king  of  kings  Arsakes, 
named  son  of  Artabanos,  Gotarzes,"  it  appears  that  he  was 
adopted  by  Artabanus.  When  the  troublesome  reign  of  Arta- 
banus II.  ended  in  A.D.  39  or  40,  he  was  succeeded  by  Vardanes, 
probably  his  son;  but  against  him  in  41  rose  Gotarzes  (the  dates 
are  fixed  by  the  coins).  He  soon  made  himself  detested  by  his 
cruelty — among  many  other  murders  he  even  slew  his  brother 
Artabanus  and  his  whole  family  (Tac.  Ann.  xi.  8) — and  Vardanes 
regained  the  throne  in  42;  Gotarzes  fled  to  Hyrcania  and 
gathered  an  army  from  the  Dahan  nomads.  The  war  between 
the  two  kings  was  at  last  ended  by  a  treaty,  as  both  were  afraid 
of  the  conspiracies  of  their  nobles.  Gotarzes  returned  to 
Hyrcania.  But  when  Vardanes  was  assassinated  in  45,  Gotarzes 
was  acknowledged  in  the  whole  empire  (Tac.  Ann.  xi.  9  ff.; 
Joseph.  Antiq.  xx.  3,  4,  where  Gotarzes  is  called  Kotardes). 
He  now  takes  on  his  coins  the  usual  Parthian  titles,  "  king  of 
kings  Arsaces  the  benefactor,  the  just,  the  illustrious  (Epiphanes) , 
the  friend  of  the  Greeks  (Philhellen),"  without  mentioning  his 
proper  name.  The  discontent  excited  by  his  cruelty  and  luxury 
induced  the  hostile  party  to  apply  to  the  emperor  Claudius 
and  fetch  from  Rome  an  Arsacid  prince  Meherdates  (i.e.  Mithra- 
dates),  who  lived  there  as  hostage.  He  crossed  the  Euphrates 
in  49,  but  was  beaten  and  taken  prisoner  by  Gotarzes,  who  cut 
off  his  ears  (Tac.  Ann.  xii.  10  ff.).  Soon  after  Gotarzes  died, 
according  to  Tacitus,  of  an  illness;  Josephus  says  that  he  was 
murdered.  His  last  coin  is  dated  from  June  51. 

1  Rawlinson,  Journ.  Roy.  Geog.  Soc.  ix.  114;  Flandin  and  Coste, 
La  Perse  ancienne,  i.  tab.  19;  Dittenberger,  Orientis  Graeci  inscr. 
431- 


An  earlier  "  Arsakes  with  the  name  Gotarzes,"  mentioned  on 
some  astronomical  tablets  from  Babylon  (Strassmaier  in  Zeitschr. 
fur  Assyriologie,  vi.  216;  Mahler  in  Wiener  Zeitschr.  fur  Kunde  des 
Morgenlands,  xv.  63  ff.),  appears  to  have  reigned  for  some  time  in 
Babylonia  about  87  B.C.  (ED.  M.) 

GOTHA,  a  town  of  Germany,  alternately  with  Coburg  the 
residence  of  the  dukes  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,  in  a  pleasant 
situation  on  the  Leine  canal,  6  m.  N.  of  the  slope  of  the  Thuringian 
forest,  17  m.  W.  from  Erfurt,  on  the  railway  to  Bebra-Cassel. 
Pop.  ( 1 905)  36,906.  It  consists  of  an  old  inner  town  and  encircling 
suburbs,  and  is  dominated  by  the  castle  of  Friedenstein,  lying 
on  the  Schlossberg  at  an  elevation  of  1 100  ft.  With  the  exception 
of  those  in  the  older  portion  of  the  town,  the  streets  are  hand- 
some and  spacious,  and  the  beautiful  gardens  and  promenades 
between  the  suburbs  and  the  castle  add  greatly  to  the  town's 
attractiveness.  To  the  south  of  the  castle  there  is  an  extensive 
and  finely  adorned  park.  To  the  north-west  of  the  town  the 
Galberg — on  which  there  is  a  public  pleasure  garden — and 
to  the  south-west  the  Seeberg  rise  to  a  height  of  over  1300  ft. 
and  afford  extensive  views.  The  castle  of  Friedenstein,  begun 
by  Ernest  the  Pious,  duke  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,  in  1643  and 
completed  in  1654,  occupies  the  site  of  the  old  fortress  of  Grim- 
menstein.  It  is  a  huge  square  building  flanked  with  two  wings, 
having  towers  rising  to  the  height  of  about  140  ft.  It  contains 
the  ducal  cabinet  of  coins  and  the  ducal  library  of  nearly  200,000 
volumes,  among  which  are  several  rare  editions  and  about 
6900  manuscripts.  The  picture  gallery,  the  cabinet  of  engravings, 
the  natural  history  museum,  the  Chinese  museum,  and  the 
cabinet  of  art,  which  includes  a  collection  of  Egyptian,  Etruscan, 
Roman  and  German  antiquities,  are  now  included  in  the  new 
museum,  completed  in  1878,  which  stands  on  a  terrace  to  the 
south  of  the  castle.  The  principal  other  public  buildings  are 
the  church  of  St  Margaret  with  a  beautiful  portal  and  a  lofty 
tower,  founded  in  the  I2th  century,  twice  burnt  down,  and 
rebuilt  in  its  present  form  in  1652 ;  the  church  of  the  Augustinian 
convent,  with  an  altar-piece  by  the  painter  Simon  Jacobs; 
the  theatre;  the  fire  insurance  bank  and  the  life  insurance  bank; 
the  ducal  palace,  in  the  Italian  villa  style,  with  a  winter  garden 
and  picture  gallery;  the  buildings  of  the  ducal  legislature; 
the  hospital;  the  old  town-hall,  dating  from  the  nth  century; 
the  old  residence  of  the  painter  Lucas  Cranach,  now  used  as  a 
girls'  school;  the  ducal  stable;  and  the  Friedrichsthal  palace, 
now  used  as  public  offices.  The  educational  establishments 
include  a  gymnasium  (founded  in  1524,  one  of  the  most  famous, 
in  Germany),  two  training  schools  for  teachers,  conservatoires, 
of  music  and  several  scientific  institutions.  Gotha  is  remarkable 
for  its  insurance  societies  and  for  the  support  it  has  given  to 
cremation.  The  crematorium  was  long  regarded  as  a  model 
for  such  establishments. 

Gotha  is  one  of  the  most  active  commercial  towns  of  Thuringia, 
its  manufactures  including  sausages,  for  which  it  has  a  great 
reputation,  porcelain,  tobacco,  sugar,  machinery,  mechanical 
and  surgical  instruments,  musical  instruments,  shoes,  lamps 
and  toys.  There  are  also  a  number  of  nurseries  and  market 
gardens.  The  book  trade  is  represented  by  about  a  dozen  firms, 
including  that  of  the  great  geographical  house  of  Justus  Perthes, 
founded  in  1785. 

Gotha  (in  old  chronicles  called  Gotegewe  and  later  Gotaha) 
existed  as  a  village  in  the  time  of  Charlemagne.  In  930  its  lord 
Gothard  abbot  of  Hersfeld  surrounded  it  with  walls.  It  was. 
known  as  a  town  as  early  as  1200,  about  which  time  it  came 
into  the  possession  of  the  landgraves  of  Thuringia.  On  the 
extinction  of  that  line  Gotha  came  into  the  possession  of  the 
electors  of  Saxony,  and  it  fell  later  to  the  Ernestine  line  of  dukes. 
After  the  battle  of  Miihlberg  in  1547  the  castle  of  Grimmenstein 
was  partly  destroyed,  but  it  was  again  restored  in  1554.  In 
1567  the  town  was  taken  from  Duke  John  Frederick  by  the 
elector  Augustus  of  Saxony.  After  the  death  of  John  Frederick's 
sons,  it  came  into  the  possession  of  Duke  Ernest  the  Pious,  the 
founder  of  the  line  of  the  dukes  of  Gotha;  and  on  the  extinction 
of  this  family  it  was  united  in  1825  along  with  the  dukedom  to. 
Coburg. 


GOTHAM,  WISE  MEN  OF— GOTHENBURG 


rSee  Gotha  und  seine  Umgebung  (Gotha,  1851);  Kuhne,  Beitrdge 
!«r  Geschichte  der  Entwickelung  der  socialen  Zustande  der  Stadt 
und  des  Herzogtums  Gotha  (Gotha,  1862);  Humbert,  Les  Villes 
ie  la  Thuringe  (Paris,  1869),  and  Beck,  Geschichte  der  Stadt  Gotha 
(Gotha,  1870). 
GOTHAM,  WISE  MEN  OF,  the  early  name  given  to  the  people 
of  the  village  of  Gotham,  Nottingham,  in  allusion  to  their  reputed 
simplicity.  But  if  tradition  is  to  be  believed  the  Gothamites 
were  not  so  very  simple.  The  story  is  that  King  John  intended 
to  live  in  the  neighbourhood,  but  that  the  villagers,  foreseeing 

I  ruin  as  the  cost  of  supporting  the  court,  feigned  imbecility  when 
the  royal  messengers  arrived.  Wherever  the  latter  went  they 
saw  the  rustics  engaged  in  some  absurd  task.  John,  on  this 
report,  determined  to  have  hi?  hunting  lodge  elsewhere,  and  the 
"  wise  men  "  boasted,  "  we  ween  there  are  more  fools  pass 
through  Gotham  than  remain  in  it."  The  "  foles  of  Gotham  " 
are  mentioned  as  early  as  the  isth  century  in  the  Towneley 
Mysteries;  and  a  collection  of  their  "  jests  "  was  published  in 
the  1 6th  century  under  the  title  Merrie  Tales  of  the  Mad  Men 
of  Gotham,  gathered  together  by  A.B.,  of  Phisicke  Doctour.  The 
"  A.B."  was  supposed  to  represent  Andrew  Borde  or  Boorde 
(i490?-i549),  famous  among  other  things  for  his  wit,  but  he 
probably  had  nothing  to  do  with  the  compilation.  As  typical 
of  the  Gothamite  folly  is  usually  quoted  the  story  of  the  villagers 
joining  hands  round  a  thornbush  to  shut  in  a  cuckoo  so  that  it 
would  sing  all  the  year.  The  localizing  of  fools  is  common  to 
most  countries,  and  there  are  many  other  reputed  "  imbecile  " 
centres  in  England  besides  Gotham.  Thus  there  are  the  people 
of  Coggeshall,  Essex,  the  "  carles  of  Austwick,"  Yorkshire, 
"  the  gpwks  of  Gordon,"  Berwickshire,  and  for  many  centuries 
the  charge  of  folly  has  been  made  against  "  silly  "  Suffolk  and 
Norfolk  (Descriptio  Norfolciensium  about  I2th  century,  printed 
in  Wright's  Early  Mysteries  and  other  Latin  Poems).  In  Germany 
there  are  the  Schildburgers,  in  Holland  the  people  of  Kampen. 
Among  the  ancient  Greeks  Boeotia  was  the  home  of  fools; 
among  the  Thracians,  Abdera;  among  the  ancient  Jews, 
Nazareth. 

See  W.  A.  Clouston,  Book  of  Noodles  (London,  1888);  R.  H. 
Cunningham,  Amusing  Prose  Chap-books  (1889), 

GOTHENBURG  (Swed.  Goteborg),  a  city  and  seaport  of 
Sweden,  on  the  river  Gota,  5  m.  above  its  mouth  in  the  Cattegat, 
285  m.  S.W.  of  Stockholm  by  rail,  and  360  by  the  Gota  canal- 
route.  Pop.  (1900)  130,619.  It  is  the  chief  town  of  the  district 
(Ian)  of  Goteborg  och  Bohus,  and  the  seat  of  a  bishop.  It  lies 
on  the  east  or  left  bank  of  the  river,  which  is  here  lined  with 
quays  on  both  sides,  those  on  the  west  belonging  to  the  large 
island  of  Hisingen,  contained  between  arms  of  the  Gota.  On 
this  island  are  situated  the  considerable  suburbs  of  Lindholmen 
and  Lundby. 

The  city  itself  stretches  east  and  south  from  the  river,  with 
extensive  and  pleasant  residential  suburbs,  over  a  wooded  plain 
enclosed  by  low  hills.  The  inner  city,  including  the  business 
quarter,  is  contained  almost  entirely  between  the  river  and  the 
Rosenlunds  canal,  continued  in  the  Vallgraf,  the  moat  of  the  old 
fortifications;  and  is  crossed  by  the  Storahamn,  Ostrahamn 
and  Vestrahamn  canals.  The  Storahamn  is  flanked  by  the 
handsome  tree-planted  quays,  Norra  and  Sodra  Hamngatan. 
The  first  of  these,  starting  from  the  Stora  Bommenshamn, 
where  the  sea-going  passenger-steamers  lie,  leads  past  the  museum 
to  the  Gustaf-Adolfs-Torg.  The  museum,  in  the  old  East 
India  Company's  house,  has  fine  collections  in  natural  history, 
entomology,  botany,  anatomy,  archaeology  and  ethnography, 
a  picture  and  sculpture  gallery,  and  exhibits  of  coins  and  in- 
dustrial art.  Gustaf-Adolfs-Torg  is  the  business  centre,  and 
contains  the  town-hall  (1670)  and  exchange  (1849).  Here  are 
statues  by  B.  E.  Fogelberg  of  Gustavus  Adolphus  and  of  Odin, 
and  of  Oscar  I.  by  J.  P.  Molin.  Among  several  churches  in 
this  quarter  of  the  city  is  the  cathedral  (Gustavii  Domkyrka), 
a  cruciform  church  founded  in  1633  and  rebuilt  after  fires  in 
1742  and  1815.  Here  are  also  the  customs-house  and  residence 
of  the  governor  of  the  Ian.  On  the  north  side,  closely  adjacent, 
are  the  Lilla  Bommenshamn,  where  the  Gota  canal  steamers 
lie,  and  the  two  principal  railway  stations,  Statens  and  Bergslafs 


271 


Bangard.  Above  the  Rosenlunds  canal  rises  a  low,  rocky 
eminence,  Lilla  Otterhalleberg.  The  inner  city  is  girdled  on 
the  south  and  east  by  the  Kungspark,  which  contains  Molin's 
famous  group  of  statuary,  the  Belt-bucklers  (Baltespannare) , 
and  by  the  beautiful  gardens  of  the  Horticultural  Society 
(Tradgdrdsforeningen).  These  grounds  are  traversed  by  the 
broad  Nya  Alle,  a  favourite  promenade,  and  beyond  them  lies 
the  best  residential  quarter,  the  first  houses  facing  Vasa  Street, 
Vasa  Park  and  Kungsport  Avenue.  At  the  north  end  of  the 
last  are  the  university  and  the  New  theatre.  At  the  west  end 
of  Vasa  Street  is  the  city  library,  the  most  important  in  the 
country  except  the  royal  library  at  Stockholm  and  the  university 
libraries  at  Upsala  and  Lund.  The  suburbs  are  extensive.  To 
the  south-west  are  Majorna  and  Masthugget,  with  numerous 
factories.  Beyond  these  lie  the  fine  Slottskog  Park,  planted  with 
oaks,  and  picturesquely  broken  by  rocky  hills  commanding  views 
of  the  busy  river  and  the  city.  The  suburb  of  Annedal  is  the 
workmen's  quarter;  others  are  Landala,  Garda  and  Stampen. 
All  are  connected  with  the  city  by  electric  tramways.  Six 
railways  leave  the  city  from  four  stations.  The  principal  lines, 
from  the  Statens  and  Bergslafs  stations,  run  N.  to  Trollhattan, 
and  into  Norway  (Christiania);  N.E.  between  Lakes  Vener 
and  Vetter  to  Stockholm,  Falun  and  the  north;  E.  to  Boris 
and  beyond,  and  S.  by  the  coast  to  Helsingborg,  &c.  From 
the  Vestgota  station  a  narrow-gauge  line  runs  N.E.  to  Skara 
and  the  southern  shores  of  Vener,  and  from  Saro  station  near 
Slottskog  Park  a  line  serves  Saro,  a  seaside  watering-place  on 
an  island  20  m.  S.  of  Gothenburg. 

The  city  has  numerous  important  educational  establishments. 
The  university  (Hogskola)  was  a  private  foundation  (1891), 
but  is  governed  by  a  board,  the  members  of  which  are  nominated 
by  the  state,  the  town  council,  Royal  Society  of  Science  and 
Literature,  directors  of  the  museum,  and  the  staffs  of  the  various 
local  colleges.  There  are  several  boys'  schools,  a  college  for 
girls,  a  scientific  college,  a  commercial  college  (1826),  a  school 
of  navigation,  and  Chalmers'  Polytechnical  College,  founded 
by  William  Chalmers  (1748-1811),  a  native  of  Gothenburg  of 
English  parentage.  He  bequeathed  half  his  fortune  to  this 
institution,  and  the  remainder  to  the  Sahlgrenska  hospital. 
A  people's  library  was  founded  by  members  of  the  family  of 
Dickson,  several  of  whom  have  taken  a  prominent  part  in 
philanthropical  works  in  the  city.  The  connexion  of  the  family 
with  Gothenburg  dates  from  1802,  when  Robert  Dickson,  a 
native  of  Montrose  in  Scotland,  founded  the  business  in  which 
he  was  joined  in  1807  by  his  brother  James. 

In  respect  of  industry  and  commerce  as  a  whole  Gothenburg 
ranks  as  second  to  Stockholm  in  the  kingdom;  but  it  is  actually 
the  principal  centre  of  export  trade  and  port  of  register;  and 
as  a  manufacturing  town  it  is  slightly  inferior  to  Malmo.  Its 
principal  industrial  establishments  are  mechanical  works  (both 
in  the  city  and  at  Lundby),  saw-mills,  dealing  with  the  timber 
which  is  brought  down  the  Gota,  flour-mills,  margarine  factories, 
breweries  and  distilleries,  tobacco  works,  cotton  mills,  dyeing 
and  bleaching  works  (at  Levanten  in  the  vicinity),  furniture 
factories,  paper  and  leather  works,  and  shipbuilding  yards. 
The  vessels  registered  at  the  port  in  1901  were  247  of  1 20,488  tons. 
There  are  about  3  m.  of  quays  approachable  by  vessels  drawing 
20  ft.,  and  slips  for  the  accommodation  of  large  vessels.  Gothen- 
burg is  the  principal  port  of  embarkation  of  Swedish  emigrants 
for  America. 

The  city  is  governed  by  a  council  including  two  mayors,  and 
returns  nine  members  to  the  second  chamber  of  the  Riksdag 
(parliament). 

Founded  by  Gustavus  Adolphus  in  1619,  Gothenburg  was 
from  the  first  designed  to  be  fortified,  a  town  of  the  same  name 
founded  on  Hisingen  in  1603  having  been  destroyed  by  the  Danes 
during  the  Calmar  war.  From  1621,  when  it  was  first  chartered, 
it  steadily  increased,  though  it  suffered  greatly  in  the  Danish 
wars  of  the  last  half  of  the  I7th  and  the  beginning  of  the  i8th 
centuries,  and  from  several  extensive  conflagrations  (the  last 
in  1813),  which  have  destroyed  important  records  of  its  history. 
The  great  development  of  its  herring  fishery  in  the  latter  part 


272 


GOTHIC— GOTHS 


of  the  1 8th  century  gave  a  new  impulse  to  the  city's  trade,  which 
was  kept  up  by  the  influence  of  the  "  Continental  System," 
under  which  Gothenburg  became  a  depot  for  the  colonial  mer- 
chandise of  England.  After  the  fall  of  Napoleon  it  began  to 
decline,  but  after  its  closer  connexion  with  the  interior  of  the 
country  by  the  Gota  canal  (opened  1832)  and  Western  railway 
it  rapidly  advanced  both  in  population  and  trade.  Since  the 
demolition  of  its  fortifications  in  1807,  it  has  been  defended 
only  by  some  small  forts.  Gothenburg  was  the  birthplace  of 
the  poet  Bengt  Lidner  (1757-1793)  and  two  of  Sweden's  greatest 
sculptors,  Bengt  Erland  Fogelberg  (1786-1854)  and  Johann 
Peter  Molin  (1814-1873).  After  the  French  Revolution  Gothen- 
burg was  for  a  time  the  residence  of  the  Bourbon  family.  The 
name  of  this  city  is  associated  with  the  municipal  licensing 
system  known  as  the  Gothenburg  System  (see  LIQUOR  LAWS). 

See  W.  Berg,  Samlingar  till  Goleborgs  hisloria  (Gothenburg,  1893) ; 
Lagerberg,  Goteborg  i  dldre  och  nyare  tid  (Gothenburg,  1902); 
Eroding,  Detforna  Goteborg  (Stockholm,  1903). 

GOTHIC,  the  term  generally  applied  to  medieval  architecture, 
and  more  especially  to  that  in  which  the  pointed  arch  appears. 
The  style  was  at  one  time  supposed  to  have  originated  with  the 
warlike  people  known  as  the  Goths,  some  of  whom  (the  East 
Goths,  or  Ostrogoths)  settled  in  the  eastern  portion  of  Europe, 
and  others  (the  West  Goths,  or  Visigoths)  in  the  Asturias  of 
Spain;  but  as  no  buildings  or  remains  of  any  description  have 
ever  been  found,  in  which  there  are  any  traces  of  an  independent 
construction  in  either  brick  or  stone,  the  title  is  misleading; 
since,  however,  it  is  now  so  generally  accepted  it  would  be  difficult 
to  change  it.  The  term  when  first  employed  was  one  of  reproach, 
as  Evelyn  (1702)  when  speaking  of  the  faultless  building  (i.e. 
classic)  says,  "  they  were  demolished  by  the  Goths  or  Vandals, 
who  introduced  their  own  licentious  style  now  called  modern 
or  Gothic."  The  employment  of  the  pointed  arch  in  Syria, 
Egypt  and  Sicily  from  the  8th  century  onwards  by  the  Mahom- 
medans  for  their  mosques  and  gateways,  some  four  centuries 
before  it  made  its  appearance  in  Europe,  also  makes  it  advisable 
to  adhere  to  the  old  [term  Gothic  in  preference  to  Pointed 
Architecture.  (See  ARCHITECTURE) 

GOTHITE,  or  GOETHITE,  a  mineral  composed  of  an  iron 
hydrate,  FezOj.I^O,  crystallizing  in  the  orthorhombic  system 
and  isomorphous  with  diaspore  and  manganite  (<?.».).  It  was 
first  noticed  in  1789,  and  in  1806  was  named  after  the  poet 
Goethe.  Crystals  are  prismatic,  acicular  or  scaly  in  habit; 
they  have  a  perfect  cleavage  parallel  to  the  brachypinacoid 
(M  in  the  figure).  Reniform  and  stalactitic 
masses  with  a  radiated  fibrous  structure  also 
occur.  The  colour  varies  from  yellowish 
or  reddish  to  blackish-brown,  and  by  trans- 
mitted light  it  is  often  blood-red;  the  streak 
is  brownish-yellow;  hardness,  5;  specific 
gravity,  4-3.  The  best  crystals  are  the 
brilliant,  blackish-brown  prisms  with  terminal 
pyramidal  planes  (fig.)  from  the  Restormel 
iron  mines  at  Lostwithiel,  and  the  Botallack 
mine  at  St  Just  in  Cornwall.  A  variety 
occurring  as  thin  red  scales  at  Siegen  in  Westphalia  is  known 
as  Rubinglimmer  or  pyrrhosiderite  (from  Gr.  iruppos,  flame- 
coloured,  and  aiSripos,  iron):  a  scaly-fibrous  variety  from  the 
same  locality  is  called  lepidocrocite  (from  X«ris,  scale,  and  Kpows, 
fibre) .  Sammetblende  or  przibramite  is  a  variety,  from  Przibram 
in  Bohemia,  consisting  of  delicate  acicular  or  capillary  crystals 
arranged  in  radiating  groups  with  a  velvety  surface  and  yellow 
colour. 

Gotbite  occurs  with  other  iron  oxides,  especially  limonite 
and  hematite,  and  when  found  in  sufficient  quantity  is  mined 
with  these  as  an  ore  of  iron.  It  often  occurs  also  as  an  enclosure 
in  other  minerals.  _  Acicular  crystals,  resembling  rutile  in  ap- 
pearance,[sometimes'penetrate  crystals  of  pale-coloured  amethyst, 
for  instance,  at  Wolf's  Island  in  Lake  Onega  in  Russia:  this 
form  of  the  mineral  has  long  been  known  as  onegite,  and  the 
crystals  enclosing  it  are  cut  for  ornamental  purposes  under  the 
name  of  "  Cupid's  darts  "  (filches  d'amour).  The  metallic  glitter 


of  avanturine  or  sun-stone  (q.v.)  is  due  to  the  enclosed  scales 
of  gothite  and  certain  other  minerals.  (L.  J.  S.) 

GOTHS  (Gotones,  later  Gothis),  a  Teutonic  people  who  in  the 
ist  century  of  the  Christian  era  appear  to  have  inhabited  the 
middle  part  of  the  basin  of  the  Vistula.  They  were 
probably  the  easternmost  of  the  Teutonic  peoples.  history 
According  to  then"  own  traditions  as  recorded  by 
Jordanes,  they  had  come  originally  from  the  island  Scandza, 
i.e.  Skane  or  Sweden,  under  the  leadership  of  a  king  named 
Berig,  and  landed  first  in  a  region  called  Gothiscandza.  Thence 
they  invaded  the  territories  of  the  Ulmerugi  (the  Holmryge  of 
Anglo-Saxon  tradition),  probably  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Riigenwalde  in  eastern  Pomerania,  and  conquered  both  them 
and  the  neighbouring  Vandals.  Under  their  sixth  king  Filimer 
they  migrated  into  Scythia  and  settled  in  a  district  which  they 
called  Oium.  The  rest  of  their  early  history,  as  it  is  given  by 
Jordanes  following  Cassiodorus,  is  due  to  an  erroneous  identifica- 
tion of  the  Goths  with  the  Getae,  and  ancient  Thracian  people. 

The  credibility  of  the  story  of  the  migration  from  Sweden 
has  been  much  discussed  by  modern  authors.  The  legend  was 
not  peculiar  to  the  Goths,  similar  traditions  being  current  among 
the  Langobardi,  the  Burgundians,  and  apparently  several 
other  Teutonic  nations.  It  has  been  observed  with  truth 
that  so  many  populous  nations  can  hardly  have  sprung  from 
the  Scandinavian  peninsula;  on  the  other  hand,  the  existence  of 
these  traditions  certainly  requires  some  explanation.  Possibly, 
however,  many  of  the  royal  families  may  have  contained  an 
element  of  Scandinavian  blood,  a  hypothesis  which  would  well 
accord  with  the  social  conditions  of  the  migration  perjod,  as 
illustrated,  e.g.,  in  Volsunga  Saga  and  in  Hervarar  Saga  ok 
HeitSreks  Konungs.  In  the  case  of  the  Goths  a  connexion  with 
Gotland  is  not  unlikely,  since  it  is  clear  from  archaeological 
evidence  that  this  island  had  an  extensive  trade  with  the  coasts 
about  the  mouth  of  the  Vistula  in  early  times.  If,  however, 
there  was  any  migration  at  all,  one  would  rather  have  expected 
it  to  have  taken  place  in  the  reverse  direction.  For  the  origin 
of  the  Goths  can  hardly  be  separated  from  that  of  the  Vandals, 
whom  according  to  Procopius  they  resembled  in  language  and 
in  all  other  respects.  Moreover  the  Gepidae,  another  Teutonic 
people,  who  are  said  to  have  formerly  inhabited  the  delta  of 
the  Vistula,  also  appear  to  have  been  closely  connected  with 
the  Goths.  According  to  Jordanes  they  participated  in  the 
migration  from  Scandza. 

Apart  from  a  doubtful  reference  by  Pliny  to  a  statement 
of  the  early  traveller  Pytheas,  the  first  notices  we  have  of  the 
Goths  go  back  to  the  first  years  of  the  Christian  era,  at  which 
time  they  seem  to  have  been  subject  to  the  Marcomannic  king 
Maroboduus.  They  do  not  enter  into  Roman  history,  however, 
until  after  the  beginning  of  the  3rd  century,  at  which  time  they 
appear  to  have  come  in  conflict  with  the  emperor  Caracalla. 
During  this  century  their  frontier  seems  to  have  been  advanced 
considerably  farther  south,  and  the  whole  country  as  far  as  the 
lower  Danube  was  frequently  ravaged  by  them.  The  emperor 
Gordianus  is  called  "  victor  Gothorum  "  by  Capitolinus,  though 
we  have  no  record  of  the  ground  for  the  claim,  and  further  conflicts 
are  recorded  with  his  successors,  one  of  whom,  Decius,  was  slain 
by  the  Goths  in  Moesia.  According  to  Jordanes  the  kings  of 
the  Goths  during  these  campaigns  were  Ostrogotha  and  after- 
wards Cniva,  the  former  of  whom  is  praised  also  in  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  poem  Widsith.  The  emperor  Gallus  was  forced  to  pay 
tribute  to  the  Goths.  By  this  time  they  had  reached  the  coasts  of 
the  Black  Sea,  and  during  the  next  twenty  years  they  frequently 
ravaged  the  maritime  regions  of  Asia  Minor  and  Greece.  Aurelian 
is  said  to  have  won  a  victory  over  them,  but  the  province  of 
Dacia  had  to  be  given  up.  In  the  time  of  Constantino  the  Great 
Thrace  and  Moesia  were  again  plundered  by  the  Goths,  A.D.  321. 
Constantine  drove  them  back  and  concluded  peace  with  their 
king  Ariaric  in  336.  From  the  end  of  the  3rd  century  we  hear 
of  subdivisions  of  the  nation  called  Greutungi,  Teruingi, 
Austrogothi  (Ostrogothi),  Visigothi,  Taifali,  though  it  is  not 
clear  whether  these  were  all  distinct. 

Though  by  this  time  the  Goths  had  extended  their  territories 


GOTHS 


273 


far  to  the  south  and  east,  it  must  not  be  assumed  that  they  had 
evacuated  their  old  lands  on  the  Vistula.  Jordanes  records 
several  traditions  of  their  conflicts  with  other  Teutonic  tribes, 
in  particular  a  victory  won  by  Ostrogotha  over  Fastida,  king  of 
the  Gepidae,  and  another  by  Geberic  over  Visimar,  king  of  the 
Vandals,  about  the  end  of  Constantine's  reign,  in  consequence 
of  which  the  Vandals  sought  and  obtained  permission  to  settle 
in  Pannonia.  Geberic  was  succeeded  by  the  most  famous  of 
the  Gothic  kings,  Hermanaric  (Eormenric,  lormunrekr),  whose 
deeds  are  recorded  in  the  traditions  of  all  Teutonic  nations. 
According  to  Jordanes  he  conquered  the  Heruli,  the  Aestii, 
the  Venedi,  and  a  number  of  other  tribes  who  seem  to  have  been 
settled  in  the  southern  part  of  Russia.  From  Anglo-Saxon 
sources  it  seems  probable  that  his  supremacy  reached  westwards 
as  far  as  Hoist ein.  He  was  of  a  cruel  disposition,  and  is  said  to 
have  killed  his  nephews  Embrica  (Emerca)  and  Fritla  (Fridla) 
in  order  to  obtain  the  great  treasure  which  they  possessed. 
Still  more  famous  is  the  story  of  Suanihilda  (Svanhildr),  who 
according  to  Northern  tradition  was  his  wife  and  was  cruelly 
put  to  death  on  a  false  charge  of  unfaithfulness.  An  attempt 
to  avenge  her  death  was  made  by  her  brothers  Ammius  (HamSir) 
and  Sarus  (Sorli)  by  whom  Hermanaric  was  severely  wounded. 
To  his  time  belong  a  number  of  other  heroes  whose  exploits 
are  recorded  in  English  and  Northern  tradition,  amongst  whom 
we  may  mention  Wudga  (Vidigoia),  Hama  and  several  others, 
who  in  Widsith  are  represented  as  defending  their  country  against 
the  Huns  in  the  forest  of  the  Vistula.  Hermanaric  committed 
suicide  in  his  distress  at  an  invasion  of  the  Huns  about  A.D.  370, 
and  the  portion  of  the  nation  called  Ostrogoths  then  came  under 
Hunnish  supremacy.  The  Visigoths  obtained  permission  to 
cross  the  Danube  and  settle  in  Moesia.  A  large  part  of  the  nation 
became  Christian  about  this  time  (see  below).  The  exactions 
of  the  Roman  governors,  however,  soon  led  to  a  quarrel,  which 
ended  in  the  total  defeat  and  death  of  Valens  at  Adrianople 
in  the  year  378.  (F.  G.  M.  B.) 

From  about  370  the  history  of  the  East  and  West  Goths 
parts  asunder,  to  be  joined  together  again  only  incidentally 
,ater  and  for  a  season.  The  great  mass  of  the  East  Goths 
history.  stayed  north  of  the  Danube,  and  passed  under  the 
overlordship  of  the  Hun.  They  do  not  for  the  present 
play  any  important  part  in  the  affairs  of  the  Empire.  The  great 
mass  of  the  West  Goths  crossed  the  Danube  into  the  Roman 
provinces,  and  there  played  a  most  important  part  in  various 
characters  of  alliance  and  enmity.  The  great  migration  was  in 
376,  when  they  were  allowed  to  pass  as  peaceful  settlers  under 
their  chief  Frithigern.  His  rival  Athanaric  seems  to  have  tried 
to  maintain  his  party  for  a  while  north  of  the  Danube  in  defiance 
of  the  Huns;  but  he  had  presently  to  follow  the  example  of  the 
great  mass  of  the  nation.  The  peaceful  designs  of  Frithigern 
were  meanwhile  thwarted  by  the  ill-treatment  which  the  Goths 
suffered  from  the  Roman  officials,  which  led  first  to  disputes 
and  then  to  open  war.  In  378  the  Goths  won  the  great  battle  of 
Adrianople,  and  after  this  Theodosius  the  Great,  the  successor 
of  Valens,  made  terms  with  them  in  381,  and  the  mass  of  the 
Gothic  warriors  entered  the  Roman  service  as  foederali.  Many 
of  their  chiefs  were  in  high  favour;  but  it  seems  that  the  orthodox 
Theodosius  showed  more  favour  to  the  still  remaining  heathen 
party  among  the  Goths  than  to  the  larger  part  of  them  who  had 
embraced  Arian  Christianity.  Athanaric  himself  came  to  Con- 
stantinople in  381;  he  was  received  with  high  honours,  and  had 
a  solemn  funeral  when  he  died.  His  saying  is  worth  recording, 
as  an  example  of  the  effect  which  Roman  civilization  had  on 
the  Teutonic  mind.  "  The  emperor,"  he  said,  "  was  a  god  upon 
earth,  and  he  who  resisted  him  would  have  his  blood  on  his 
own  head." 

The  death  of  Theodosius  in  395  broke  up  the  union  between 
the  West  Goths  and  the  Empire.  Dissensions  arose  between 
them  and  the  ministers  of  Arcadius;  the  Goths  threw  off  their 
allegiance,  and  chose  Alaric  as  their  king.  This  was  a  restoration 
alike  of  national  unity  and  of  national  independence.  The 
royal  title  had  not  been  borne  by  their  leaders  in  the  Roman 
service.  Alaric's  position  is  quite  different  from  that  of  several 


Goths  in  the  Roman  service,  who  appear  as  simple  rebels.  He 
was  of  the  great  West  Gothic  house  of  the  Balthi,  or  Bold-men, 
a  house  second  in  nobility  only  to  that  of  the  Amali.  His  whole 
career  was  taken  up  with  marchings  to  and  fro  within  the  lands, 
first  of  the  Eastern,  then  of  the  Western  empire.  The  Goths 
are  under  him  an  independent  people  under  a  national  king; 
their  independence  is  in  no  way  interfered  with  if  the  Gothic 
king,  in  a  moment  of  peace,  accepts  the  office  and  titles  of  a 
Roman  general.  But  under  Alaric  the  Goths  make  no  lasting 
settlement.  In  the  long  tale  of  intrigue  and  warfare  between 
the  Goths  and  the  two  imperial  courts  which  fills  up  this  whole 
time,  cessions  of  territory  are  offered  to  the  Goths,  provinces 
are  occupied  by  them,  but  as  yet  they  do  not  take  root  anywhere; 
no  Western  land  as  yet  becomes  Gothia.  Alaric's  designs  of 
settlement  seem  in  his  first  stage  to  have  still  kept  east  of  the 
Adriatic,  in  Illyricum,  possibly  in  Greece.  Towards  the  end  of 
his  career  his  eyes  seem  fixed  on  Africa. 

Greece  was  the  scene  of  his  great  campaign  in  395-96,  the 
second  Gothic  invasion  of  that  country.  In  this  campaign  the 
religious  position  of  the  Goths  is  strongly  marked.  The  Arian 
appeared  as  an  enemy  alike  to  the  pagan  majority  and  the 
Catholic  minority;  but  he  came  surrounded  by  monks,  and  his 
chief  wrath  was  directed  against  the  heathen  temples  (vide  G.  F. 
Hertzberg,  Geschichte  Griechenlands,  iii.  391).  His  Italian  cam- 
paigns fall  into  two  great  divisions,  that  of  402-3,  when  he 
was  driven  back  by  Stilicho,  and  that  of  408-10,  after  Stilicho's 
death.  In  this  second  war  he  thrice  besieged  Rome  (408,  409, 
410).  The  second  time  it  suited  a  momentary  policy  to  set 
up  a  puppet  emperor  of  his  own,  and  even  to  accept  a  military 
commission  from  him.  The  third  time  he  sacked  the  city, 
the  first  time  since  Brennus  that  Rome  had  been  taken  by  an 
army  of  utter  foreigners.  The  intricate  political  and  military 
details  of  these  campaigns  are  of  less  importance  in  the  history 
of  the  Gothic  nation  than  the  stage  which  Alaric's  reign  marks 
in  the  history  of  that  nation.  It  stands  between  two  periods 
of  settlement  within  the  Empire  and  of  service  under  the  Empire. 
Under  Alaric  there  is  no  settlement,  and  service  is  quite  secondary 
and  precarious;  after  his  death  in  410  the  two  begin  again  in 
new  shapes. 

Contemporary  with  the  campaigns  of  Alaric  was  a  barbarian 
invasion  of  Italy,  which,  according  to  one  view,  again  brings 
the  East  and  West  Goths  together.  The  great  mass  of  the  East 
Goths,  as  has  been  already  said,  became  one  of  the  many  nations 
which  were  under  vassalage  to  the  Huns;  but  their  relation 
was  one  merely  of  vassalage.  They  remained  a  distinct  people 
under  kings  of  their  own,  kings  of  the  house  of  the  Amali  and  of 
the  kindred  of  Ermanaric  (Jordanes,  48) .  They  had  to  follow  the 
lead  of  the  Huns  in  war,  but  they  were  also  able  to  carry  on  wars 
of  their  own;  and  it  has  been  held  that  among  these  separate 
East  Gothic  enterprises  we  are  to  place  the  invasion  of  Italy  in 
405  by  Radagaisus  (whom  R.  Pallmann1  writes  Ratiger,  and 
takes  him  for  the  chief  of  the  heathen  part  of  the  East  Goths). 
One  chronicler,  Prosper,  makes  this  invasion  preceded  by  another 
in  400,  in  which  Alaric  and  Radagaisus  appear  as  partners. 
The  paganism  of  Radagaisus  is  certain.  The  presence  of  Goths 
in  his  army  is  certain,  but  it  seems  dangerous  to  infer  that  his 
invasion  was  a  national  Gothic  enterprise. 

Under  Ataulphus,  the  brother-in-law  and  successor  of  Alaric, 
another  era  opens,  the  beginning  of  enterprises  which  did  in  the 
end  lead  to  the  establishment  of  a  settled  Gothic  monarchy 
in  the  West.  The  position  of  Ataulphus  is  well  marked  by  the 
speech  put  into  his  mouth  by  Orosius.  He  had  at  one  time 
dreamed  of  destroying  the  Roman  power,  of  turning  Romania 
into  Gothia,  and  putting  Ataulphus  in  the  stead  of  Augustus; 
but  he  had  learned  that  the  world  could  be  governed  only  by 
the  laws  of  Rome  and  he  had  determined  to  use  the  Gothic  arms 
for  the  support  of  the  Roman  power.  And  in  the  confused  and 
contradictory  accounts  of  his  actions  (for  the  story  in  Jordanes 
cannot  be  reconciled  with  the  accounts  in  Olympiodorus  and 
the  chroniclers),  we  can  see  something  of  this  principle  at  work 
throughout.  Gaul  and  Spain  were  overrun  both  by  barbarian 
lGcschichle  der  Volkerwanderung  (Gotha,  1863-1864). 


274 


GOTHS 


invaders  and  by  rival  emperors.  The  sword  of  the  Goth  was 
to  win  back  the  last  lands  for  Rome.  And,  amid  many  shif  tings 
of  allegiance,  Ataulphus  seems  never  to  have  wholly  given  up 
the  position  of  an  ally  of  the  Empire.  His  marriage  with  Placidia, 
the  daughter  of  the  great  Theodosius,  was  taken  as  the  seal  of 
the  union  between  Goth  and  Roman,  and,  had  their  son  Theo- 
dosius lived,  a  dynasty  might  have  arisen  uniting  both  claims. 
But  the  career  of  Ataulphus  was  cut  short  at  Barcelona  in  415, 
by  his  murder  at  the  hands  of  another  faction  of  the  Goths. 
The  reign  of  Sigeric  was  momentary.  Under  Wallia  in  418  a 
more  settled  state  of  things  was  established.  The  Empire  re- 
ceived again,  as  the  prize  of  Gothic  victories,  the  Tarraconensis 
in  Spain,  and  Novempopulana  and  the  Narbonensis  in  Gaul. 
The  "  second  Aquitaine,"  with  the  sea-coast  from  the  mouth 
of  the  Garonne  to  the  mouth  of  the  Loire,  became  the  West 
Gothic  kingdom  of  Toulouse.  The  dominion  of  the  Goths  was 
now  strictly  Gaulish;  their  lasting  Spanish  dominion  does  not 
yet  begin. 

The  reign  of  the  first  West  Gothic  Theodoric  (419-451)  shows 
a  shifting  state  of  relations  between  the  Roman  and  Gothic 
powers;  but,  after  defeats  and  successes  both  ways,  the  older 
relation  of  alliance  against  common  enemies  was  again  estab- 
lished. At  last  Goth  and  Roman  had  to  join  together  against 
the  common  enemy  of  Europe  and  Christendom,  Attila  the  Hun. 
But  they  met  Gothic  warriors  in  his  army.  By  the  terms  of 
their  subjection  to  the  Huns,  the  East  Goths  came  to  fight  for 
Attila  against  Christendom  at  Chalons,  just  as  the  Servians  came 
to  fight  for  Bajazet  against  Christendom  at  Nicopolis.  Theodoric 
fell  in  the  battle  (451).  After  this  momentary  meeting,  the 
history  of  the  East  and  West  Goths  again  separates  for  a  while. 
The  kingdom  of  Toulouse  grew  within  Gaul  at  the  expense  of 
the  Empire,  and  in  Spain  at  the  expense  of  the  Suevi.  Under 
Euric  (466-485)  the  West  Gothic  power  again  became  largely 
a  Spanish  power.  The  kingdom  of  Toulouse  took  in  nearly  all 
Gaul  south  of  the  Loire  and  west  of  the  Rhone,  with  all  Spain, 
except  the  north-west  corner,  which  was  still  held  by  the  Suevi. 
Provence  alone  remained  to  the  Empire.  The  West  Gothic 
kings  largely  adopted  Roman  manners  and  culture;  but,  as 
they  still  kept  to  their  original  Arian  creed,  their  rule  never 
became  thoroughly  acceptable  to  their  Catholic  subjects.  They 
stood,  therefore,  at  a  great  disadvantage  when  a  new  and  aggres- 
sive Catholic  power  appeared  in  Gaul  through  the  conversion 
of  the  Frank  Clovis  or  Chlodwig.  Toulouse  was,  as  in  days  long 
after,  the  seat  of  an  heretical  power,  against  which  the  forces 
of  northern  Gaul  marched  as  on  a  crusade.  In  507  the  West 
Gothic  king  Alaric  II.  fell  before  the  Prankish  arms  at  Campus 
Vogladensis,  near  Poitiers,  and  his  kingdom,  as  a  great  power 
north  of  the  Alps,  fell  with  him.  That  Spain  and  a  fragment  of 
Gaul  still  remained  to  form  a  West  Gothic  kingdom  was  owing 
to  the  intervention  of  the  East  Goths  under  the  rule  of  the  greatest 
man  in  Gothic  history. 

When  the  Hunnish  power  broke  in  pieces  on  the  death  of 
Attila,  the  East  Goths  recovered  their  full  independence.  They 
now  entered  into  relations  with  the  Empire,  and  were  settled 
on  lands  in  Pannonia.  During  the  greater  part  of  the  latter 
half  of  the  5th  century,  the  East  Goths  play  in  south-eastern 
Europe  nearly  the  same  part  which  the  West  Goths  played 
in  the  century  before.  They  are  seen  going  to  and  fro,  in  every 
conceivable  relation  of  friendship  and  enmity  with  the  Eastern 
Roman  power,  till,  just  as  the  West  Goths  had  done  before  them, 
they  pass  from  the  East  to  the  West.  They  are  still  ruled  by 
kings  of  the  house  of  the  Amali,  and  from  that  house  there  now 
steps  forward  a  great  figure,  famous  alike  in  history  and  in 
romance,  in  the  person  of  Theodoric,  son  of  Theodemir.  Born 
about  454,  his  childhood  was  spent  at  Constantinople  as  a 
hostage,  where  he  was  carefully  educated.  The  early  part  of 
his  life  is  taken  up  with  various  disputes,  intrigues  and  wars 
within  the  Eastern  empire,  in  which  he  has  as  his  rival  another 
Theodoric,  son  of  Triarius,  and  surnamed  Strabo.  This  older 
but  lesser  Theodoric  seems  to  have  been  the  chief,  not  the  king, 
of  that  branch  of  the  East  Goths  which  had  settled  within  the 
Empire  at  an  earlier  time.  Theodoric  the  Great,  as  he  is  some- 


times'distinguished,  is  sometimes  the  friend,  sometimes  the 
enemy,  of  the  Empire.  In  the  former  case  he  is  clothed  with 
various  Roman  titles  and  offices,  as  patrician  and  consul;  but 
in  all  cases  alike  he  remains  the  national  East  Gothic  king.  It 
was  in  both  characters  together  that  he  set  out  in  488,  by  com- 
mission from  the  emperor  Zeno,  to  recover  Italy  from  Odoacer. 
By  493  Ravenna  was  taken;  Odoacer  was  killed  by  Theodoric's 
own  hand;  and  the  East  Gothic  power  was  fully  established 
over  Italy,  Sicily,  Dalmatia  and  the  lands  to  the  north  of  Italy. 
In  this  war  the  history  of  the  East  and  West  Goths  begins  again 
to  unite,  if  we  may  accept  the  witness  of  one  writer  that  Theo- 
doric was  helped  by  West  Gothic  auxiliaries.  The  two  branches 
of  the  nation  were  soon  brought  much  more  closely  together, 
when,  through  the  overthrow  of  the  West  Gothic  kingdom  of 
Toulouse,  the  power  of  Theodoric  was  practically  extended 
over  a  large  part  of  Gaul  and  over  nearly  the  whole  of  Spain. 
A  time  of  confusion  followed  the  fall  of  Alaric  II.,  and,  as  that 
prince  was  the  son-in-law  of  Theodoric,  the  East  Gothic  king 
stepped  in  as  the  guardian  of  his  grandson  Amalaric,  and  pre- 
served for  him  all  his  Spanish  and  a  fragment  of  his  Gaulish 
dominion.  Toulouse  passed  away  to  the  Frank;  but  the  Goth 
kept  Narbonne  and  its  district,  the  land  of  Septimania — the 
land  which,  as  the  last  part  of  Gaul  held  by  the  Goths,  kept 
the  name  of  Gothia  for  many  ages.  While  Theodoric  lived, 
the  West  Gothic  kingdom  was  practically  united  to  his  own 
dominion.  He  seems  also  to  have  claimed  a  kind  of  protect- 
orate over  the  Teutonic  powers  generally,  and  indeed  to  have 
practically  exercised  it,  except  in  the  case  of  the  Franks. 

The  East  Gothic  dominion  was  now  again  as  great  in  extent 
and  far  more  splendid  than  it  could  have  been  in  the  time  of 
Ermanaric.  But  it  was  now  of  a  wholly  different  character. 
The  dominion  of  Theodoric  was  not  a  barbarian  but  a  civilized 
power.  His  twofold  position  ran  through  everything.  He  was 
at  once  national  king  of  the  Goths,  and  successor,  though  without 
any  imperial  titles,  of  the  Roman  emperors  of  the  West.  The 
two  nations,  differing  in  manners,  language  and  religion,  lived 
side  by  side  on  the  soil  of  Italy;  each  was  ruled  according  to  its 
own  law,  by  the  prince  who  was,  in  his  two  separate  characters, 
the  common  sovereign  of  both.  The  picture  of  Theodoric's 
rule  is  drawn  for  us  in  the  state  papers  drawn  up  in  his  name 
and  in  the  names  of  his  successors  by  his  Roman  minister  Cassio- 
dorus.  The  Goths  seem  to  have  been  thick  on  the  ground  in 
northern  Italy;  in  the  south  they  formed  little  more  than 
garrisons.  In  Theodoric's  theory  the  Goth  was  the  armed  pro- 
tector of  the  peaceful  Roman;  the  Gothic  king  had  the  toil  of 
government,  while  the  Roman  consul  had  the  honour.  All  the 
forms  of  the  Roman  administration  went  on,  and  the  Roman 
polity  and  Roman  culture  had  great  influence  on  the  Goths 
themselves.  The  rule  of  the  prince  over  two  distinct  nations 
in  the  same  land  was  necessarily  despotic;  the  old  Teutonic 
freedom  was  necessarily  lost.  Such  a  system  as  that  which 
Theodoric  established  needed  a  Theodoric  to  carry  it  on.  It 
broke  in  pieces  after  his  death. 

On  the  death  of  Theodoric  (526)  the  East  and  West  Goths 
were  again  separated.  The  few  instances'  in  which  they  are 
found  acting  together  after  this  time  are  as  scattered  and 
incidental  as  they  were  before.  Amalaric  succeeded  to  the 
West  Gothic  kingdom  in  Spain  and  Septimania.  Provence 
was  added  to  the  dominion  of  the  new  East  Gothic  king  Athalaric, 
the  grandson  of  Theodoric  through  his  daughter  Amalasuntha. 
The  weakness  of  the  East  Gothic  position  in  Italy  how  showed 
itself.  The  long  wars  of  Justinian's  reign  (535-555)  recovered 
Italy  for  the  Empire,  and  the  Gothic  name  died  out  on  Italian 
soil.  The  chance  of  forming  a  national  state  in  Italy  by  the 
union  of  Roman  and  Teutonic  elements,  such  as  those  which 
arose  in  Gaul,  in  Spain,  and  in  parts  of  Italy  under  Lombard 
rule,  was  thus  lost.  The  East  Gothic  kingdom  was  destroyed 
before  Goths  and  Italians  had  at  all  mingled  together.  The  war 
of  course  made  the  distinction  stronger;  under  the  kings  who 
were  chosen  for  the  purposes  of  the  war  national  Gothic*  feeling 
had  revived.  The  Goths  were  now  again,  if  not  a  wandering 
people,  yet  an  armed  host,  no  longer  the  protectors  but  the 


GOTHS 


275 


*<*» 

S^P 


enemies  of  the  Roman  people  of  Italy.  The  East  Gothic  dominion 
and  the  East  Gothic  name  wholly  passed  away.  The  nation 
had  followed  Theodoric.  It  is  only  once  or  twice  after  his 
expedition  that  we  hear  of  Goths,  or  even  of  Gothic  leaders, 
in  the  eastern  provinces.  From  the  soil  of  Italy  the  nation 
passed  away  almost  without  a  trace,  while  the  next  Teutonic 
conquerors  stamped  their  name  on  the  two  ends  of  the  land, 
one  of  which  keeps  it  to  this  day. 

The  West  Gothic  kingdom  lasted  much  longer,  and  came 
much  nearer  to  establishing  itself  as  a  national  power  in  the 
lands  which  it  took  in.  But  the  difference  of  race  and  faith 
tween  the  Arian  Goths  and  the  Catholic  Romans  of  Gaul  and 
ipain  influenced  the  history  of  the  West  Gothic  kingdom  for 
a  long  time.  The  Arian  Goths  ruled  over  Catholic  subjects, 
and  were  surrounded  by  Catholic  neighbours.  The  Franks 
were  Catholics  from  their  first  conversion;  the  Suevi  became 
Catholics  much  earlier  than  the  Goths.  The  African  conquests 
of  Belisarius  gave  the  Goths  of  Spain,  instead  of  the  Arian 
Vandals,  another  Catholic  neighbour  in  the  form  of  the  restored 
Roman  power.  The  Catholics  everywhere  preferred  either 
Roman,  Suevian  or  Prankish  rule  to  that  of  the  heretical  Goths; 
even  the  unconquerable  mountaineers  of  Cantabria  seem  for 
a  while  to  have  received  a  Prankish  governor.  In  some  other 
mountain  districts  the  Roman  inhabitants  long  maintained 
their  independence,  and  in  534  a  large  part  of  the  south  of  Spain, 
including  the  great  cities  of  Cadiz,  Cordova,  Seville  and  New 
Carthage,  was,  with  the  good  will  of  its  Roman  inhabitants, 
reunited  to  the  Empire,  which  kept  some  points  on  the  coast 
as  late  as  624.  That  is  to  say,  the  same  work  which  the  Empire 
was  carrying  on  in  Italy  against  the  East  Goths  was  at  the  same 
moment  carried  on  in  Spain  against  the  West  Goths.  But  in 
Italy  the  whole  land  was  for  a  while  won  back,  and  the  Gothic 
power  passed  away  for  ever.  In  Spain  the  Gothic  power  outlived 
the  Roman  power,  but  it  outlived  it  only  by  itself  becoming 
in  some  measure  Roman.  The  greatest  period  of  the  Gothic 
pcwer  as  such  was  in  the  reign  of  Leovigild  (568-586).  He 
reunited  the  Gaulish  and  Spanish  parts  of  the  kingdom  which 
had  been  parted  for  a  moment;  he  united  the  Suevian  dominion 
to  his  own;  he  overcame  some  of  the  independent  districts, 
and  won  back  part  of  the  recovered  Roman  province  in  southern 
Spain.  He  further  established  the  power  of  the  crown  over  the 
Gothic  nobles,  who  were  beginning  to  grow  into  territorial  lords. 
The  next  reign,  that  of  his  son  Recared  (586-601),  was  marked 
by  a  change  which  took  away  the  great  hindrance  which  had 
thus  far  stood  in  the  way  of  any  national  union  between 
Goths  and  Romans.  The  king  and  the  greater  part  of  the 
Gothic  people  embraced  the  Catholic  faith.  A  vast  degree  of 
influence  now  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Catholic  bishops;  the 
two  nations  began  to  unite;  the  Goths  were  gradually  romanized 
and  the  Gothic  language  began  to  go  out  of  use.  In  short,  the 
Romance  nation  and  the  Romance  speech  of  Spain  began  to 
be  formed.  The  Goths  supplied  the  Teutonic  infusion  into  the 
Roman  mass.  The  kingdom,  however,  still  remained  a  Gothic 
kingdom.  "  Gothic,"  not  "  Roman  "  or  "  Spanish,"  is  its 
formal  title;  only  a  single  late  instance  of  the  use  of  the  formula 
"  regnum  Hispaniae  "  is  known.  In  the  first  half  of  the  7th 
century  that  name  became  for  the  first  time  geographically 
applicable  by  the  conquest  of  the  still  Roman  coast  of  southern 
Spain.  The  Empire  was  then  engaged  in  the  great  struggle 
with  the  Avars  and  Persians,  and,  now  that  the  Gothic  kings 
were  Catholic,  the  great  objection  to  their  rule  on  the  part  of 
the  Roman  inhabitants  was  taken  away.  The  Gothic  nobility 
still  remained  a  distinct  class,  and  held,  along  with  the  Catholic 
prelacy,  the  right  of  choosing  the  king.  Union  with  the  Catholic 
Church  was  accompanied  by  the  introduction  of  the  ecclesi- 
astical ceremony  of  anointing,  a  change  decidedly  favourable  to 
elective  rule.  The  growth  of  those  later  ideas  which  tended 
again  to  favour  the  hereditary  doctrine  had  not  time  to  grow 
up  in  Spain  before  the  Mahommedan  conquest  (711).  The  West 
Gothic  crown  therefore  remained  elective  till  the  end.  The 
modern  Spanish  nation  is  the  growth  of  the  long  struggle  with 
the  Mussulmans;  but  it  has  a  direct  connexion  with  the  West 


Gothic  kingdom.  We  see  at  once  that  the  Goths  hold  altogether 
a  different  place  in  Spanish  memory  from  that  which  they  hold 
in  Italian  memory.  In  Italy  the  Goth  was  but  a  momentary 
invader  and  ruler;  the  Teutonic  element  in  Italy  comes  from 
other  sources.  In  Spain  the  Goth  supplies  an  important  element 
in  the  modern  nation.  And  that  element  has  been  neither 
forgotten  nor  despised.  Part  of  the  unconquered  region  of 
northern  Spain,  the  land  of  Asturia,  kept  for  a  while  the  name 
of  Gothia,  as  did  the  Gothic  possessions  in  Gaul  and  in  Crim. 
The  name  of  the  people  who  played  so  great  a  part  in  all  southern 
Europe,  and  who  actually  ruled  over  so  large  a  part  of  it  has 
now  wholly  passed  away;  but  it  is  in  Spain  that  its  historical 
impress  is  to  be  looked  for. 

Of  Gothic  literature  in  the  Gothic  language  we  have  the  Bible 
of  Ulfilas,  and  some  other  religious  writings  and  fragments 
(see  Gothic  Language  below).  Of  Gothic  legislation  in  Latin 
we  have  the  edict  of  Theodoric  of  the  year  500,  edited  by  F. 
Bluhme  in  the  Monumenta  Germaniae  historica;  and  the  books 
of  Variae  of  Cassiodorus  may  pass  as  a  collection  of  the  state 
papers  of  Theodoric  and  his  immediate  successors.  Among  the 
West  Goths  written  laws  had  already  been  put  forth  by  Euric. 
The  second  Alaric  (484-507)  put  forth  a  Breviarium  of  Roman 
law  for  his  Roman  subjects;  but  the  great  collection  of  West 
Gothic  laws  dates  from  the  later  days  of  the  monarchy,  being 
put  forth  by  King  Recceswinth  about  654.  This  code  gave 
occasion  to  some  well-known  comments  by  Montesquieu  and 
Gibbon,  and  has  been  discussed  by  Savigny  {Geschichte  des 
romischen  Rechts,  ii.  65)  and  various  other  writers.  They  are 
printed  in  the  Monumenta  Germaniae,  leges,  tome  i.  (1902). 
Of  special  Gothic  histories,  besides  that  of  Jordanes,  already 
so  often  quoted,  there  is  the  Gothic  history  of  Isidore,  archbishop 
of  Seville,  a  special  source  of  the  history  of  the  West  Gothic 
kings  down  to  Svinthala  (621-631).  But  all  the  Latin  and 
Greek  writers  contemporary  with  the  days  of  Gothic  predominance 
make  their  constant  contributions.  Not  for  special  facts,  but 
for  a  general  estimate,  no  writer  is  more  instructive  than  Salvian 
of  Marseilles  in  the  sth  century,  whose  work  De  Gubernatione  Dei 
is  full  of  passages  contrasting  the  vices  of  the  Romans  with  the 
virtues  of  the  barbarians,  especially  of  the  Goths.  In  all  such 
pictures  we  must  allow  a  good  deal  for  exaggeration  both  ways, 
but  there  must  be  a  ground-work  of  truth.  The  chief  virtues 
which  the  Catholic  presbyter  praises  in  the  Arian  Goths  are 
their  chastity,  their  piety  according  to  their  own  creed,  their 
tolerance  towards  the  Catholics  under  their  rule,  and  their 
general  good  treatment  of  their  Roman  subjects.  He  even 
ventures  to  hope  that  such  good  people  may  be  saved,  notwith- 
standing their  heresy.  All  this  must  have  had  some  ground- 
work of  truth  in  the  5th  century,  but  it  is  not  very  wonderful 
if  the  later  West  Goths  of  Spain  had  a  good  deal  fallen  away  from 
the  doubtless  somewhat  ideal  picture  of  Salvian.  (E.  A.  F.) 

There  is  now  an  extensive  literature  on  the  Goths,  and  among  the 
principal  works  may  be  mentioned:  T.  Hodgkin,  Italy  and  her 
Invaders  (Oxford,  1880-1899);  J.  Aschbach,  Geschichte  der  West- 
goten  (Frankfort,  1827);  F.  Dahn,  Die  Konige  der  Germanen  (1861- 
1899);  E.  von  Wietersheim,  Geschichte  der  Volkerwanderung  (1880- 
1881);  R.  Pallmann,  Die  Geschichte  der  Volkerwanderung  (Gotha, 
1863-1864.);  B.  Rappaport,  Die  Einfdlle  der  Goten  in  das  romische 
Reich  (Leipzig,  1899),  and  K.  Zeuss,  Die  Deutschen  und  die  Nachbar- 
stdmme  (Munich,  1837).  Other  works  which  may  be  consulted  are: 
E.  Gibbon,  Decline  arid  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,  edited  by  J.  B. 
Bury  (1896-1000);  H.  H.  Milman,  History  of  Latin  Christianity 
(1867);  J.  B.  Bury,  History  of  the  Later  Roman  Empire  (1889); 
P.  Villari,  Le  Invasioni  barbartche  in  Italia  (Milan,  1901);  and  F. 
Martroye,  L'Occideni  a  I'epoque  byzantine:  Goths  et  Vandal es  (Paris, 
1903).  There  is  a  popular  history  of  the  Goths  by  H.  Bradley  in  the 
"  Story  of  the  Nations  "  series  (London,  1888).  For  the  laws  see  the 
Leges  in  Band  I.  of  the  Monumenta  Germaniae  historica,  leges  (1902). 
A.  Helfferich,  Entstehung  und  Geschichte  des  Westgotenrechts  (Berlin, 
1858);  F.  Bluhme,  Zur  Textkritik  des  Westgotenrechts  (1872);  F. 
Dahn,  Lex  Visigothorum.  Westgotische  Studien  (Wurzburg,  1874); 
C.  Rinaudo,  Leggidei  Visigote,  studio  (Turin,  1878);  and  K.  Zeumer, 
"  Geschichte  der  westgotischen  Gesetzgebung  "  in  the  Neues  Archio 
der  Gesellschaftfur  dltere  deutsche  Geschichlskunde.  See  also  the  article 
on  THEODORIC. 

Gothic  Language. — Our  knowledge  of  the  Gothic  language 
is  derived  almost  entirely  from  the  fragments  of  a  translation 


276 


GOTLAND 


of  the  Bible  which  is  believed  to  have  been  made  by  the  Arian 
bishop  Wulfila  or  Ulfilas  (d.  383)  for  the  Goths  who  dwelt  on 
the  lower  Danube.  The  MSS.  which  have  come  down  to  us 
and  which  date  from  the  period  of  Ostrogothic  rule  in  Italy 
(480-555)  contain  the  Second  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians  complete, 
together  with  more  or  less  considerable  fragments  of  the  four 
Gospels  and  of  all  the  other  Pauline  Epistles.  The  only  remains 
of  the  Old  Testament  are  three  short  fragments  of  Ezra  and 
Nehemiah.  There  is  also  an  incomplete  commentary  (skeireins) 
on  St  John's  Gospel,  a  fragment  of  a  calendar,  and  two  charters 
(from  Naples  and  Arezzo,  the  latter  now  lost)  which  contain 
some  Gothic  sentences.  All  these  texts  are  written  in  a  special 
character,  which  is  said  to  have  been  invented  by  Wulfila.  It 
is  based  chiefly  on  the  uncial  Greek  alphabet,  from  which 
indeed  most  of  the  letters  are  obviously  derived,  and  several 
orthographical  peculiarities,  e.g.  the  use  of  ai  for  e  and  ei  for  i 
reflect  the  Greek  pronunciation  of  the  period.  Other  letters, 
however,  have  been  taken  over  from  the  Runic  and  Latin 
alphabets.  Apart  from  the  texts  mentioned  above,  the  only 
remains  of  the  Gothic  language  are  the  proper  names  and 
occasional  words  which  occur  in  Greek  and  Latin  writings, 
together  with  some  notes,  including  the  Gothic  alphabet,  in  a 
Salzburg  MS.  of  the  loth  century,  and  two  short  inscriptions 
on  a  torque  and  a  spear-head,  discovered  at  Buzeo  (Walachia) 
and  Kovel  (Volhynia)  respectively.  The  language  itself,  as 
might  be  expected  from  the  date  of  Wulfila's  translation,  is 
of  a  much  more  archaic  type  than  that  of  any  other  Teutonic 
writings  which  we  possess,  except  a  few  of  the  earliest  Northern 
inscriptions.  This  may  be  seen,  e.g.  in  the  better  preservation 
of  final  and  unaccented  syllables  and  in  the  retention  of  the  dual 
and  the  middle  (passive)  voice  in  verbs.  It  would  be  quite 
erroneous,  however,  to  regard  the  Gothic  fragments  as  represent- 
ing a  type  of  language  common  to  all  Teutonic  nations  in  the 
4th  century.  Indeed  the  distinctive  characteristics  of  the 
language  are  very  marked,  and  there  is  good  reason  for  believing 
that  it  differed  considerably  from  the  various  northern  and 
western  languages,  whereas  the  differences  among  the  latter 
at  this  time  were  probably  comparatively  slight  (see  TEUTONIC 
LANGUAGES).  On  the  other  hand,  it  must  not  be  supposed  that 
the  language  of  the  Goths  stood  quite  isolated.  Procopius 
(Vand.  i.  2)  states  distinctly  that  the  Gothic  language  was 
spoken  not  only  by  the' Ostrogoths  and  Visigoths  but  also  by  the 
Vandals  and  the  Gepidae;  and  in  the  former  case  there  is  sufficient 
evidence,  chiefly  from  proper  names,  to  prove  that  his  statement 
is  not  far  from  the  truth.  With  regard  to  the  Gepidae  we  have 
less  information;  but  since  the  Goths,  according  to  Jordanes 
(cap.  17),  believed  them  to  have  been  originally  a  branch  of 
their  own  nation,  it  is  highly  probable  that  the  two  languages 
were  at  least  closely  related.  Procopius  elsewhere  (Vand.  i. 
3;  Goth.  i.  i,  iii.  2)  speaks  of  the  Rugii,  Sciri  and  Alani  as 
Gothic  nations.  The  fact  that  the  two  former  were  sprung 
from  the  north-east  of  Germany  renders  it  probable  that  they 
had  Gothic  affinities,  while  the  Alani,  though  non-Teutonic 
in  origin,  may  have  become  gothicized  in  the  course  of  the 
migration  period.  Some  modern  writers  have  included  in  the 
same  class  the  Burgundians,  a  nation  which  had  apparently 
come  from  the  basin  of  the  Oder,  but  the  evidence  at  our  disposal 
on  the  whole  hardly  justifies  the  supposition  that  their  language 
retained  a  close  affinity  with  Gothic. 

In  the  4th  and  sth  centuries  the  Gothic  language — using 
the  term  in  its  widest  sense — must  have  spread  over  the  greater . 
part  of  Europe  together  with  the  north  coast  of  Africa.  It 
disappeared,  however,  with  surprising  rapidity.  There  is  no 
evidence  for  its  survival  in  Italy  or  Africa  after  the  fall  of  the 
Ostrogothic  and  Vandal  kingdoms,  while  in  Spain  it  is  doubtful 
whether  the  Visigoths  retained  their  language  until  the  Arabic 
conquest.  In  central  Europe  it  may  have  lingered  somewhat 
longer  in  view  of  the  evidence  of  the  Salzburg  MS.  mentioned 
above.  Possibly  the  information  there  given  was  derived  from 
southern  Hungary  or  Transylvania  where  remains  of  the  Gepidae 
were  to  be  found  shortly  before  the  Magyar  invasion  (889). 
According  to  Walafridus  Strabo  (de  Reb.  Eccles.  cap.  7)  also 


Gothic  was  still  used  in  his  time  (the  Qth  century)  in  some 
churches  in  the  region  of  the  lower  Danube.  Thenceforth  the 
language  seems  to  have  survived  only  among  the  Goths  (Goti 
Tetraxitae)  of  the  Crimea,  who  are  mentioned  for  the  last  time 
by  Ogier  Ghislain  de  Busbecq,  an  imperial  envoy  at  Constanti- 
nople about  the  middle  of  the  i6th  century.  He  collected  a 
number  of  words  and  phrases  in  use  among  them  which  show 
clearly  that  their  language,  though  not  unaffected  by  Iranian 
influence,  was  still  essentially  a  form  of  Gothic. 

See  H.  C.  von  der  Gabelentz  and  J.  Loebe,  Ulfilas  (Altenburg  and 
Leipzig,  1836-1846);  E.  Bernhardt,  Vulfila  oder  die  gotische  Bibel 
(Halle,  1875).  For  other  works  on  the  Gothic  language  seej.  Wright, 
A  Primer  of  the  Gothic  Language  (Oxford,  1892),  p.  143  f.  To  the 
references  there  given  should  be  added:  C.  C.  Uhlenbeck,  Etymo- 
logischesWorterbuch  d.go(.5*rocAe(Amsterdam,2nd  ed.  1901)  ;F.Kluge, 
"  Geschichte  d.  got.  Sprache  "  in  H.  Paul's  Grundriss  d.  germ.  Philo- 
logie  (2nd  ed.,  vol.  i.,  Strassburg,  1897);  W.  Streitberg,  Golisches 
Elementarbuch  (Heidelberg,  1897) ;  Th.  von  Grienberger,  Beitrdge  zur 
Geschichte  d.  deutschen  Sprache  u.  Literatur,  xxi.  185  ff. ;  L.  F.  A. 
Wimmer,  Die  Runenschrift  (Berlin,  1887),  p.  61  ff. ;  G.  Stephens, 
Handbook  to  the  Runic  Monuments  (London,  1884),  p.  203;  F.  Wrede, 
t)ber  die  Sprache  der  Wandalen  (Strassburg,  1886).  For  further 
references  see  K.  Zeuss,  Die  Deutschen,  p.  432  f.  (where  earlier  refer- 
ences to  the  Crimean  Goths  are  also  given) ;  F.  Kluge,  op.  cit.,  p.  515 
ff. ;  and  O.  Bremer,  ib.  vol.  iii.,  p.  822.  (H.  M.  C.) 

GOTLAND,  an  island  in  the  Baltic  Sea  belonging  to  Sweden, 
lying  between  57°  and  58°  N.,  and  having  a  length  from  S.  S.  W. 
to  N.N.E.  of  75  m.,  a  breadth  not  exceeding  30  m.,  and  an  area 
of  1142  sq.  m.  The  nearest  point  on  the  mainland  is  50  m. 
from  the  westernmost  point  of  the  island.  With  the  island 
Faro,  off  the  northern  extremity,  the  Karlsoe,  off  the  west  coast, 
and  Gotska  Sando,  25  m.  N.  by  E.,  Gotland  forms  the  admini- 
strative district  (Ian)  of  Gotland.  The  island  is  a  level  plateau 
of  Silurian  limestone,  rising  gently  eastward,  of  an  average 
height  of  80  to  100  ft.,  with  steep  coasts  fringed  with  tapering, 
free-standing  columns  of  limestone  (raukar).  A  few  low  isolated 
hills  rise  inland.  The  climate  is  temperate,  and  the  soil,  although 
in  parts  dry  and  sterile,  is  mostly  fertile.  Former  marshy  moors 
have  been  largely  drained  and  cultivated.  There  are  extensive 
sand-dunes  in  the  north.  As  usual  in  a  limestone  formation, 
some  of  the  streams  have  their  courses  partly  below  the  surface, 
and  caverns  are  not  infrequent.  Less  than  half  the  total  area 
is  under  forest,  the  extent  of  which  was  formerly  much  greater. 
Barley,  rye,  wheat  and  oats  are  grown,  especially  the  first,  which 
is  exported  to  the  breweries  on  the  mainland.  The  sugar-beet 
is  also  produced  and  exported,  and  there  are  beet-sugar  works 
on  the  island.  Sheep  and  cattle  are  kept ;  there  is  a  government 
sheep  farm  at  Roma,  and  the  cattle  may  be  noted  as  belonging 
principally  to  an  old  native  breed,  yellow  and  horned.  Some 
lime-burning,  cement-making  and  sea-fishing  are  carried  on. 
The  capital  of  the  island  is  Visby,  on  the  west  coast.  There  are 
over  80  m.  of  railways.  Lines  run  from  Visby  N.E.  to  Tingstade 
and  S.  to  Hofdhem,  with  branches  from  Roma  to  Klintehamn, 
a  small  watering-place  on  the  west  coast,  and  to  Slitehamn  on 
the  east.  Excepting  along  the  coast  the  island  has  no  scenic 
attraction,  but  it  is  of  the  highest  archaeological  interest.  Nearly 
every  village  has  its  ruined  church,  and  others  occur  where  no 
villages  remain.  The  shrunken  walled  town  of  Visby  was  one 
of  the  richest  commercial  centres  of  the  Baltic  from  the  nth  to 
the  i4th  century,  and  its  prosperity  was  shared  by  the  whole 
island.  It  retains  ten  churches  besides  the  cathedral.  The 
massive  towers  of  the  village  churches  are  often  detached,  and 
doubtless  served  purposes  of  defence.  The  churches  of  Roma, 
Hemse,  with  remarkable  mural  paintings,  Othen  and  Larbo 
may  be  specially  noted.  Some  contain  fine  stained  glass,  as  at 
Dalhem  near  Visby.  The  natives  of  Gotland  speak  a  dialect 
distinguished  from  that  of  any  part  of  the  Swedish  mainland. 
Pop.  of  Ian  (1900)  52,781. 

Gotland  was  subject  to  Sweden  before  890,  and  in  1030  was 
christianized  by  St  Olaf,  king  of  Norway,  when  returning  from 
his  exile  at  Kiev.  He  dedicated  the  first  church  in  the  island  to 
St  Peter  at  Visby.  At  that  time  Visby  had  long  been  one  of 
the  most  important  trading  towns  in  the  Baltic,  and  the  chief 
distributing  centre  of  the  oriental  commerce  which  came  to 
Europe  along  the  rivers  of  Russia.  In  the  early  years  of  the 


GOTO  ISLANDS— GOTTFRIED  VON  STRASSBURG 


r  Hanseatic  League,  or  about  the  middle  of  the  I3th  century, 
it  became  the  chief  dep6t  for  the  produce  of  the  eastern  Baltic 
countries,  including,  in  a  commercial  sense,  its  daughter  colony 
(nth  century  or  earlier)  of  Novgorod  the  Great.  Although 
Visby  was  an  independent  member  of  the  Hanseatic  League, 
the  influence  of  Liibeck  was  paramount  in  the  city,  and  half 
its  governing  body  were  men  of  German  descent.  Indeed, 
Bjorkander  endeavours  to  prove  that  the  city  was  a  German 
(Hanseatic)  foundation,  dating  principally  from  the  middle 

I  of  the  1 2th  century.  However  that  may  be,  the  importance  of 
Visby  in  the  sea  trade  of  the  North  is  conclusively  attested  by 
the  famous  code  of  maritime  law  which  bears  its  name.  This 
Waterrecht  dat  de  Koopliide  en  de  Schippers  gemakt  hebben  to 
Visby  ("  sea-law  which  the  merchants  and  seamen  have  made 
at  Visby  ")  was  a  compilation  based  upon  the  Liibeck  code, 
the  Oleron  code  and  the  Amsterdam  code,  and  was  first  printed 
in  Low  German  in  1 505,  but  in  all  probability  had  its  origin  about 
1240,  or  not  much  later  (see  SEA  LAWS).  By  the  middle  of  the 
1 4th  century  the  reputation  of  the  wealth  of  the  city  was  so 
great  that,  according  to  an  old  ballad,  "  the  Gotlanders  weighed 
out  gold  with  stone  weights  and  played  with  the  choicest  jewels. 
The  swine  ate  out  of  silver  troughs,  and  the  women  spun  with 
distaffs  of  gold."  This  fabled  wealth  was  too  strong  a  temptation 
for  the  energetic  Valdemar  Atterdag  of  Denmark.  In  1361  he 
invaded  the  island,  routed  the  defenders  of  Visby  under  the 
city  walls  (a  monolithic  cross  marks  the  burial-place  of  the 
islanders  who  fell)  and  plundered  the  city.  From  this  blow 
it  never  recovered,  its  decay  being,  however,  materially  helped 
by  the  fact  that  for  the  greater  part  of  the  next  1 50  years  it  was 
the  stronghold  of  successive  freebooters  or  sea-rovers — first, 
of  the  Hanseatic  privateers  called  Vitalienbrodre  or  Viktualien- 
briider,  who  made  it  their  stronghold  during  the  last  eight 
years  of  the  I4th  century;  then  of  the  Teutonic  Knights,  whose 
Grand  Master  drove  out  the  "  Victuals  Brothers,"  and  kept  the 
island  until  it  was  redeemed  by  Queen  Margaret.  There  too 
Erik  XIII.  (the  Pomeranian),  after  being  driven  out  of  Denmark 
by  his  own  subjects,  established  himself  in  1437,  and  for  a 
dozen  years  waged  piracy  upon  Danes  and  Swedes  alike.  After 
him  came  Olaf  and  Ivar  Thott,  two  Danish  lords,  who  down  to 
the  year  1487  terrorized  the  seas  from  their  pirates'  stronghold 
of  Visby.  Lastly,  the  Danish  admiral  Soren  Norrby,  the  last 
supporter  of  Christian  I.  of  Denmark,  when  his  master's  cause 
was  lost,  waged  a  guerrilla  war  upon  the  Danish  merchant  ships 
and  others  from  the  same  convenient  base.  But  this  led  to  an 
expedition  by  the  men  of  Liibeck,  who  partly  destroyed  Visby 
in  1525.  By  the  peace  of  Stettin  (1570)  Gotland  was  confirmed 
to  the  Danish  crown,  to  which  it  had  been  given  by  Queen 
Margaret.  But  at  the  peace  of  Bromsebro  in  1645  it  was  at  length 
restored  to  Sweden,  to  which  it  has  since  belonged,  except  for 
the  three  years  1676-1679,  when  it  was  forcibly  occupied  by  the 
Danes,  and  a  few  weeks  in  1808,  when  the  Russians  landed  a  force. 
The  extreme  wealth  of  the  Gotlanders  naturally  fostered  a 
spirit  of  independence,  and  their  relations  with  Sweden  were 
curious.  The  island  at  one  period  paid  an  annual  tribute  of 
60  marks  of  silver  to  Sweden,  but  it  was  clearly  recognized  that 
it  was  paid  by  the  desire  of  the  Gotlanders,  and  not  enforced 
by  Sweden.  The  pope  recognized  their  independence,  and  it 
was  by  their  own  free  will  that  they  came  under  the  spiritual 
charge  of  the  bishop  of  Linkoping.  Their  local  government  was 
republican  in  form,  and  a  popular  assembly  is  indicated  in  the 
written  Gotland  Law,  which  dates  not  later  than  the  middle  of 
the  1 3th  century.  Sweden  had  no  rights  of  objection  to  the 
measures  adopted  by  this  body,  and  there  was  no  Swedish 
judge  or  other  official  in  the  island.  Visby  had  a  system  of 
government  and  rights  independent  of,  and  in  some  measure 
opposed  to,  that  of  the  rest  of  the  island.  It  seems  clear  that 
there  were  at  one  time  two  separate  corporations,  for  the  native 
Gotlanders  and  the  foreign  traders  respectively,  and  that 
these  were  subsequently  fused.  The  rights  and  status  of  native 
Gotlanders  were  not  enjoyed  by  foreigners  as  a  whole — even 
intermarriage  was  illegal — but  Germans,  on  account  of  their 
commercial  pre-eminence  in  the  island,  were  excepted. 


277 


See  C.  H.  Bergman,  Gotlands  geografi  och  historia  (Stockholm, 
1898)  and  Gotldndska  skildringar  och  minnen  (Visby,  1902);  A.  T. 
Snobohm,  Gotlands  land  och  folk  (Visby,  1897  et  seq.) ;  W.  Moler, 
Bidrag  till  en  Gotldni.sk  bibliografi  (Stockholm,  1890);  Hans  Hilde- 
brand,  Visby  och  dess  Minnesmdrken  (Stockholm,  1892  et  seq.); 
A.  Bjorkander,  Till  Visby  Slads  Aeldsld  Historia  (1898),  where  most 
of  the  literature  dealing  with  the  subject  is  mentioned ;  but  some  of 
the  author's  arguments  require  criticism.  For  local  government  and 
rights  see  K.  Hegel,  Stddter  und  Gilden  im  Mittelalter  (book  iii.  ch. 
iii.,  Leipzig,  1891). 

GOTO  ISLANDS  [Goxo  RETTO,  GOTTO],  a  group  of  islands 
belonging  to  Japan,  lying  west  of  Kiushiu,  in  33°  N.,  129°  E. 
The  southern  of  the  two  principal  islands,  Fukae-shima,  measures 
17  m.  by  135;  the  northern,  Nakaori-shima,  measures  23  m.  by 
75.  These  islands  lie  almost  in  the  direct  route  of  steamers  plying 
between  Nagasaki  and  Shanghai,  and  are  distant  some  50  m.  from 
Nagasaki.  Some  dome-shaped  hills  command 'the  old  castle- 
town  of  Fukae.  The  islands  are  highly  cultivated;  deer  and 
other  game  abound,  and  trout  are  plentiful  in  the  mountain 
streams.  A  majority  of  the  inhabitants  are  Christians. 

COTTER,  FRIEDRICH  WILHELM  (1746-1797),  German  poet 
and  dramatist,  was  born  on  the  3rd  of  September  1746,  at  Gotha. 
After  the  completion  of  his  university  career  at  Gottingen,  he 
was  appointed  second  director  of  the  Archive  of  his  native  town, 
and  subsequently  went  to  Wetzlar,  the  seat  of  the  imperial  law 
courts,  as  secretary  to  the  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha  legation.  In 
1768  he  returned  to  Gotha  as  tutor  to  two  young  noblemen,  and 
here,  together  with  H.  C.  Boie,  he  founded  the  famous  Goltinger 
Musenalmanach.  In  1770  he  was  once  more  in  Wetzlar,  where 
he  belonged  to  Goethe's  circle  of  acquaintances.  Four  years 
later  he  took  up  his  permanent  abode  in  Gotha,  where  he  died  on 
the  i8th  of  March  1797.  Gotter  was  the  chief  representative  of 
French  taste  in  the  German  literary  life  of  his  time.  His  own 
poetry  is  elegant  and  polished,  and  in  great  measure  free  from  the 
trivialities  of  the  Anacreontic  lyric  of  the  earlier  generation  of 
imitators  of  French  literature;  but  he  was  lacking  in  the  imagin- 
ative depth  that  characterizes  the  German  poetic  temperament. 
His  plays,  of  which  Merope  (1774),  an  adaptation  in  admirable 
blank  verse  of  the  tragedies  of  Maffei  and  Voltaire,  and  Medea 
(1775),  a  melodrame,  are  best  known,  were  mostly  based  on 
French  originals  and  had  considerable  influence  in  counteracting 
the  formlessness  and  irregularity  of  the  Sturm  und  Drang  drama. 

Cotter's  collected  Gedichte  appeared  in  2  vols.  in  1787  and  1788; 
a  third  volume  (1802)  contains  his  Literarischer  Nachlass.  See  B. 
Litzmann,  Schroder  und  Gotter  (1887),  and  R.  Schlosser,  F.  W. 
Gotter,  sein  Leben  und  seine  Werke  (1894). 

GOTTFRIED  VON  STRASSBURG,  one  of  the  chief  German 
poets  of  the  middle  ages.  The  dates  of  his  birth  and  death 
are  alike  unknown,  but  he  was  the  contemporary  of  Hartmann 
von  Aue,  Wolfram  von  Eschenbach  and  Walther  von  der 
Vogelweide,  and  his  epic  Tristan  was  written  about  the  year 
1 2 10.  In  all  probability  he  did  not  belong  to  the  nobility,  as 
he  is  entitled  Meister,  never  Herr,  by  his  contemporaries;  his 
poem — the  only  work  that  can  with  any  certainty  be  attributed 
to  him — bears  witness  to  a  learned  education.  The  story  of 
Tristan  had  been  evolved  from  its  shadowy  Celtic  origins  by  the 
French  trouveres  of  the  early  i2th  century,  and  had  already 
found  its  way  into  Germany  before  the  close  of  that  century, 
in  the  crude,  unpolished  version  of  Eilhart  von  Oberge.  It 
was  Gottfried,  however,  who  gave  it  its  final  form.  His  version 
is  based  not  on  that  of  Chretien  de  Troyes,  but  on  that  of  a 
trouvere  Thomas,  who  seems  to  have  been  more  popular  with 
contemporaries.  A  comparison  of  the  German  epic  with  the 
French  original  is,  however,  impossible,  as  Chretien's  Tristan 
is  entirely  lost,  and  of  Thomas's  only  a  few  fragments  have  come 
down  to  us.  The  story  centres  in  the  fatal  voyage  which  Tristan, 
a  vassal  to  the  court  of  his  uncle  King  Marke  of  Kurnewal 
(Cornwall),  makes  to  Ireland  to  bring  back  Isolde  as  the  king's 
bride.  On  the  return  voyage  Tristan  'and  Isolde  drink  by 
mistake  a  love  potion,  which  binds  them  irrevocably  to  each  other. 
The  epic  resolves  itself  into  a  series  of  love  intrigues  in  which 
the  two  lovers  ingeniously  outwit  the  trusting  king.  They  are 
ultimately  discovered,  and  Tristan  flees  to  Normandy  where 
he  marries  another  Isolde — "  Isolde  with  the  white  hands  " — 


278 


GOTTINGEN— GOTTLING 


without  being  able  to  forget  the  blond  Isolde  of  Ireland.  At  this 
point  Gottfried's  narrative  breaks  off  and  to  learn  the  close 
of  the  story  we  have  to  turn  to  two  minor  poets  of  the  time, 
Ulrich  von  Turheim  and  Heinrich  von  Freiberg — the  latter 
much  the  superior — who  have  supplied  the  conclusion.  After 
further  love  adventures  Tristan  is  fatally  wounded  by  a  poisoned 
spear  in  Normandy;  the  "  blond  Isolde,"  as  the  only  person 
who  has  power  to  cure  him,  is  summoned  from  Cornwall.  The 
ship  that  brings  her  is  to  bear  a  white  sail  if  she  is  on  board, 
a  black  one  if  not.  Tristan's  wife,  however,  deceives  him, 
announcing  that  the  sail  is  black,  and  when  Isolde  arrives, 
she  finds  her  lover  dead.  Marke  at  last  learns  the  truth  concern- 
ing the  love  potion,  and  has  the  two  lovers  buried  side  by  side 
in  Kurnewal. 

It  is  difficult  to  form  an  estimate  of  Gottfried's  independence 
of  his  French  source;  but  it  seems  clear  that  he  followed  closely 
the  narrative  of  events  he  found  in  Thomas.  He  has,  however, 
introduced  into  the  story  an  astounding  fineness  of  psychological 
motive,  which,  to  judge  from  a  general  comparison  of  the 
Arthurian  epic  in  both  lands,  is  German  rather  than  French; 
he  has  spiritualized  and  deepened  the  narrative;  he  has,  above 
all,  depicted  with  a  variety  and  insight,  unusual  in  medieval 
literature,  the  effects  of  an  overpowering  passion.  Yet,  glowing 
and  seductive  as  Gottfried's  love-scenes  are,  they  are  never 
for  a  moment  disfigured  by  frivolous  hints  or  innuendo;  the 
tragedy  is  unrolled  with  an  earnestness  that  admits  of  no  touch 
of  humour,  and  also,  it  may  be  added,  with  a  freedom  from 
moralizing  which  was  easier  to  attain  in  the  I3th  than  in  later 
centuries.  The  mastery  of  style  is  no  less  conspicuous.  Gottfried 
had  learned  his  best  lessons  from  Hartmann  von  Aue,  but  he 
was  a  more  original  and  daring  artificer  of  rhymes  and  rhythms 
than  that  master;  he  delighted  in  the  sheer  music  of  words, 
and  indulged  in  antitheses  and  allegorical  conceits  to  an  extent 
that  proved  fatal  to  his  imitators.  As  far  as  beauty  of  expression 
is  concerned,  Gottfried's  Tristan  is  the  masterpiece  of  the  German 
court  ep;c. 

Gottfried's  Tristan  has  been  frequently  edited :  by  H.  F.  Massman 
(Leipzig,  1843);  by  R.  Bechstein  (2  vols.,  3rd  ed.,  Leipzig,  1890- 
1891);  by  W.  Gofther  (2  vols.,  Stuttgart,  1889);  by  K.  Marold 
(1906).  Translations  into  modern  German  have  been  made  by  H. 
Kurz  (Stuttgart,  1844);  by  K.  Simrock  (Leipzig,  1855);  and,  best 
of  all,  by  W.  Hertz  (Stuttgart,  1877).  There  is  also  an  abbreviated 
English  translation  by  Jessie  L.  Weston  (London,  1899).  The 
continuation  of  Ulrich  von  Turheim  will  be  found  in  Massman's 
edition;  that  by  Heinrich  von  Freiberg  has  been  separately  edited 
by  R.  Bechstein  (Leipzig,  1877).  See  also  R.  Heinzel,  "  Gottfrieds 
von  Strassburg  Tristan  und  seine  Quelle  "  in  the  Zeit.  fiir  deut.  Alt. 
xiv.  (1869),  pp.  272  ff. ;  W.  Golther,  Die  Sage  von  Tristan  und 
Isolde  (Munich,  1887);  F.  Piquet,  L 'Originatite  de  Gottfried  de 
Strasbourg  dans  son  pobme  de  Tristan  et  Isolde  (Lille,  1905).  K. 
Immermann  (q.v.)  has  written  an  epic  of  Tristan  und  Isolde  (1840), 
R.  Wagner  (q.v.)  a  musical  drama  (1865).  Cp.  R.  Bechstein,  Tristan 
und  Isolde  in  der  deutschen  Dichtung  der  Neuzeit  (Leipzig,  1877). 

GOTTINGEN,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  Prussian  province 
of  Hanover,  pleasantly  situated  at  the  west  foot  of  the  Hainberg 
(1200  ft.),  in  the  broad  and  fertile  valley  of  the  Leine,  67  m.  S. 
from  Hanover,  on  the  railway  to  Cassel.  Pop.  (1875)  17,057, 
(1905)  34,030.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Leine  canal,  which  separates 
the  Altstadt  from  the  Neustadt  and  from  Masch,  and  is  surrounded 
by  ramparts,  which  are  planted  with  lime-trees  and  form  an 
agreeable  promenade.  The  streets  in  the  older  part  of  the  town 
are  for  the  most  part  crooked  and  narrow,  but  the  newer  portions 
are  spaciously  and  regularly  built.  Apart  from  the  Protestant 
churches  of  St  John,  with  twin  towers,  and  of  St  James,  with  a 
high  tower  (290  ft.),  the  medieval  town  hall,  built  in  the  I4th 
century  and  restored  in  1880,  and  the  numerous  university 
buildings,  Gottingen  possesses  few  structures  of  any  public 
importance.  There  are  several  thriving  industries,  including, 
besides  the  various  branches  of  the  publishing  trade,  the  manu- 
facture of  cloth  and  woollens  and  of  mathematical  and  other 
scientific  instruments. 

The  university,  the  famous  Georgia  Augusta,  founded  by 
George  II.  in  1734  and  opened  in  1737,  rapidly  attained  a  leading 
position,  and  in  1823  its  students  numbered  1547.  Political 
disturbances,  in  which  both  professors  and  students  were  im- 


plicated, lowered  the  attendance  to  860  in  1834.  The  expulsion 
in  1837  of  the  famous  seven  professors — Die  Gottinger  Sieben — 
viz.  the  Germanist,  Wilhelm  Eduard  Albrecht  (1800-1876); 
the  historian,  Friedrich  Christoph  Dahlmann  (1785-1860); 
the  orientalist,  Georg  Heinrich  August  Ewald  (1803-1875); 
the  historian.  Georg  Gottfried  Gervinus  (1805-1875);  the 
physicist,  Wilhelm  Eduard  Weber  (1804-1891);  and  the  philo- 
logists, the  brothers  Jacob  Ludwig  Karl  Grimm  (1785-1863), 
and  Wilhelm  Karl  Grimm  (1786-1859), —  for  protesting  against 
the  revocation  by  King  Ernest  Augustus  of  Hanover  of  the 
liberal  constitution  of  1833,  further  reduced  the  prosperity  of 
the  university.  The  events  of  1848,  on  the  other  hand,  told 
somewhat  in  its  favour;  and,  since  the  annexation  of  Hanover  in 
1866,  it  has  been  carefully  fostered  by  the  Prussian  government. 
In  1903  its  teaching  staff  numbered  121  and  its  students  1529. 
The  main  university  building  lies  on  the  Wilhelmsplatz,  and, 
adjoining,  is  the  famous  library  of  500,000  vols.  and  5300  MSS., 
the  richest  collection  of  modern  literature  in  Germany.  There 
is  a  good  chemical  laboratory  as  well  as  adequate  zoological, 
ethnographical  and  mineralogical  collections,  the  most  remark- 
able being  Blumenbach's  famous  collection  of  skulls  in  the 
anatomical  institute.  There  are  also  a  celebrated  observatory, 
long  under  the  direction  of  Wilhelm  Klinkerfues  (1827-1884), 
a  botanical  garden,  an  agricultural  institute  and  various  hospitals, 
all  connected  with  the  university.  Of  the  scientific  societies 
the  most  noted  is  the  Royal  Society  of  Sciences  (Konigliche 
Sozietat  der  Wissenschaften)  founded  by  Albrecht  von  Haller, 
which  is  divided  into  three  classes,  the  physical,  the  mathematical 
and  the  historical-philological.  It  numbers  about  80  members 
and  publishes  the  well-known  Giittingische  gelehrte  Anzeigen. 
There  are  monuments  in  the  town  to  the  mathematicians  K.  F. 
Gauss  and  W.  E.  Weber,  and  also  to  the  poet  G.  A.  Burger. 

The  earliest  mention  of  a  village  of  Coding  or  Gutingi  occurs 
in  documents  of  about  950  A.D.  The  place  received  municipal 
rights  from  the  German  king  Otto  IV.  about  1210,  and  from 
1 286  to  1463  it  was  the  seat  of  the  princely  house  of  Brunswick- 
Gottingen.  During  the  I4th  century  it  held  a  high  place  among 
the  towns  of  the  Hanseatic  League.  In  1531  it  joined  the 
Reformation  movement,  and  in  the  following  century  it  suffered 
considerably  in  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  being  taken  by  Tilly 
in  1626,  after  a  siege  of  25  days,  and  recaptured  by  the 
Saxons  in  1632.  After  a  century  of  decay,  it  was  anew  brought 
into  importance  by  the  establishment  of  its  university;  and  a 
marked  increase  in  its  industrial  and  commercial  prosperity 
has  again  taken  place  in  recent  years.  Towards  the  end  of  the 
1 8th  century  Gottingen  was  the  centre  of  a  society  of  young 
poets  of  the  Sturm  und  Drang  period  of  German  literature,  known 
as  the  Gottingen  Dichterbund  or  Hainbund  (see  GERMANY:  • 
Literature). 

See  Freusdorff,  Gottingen  in  Vergangenheit  und  Gegenwart  (Gottin- 
gen, 1887);  the  Urkundenbuch  der  Stadt  Gottingen,  edited  by  G. 
Schmidt,  A.  Hasseiblatt  and  G.  Kastner;  Unger,  Gottingen  und  die 
Georgia  Augusta  (1861);  and  Gottinger  Professoren  (Gotha,  1872); 
and  O.  Mejer,  Kulturgeschichtliche  Bilder  aus  Gottinger  (1889). 

GOTTLING,  CARL  WILHELM  (1793-1869),  German  classical 
scholar,  was  born  at  Jena  on  the  igth  of  January  1793. 
He  studied  at  the  universities  of  Jena  and  Berlin,  took  part 
in  the  war  against  France  in  1814,  and  finally  settled  down 
in  1822  as  professor  at  the  university  of  his  native  town,  where 
he  continued  to  reside  till  his  death  on  the  2oth  of  January 
1869.  In  his  early  years  Gottling  devoted  himself  to  German 
literature,  and  published  two  works  on  the  Nibelungen :  Uber  das 
Geschichtliche  im  Nibelungenliede  (1814)  and  Nibelungen  und 
Gibelinen  (1817).  The  greater  part  of  his  life,  however,  was 
devoted  to  the  study  of  classical  literature,  especially  the  elucida- 
tion of  Greek  authors.  The  contents  of  his  Gesammelle  Abhand- 
lungen  aus  dent  klassischen  Altertum  (1851-1863)  and  Opuscula 
Academica  (published  in  1869  after  his  death)  sufficiently  indicate 
the  varied  nature  of  his  studies.  He  edited  the  Tex^  (gram- 
matical manual)  of  Theodosius  of  Alexandria  (1822),  Aristotle's 
Politics  (1824),  and  Economics  (1830)  and  Hesiod  (1831;  3rd  ed. 
by  J.  Flach,  1878).  Mention  may  also  be  made  of  his  Allgemeine 
Lehre  vom  Accent  der  griechischen  Sprache  (1835),  enlarged  from  a 


GOTTSCHALK— GOTTSCHED 


279 


smaller  work,  which  was  translated  into  English  (1831)  as  the 
Elements  of  Greek  Accentuation;  and  of  his  Correspondence  with 
Goethe  (published  1880). 

See  memoirs  by  C.  Nipperdey,  his  colleague  at  Jena  (1869),  G. 
Lothholz  (Stargard,  1876),  K.  Fischer  (preface  to  the  Opuscula 
Academica),  and  C.  Bursian  in  Allgemeine  deutsche  Biographic,  ix. 

GOTTSCHALK  [GODESCALUS,  GOTTESCALE],  (c.  808-867?), 
German  theologian,  was  born  near  Mainz,  and  was  devoted 
(oblatus)  from  infancy  by  his  parents, — his  father  was  a  Saxon, 
Count  Bern,— to  the  monastic  life.  He  was  trained  at  the 
monastery  of  Fulda,  then  under  the  abbot  Hrabanus  Maurus,  and 
became  the  friend  of  Walafrid  Strabo  and  Loup  of  Ferrieres.  In 
June  829,  at  the  synod  of  Mainz,  on  the  pretext  that  he  had  been 
unduly  constrained  by  his  abbot,  he  sought  and  obtained  his 
liberty,  withdrew  first  to  Corbie,  where  he  met  Ratramnus,  and 
then  to  the  monastery  of  Orbais  in  the  diocese  of  Soissons. 
There  he  studied  St  Augustine,  with  the  result  that  he  became  an 
enthusiastic  believer  in  the  doctrine  of  absolute  predestination,  in 
one  point  going  beyond  his  master — Goftschalk'  believing  in  a 
predestination  to  condemnation  as  well  as  in  a  predestination  to 
salvation,  while  Augustine  had  contented  himself  with  the 
doctrine  of  preterition  as  complementary  to  the  doctrine  of  elec- 
tion. Between  835  and  840  Gottschalk  was  ordained  priest, 
without  the  knowledge  of  his  bishop,  by  Rigbold,  ckorepiscopus  of 
Reims.  Before  840;  deserting  his  monastery,  he  went  to  Italy, 
preached  there  his  doctrine  of  double  predestination,  and  entered 
into  relations  with  Notting,  bishop  of  Verona,«and  Eberhard, 
count  of  Friuli.  Driven  from  Italy  through  the  influence  of 
Hrabanus  Maurus,  now  archbishop  of  Mainz,  who  wrote  two 
violent  letters  to  Notting  and  Eberhard,  he  travelled  through 
Dalmatia,  Pannonia  and  Norica,  but  continued  preaching  and 
writing.  In  October  848  he  presented  to  the  synod  at  Mainz  a 
profession  of  faith  and  a  refutation  of  the  ideas  expressed  by 
Hrabanus  Maurus  in  his  letter  to  Notting.  He  was  convicted, 
however,  of  heresy,  beaten,  obliged  to  swear  that  he  would  never 
again  enter  the  territory  of  Louis  the  German,  and  handed  over 
to  Hincmar,  archbishop  of  Reims,  who  sent  him  back  to  his 
monastery  at  Orbais.  The  next  year  at  a  provincial  council  at 
Quierzy,  presided  over  by  Charles  the  Bald,  he  attempted  to 
justify  his  ideas,  but  was  again  condemned  as  a  heretic  and 
disturber  of  the  public  peace,  was  degraded  from  the  priesthood, 
whipped,  obliged  to  burn  his  declaration  of  faith,  and  shut  up  in 
the  monastery  of  Hautvilliers.  There  Hincmar  tried  again  to 
induce  him  to  retract.  Gottschalk  however  continued  to  defend 
his  doctrine,  writing  to  his  friends  and  to  the  most  eminent  theo- 
logians of  France  and  Germany.  A  great  controversy  resulted. 
Prudentius,  bishop  of  Troyes,  Wenilo  of  Sens,  Ratramnus  of 
Corbie,  Loup  of  Ferrieres  and  Florus  of  Lyons  wrote  in  his 
favour.  Hincmar  wrote  De  praedestinatione  and  De  una  non 
trina  deitate  against  his  views,  but  gained  little  aid  from 
Johannes  Scotus  Erigena,  whom  he  had  called  in  as  an  authority. 
The  question  was  discussed  at  the  councils  of  Kiersy  (853),  of. 
Valence  (855)  and  of  Savonnieres  (859).  Finally  the  pope 
Nicolas  I.  took  up  the  case,  and  summoned  Hincmar  to  the 
council  of  Metz  (863).  Hincmar  either  could  not  or  would  not 
appear,  but  declared  that  Gottschalk  might  go  to  defend  himself 
before  the  pope.  Nothing  came  of  this,  however,  and  when 
Hincmar  learned  that  Gottschalk  had  fallen  ill,  he  forbade  him 
the  sacraments  or  burial  in  consecrated  ground  unless  he  would 
recant.  This  Gottschalk  refused  to  do.  He  died  on  the  3oth  of 
October  between  866- and  870. 

Gottschalk  was  a  vigorous  and  original  thinker,  but  also  of  a 
violent  temperament,  incapable  of  discipline  or  moderation  in 
his  ideas  as  in  his  conduct.  He  was  less  an  innovator  than  a 
reactionary.  Of  his  many  works  we  have  only  the  two  pro- 
fessions of  faith  (cf.  Migne,  Patrologia Latina,  cxxi.  c.  347  et  seq.), 
and  some  poems,  edited  by  L.  Traube  in  Monumenla  Germaniae 
hislorica:  Poetae  Latini  aevi  Carolini  (t.  iii.  707-738).  Some 
fragments  of  his  theological  treatises  have  been  preserved  in  the 
writings  of  Hincmar,  Erigena,  Ratramnus  and  Loup  of  Ferrie'res. 

From  the  lyth  century,  when  the  Jansenists  exalted  Gottschalk, 
much  has  been  written  on  him.  Mention  may  be  made  of  two 
recent  studies,  F.  Picavet,  "  Les  Discussions  sur  la  Hbert6  au  temps 


de  Gottschalk,  de  Raban  Maur,  d'Hincmar,  et  de  Jean  Scot,"  in 
Comptes  rendus  de  I'acad.  des  sciences  morales  et  politiques  (Paris, 
1896);  and  A.  Freystedt,  "  Studien  zu  Gottschalks  l!,eben  und 
Lehre,"  in  Zeitschrift  fur  Kirchengeschichte  (1897),  vol.  xviii. 

GOTTSCHALL,  RUDOLF  VON  (1823-1909),  German  man  of 
letters,  was  born  at  Breslau  on  the  3Oth  of  September  1823,  the 
son  of  a  Prussian  artillery  officer.  He  received  his  early  educa- 
tion at  the  gymnasia  in  Mainz  and  Coburg,  and  subsequently  at 
Rastenburg  in  East  Prussia.  In  1841  he  entered  the  university 
of  Konigsberg  as  a  student  of  law,  but,  in  consequence  of  his 
pronounced  liberal  opinions,  was  expelled.  The  academic 
authorities  at  Breslau  and  Leipzig  were  not  more  tolerant 
towards  the  young  fire-eater,  and  it  was  only  in  Berlin  that  he 
eventually  found  himself  free  to  prosecute  his  studies.  During 
this  period  of  unrest  he  issued  Lieder  der  Gegenwart  (1842)  and 
Zensurfliichtlinge  (1843) — the  poetical  fruits  of  his  political 
enthusiasm.  He  completed  his  studies  in  Berlin,  took  the  degree 
of  doctor  juris  in  Konigsberg,  and  endeavoured  to  obtain  there  the 
venia  legendi.  His  political  views  again  stood  in  the  way,  and 
forsaking  the  legal  career,  Gottschall  now  devoted  himself  entirely 
to  literature.  He  met  with  immediate  success,  and  beginning  as 
dramaturge  in  Konigsberg  with  Der  Blinde  von  Alcala  (1846)  and 
Lord  Byron  in  Italien  (1847)  proceeded  to  Hamburg  where  he 
occupied  a  similar  position.  In  1852  he  married  Marie,  baroness 
von  Seherr-Thoss,  and  for  the  next  few  years  lived  in  Silesia. 
In  1862  he  took  over  the  editorship  of  a  Posen  newspaper,  but  in 
1864  removed  to  Leipzig.  Gottschall  was  raised,  in  1877,  by  the 
king  of  Prussia  to  the  hereditary  nobility  with  the  prefix  "  von," 
having  been  previously  made  a  Geheimer  Hofrat  by  the  grand  duke 
of  Weimar.  Down  to  1887  Gottschall  edited  the  Brockhaus'sche 
Blatter  fur  litter arische  Unterhaltung  and  the  monthly  periodical 
Unsere  Zeit.  He  died  at  Leipzig  on  the  2ist  of  March  1909. 

Gottschall's  prolific  literary  productions  cover  the  fields  of 
poetry,  novel-writing  and  literary  criticism.  Among  his  volumes 
of  lyric  poetry  are  Sebastopol  (1856),  Janus  (1873),  Bunte  Bluten 
(1891).  Among  his  epics,  Carlo  Zeno  (1854),  M aja  (1864),  dealing 
with  an  episode  in  the  Indian  Mutiny,  and  Merlins  Wande- 
rungen  (1887).  The  comedy  Pittund  Fox  (1854),  first  produced 
on  the  stage  in  Breslau,  was  never  surpassed  by  the  other  lighter 
pieces  of  the  author,  among  which  may  be  mentioned  Die  Welt 
des  Schwindels  and  Der  Spion  von  Rheinsberg.  The  tragedies, 
Mazeppa,  Catharine  Howard,  Amy  Robsart  and  Der  Gotze  von 
Venedig,  were  very  successful;  and  the  historical  novels,  Im 
Banne  des  schwarzen  Adlers  (1875;  4th  ed.,  1884),  Die  Erbschaft 
des  Blutes  (1881),  Die  Tochter  Rilbezahls(  1889),  and  Verkummerte 
Existenzen  (1892),  enjoyed  a  high  degree  of  popularity.  As  a 
critic  and  historian  of  literature  Gottschall  has  also  done  excellent 
work.  His  Die  deutsche  Nalionalliteratur  des  19.  Jahrhunderts 
(1855;  7th  ed.,  1901-1902),  and  Poetik  (1858;  6th  ed.,  1903) 
command  the  respect  of  all  students  of  literature. 

Gottschall's  collected  Dramatische  Werke  appeared  in  12  vols.  in 


1880  (2nd  ed.,  1884);  he  has  also,  in  recent  years,  published  many 
volumes  of  collected  essays  and  criticisms.     See  I " 
A  us  meiner  Jugend  (1898). 


his  autobiography, 


GOTTSCHED,  JOHANN  CHRISTOPH  (1700-1766),  German 
author  and  critic,  was  born  on  the  2nd  of  February  1700,  at 
Judithenkirch  near  Konigsberg,  the  son  of  a  Lutheran  clergyman. 
He  studied  philosophy  and  history  at  the  university  of  his  native 
town,  but  immediately  on  taking  the  degree  of  Magister  in  1723, 
fled  to  Leipzig  in  order  to  evade  impressment  in  the  Prussian 
military  service.  Here  he  enjoyed  the  protection  of  J.  B. 
Mencke  (1674-1732),  who,  under  the  name  of  "  Philander  von 
der  Linde,"  was  a  well-known  poet  and  also  president  of  the 
Deutschiibende  poetische  Gesellschaft  in  Leipzig.  Of  this  society 
Gottsched  was  elected  "  Senior"  in  1726,  and  in  the  next  year 
reorganized  it  under  the  title  of  the  Deutsche  Gesellschaft.  In 
1730  he  was  appointed  extraordinary  professor  of  poetry,  and, 
in  1734,  ordinary  professor  of  logic  and  metaphysics  in  the 
university.  He  died  at  Leipzig  on  the  1 2th  of  December  1 766. 

Gottsched's  chief  work  was  his  Versuch  einer  kritischen 
Dichtkunst  fur  die  Deutschen  (1730),  the  first  systematic  treatise 
in  German  on  the  art  of  poetry  from  the  standpoint  of  Boileau. 
His  Ausfilhrliche  Redekunst  (1728)  and  his  Grundlegung  einer 


280 


GOTZ— GOUDIMEL 


deutschen  Sprachkunst  (1748)  were  of  importance  for  the  develop- 
ment of  German  style  and  the  purification  of  the  language. 
He  wrote  several  plays,  of  which  Der  slerbende  Cato  (1732),  an 
adaptation  of  Addison's  tragedy  and  a  French  play  on  the  same 
theme,  was  long  popular  on  the  stage.  In  his  Deutsche  Schau- 
biihne  (6  vols.,  1740-1745),  which  contained  mainly  translations 
from  the  French,  he  provided  the  German  stage  with  a  classical 
repertory,  and  his  bibliography  of  the  German  drama,  Notiger 
Vorrat  zur  Geschichte  der  deutschen  dramatischen  Dicktkunst 
(175 7- 1765),  is  still  valuable.  He  was  also  the  editor  of  several 
journals  devoted  to  literary  criticism.  As  a  critic,  Gottsched 
insisted  on  German  literature  being  subordinated  to  the  laws 
of  French  classicism;  he  enunciated  rules  by  which  the  play- 
wright must  be  bound,  and  abolished  bombast  and  buffoonery 
from  the  serious  stage.  While  such  reforms  obviously  afforded 
a  healthy  corrective  to  the  extravagance  and  want  of  taste 
which  were  rampant  in  the  German  literature  of  the  time, 
Gottsched  went  too  far.  In  1740  he  came  into  conflict  with  the 
Swiss  writers  Johann  Jakob  Bodmer  (q.v.}  and  Johann  Jakob 
Breitinger  (1701-1776),  who,  under  the  influence  of  Addison 
and  contemporary  Italian  critics,  demanded  that  the  poetic 
imagination  should  not  be  hampered  by  artificial  rules;  they 
pointed  to  the  great  English  poets,  and  especially  to  Milton. 
Gottsched,  although  not  blind  to  the  beauties  of  the  English 
writers,  clung  the  more  tenaciously  to  his  principle  that  poetry 
must  be  the  product  of  rules,  and,  in  the  fierce  controversy 
which  for  a  time  raged  between  Leipzig  and  Zurich,  he  was 
inevitably  defeated.  His  influence  speedily  declined,  and 
before  his  death  his  name  became  proverbial  for  pedantic 
folly. 

His  wife,  Luise  Adelgunde  Victorie,  nee  Kulmus  (1713-1762), 
in  some  respects  her  husband's  intellectual  superior,  was  an 
author  of  some  reputation.  She  wrote  several  popular  comedies, 
of  which  Das  Testament  is  the  best,  and  translated  the  Spectator 
(9  vols.,  1730-1743),  Pope's  Rape  of  the  Lock  (1744)  and  other 
English  and  French  works.  After  her  death  her  husband  edited 
her  Samtliche  kleinere  Gedichle  with  a  memoir  (1763). 

See  T.  W.  Danzel,  Gottsched  und  seine  Zeit  (Leipzig,  1848);  J. 
Criiger,  Gottsched,  Bodmer,  und  Breitinger  (with  selections  from  their 
writings)  (Stuttgart,  1884);  F.  Servaes,  Die  Poetik  Gottscheds  und 
der  Schweizer  (Strassburg,  1887);  E.  Wolff,  Gottscheds  Stellung  im 
deutschen  Bildungsleben  (2  vols.,  Kiel,  1895-1897),  and  G.  Waniek, 
Gottsched  und  die  deutsche  Literatur  seiner  Zeit  (Leipzig,  1897).  On 
Frau  Gottsched,  see  P.  Schlenther,  Frau  Gottsched  und  die  burgerliche 
Komodie  (Berlin,  1886). 

GO"TZ,  JOHANN  NIKOLAUS  (1721-1781),  German  poet,  was 
born  at  Worms  on  the  9th  of  July  1721.  He  studied  theology 
at  Halle  (1739-1742),  where  he  became  intimate  with  the  poets 
Johann  W.  L.  Gleim  and  Johann  Peter  Uz,  acted  for  some  years 
as  military  chaplain,  and  afterwards  filled  various  other  ecclesi- 
astical offices.  He  died  at  Winterburg  on  the  4th  of  November 
1781.  The  writings  of  Gotz  consist  of  a  number  of  short  lyrics 
and  several  translations,  of  which  the  best  is  a  rendering  of 
Anacreon.  His  original  compositions  are  light,  lively  and 
sparkling,  and  are  animated  rather  by  French  wit  than  by 
German  depth  of  sentiment.  The  best  known  of  his  poems  is 
Die  Madcheninsel,  an  elegy  which  met  with  the  warm  approval 
of  Frederick  the  Great. 

Gotz's  Vermischte  Gedichte  were  published  with  biography  by 
K.  W.  Ramler  (Mannheim,  1785;  new  ed.,  1807),  and  a  collection  of 
his  poems,  dating  from  the  years  1745-1765,  has  been  edited  by 
C.  Schliddekopf  in  the  Deutsche  Literaturdenkmale  des  18.  und  IQ. 
Jahrhunderls  (1893).  See  also  Brief e  von  und  an  J.  N.  Gotz,  edited 
by  C.  Schuddekopf  (1893). 

GOUACHE,  a  French  word  adapted  from  the  Ital.  guazzo 
(probably  in  origin  connected  with  "  wash  "),  meaning  literally 
a  "  ford,"  but  used  also  for  a  method  of  painting  in  opaque 
water-colour.  The  colours  are  mixed  with  or  painted  in  a 
vehicle  of  gum  or  honey,  and  whereas  in  true  water-colours 
the  high  lights  are  obtained  by  leaving  blank  the  surface  of  the 
paper  or  other  material  used,  or  by  allowing  it  to  show  through 
a  translucent  wash  in  "  gouache,"  these  are  obtained  by  white 
or  other  light  colour.  "  Gouache  "  is  frequently  used  in  miniature 
painting. 


GOUDA  (or  TEE  GOUWE),  a  town  of  Holland,  in  the  province 
of  South  Holland,  on  the  north  side  of  the  Gouwe  at  its  confluence 
with  the  Ysel,  and  a  junction  station  1 2 Jm.  by  rail  N.E.  of  Rotter- 
dam. Pop.  (1900)  22,303.  Tramways  connect  it  with  Bodegraven 
(S^m.  N.)  on  the  old  Rhine  and  with  Oudewater  (8  m.  E.)  on 
the  Ysel;  and  there  is  a  regular  steamboat  service  in  various 
directions,  Amsterdam  being  reached  by  the  canalized  Gouwe; 
Aar,  Drecht  and  Amstel.  The  town  of  Gouda  is  laid  out  in  a 
fine  open  manner  and,  like  other  Dutch  towns,  is»intersected  by 
numerous  canals.  On  its  outskirts  pleasant  walks  and  fine 
trees  have  replaced  the  old  fortifications.  The  Groote  Markt 
is  the  largest  market-square  in  Holland.  Among  the  numerous 
churches  belonging  to  various  denominations,  the  first  place  must 
be  given  to  the  Groote  Kerk  of  St  John.  It  was  founded  in  1485, 
but  rebuilt  after  a  fire  in  1552,  and  is  remarkable  for  its  dimensions 
(345  ft.  long  and  150  ft.  broad),  for  a  large  and  celebrated  organ, 
and  a  splendid  series  of  over  forty  stained-glass  windows  presented 
by  cities  and  princes  and  executed  by  various  well-known  artists, 
including  the  brothers  Dirk  (d.  0.1577)  and  Wouter  (d.  c.  1590) 
Crabeth,  between  the  years  1555  and  1603  (see  Explanation 
of  the  Famous  and  Renowned  Glass  Works,  &c.,  Gouda,  1876, 
reprinted  from  an  older  volume,  1718).  Other  noteworthy 
buildings  are  the  Gothic  town  hall,  founded  in  1449  and  rebuilt 
in  1690,  and  the  weigh-house,  built  by  Pieter  Post  of  Haarlem 
(1608-1669)  and  adorned  with  a  fine  relief  by  Barth.  Eggers 
(d.  c.  1690).  The  museum  of  antiquities  (1874)  contains  an 
exquisite  chalice  of  the  year  1425  and  some  pictures  and  portraits 
by  Wouter  Crabeth  the  younger,  Corn.  Ketel  (a  native  of  Gouda, 
1548-1616)  and  Ferdinand  Bol  (1616-1680).  Other  buildings 
are  the  orphanage,  the  hospital,  a  house  of  correction  for  women 
and  a  music  hall. 

In  the  time  of  the  counts  the  wealth  of  Gouda  was  mainly 
derived  from  brewing  and  cloth- weaving;  but  at  a  later  date 
the  making  of  clay  tobacco  pipes  became  the  staple  trade,  and, 
although  this  industry  has  somewhat  declined,  the  churchwarden 
pipes  of  Gouda  are  still  well  known  and  largely  manufactured. 
In  winter-time  it  is  considered  a  feat  to  skate  hither  from 
Rotterdam  and  elsewhere  to  buy  such  a  pipe  and  return  with 
it  in  one's  mouth  without  its  being  broken.  The  mud  from  the 
Ysel  furnishes  the  material  for  large  brick- works  and  potteries; 
there  are  also  a  celebrated  manufactory  of  stearine  candles,  a 
yarn  factory,  an  oil  refinery  and  cigar  factories.  The  transit 
and  shipping  trade  is  considerable,  and  as  one  of  the  principal 
markets  of  South  Holland,  the  round,  white  Gouda  cheeses  are 
known  throughout  Europe.  Boskoop,  5  m.  N.  by  W.  of  Gouda 
on  the  Gouwe,  is  famous  for  its  nursery  gardens;  and  the  little 
old-world  town  of  Oudewater  as  the  birthplace  of  the  famous 
theologian  Arminius  in  1 560.  The  town  hall  ( 1 588)  of  Oudewater 
contains  a  picture  by  Dirk  Stoop  (d.  1686),  commemorating 
the  capture  of  the  town  by  the  Spaniards  in  1575  and  the 
subsequent  sack  and  massacre. 

GOUDIMEL,  CLAUDE,  muscial  composer  of  the  i6th  century, 
was  born  about  1510.  The  French  and  the  Belgians  claim  him 
as  their  countryman.  In  all  probability  he  was  born  at  Besanc.  on, 
for  in  his  edition  of  the  songs  of  Arcadelt,  as  well  as  in  the  mass 
of  1554,  he  calls  himself  "  natif  de  Besanfon  "  and  "  Claudius 
Godimellus  Vescontinus."  This  discountenances  the  theory  of 
Ambros  that  he  was  born  at  Vaison  near  Avignon.  As  to  his 
early  education  we  know  little  or  nothing,  but  the  excellent 
Latin  in  which  some  of  his  letters  were  written  proves  that, 
in  addition  to  his  musical  knowledge,  he  also  acquired  a  good 
classical  training.  It  is  supposed  that  he  was  in  Rome  in  1540 
at  the  head  of  a  music-school,  and  that  besides  many  other 
celebrated  musicians,  Palestrina  was  amongst  his  pupils.  About 
the  middle  of  the  century  he  seems  to  have  left  Rome  for  Paris, 
where,  in  conjunction  with  Jean  Duchemin,  he  published,  in 
1555,  a  musical  setting  of  Horace's  Odes.  Infinitely  more 
important  is  another  collection  of  vocal  pieces,  a  setting  of  the 
celebrated  French  version  of  the  Psalms  by  Marot  and  Beza 
published  in  1565.  It  is  written  in  four  parts,  the  melody  being 
assigned  to  the  tenor.  The  invention  of  the  melodies  was  long 
ascribed  to  Goudimel,  but  they  have  now  definitely  been  proved 


GOUFFIER— GOUGH,  VISCOUNT 


281 


to  have  originated  in  popular  tunes  found  in  the  collections  of 
his  period.  Some  of  these  tunes  are  still  used  by  the  French 
Protestant  Church.  Others  were  adopted  by  the  German 
Lutherans,  a  German  imitation  of  the  French  versions  of  the 
Psalms  in  the  same  metres  having  been  published  at  an  early 
date.  Although  the  French  version  of  the  Psalms  was  at  first 
used  by  Catholics  as  well  as  Protestants,  there  is  little  doubt 
that  Goudimel  had  embraced  the  new  faith.  In  Michel  Brenet's 
Biographic  (Annalesfranc-cuntoises,  Besancon,  1898,  P.  Jacquin) 
it  is  established  that  in  Metz,  where  he  was  living  in  1565,  Goudi- 
mel moved  in  Huguenot  circles,  and  even  figured  as  godfather 
to  the  daughter  of  the  president  of  Senneton.  Seven  years 
later  he  fell  a  victim  to  religious  fanaticism  during  the  St 
Bartholomew  massacres  at  Lyons  from  the  27th  to  the  28th  of 
August  1572,  his  death,  it  is  stated,  being  due  to  "  les  ennemis 
de  la  gloire  de  Dieu  et  quelques  mechants  envieux  de  1'honneur 
qu'il  avail  acquis."  Masses  and  motets  belonging  to  his  Roman 
period  are  found  in  the  Vatican  library,  and  in  the  archives 
of  various  churches  in  Rome;  others  were  published.  Thus 
the  work  entitled  Missae  tres  a  Claudia  Goudimel  praestantissimo 
musico  auctore,  nunc  primum  in  lucent  editae,  contains  one  mass 
by  the  learned  editor  himself,  the  other  two  being  by  Claudius 
Sermisy  and  Jean  Maillard  respectively.  Another  collection, 
La  Fleur  des  chansons  des  deux  plus  excellens  musiciens  de  nostre 
temps,  consists  of  part  songs  by  Goudimel  and  Orlando  di  Lasso. 
Burney  gives  in  his  history  a  motet  of  Goudimel's  Domine  quid 
miilliplicati  sunt. 

GOUFFIER,  the  name  of  a  great  French  family,  which  owned 
the  estate  of  Bonnivet  in  Poitou  from  the  i4th  century.  GUIL- 
LAUME  GOUFFIER,  chamberlain  to  Charles  VII.,  was  an  inveterate 
enemy  of  Jacques  Cceur,  obtaining  his  condemnation  and  after- 
wards receiving  his  property  (1491).  He  had  a  great  number 
of  children,  several  of  whom  played  a  part  in  history.  ARTUS, 
seigneur deBoisy  (c.  i475-i52o)was  entrusted  with  the  education 
of  the  young  count  of  Angouleme  (Francis  I.),  and  on  the  acces- 
sion of  this  prince  to  the  throne  as  Francis  I.  became  grand 
master  of  the  royal  household,  playing  an  important  part  in  the 
government;  to  him  was  given  the  task  of  negotiating  the 
treaty  of  Noyon  in  1516;  and  shortly  before  his  death  the  king 
raised  the  estates  of  Roanne  and  Boisy  to  the  rank  of  a  duchy, 
that  of  Roannais,  in  his  favour.  ADRIEN  GOUFFIER  (d.  1523) 
was  bishop  of  Coutances  and  Albi,  and  grand  almoner  of  France. 
GUILLAUME  GOUFFIER,  seigneur  de  Bonnivet,  became  admiral 
of  France  (see  BONNIVET).  CLAUDE  GOUFFIER,  son  of  Artus, 
was  created  comte  de  Maulevrier  (1542)  and  marquis  de  Boisy 

(1564)- 

There  were  many  branches  of  this  family,  the  chief  of  them 
being  the  dukes  of  Roannais,  the  counts  of  Caravas,  the  lords  of 
Crevecceur  and  of  Bonnivet,  the  marquises  of  Thois,  of  Brazeux, 
and  of  Espagny.  The  name  of  Gouffier  was  adopted  in  the  i8th 
century  by  a  branch  of  the  house  of  Choiseul.  (M.  P.*) 

GOUGE,  MARTIN  (c.  1360-1444),  surnamed  DE  CHARPAIGNE, 
French  chancellor,  was  born  at  Bourges  about  1360.  A  canon 
of  Bourges,  in  1402  he  became  treasurer  to  John,  duke  of  Berri, 
and  in  1406  bishop  of  Chartres.  He  was  arrested  by  John  the 
Fearless,  duke  of  Burgundy,  with  the  hapless  Jean  de  Montaigu 
(1349-1409)  in  1409,  but  was  soon  released  and  then  banished. 
Attaching  himself  to  the  dauphin  Louis,  duke  of  Guienne,  he 
became  his  chancellor,  the  king's  ambassador  in  Brittany,  and  a 
member  of  the  grand  council;  and  on  the  I3th  of  May  1415, 
he  was  transferred  from  the  see  of  Chartres  to  that  of  Clermont- 
Ferrand.  In  May  1418,  when  the  Burgundians  re-entered  Paris, 
he  only  escaped  death  at  their  hands  by  taking  refuge  in  the 
Bastille.  He  then  left  Paris,  but  only  to  fall  into  the  hands  of 
his  enemy,  the  duke  de  la  Tremoille,  who  imprisoned  him  in 
the  castle  of  Sully.  Rescued  by  the  dauphin  Charles,  he  was 
appointed  chancellor  of  France  on  the  3rd  of  February  1422. 
He  endeavoured  to  reconcile  Burgundy  and  France,  was  a  party 
to  the  selection  of  Arthur,  earl  of  Richmond,  as  constable,  but 
had  to  resign  his  chancellorship  in  favour  of  Regnault  of  Chartres; 
first  from  March  25th  to  August  6th  1425,  and  again  when  La 
Tr6moille  had  supplanted  Richmond.  After  the  fall  of  La 


Tremoille  in  1433  he  returned  to  court,  and  exercised  a  powerful 
influence  over  affairs  of  state  almost  till  his  death,  which  took 
place  at  the  castle  of  Beaulieu  (Puy-de-D6me)  on  the  25th  or 
26th  of  November  1444. 

See  Hiver's  account  in  the  Memoires  de  la  Societe  des  Antiquaires 
du  Centre,  p.  267  (1869);  and  the  Nouvelle  Biographie  generate,  vol. 
xxi. 

GOUGE  (adopted  from  the  Fr.  gouge,  derived  from  the  Late 
Lat.  gubia  or  gulbia,  in  Ducange  gulbium,  an  implement  ad 
hortum  excolendum,  and  also  instrumenlum  ferreum  in  usu 
fabrorum;  according  to  the  New  English  Dictionary  the  word 
is  probably  of  Celtic  origin,  gylf,  a  beak,  appearing  in  Welsh, 
and  gilb,  a  boring  tool,  in  Cornish),  a  tool  of  the  chisel  type  with 
a  curved  blade,  used  for  scooping  a  groove  or  channel  in  wood, 
stone,  &c.  (see  TOOL).  A  similar  instrument  is  used  in  surgery 
for  operations  involving  the  excision  of  portions  of  bone. 
"  Gouge  "  is  also  used  as  the  name  of  a  bookbinder's  tool,  for 
impressing  a  curved  line  on  the  leather,  and  for  the  line  so  im- 
pressed. In  mining,  a  "  gouge  "  is  the  layer  of  soft  rock  or  earth 
sometimes  found  in  each  side  of  a  vein  of  coal  or  ore,  which  the 
miner  can  scoop  out  with  his  pick,  and  thus  attack  the  vein  more 
easily  from  the  side.  The  verb  "  to  gouge  "  is  used  in  the  sense 
of  scooping  or  forcing  out. 

GOUGH,  HUGH  GOUGH,  VISCOUNT  (1770-1869),  British 
field-marshal,  a  descendant  of  Francis  Gough  who  was  made 
bishop  of  Limerick  in  1626,  was  born  at  Woodstown,  Limerick, 
on  the  3rd  of  November  1779.  Having  obtained  a  commission 
in  the  army  in  August  1794,  he  served  with  the  78th  Highlanders 
at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  taking  part  in  the  capture  of  Cape 
Town  and  of  the  Dutch  fleet  in  Saldanha  Bay  in  1796.  His 
next  service  was  in  the  West  Indies,  where,  with  the  87th 
(Royal  Irish  Fusiliers),  he  shared  in  the  attack  on  Porto  Rico, 
the  capture  of  Surinam,  and  the  brigand  war  in  St  Lucia.  In 
1809  he  was  called  to  take  part  in  the  Peninsular  War,  and, 
joining  the  army  under  Wellington,  commanded  his  regiment  as 
major  in  the  operations  before  Oporto,  by  which  the  town  was 
taken  from  the  French.  At  Talavera  he  was  severely  wounded, 
and  had  his  horse  shot  under  him.  For  his  conduct  on  this 
occasion  he  was  afterwards  promoted  lieutenant-colonel,  his 
commission,  on  the  recommendation  of  Wellington,  being 
antedated  from  the  day  of  the  duke's  despatch.  He  was  thus 
the  first  officer  who  ever  received  brevet  rank  for  services 
performed  in  the  field  at  the  head  of  a  regiment.  He  was  next 
engaged  at  the  battle  of  Barrosa,  at  which  his  regiment  captured 
a  French  eagle.  At  the  defence  of  Tarifa  the  post  of  danger 
was  assigned  to  him,  and  he  compelled  the  enemy  to  raise  the 
siege.  At  Vitoria,  where  Gough  again  distinguished  himself, 
his  regiment  captured  the  baton  of  Marshal  Jourdan.  He  was 
again  severely  wounded  at  Nivelle,  and  was  soon  after  created  a 
knight  of  St  Charles  by  the  king  of  Spain.  At  the  close  of  the 
war  he  returned  home  and  enjoyed  a  respite  of  some  years  from 
active  service.  He  next  took  command  of  a  regiment  stationed 
in  the  south  of  Ireland,  discharging  at  the  same  time  the  duties 
of  a  magistrate  during  a  period  of  agitation.  Gough  was  pro- 
moted major-general  in  1830.  Seven  years  later  he  was  sent  to 
India  to  take  command  of  the  Mysore  division  of  the  army. 
But  not  long  after  his  arrival  in  India  the  difficulties  which  led 
to  the  first  Chinese  war  made  the  presence  of  an  energetic  general 
on  the  scene  indispensable,  and  Gough  was  appointed  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  British  forces  in  China.  This  post  he  held  during 
all  the  operations  of  the  war;  and  by  his  great  achievements 
and  numerous  victories  in  the  face  of  immense  difficulties,  he 
at  length  enabled  the  English  plenipptentiary,  Sir  H.  Pottinger, 
to  dictate  peace  on  his  own  terms.  After  the  conclusion  of  the 
treaty  of  Nanking  in  August  1842  the  British  forces  were  with- 
drawn; and  before  the  close  of  the  year  Gough,  who  had  been 
made  a  G.C.B.  in  the  previous  year  for  his  services  in  the  capture 
of  the  Canton  forts,  was  created  a  baronet.  In  August  1843  he 
was  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  British  forces  in  India, 
and  in  December  he  took  the  command  in  person  against  the 
Mahrattas,  and  defeated  them  at  Maharajpur,  capturing  more 
than  fifty  guns.  In  1845  occurred  the  rupture  with  the  Sikhs, 


282 


GOUGH,  J.  B.— GOUJON,  JEAN 


who  crossed  the  Sutlej  in  large  numbers,  and  Sir  Hugh  Gough 
conducted  the  operations  against  them,  being  well  supported 
by  Lord  Hardinge,  the  governor-general,  who  volunteered  to 
serve  under  him.  Successes  in  the  hard-fought  battles  of 
Mudki  and  Ferozeshah  were  succeeded  by  the  victory  of 
Sobraon,  and  shortly  afterwards  the  Sikhs  sued  for  peace  at 
Lahore.  The  services  of  Sir  Hugh  Gough  were  rewarded  by 
his  elevation  to  the  peerage  of  the  United  Kingdom  as  Baron 
Gough  (April  1846).  The  war  broke  out  again  in  1848,  and 
again  Lord  Gough  took  the  field;  but  the  result  of  the  battle 
of  Chillianwalla  being  equivocal,  he  was  superseded  by  the 
home  authorities  in  favour  of  Sir  Charles  Napier;  before  the 
news  of  the  supersession  arrived  Lord  Gough  had  finally  crushed 
the  Sikhs  in  the  battle  of  Gujarat  (February  1849).  His  tactics 
during  the  Sikh  wars  were  the  subject  of  an  embittered  contro- 
versy (see  SIKH  WARS).  Lord  Gough  now  returned  to  England, 
was  raised  to  a  viscountcy,  and  for  the  third  time  received  the 
thanks  of  both  Houses  of  Parliament.  A  pension  of  £2000  per 
annum  was  granted  to  him  by  parliament,  and  an  equal  pension 
by  the  East  India  Company.  He  did  not  again  see  active  service. 
In  1854  he  was  appointed  colonel  of  the  Royal  Horse  Guards, 
and  two  years  later  he  was  sent  to  the  Crimea  to  invest  Marshal 
Pelissier  and  other  officers  with  the  insignia  of  the  Bath.  Honours 
were  multiplied  upon  him  during  his  latter  years.  He  was  made 
a  knight  of  St  Patrick,  being  the  first  knight  of  the  order  who 
did  not  hold  an  Irish  peerage,  was  sworn  a  privy  councillor, 
was  named  a  G. C.S.I.,  and  in  November  1862  was  made  field- 
marshal.  He  was  twice  married,  and  left  children  by  both  his 
wives.  He  died  on  the  2nd  of  March  1869. 

See  R.  S.  Rait,  Lord  Gough  (1903);  and  Sir  W.  Lee  Warner,  Lord 
Dalhousie  (1904). 

GOUGH,  JOHN  BARTHOLOMEW  (1817-1886),  American 
temperance  orator,  was  born  at  Sandgate,  Kent,  England,  on 
the  22nd  of  August  1817.  He  was  educated  by  his  mother, 
a  schoolmistress,  and  at  the  age  of  twelve  was  sent  to  the  United 
States  to  seek  his  fortune.  He  lived  for  two  years  with  family 
friends  on  a  farm  in  western  New  York,  and  then  entered  a 
book-bindery  in  New  York  City  to  learn  the  trade.  There  in 
1833  his  mother  joined  him,  but  after  her  death  in  1835  he  fell 
in  with  dissolute  companions,  and  became  a  confirmed  drunkard. 
He  lost  his  position,  and  for  several  years  supported  himself 
as  a  ballad  singer  and  story-teller  in  the  cheap  theatres  and 
concert-halls  of  New  York  and  other  eastern  cities.  Even  this 
means  of  livelihood  was  being  closed  to  him,  when  in  Worcester, 
Massachusetts,  in  1842  he  was  induced  to  sign  a  temperance 
pledge.  After  several  lapses  and  a  terrific  struggle,  he  determined 
to  devote  his  life  to  lecturing  in  behalf  of  temperance  reform. 
Gifted  with  remarkable  powers  of  pathos  and  of  description, 
he  was  successful  from  the  start,  and  was  soon  known  and  sought 
after  throughout  the  entire  country,  his  appeals,  which  were 
directly  personal  and  emotional,  being  attended  with  extra- 
ordinary responses.  He  continued  his  work  until  the  end  of  his 
life,  made  several  tours  of  England,  where  his  American  success 
was  repeated,  and  died  at  his  work,  being  stricken  with  apoplexy 
on  the  lecture  platform  at  Frankford,  Pennsylvania,  where  he 
passed  away  two  days  later,  on  the  i8th  of  February  1886. 
He  published  an  Autobiography  (1846);  Orations  (1854);  Tem- 
perance Addresses  (1870);  Temperance  Lectures  (1879);  and  Sun- 
light and  Shadow,  or  Gleanings  from  My  Life  Work  (1880). 

GOUGH,  RICHARD  (1735-1809),  English  antiquary,  was  born 
in  London  on  the  2ist  of  October  1735.  His  father  was  a  wealthy 
M.P.  and  director  of  the  East  India  Company.  Gough  was  a 
precocious  child,  and  at  twelve  had  translated  from  the  French 
a  history  of  the  Bible,  which  his  mother  printed  for  private 
circulation.  When  fifteen  he  translated  Abbe  Fleury's  work  on 
the  Israelites;  and  at  sixteen  he  published  an  elaborate  work 
entitled  Atlas  Renovatus,  or  Geography  modernized.  In  1752 
he  entered  Corpus  Christi  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  began 
his  work  on  British  topography,  published  in  1768.  Leaving 
Cambridge  in  1756,  he  began  a  series  of  antiquarian  excursions 
in  various  parts  of  Great  Britain.  In  1773  he  began  an  edition 
in  English  of  Camden's  Britannia,  which  appeared  in  1789. 


Meantime  he  published,  in  1786,  the  first  volume  of  his  splendid 
work,  the  Sepulchral  Monuments  of  Great  Britain,  applied  to 
illustrate  the  history  of  families,  manners,  habits,  and  arts  at  the 
different  periods  from  the  Norman  Conquest  to  the  Seventeenth 
Century.  This  volume,  which  contained  the  first  four  centuries, 
was  followed  in  1796  by  a  second  volume  containing  the  i$th 
century,  and  an  introduction  to  the  second  volume  appeared 
in  1 799.  Gough  was  chosen  a  fellow  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries 
of  London  in  1767,  and  from  1771  to  1791  he  was  its  director. 
He  was  elected  F.R.S.  in  1775.  He  died  at  Enfield  on  the  2oth 
of  February  1809.  His  books  and  manuscripts  relating  to 
Anglo-Saxon  and  northern  literature,  all  his  collections  in  the 
department  of  British  topography,  and  a  large  number  of  his 
drawings  and  engravings  of  other  archaeological  remains,  were 
bequeathed  to  the  university  of  Oxford. 

Among  the  minor  works  of  Gough  are  An  Account  of  the  Bedford 
Missal  (in  MS.);  A  Catalogue  of  the  Coins  of  Canute,  King  of 
Denmark  (1777);  History  of  Fleshy  in  Essex  (1803);  An  Account  of 
the  Coins  of  the  Seleucidae,  Kings  of  Syria  (1804) ;  and  "  History  of  the 
Society  of  Antiquaries  of  London,"  prefixed  to  their  Archaeologia. 

GOUJET,  CLAUDE  PIERRE  (1697-1767),  French  abbe  and 
litterateur,  was  born  in  Paris  on  the  igth  of  October  1697. 
He  studied  at  the  College  of  the  Jesuits,  and  at  the  College 
Mazarin,  but  he  nevertheless  became  a  strong  Jansenist.  In 
1705  he  assumed  the  ecclesiastical  habit,  in  1719  entered  the 
order  of  Oratorians,  and  soon  afterwards  was  named  canon 
of  St  Jacques  1'Hopital.  On  account  of  his  extreme  Jansenist 
opinions  he  suffered  considerable  persecution  from  the  Jesuits, 
and  several  of  his  works  were  suppressed  at  their  instigation. 
In  his  latter  years  his  health  began  to  fail,  and  he  lost  his 
eyesight.  Poverty  compelled  him  to  sell  his  library,  a  sacrifice 
which  hastened  his  death,  which  took  place  at  Paris  on  the 
ist  of  February  1767. 

He  is  the  author  of  Supplement  au  dictionnaire  de  Moreri  (1735), 
and  a  Nouveau  Supplement  to  a  subsequent  edition  of  the  work; 
he  collaborated  in  Bibliotheque  fran$atse,  on  histoire  litteraire  de 
la  France  (18  vols.,  Paris,  1740-1759);  and  in  the  Vies  des  saints 
(7  vols.,  1730);  he  also  wrote  Memoires  historiques  et  litteraires  sur 
le  college  royal  de  France  (1758);  Histoire  des  Inquisitions  (Paris, 
1752);  and  supervised  an  edition  of  Richelet's  Dictionnaire,  of 
which  he  has  also  given  an  abridgment.  He  helped  the  abb6  Fabre 
in  his  continuation  of  Fleury's  Histoire  ecclesiastique. 

See  Memoires  hist,  et  lilt,  de  I'abbe  Goujet  (1767). 

GOUJON,  JEAN  (c.  isao-c.  1566),  French  sculptor  of  the 
1 6th  century.  Although  some  evidence  has  been  offered  in 
favour  of  the  date  1520  (Archives  de  I'art  fran$ais,  iii.  350), 
the  time  and  place  of  his  birth  are  still  uncertain.  The 
first  mention  of  his  name  occurs  in  the  accounts  of  the  church 
of  St  Maclou  at  Rouen  in  the  year  1540,  and  in  the  following 
year  he  was  employed  at  the  cathedral  of  the  same  town,  where 
he  added  to  the  tomb  of  Cardinal  d'Amboise  a  statue  of  his 
nephew  Georges,  afterwards  removed,  and  possibly  carved 
portions  of  the  tomb  of  Louis  de  Breze,  executed  some  time  after 
1545.  On  leaving  Rouen,  Goujon  was  employed  by  Pierre 
Lescot.the  celebrated  architect  of  the  Louvre,  on  the  restorations 
of  St-Germain  1'Auxerrois;  the  building  accounts — some  of 
which  for  the  years  1542-1544  were  discovered  by  M.  de  Laborde 
on  a  piece  of  parchment  binding — specify  as  his  work,  not  only 
the  carvings  of  the  pulpit  (Louvre),  but  also  a  Notre  Dame  de 
Piete,  now  lost.  In  1547  appeared  Martin's  French  translation 
of  Vitruvius,  the  illustrations  of  which  were  due,  the  translator 
tells  us  in  his  "  Dedication  to  the  King,"  to  Goujon,  "  nagueres 
architecte  de  Monseigneur  le  Connetable,  et  maintenant  un  des 
v6tres."  We  learn  from  this  statement  not  only  that  Goujon 
had  been  taken  into  the  royal  service  on  the  accession  of  Henry 
II.,  but  also  that  he  had  been  previously  employed  under  Bullant 
on  the  chateau  of  Ecouen.  Between  1547  and  1549  he  was 
employed  in  the  decoration  of  the  Loggia  ordered  from  Lescot 
for  the  entry  of  Henry  II.  into  Paris,  which  took  place  on  the 
1 6th  of  June  1549.  Lescot's  edifice  was  reconstructed  at  the 
end  of  the  i8th  century  by  Bernard  Poyet  into  the  Fontaine 
des  Innocents,  this  being  a  considerable  variation  of  the  original 
design.  At  the  Louvre,  Goujon,  under  the  direction  of  Lescot, 
executed  the  carvings  of  the  south-west  angle  of  the  court,  the 


GOUJON,  J.  M.— GOULBURN,  H. 


283 


reliefs  of  the  Escalier  Henri  II.,  and  the  Tribune  des  Cariatides, 
for  which  he  received  737  livres  on  the  5th  of  September  1550. 
Between  1548  and  1554  rose  the  chateau  d'Anet,  in  the  embel- 
lishment of  which  Goujon  was  associated  with  Philibert  Delorme 
in  the  service  of  Diana  of  Poitiers.  Unfortunately  the  building 
accounts  of  Anet  have  disappeared,  but  Goujon  executed  a 
vast  number  of  other  works  of  equal  importance,  destroyed  or 
lost  in  the  great  Revolution.  In  1555  his  name  appears  again 
in  the  Louvre  accounts,  and  continues  to  do  so  every  succeeding 
year  up  to  1562,  when  all  trace  of  him  is  lost.  In  the  course  of 
this  year  an  attempt  was  made  to  turn  out  of  the  royal  employ- 
ment all  those  who  were  suspected  of  Huguenot  tendencies. 
Goujon  has  always  been  claimed  as  a  Reformer;  it  is  consequently 
possible  that  he  was  one  of  the  victims  of  this  attack.  We  should 
therefore  probably  ascribe  the  work  attributed  to  him  in  the 
H6tel  Carnavalet  (in  situ),  together  with  much  else  executed 
in  various  parts  of  Paris — but  now  dispersed  or  destroyed — 
to  a  period  intervening  between  the  date  of  his  dismissal  from 
the  Louvre  and  his  death,  which  is  computed  to  have  taken 
place  between  1564  and  1568,  probably  at  Bologna.  The 
researches  of  M.  Tomaso  Sandonnini  (see  Gazette  des  Beaux  Arts, 
2'  periode,  vol.  xxxi.)  have  finally  disposed  of  the  supposition, 
long  entertained,  that  Goujon  died  during  the  St  Bartholomew 
massacre  in  1572. 

List  of  authentic  works  of  Jean  Goujon'.  Two  marble  columns 
supporting  the  organ  of  the  church  of  St  Maclou  (Rouen)  on 
right  and  left  of  porch  on  entering;  left-hand  gate  of  the  church 
of  St  Maclou;  bas-reliefs  for  decoration  of  screen  of  St  Germain 
1'Auxerrois  (now  in  Louvre) ;  "  Victory  "  over  chimney-piece 
of  Salle  des  Gardes  at  Ecouen;  altar  at  Chantilly;  illustrations 
for  Jean  Martin's  translation  of  Vitruvius;  bas-reliefs  and 
sculptural  decoration  of  Fontaine  des  Innocents;  bas-reliefs 
adorning  entrance  of  H6tel  Carnavalet,  also  series  of  satyrs' 
heads  on  keystones  of  arcade  of  courtyard;  fountain  of  Diana 
from  Anet  (now  in  Louvre);  internal  decoration  of  chapel  at 
Anet;  portico  of  Anet  (now  in  courtyard  of  Ecole  des  Beaux 
Arts) ;  bust  of  Diane  de  Poif tiers  (now  at  Versailles) ;  Tribune 
of  Caryatides  in  the  Louvre;  decoration  of  "  Escalier  Henri 
II.,  "  Louvre;  ceils  de  bccuf  and  decoration  of  Henri  II.  facade, 
Louvre;  groups  for  pediments  of  facade  now  placed  over 
entrance  to  Egyptian  and  Assyrian  collections,  Louvre. 

See  A.  A.  Pettier,  (Euvres  de  Goujon  (1844);  Reginald  Lister, 
Jean  Goujon  (London,  1903). 

GOUJON,  JEAN  MARIE  CLAUDE  ALEXANDRE  (1766-1795), 
French  publicist  and  statesman,  was  born  at  Bourg  on  the 
I3th  of  April  1766,  the  son  of  a  postmaster.  The  boy  went 
early  to  sea,  and  saw  fighting  when  he  was  twelve  years  old; 
in  1790  he  settled  at  Meudon,  and  began  to  make  good  his  lack 
of  education.  As  procureur-general-syndic  of  the  department 
of  Seine-et-Oise,  in  August,  1 792 ,  he  had  to  supply  the  inhabitants 
with  food,  and  fulfilled  his  difficult  functions  with  energy  and 
tact.  In  the  Convention,  which  he  entered  on  the  death  of 
H6rault  de  Sechelles,  he  took  his  seat  on  the  benches  of  the 
Mountain.  He  conducted  a  mission  to  the  armies  of  the  Rhine 
and  the  Moselle  with  creditable  moderation,  and  was  a  con- 
sistent advocate  of  peace  within  the  republic.  Nevertheless, 
he  was  a  determined  opponent  of.  the  counter-revolution,  which 
he  denounced  in  the  Jacobin  Club  and  from  the  Mountain 
after  his  recall  to  Paris,  following  on  the  revolution  of  the  9th 
Thermidor  (July  27,  1794).  He  was  one  of  those  who  protested 
against  the  readmission  of  Louvet  and  other  survivors  of  the 
Girondin  party  to  the  Convention  in  March  1795;  and,  when 
the  populace  invaded  the  legislature  on  the  ist  Prairial  (May 
20,  1 795)  and  compelled  the  deputies  to  legislate  in  accordance 
with  their  desires,  he  proposed  the  immediate  establishment 
of  a  special  commission  which  should  assure  the  execution  of 
the  proposed  changes  and  assume  the  functions  of  the  various 
committees.  The  failure  of  the  insurrection  involved  the  fall 
of  those  deputies  who  had  supported  the  demands  of  the  populace. 
Before  the  close  of  the  sitting,  Goujon,  with  Romme,  Duroi, 
Duquesnoy,  Bourbotte,  Soubrany  and  others  were  put  under 
arrest  by  their  colleagues,  and  on  their  way  to  the  chateau 


of  Taureau  in  Brittany  had  a  narrow  escape  from  a  mob  at 
Avranches.  They  were  brought  back  to  Paris  for  trial  before 
a  military  commission  on  the  i?th  of  June,  and,  though  no  proof 
of  their  complicity  in  organizing  the  insurrection  could  be  found — 
they  were,  in  fact,  with  the  exception  of  Goujon  and  Bourbotte, 
strangers  to  one  another — they  were  condemned.  In  accordance 
with  a  pre-arranged  plan,  they  attempted  suicide  on  the  stair- 
case leading  from  the  court-room  with  a  knife  which  Goujon 
had  successfully  concealed.  Romme,  Goujon  and  Duquesnoy 
succeeded,  but  the  other  three  merely  inflicted  wounds  which 
did  not  prevent  their  being  taken  immediately  to  the  guillotine. 
With  their  deaths  the  Mountain  ceased  to  exist  as  a  party. 

See  J.  Claretie,  Les  Derniers  Montagnards,  histoire  de  I  insurrection 
de  Prairial  an  III  d'aprks  les  documents  (1867);  Defense  du  repre- 
sentant  du  peuple  Goujon  (Paris,  no  date),  with  the  letters  and  a  hymn 
written  by  Goujon  during  his  imprisonment.  For  other  documents 
see  Maurice  Tourneux  (Paris,  1890,  vol.  i.,  pp.  422-425). 

GOULBURN,  EDWARD  MEYRICK  (1818-1897),  English 
churchman,  son  of  Mr  Serjeant  Goulburn,  M.P.,  recorder  of 
Leicester,  and  nephew  of  the  Right  Hon.  Henry  Goulburn, 
chancellor  of  the  exchequer  in  the  ministries  of  Sir  Robert  Peel 
and  the  duke  of  Wellington,  was  born  in  London  on  the  nth  of 
February  1818,  and  was  educated  at  Eton  and  at  Balliol  College, 
Oxford.  In  1839  he  became  fellow  and  tutor  of  Merton,  and  in 
1841  and  1843  was  ordained  deacon  and  priest  respectively. 
For  some  years  he  held  the  living  of  Holywell,  Oxford,  and  was 
chaplain  to  Samuel  Wilberforce,  bishop  of  the  diocese.  In 
1849  he  succeeded  Tail  as  headmaster  of  Rugby,  but  in  1857 
he  resigned,  and  accepted  the  charge  of  Quebec  Chapel,  Maryle- 
bone.  In  1858  he  became  a  prebendary  of  St  Paul's,  and  in 
1859  vicar  of  St  John's,  Paddington.  In  1866  he  was  made 
dean  of  Norwich,  and  in  that  office  exercised  a  long  and  marked 
influence  on  church  life.  A  strong  Conservative  and  a  churchman 
of  traditional  orthodoxy,  he  was  a  keen  antagonist  of  "  higher 
criticism  "  and  of  all  forms  of  rationalism.  His  Thoughts  on 
Personal  Religion  (1862)  and  The  Pursuit  of  Holiness  were 
well  received;  and  he  wrote  the  Life  (1892)  of  his  friend  Dean 
Burgon,  with  whose  doctrinal  views  he  was  substantially  in 
agreement.  He  resigned  the  deanery  in  1889,  and  died  at 
Tunbridge  Wells  on  the  3rd  of  May  1897. 

See  Life  by  B.  Compton  (1899). 

GOULBURN,  HENRY  (1784-1856),  English  statesman,  was 
born  in  London  on  the  igth  of  March  1784  and  was  educated  at 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  In  1808  he  became  member  of 
parliament  for  Horsham;  in  1810  he  was  appointed  under- 
secretary for  home  affairs  and  two  and  a  half  years  later  he  was 
made  under-secretary  for  war  and  the  colonies.  Still  retaining 
office  in  the  Tory  government  he  became  a  privy  councillor  in 
1821,  and  just  afterwards  was  appointed  chief  secretary  to  the 
lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland,  a  position  which  he  held  until  April 
1827.  Here  although  frequently  denounced  as  an  Orangeman, 
his  period  of  office  was  on  the  whole  a  successful  one,  and  in 
1823  he  managed  to  pass  the  Irish  Tithe  Composition  Bill.  In 
January  1828  he  was  made  chancellor  of  the. exchequer  under 
the  duke  of  Wellington;  like  his  leader  he  disliked  Roman 
Catholic  emancipation,  which  he  voted  against  in  1828.  In  the 
domain  of  finance  Goulburn's  chief  achievements  were  to  reduce 
the  rate  of  interest  on  part  of  the  national  debt,  and  to  allow 
any  one  to  sell  beer  upon  payment  of  a  small  annual  fee,  a  com- 
plete change  of  policy  with  regard  to  the  drink  traffic.  Leaving 
office  with  Wellington  in  November  1830,  Goulburn  was  home 
secretary  under  Sir  Robert  Peel  for  four  months  in  1835,  and 
when  this  statesman  returned  to  office  in  September  1841  he 
became  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  for  the  second  time.  Although 
Peel  himself  did  some  of  the  chancellor's  work,  Goulburn  was 
responsible  for  a  further  reduction  in  the  rate  of  interest  on  the 
national  debt,  and  he  aided  his  chief  in  the  struggle  which  ended 
in  the  repeal  of  the  corn  laws.  With  his  colleagues  he  left  office 
in  June  1846.  After  representing  Horsham  in  the  House  of 
Commons  for  over  four  years  Goulburn  was  successively  member 
for  St  Germans,  for  West  Looe,  and  for  the  city  of  Armagh.  In 
May  1831  he  was  elected  for  Cambridge  University,  and  he 
retained  this  seat  until  his  death  on  the  i2th  of  January  1856 


GOULBURN— GOULD,  JAY 


at  Betchworth  House,  Dorking.  Goulburn  was  one  of  Peel's 
firmest  supporters  and  most  intimate  friends.  His  eldest  son, 
Henry  (1813-1843),  was  senior  classic  and  second  wrangler 
at  Cambridge  in  1835. 

See  S.  Walpole,  History  of  England  (1878-1886). 

GOULBURN,  a  city  of  Argyle  county,  New  South  Wales, 
Australia,  134  m.  S.W.  of  Sydney  by  the  Great  Southern  railway. 
Pop.  (1901)  10,618.  It  lies  in  a  productive  agricultural  district, 
at  an  altitude  of  2129  ft.,  and  is  a  place  of  great  importance, 
being  the  chief  depot  of  the  inland  trade  of  the  southern  part 
of  the  state.  There  are  Anglican  and  Roman  Catholic  cathedrals. 
Manufactures  of  boots  and  shoes,  flour  and  beer,  and  tanning 
are  important.  The  municipality  was  created  in  1859;  and 
Goulburn  became  a  city  in  1864. 

GOULD,  AUGUSTUS  ADDISON  (1805-1866),  American 
conchologist,  was  born  at  New  Ipswich,  New  Hampshire,  on  the 
23rd  of  April  1805,  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1825,  and 
took  his  degree  of  doctor  of  medicine  in  1830.  Thrown  from 
boyhood  on  his  own  exertions,  it  was  only  by  industry,  per- 
severance and  self-denial  that  he  obtained  the  means  to  pursue 
his  studies.  Establishing  himself  in  Boston,  he  devoted  himself 
to  the  practice  of  medicine,  and  finally  rose  to  high  professional 
rank  and  social  position.  He  became  president  of  the  Massachu- 
setts Medical  Society,  and  was  employed  in  editing  the  vital 
statistics  of  the  state.  As  a  conchologist  his  reputation  is  world- 
wide, and  he  was  one  of  the  pioneers  of  the  science  in  America. 
His  writings  fill  many  pages  of  the  publications  of  the  Boston 
Society  of  Natural  History  (see  vol.  xi.  p.  197  for  a  list)  and 
other  periodicals.  He  published  with  L.  Agassiz  the  Principles 
of  Zoology  (2nd  ed.  1851);  he  edited  the  Terrestrial  and  Air- 
breathing  Mollusks  (1851-1855)  of  Amos  Binney  (1803-1847);  he 
translated  Lamarck's  Genera  of  Shells.  The  two  most  important 
monuments  to  his  scientific  work,  however,  are  Mollusca  and 
Shells  (vol.  xii.,  1852)  of  the  United  States  exploring  expedition 
(1838-1842)  under  Lieutenant  CharlesWilkes(i833),  published  by 
the  government,  and  the  Report  on  the  Imiertebrata  published  by 
order  of  the  legislature  of  Massachusetts  in  1841.  A  second 
edition  of  the  latter  work  was  authorized  in  1865,  and  published 
in  1870  after  the  author's  death,  which  took  place  at  Boston 
on  the  isth  of  September  1866.  Gould  was  a  corresponding 
member  of  all  the  prominent  American  scientific  societies,  and 
of  many  of  those  of  Europe,  including  the  London  Royal  Society. 

GOULD,  BENJAMIN  APTHORP  (1824-1896),  American 
astronomer,  a  son  of  Benjamin  Apthorp  Gould  (1787-1859), 
principal  of  the  Boston  Latin  school,  was  born  at  Boston,  Massa- 
chusetts, on  the  27th  of  September  1824.  Having  graduated 
at  Harvard  College  in  1844,  he  studied  mathematics  and  as- 
tronomy under  C.  F.  Gauss  at  Gottingen,  and  returned  to 
America  in  1848.  From  1852  to  1867  he  was  in  charge  of  the 
longitude  department  of  the  United  States  coast  survey;  he 
developed  and  organized  the  service,  was  one  of  the  first  to 
determine  longitudes  by  telegraphic  means,  and  employed  the 
Atlantic  cable  in  1866  to  establish  longitude-relations  between 
Europe  and  America.  The  Astronomical  Journal  was  founded 
by  Gould  in  1849;  and  its  publication,  suspended  in  1861, 
was  resumed  by  him  in  1885.  From  1855  to  1859  he  acted  as 
director  of  the  Dudley  observatory  at  Albany,  New  York; 
and  published  hi  1859  a  discussion  of  the  places  and  proper 
motions  of  circumpolar  stars  to  be  used  as  standards  by  the 
United  States  coast  survey.  Appointed  in  1862  actuary  to 
the  United  States  sanitary  commission,  he  issued  in  1869  an 
important  volume  of  Military  and  Anthropological  Statistics. 
He  fitted  up  in  1864  a  private  observatory  at  Cambridge,  Mass. ; 
but  undertook  in  1868,  on  behalf  of  the  Argentine  republic, 
to  organize  a  national  observatory  at  Cordoba;  began  to  observe 
there  with  four  assistants  in  1870,  and  completed  in  1874  his 
Uranometria  Argentina  (published  1879)  for  which  he  received 
in  1883  the  gold  medal  of  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society. 
This  was  followed  by  a  zone-catalogue  of  73,160  stars  (1884),  and 
a  general  catalogue  (1885)  compiled  from  meridian  observations 
of  32,448  stars.  Gould's  measurements  of  L.  M.  Rutherfurd's 
photographs  of  the  Pleiades  in  1866  entitle  him  to  rank  as  a 


pioneer  in  the  use  of  the  camera  as  an  instrument  of  precision; 
and  he  secured  at  Cordoba  1400  negatives  of  southern  star- 
clusters,  the  reduction  of  which  occupied  the  closing  years  of 
his  life.  He  returned  in  1885  to  his  home  at  Cambridge,  where 
he  died  on  the  26th  of  November  1896. 

See  Astronomical  Journal,  No.  389;  Observatory,  xx.  70  (same 
notice  abridged);  Science  (Dec.  18,  1896,  S.  C.  Chandler);  Astro- 
physical  Journal,  v.  50;  Monthly  Notices  Roy.  Astr.  Society,  Ivii. 
218. 

GOULD,  SIR  FRANCIS  CARRUTHERS  (1844-  ),  English 
caricaturist  and  politician,  was  born  in  Barnstaple  on  the  2nd 
of  December  1844.  Although  in  early  youth  he  showed  great 
love  of  drawing,  he  began  life  in  a  bank  and  then  joined  the 
London  Stock  Exchange,  where  he  constantly  sketched  the 
members  and  illustrated  important  events  in  the  financial 
world ;  many  of  these  drawings  were  reproduced  by  lithography 
and  published  for  private  circulation.  In  1879  he  began  the 
regular  illustration  of  the  Christmas  numbers  of  Truth,  and  in 
1887  he  became  a  contributor  to  the  Pall  Mall  Gazette,  trans- 
ferring his  allegiance  to  the  Westminster  Gazette  on  its  foundation 
and  subsequently  acting  as  assistant  editor.  Among  his  inde- 
pendent publications  are  Who  killed  Cock  Robin?  (1897),  Tales 
told  in  the  Zoo  (1900),  two  volumes  of  Froissart's  Modern 
Chronicles,  told  and  pictured  by  F.  C.  Gould  (1902  and  1903), 
and  Picture  Politics — a  periodical  reprint  of  his  Westminster 
Gazette  cartoons,  one  of  the  most  noteworthy  implements  of 
political  warfare  in  the  armoury  of  the  Liberal  party.  Frequently 
grafting  his  ideas  on  to  subjects  taken  freely  from  Uncle  Remus, 
Alice  in  Wonderland,  and  the  works  of  Dickens  and  Shakespeare, 
Sir  F.  C.  Gould  used  these  literary  vehicles  with  extraordinary 
dexterity  and  point,  but  with  a  satire  that  was  not  unkind  and 
with  a  vigour  from  which  bitterness,  virulence  and  cynicism 
were  notably  absent.  He  was  knighted  in  1906. 

GOULD,  JAY  (1836-1892),  American  financier,  was  born  in 
Roxbury,  Delaware  county,  New  York,  on  the  27th  of  May  1836. 
He  was  brought  up  on  his  father's  farm,  studied  at  Hobart 
Academy,  and  though  he  left  school  in  his  sixteenth  year,  devoted 
himself  assiduously  thereafter  to  private  study,  chiefly  of  mathe- 
matics and  surveying,  at  the  same  time  keeping  books  for  a 
blacksmith  for  his  board.  For  a  short  time  he  worked  for  his 
father  in  the  hardware  business;  in  1852-1856  he  worked  as  a 
surveyor  in  preparing  maps  of  Ulster,  Albany  and  Delaware 
counties  in  New  York,  of  Lake  and  Geauga  counties  in  Ohio, 
and  of  Oakland  county  in  Michigan,  and  of  a  projected 
railway  line  between  Newburgh  and  Syracuse,  N.Y.  An  ardent 
anti-renter  in  his  boyhood  and  youth,  he  wrote  A  History  of 
Delaware  County  and  the  Border  Wars  of  New  York,  containing 
a  Sketch  of  the  Early  Settlements  in  the  County,  and  A  History 
of  the  Late  Anti-Rent  Difficulties  in  Delaware  (Roxbury,  1856). 
He  then  engaged  in  the  lumber  and  tanning  business  in  western 
New  York,  and  in  banking  at  Stroudsburg,  Pennsylvania.  In 
1863  he  married  Miss  Helen  Day  Miller,  and  through  her  father, 
Daniel  S.  Miller,  he  was  appointed  manager  of  the  Rensselaer 
&  Saratoga  railway,  which  he  bought  up  when  it  was  in  a  very 
bad  condition,  and  skilfully  reorganized;  in  the  same  way  he 
bought  and  reorganized  the  Rutland  &  Washington  railway, 
from  which  he  ultimately  realized  a  large  profit.  In  1859  he 
removed  to  New  York  City,  where  he  became  a  broker  in  railway 
stocks,  and  in  1868  he  was  elected  president  of  the  Erie  railway,  o^ 
which  by  shrewd  strategy  he  and  James  Fisk,  jT.(q.v.),  had  gained 
control  in  July  of  that  year.  The  management  of  the  road  under 
his  control,  and  especially  the  sale  of  $5,000,000  of  fraudulent 
stock  in  1868-1870,  led  to  litigation  begun  by  English  bond- 
holders, and  Gould  was  forced  out  of  the  company  in  March 
1872  and  compelled  to  restore  securities  valued  at  about 
$7,500,000.  It  was  during  his  control  of  the  Erie  that  he  and 
Fisk  entered  into  a  league  with  the  Tweed  Ring,  they  admitted 
Tweed  to  the  directorate  of  the  Erie,  and  Tweed  in  turn  arranged 
favourable  legislation  for  them  at  Albany.  With  Tweed,  Gould 
was  cartooned  by  Nast  in  1869.  In  October  1871  Gould  was  the 
chief  bondsman  of  Tweed  when  the  latter  was  held  in  $1,000,000 
bail.  With  Fisk  in  August  1869  he  began  to  buy  gold  in  a  daring 


GOUNOD 


285 


attempt  to  "  corner  "  the  market,  his  hope  being  that,  with  the 
advance  in  price  of  gold,  wheat  would  advance  to  such  a  price 
that  western  farmers  would  sell,  and  there  would  be  a  consequent 
great  movement  of  breadstuffs  from  West  to  East,  which  would 
result  in  increased  freight  business  for  the  Erie  road.  His 
speculations  in  gold,  during  which  he  attempted  through  President 
Grant's  brother-in-law,  A.  H.  Corbin,  to  influence  the  president 
and  his  secretary  General  Horace  Porter,  culminated  in  the  panic 
of  "  Black  Friday,"  on  the  24th  of  September  1869,  when  the 
price  of  gold  fell  from  162  to  135. 

Gould  gained  control  of  the  Union  Pacific,  from  which  in 
1883  he  withdrew  after  realizing  a  large  profit.  Buying  up  the 
stock  of  the  Missouri  Pacific  he  built  up,  by  means  of  consolida- 
tions, reorganizations,  and  the  construction  of  branch  lines, 
the  "  Gould  System  "  of  railways  in  the  south-western  states. 
In  1880  he  was  in  virtual  control  of  10,000  miles  of  railway,  about 
one-ninth  of  the  railway  mileage  of  the  United  States  at  that 
time.  Besides,  he  obtained  a  controlling  interest  in  the  Western 
Union  Telegraph  Company,  and  after  1881  in  the  elevated 
railways  in  New  York  City,  and  was  intimately  connected  with 
many  of  the  largest  railway  financial  operations  in  the  United 
States  for  the  twenty  years  following  1 868.  He  died  of  consump- 
tion and  of  mental  strain  on  the  2nd  of  December  1892,  his 
fortune  at  that  time  being  estimated  at  $72,000,000;  all  of 
this  he  left  to  his  own  family. 

His  eldest  son,  GEORGE  JAY  GOULD  (b.  1864),  was  prominent 
also  as  an  owner  and  manager  of  railways,  and  became  president 
of  the  Little  Rock  &  Fort  Smith  railway  (1888),  the  St  Louis, 
Iron  Mountain  &  Southern  railway  (1893),  the  International 
&  Great  Northern  railway  (1893),  the  Missouri  Pacific  railway 
(1893),  the  Texas  &  Pacific  railway  (1893),  and  the  Manhattan 
Railway  Company  (1892);  he  was  also  vice-president  and 
director  of  the  Western  Union  Telegraph  Company.  It  was 
under  his  control  that  the  Wabash  system  became  transconti- 
nental and  secured  an  Atlantic  port  at  Baltimore;  and  it  was 
he  who  brought  about  a  friendly  alliance  between  the  Gould 
and  the  Rockefeller  interests. 

The  eldest  daughter,  HELEN  MILLER  GOULD  (b.  1868),  became 
widely  known  as  a  philanthropist,  and  particularly  for  her 
generous  gifts  to  American  army  hospitals  in  the  war  with  Spain 
in  1898  and  for  her  many  contributions  to  New  York  University, 
to  which  she  gave  $250,000  for  a  library  in  1895  and  $100,000 
for  a  Hall  of  Fame  in  1900. 

GOUNOD.  CHARLES  FRANCOIS  (1818-1893),  French  com- 
poser, was  born  in  Paris  on  the  l^th  of  June  1818,  the  son  of 
F.  L.  Gounod,  a  talented  painter.  He  entered  the  Paris  Con- 
servatoire in  1836,  studied  under  Reicha,  Halevy  and  Lesueur, 
and  won  the  "  Grand  Prix  de  Rome  "  in  1839.  While  residing 
in  the  Eternal  City  he  devoted  much  of  his  time  to  the  study 
of  sacred  music,  notably  to  the  works  of  Palestrina  and  Bach. 
In  1843  he  went  to  Vienna,  where  a  "  requiem  "  of  his  composi- 
tion was  performed.  On  his  return  to  Paris  he  tried  in  vain  to 
find  a  publisher  for  some  songs  he  had  written  in  Rome.  Having 
become  organist  to  the  chapel  of  the  "  Missions  Etrangeres," 
he  turned  his  thoughts  and  mind  to  religious  music.  At  that 
time  he  even  contemplated  the  idea  of  entering  into  holy 
orders.  His  thoughts  were,  however,  turned  to  more  mundane 
matters  when,  through  'the  intervention  of  Madame  Viardot, 
the  celebrated  singer,  he  received  a  commission  to  compose  an 
opera  on  a  text  by  Emile  Augier  for  the  Academic  Nationale 
de  Musique.  Sapho,  the  work  in  question,  was  produced  in 
1851,  and  if  its  success  was  not  very  great,  it  at  least  sufficed  to 
bring  the  composer  's  name  to  the  fore.  Some  critics  appearec 
to  consider  this  work  as  evidence  of  a  fresh  departure  in  the 
style  of  dramatic  music,  and  Adolphe  Adam,  the  composer 
who  was  also  a  musical  critic,  attributed  to  Gounod  the  wish 
to  revive  the  system  of  musical  declamation  invented  by  Gluck 
The  fact  was  that  Sapho  differed  in  some  respects  from  the 
operatic  works  of  the  period,  and  was  to  a  certain  extent  in 
advance  of  the  times.  When  it  was  revived  at  the  Paris  Opera 
in  1884,  several  additions  were  made  by  the  composer  to  thi 
original  score,  not  altogether  to  its  advantage,  and  Sapho  one 


more  failed  to  attract  the  public.     Gounod's  second  dramatic 
ttempt  was  again  in  connexion  with  a  classical  subject,  and 
consisted  in  some  choruses  written  for  Ulysse,  a  tragedy  by 
'onsard,  played  at  the  Theatre  Francais  in   1852,  when  the 
orchestra  was  conducted  by  Offenbach.     The  composer's  next    ' 
opera,  La  Nonne  sanglante,  given  at  the  Paris  Op6ra  in  1854, 
was   a   failure. 

Goethe's  Faust  had  for  years  exercised  a  strong  fascination 
over  Gounod,  and  he  at  last  determined  to  turn  it  to  operatic 
account.     The  performance  at  a  Paris  theatre  of  a  drama  on 
the  same  subject  delayed  the  production  of  his  opera  for  a  time, 
in  the  meanwhile  he  wrote  in  a  few  months  the  music  for  an 
operatic  version  of  Moliere's  comedy,  Le  Medecin  malgre  lui, 
which  was  produced  at  the  Theatre  Lyrique  in  1858.     Berlioz  well 
described  this  charming  little  work  when  he  wrote  of  it,  "  Every- 
thing is  pretty,  piquant,  fluent,  in  this  '  opdra  comique  ';  there  is 
nothing  superfluous  and  nothing  wanting."     The  first  perform- 
ance of  Faust  took  place  at  the  Theatre  Lyrique  on  the  igth 
of  March  1859.     Goethe's  masterpiece  had  already  been  utilized 
'or  operatic  purposes  by  various  composers,  the  most  celebrated 
of  whom  was  Spohr.     The  subject  had  also  inspired  Schumann, 
Berlioz,  Liszt,  Wagner,  to  mention  only  a  few,  and  the  enormous 
success  of  Gounod's  opera  did  not  deter  Boito  from  writing  his 
Mefistofele.     Faust  is  without  doubt  the  most  popular  French 
opera  of  the  second  half  of  the  i  gth  century.     Its  success  has  been 
universal,  and  nowhere  has  it  achieved  greater  vogue  than  in 
the  land  of  Goethe.     For  years  it  remained  the  recognized  type 
of  modern  French  opera.     At  the  time  of  its  production  in  Paris 
it  was  scarcely  appreciated  according  to  its  merits.     Its  style 
was  too  novel,  and  its  luscious  harmonies  did  not  altogether 
suit  the  palates  of  those  dilettanti  who  still  looked  upon  Rossini 
as  the  incarnation  of  music.     Times  have  indeed  changed,  and 
French  composers  have  followed  the  road  opened  by  Gounod, 
and  have  further  developed  the  form  of  the  lyrical  drama, 
adopting  the  theories  of  Wagner  in  a  manner  suitable  to  their 
national  temperament.     Although  in  its  original  version  Faust 
contained  spoken  dialogue,  and  was  divided  into  set  pieces 
according  to  custom,  yet  it  differed  greatly  from  the  operas  of 
the  past.     Gounod  had  not  studied  the  works  of  German  masters 
such  as  Mendelssohn  and  Schumann  in  vain,  and  although 
his  own  style  is  eminently  Gallic,  yet  it  cannot  be  denied  that 
much  of  its  charm  emanates  from  a  certain  poetic  sentimentality 
which  seems  to  have  a  Teutonic  origin.     Certainly  no  music 
such  as  his  had  previously  been  produced  by  any  French  com- 
poser.    Auber  was  a  gay  trifler,  scattering  his  bright  effusions 
with  absolute  insouciance,  teemingywith  melodious  ideas,  but 
lacking  depth.     Berlioz,  a  musical  Titan,  wrestled  against  fate 
with   a   superhuman   energy,  and,   Jove-like,    subjugated   his 
hearers  with  his  thunderbolts.     It  was,  however,  reserved  for 
Gounod  to  introduce  la  note  tendre,  to  sing  the  tender  passion 
in  accents  soft  and  languorous.     The  musical  language  em- 
ployed in  Faust  was  new  and  fascinating,  and  it  was  soon  to  be 
adopted  by  many  other  French  composers,  certain  of  its  idioms 
thereby  becoming  hackneyed.     Gounod's  opera  was  given  in 
London  in   1863,  when  its  success,  at  first  doubtful,  became 
enormous,  and  it  was  heard  concurrently  at  Covent  Garden 
and  Her  Majesty's  theatres.     Since  then  it  has  never  lost  its 
popularity. 

Although  the  success  of  Faust  in  Paris  was  at  first  not  so 
great  as  might  have  been  expected,  yet  it  gradually  increased 
and  set  the  seal  on  Gounod's  fame.  The  fortunate  composer 
now  experienced  no  difficulty  in  finding  an  outlet  for  his  works, 
and  the  succeeding  decade  is  a  specially  important  one  in  his 
career.  The  opera  from  his  pen  which  came  after  Faust  was 
Philemon  el  Baucis,  a  setting  of  the  mythological  tale  in  which 
the  composer  followed  the  traditions  of  the  Op6ra  Comique, 
employing  spoken  dialogue,  while  not  abdicating  the  in- 
dividuality of  his  own  style.  This  work  was  produced  at  the 
Theatre  Lyrique  in  1860.  It  has  repeatedly  been  heard  in 
London.  La.  Reine  de  Saba,  a  four-act  opera,  produced  at  the 
Grand  Opera  on  the  28th  of  February  1862,  was  altogether 
a  far  more  ambitious  work.  For  some  reason  it  did  not  meet 


286 


GOURD 


with  success,  although  the  score  contains  some  of  Gounod's 
choicest  inspirations,  notably  the  well-known  air,  "  Lend  me 
your  aid."  La  Reine  de  Saba  was  adapted  for  the  English  stage 
under  the  name  of  Irene.  The  non-success  of  this  work  proved 
a  great  disappointment  to  Gounod,  who,  however,  set  to  work 
again,  and  this  time  with  better  results,  Mireille,  the  fruit  of  his 
labours,  being  given  for  the  first  time  at  the  Theatre  Lyrique 
on  the  i  gth  of  March  1864.  Founded  upon  the  Mireio  of  the 
Provencal  poet  Mistral,  Mireille  contains  much  charming  and 
characteristic  music.  The  libretto  seems  to  have  militated  against 
its  success,  and  although  several  revivals  have  taken  place  and 
various  modifications  and  alterations  have  been  made  in  the  score, 
yet  Mireille  has  never  enjoyed  a  very  great  vogue.  Certain 
portions  of  this  opera  have,  however,  been  popularized  in  the 
concert-room.  La  Colombe,  a  little  opera  in  two  acts  without  pre- 
tension, deserves  mention  here.  It  was  originally  heard  at  Baden 
in  1860,  and  subsequently  at  the  Opera  Comique.  A  suavely 
melodious  entr'acte  from  this  little  work  has  survived  and  been 
repeatedly  performed. 

Animated  with  the  desire  to  give  a  pendant  to  his  Faust, 
Gounod  now  sought  for  inspiration  from  Shakespeare,  and 
turned  his  attention  to  Romeo  and  Juliet.  Here,  indeed,  was  a 
subject  particularly  well  calculated  to  appeal  to  a  composer 
who  had  so  eminently  qualified  himself  to  be  considered  the 
musician  of  the  tender  passion.  The  operatic  version  of  the 
Shakespearean  tragedy  was  produced  at  the  Theatre  Lyrique  on 
the  27th  of  April  1867.  It  is  generally  considered  as  being  the 
composer's  second  best  opera.  Some  people  have  even  placed 
it  on  the  same  level  as  Faust,  but  this  verdict  has  not^ound 
general  acceptance.  Gounod  himself  is  stated  to  have  expressed 
his  opinion  of  the  relative  value  of  the  two  operas  enigmatically 
by  saying,  "  Faust  is  the  oldest,  but  I  was  younger;  Romeo 
is  the  youngest,  but  I  was  older."  The  luscious  strains  wedded 
to  the  love  scenes,  if  at  times  somewhat  cloying,  are  generally 
in  accord  with  the  situations,  often  irresistibly  fascinating, 
while  always  absolutely  individual.  The  success  of  Romeo 
in  Paris  was  great  from  the  outset,  and  eventually  this  work 
was  transferred  to  the  Grand  Opera,  after  having  for  some  time 
formed  part  of  the  repertoire  of  the  Opera  Comique.  In  London 
it  was  not  until  the  part  of  Romeo  was  sung  by  Jean  de 
Reszke  that  this  opera  obtained  any  real  hold  upon  the  English 
public.  , 

After  having  so  successfully  sought  for  inspiration  from 
Moliere,  Goethe  and  Shakespeare,  Gounod  now  turned  to  another 
famous  dramatist,  and  selected  Pierre  Corneille's  Polyeucte 
as  the  subject  of  his  next  opera.  Some  years  were,  however, 
to  elapse  before  this  work  was  given  to  the  public.  The  Franco- 
German  War  had  broken  out,  and  Gounod  was  compelled  to 
take  refuge  in  London,  where  he  composed  the  "  biblical  elegy  " 
Gallia  for  the  inauguration  of  the  Royal  Albert  Hall.  During 
his  stay  in  London  Gounod  composed  a  great  deal  and  wrote  a 
number  of  songs  to  English  words,  many  of  which  have  attained 
an  enduring  popularity,  such  as  "  Maid  of  Athens,"  "  There 
is  a  green  hill  far  away,"  "  Oh  that  we  two  were  maying," 
"  The  fountain  mingles  with  the  river."  His  sojourn  in  London 
was  not  altogether  pleasant,  as  he  was  embroiled  in  lawsuits 
with  publishers.  On  Gounod's  return  to  Paris  he  hurriedly 
set  to  music  an  operatic  version  of  Alfred  de  Vigny's  Cinq-Mars, 
which  was  given  at  the  Opera  Comique  on  the  5th  of  April  1877 
(and  in  London  in  1900),  without  obtaining  much  success. 
Polyeucte,  his  much-cherished  work,  appeared  at  the  Grand 
Opera  the  following  year  on  the  7th  of  October,  and  did  not  meet 
with  a  better  fate.  Neither  was  Gounod  more  fortunate  with 
Le  Tribut  de  Zamora,  his  last  opera,  which,  given  on  the  same 
stage  in  1881,  speedily  vanished,  never  to  reappear.  In  his 
later  dramatic  works  he  had,  unfortunately,  made  no  attempt 
to  keep  up  with  the  times,  preferring  to  revert  to  old-fashioned 
methods. 

The  genius  of  the  great  composer  was,  however,  destined  to 
assert  itself  in  another  field — that  of  sacred  music.  His  friend 
Camille  Saint-Saens,  in  a  volume  entitled  Portraits  et  Souvenirs, 
writes: 


Gounod  did  not  cease  all  his  life  to  write  for  the  church,  to 
accumulate  masses  and  motetts;  but  it  was  at  the  commencement 
of  his  career,  in  the  Messe  de  Sainte  Cecile,  and  at  the  end,  in  the 
oratorios  The  Redemption  and  Mors  et  vita,  that  he  rose  highest. 

Saint-Saens,  indeed,  has  formulated  the  opinion  that  the  three 
above-mentioned  works  will  survive  all  the  master's  operas. 
Among  the  many  masses  composed  by  Gounod  at  the  outset 
of  his  career,  the  best  is  the  Messe  de  Sainte  Cecile,  written  in 
1855.  He  also  wrote  the  Messe  du  Sacre  Cceur  (1876)  and  the 
Messe  a  la  mimoire  de  Jeanne  d'Arc  (1887).  This  last  work 
offers  certain  peculiarities,  being  written  for  solos,  chorus, 
organ,  eight  trumpets,  three  trombones,  and  harps.  In  style 
it  has  a  certain  affinity  with  Palestrina.  The  Redemption,  which 
seems  to  have  acquired  a  permanent  footing  in  Great  Britain, 
was  produced  at  the  Birmingham  Festival  of  1882.  It  was 
styled  a  sacred  trilogy,  and  was  dedicated  to  Queen  Victoria. 
The  score  is  prefixed  by  a  commentary  written  by  the  composer, 
in  which  the  scope  of  the  oratorio  is  explained.  It  cannot  be 
said  that  Gounod  has  altogether  risen  to  the  magnitude  of  his 
task.  The  music  of  The  Redemption  bears  the  unmistakable 
imprint  of  the  composer's  hand,  and  contains  many  beautiful 
thoughts,  but  the  work  in  its  entirety  is  not  exempt  from 
monotony.  Mors  et  vita,  a  sacred  trilogy  dedicated  to  Pope 
Leo  XIII.,  was  also  produced  for  the  first  time  in  Birmingham 
at  the  Festival  of  1885.  This  work  is  divided  into  three  parts, 
"  Mors,"  "  Judicium,"  "  Vita."  The  first  consists  of  a  Requiem, 
the  second  depicts  the  Judgment,  the  third  Eternal  Life. 
Although  quite  equal,  if  not  superior  to  The  Redemption,  Mors 
et  vita  has  not  obtained  similar  success. 

Gounod  was  a  great  worker,  an  indefatigable  writer,  and  it 
would  occupy  too  much  space  to  attempt  even  an  incomplete 
catalogue  of  his  compositions.  Besides  the  works  already 
mentioned  may  be  named  two  symphonies  which  were  played 
during  the  'fifties,  but  have  long  since  fallen  into  neglect. 
Symphonic  music  was  not  Gounod's  forte,  and  the  French  master 
evidently  recognized  the  fact,  for  he  made  no  further  attempts 
in  this  style.  The  incidental  music  he  wrote  to  the  dramas  Les 
Deux  Reines  and  Jeanne  d'Arc  must  not  be  forgotten.  He  also 
attempted  to  set  Moliere's  comedy,  Georges  Dandin,  to  music, 
keeping  to  the  original  prose.  This  work  has  never  been  brought 
out.  Gounod  composed  a  large  number  of  songs,  many  of  which 
are  very  beautiful.  One  of  the  vocal  pieces  that  have  contri- 
buted most  to  his  popularity  is  the  celebrated  Meditation  on 
the  First  Prelude  of  Bach,  more  widely  known  as  the  Ave  Maria. 
The  idea  of  fitting  a  melody  to  the  Prelude  of  Bach  was  original, 
and  it  must  be  admitted  that  in  this  case  the  experiment  was 
successful. 

Gounod  died  at  St  Cloud  on  the  i8th  of  October  1893.  His 
influence  on  French  music  was  immense,  though  during  the 
last  years  of  the  igth  century  it  was  rather  counterbalanced 
by  that  of  Wagner.  Whatever  may  be  the  verdict  of  posterity, 
it  is  unlikely  that  the  quality  of  individuality  will  be  denied 
to  Gounod.  To  be  the  composer  of  Faust  is  alone  a  sufficient 
title  to  lasting  fame.  (A.  HE.) 

GOURD,  a  name  given  to  various  plants  of  the  order  Cucur- 
bitaceae,  especially  those  belonging  to  the  genus  Cucurbita, 
monoecious  trailing  herbs  of  annual  duration,  with  long  succulent 
stems  furnished  with  tendrils,  and  large,  rough,  palmately-lobed 
leaves;  the  flowers  are  generally  large  and  of  a  bright  yellow 
or  orange  colour,  the  barren  ones  with  the  stamens  united; 
the  fertile  are  followed  by  the  large  succulent  fruit  that  gives 
the  gourds  their  chief  economic  value.  Many  varieties  of 
Cucurbita  are  under  cultivation  in  tropical  and  temperate 
climates,  especially  in  southern  Asia;  but  it  is  extremely 
difficult  to  refer  them  to  definite  specific  groups,  on  account  of 
the  facility  with  which  they  hybridize;  while  it  is  very  doubtful 
whether  any  of  the  original  forms  now  exist  in  the  wild  state. 
Charles  Naudin,  who  made  a  careful  and  interesting  series  of 
observations  upon  this  genus,  came  to  the  conclusion  that  all 
varieties  known  in  European  gardens  might  be  referred  to  six 
original  species;  probably  three,  or  at  most  four,  have  furnished 
the  edible  kinds  in  ordinary  cultivation.  Adopting  the  specific 


GOURGAUD 


287 


names  usually  given  to  the  more  familiar  forms,  the  most  im- 
portant of  the  gourds,  from  an  economic  point  of  view,  is  perhaps 
C.  maxima,  the  Poliron  Jaune  of  the  French,  the  red  and  yellow 
gourd  of  British  gardeners  (fig.  6),  the  spheroidal  fruit  of  which 
is  remarkable  for  its  enormous  size:  the  colour  of  the  somewhat 
rough  rind  varies  from  white  to  bright  yellow,  while  in  some  kinds 
it  remains  green;  the  fleshy  interior  is  of  a  deep  yellow  or 
orange  tint.  This  valuable  gourd  is  grown  extensively  in  southern 
Asia  and  Europe.  In  Turkey  and  Asia  Minor  it  yields,  at  some 
periods  of  the  year,  an  important  article  of  diet  to  the  people; 
immense  quantities  are  sold  in  the  markets  of  Constantinople, 
where  in  the  winter  the  heaps  of  one  variety  with  a  white  rind 
are  described  as  resembling  mounds  of  snowballs.  The  yellow 
kind  attains  occasionally  a  weight  of  upwards  of  240  ft.  It 
grows  well  in  Central  Europe  and  the  United  States,  while  in 
the  south  of  England  it  will  produce  its  gigantic  fruit  in  perfection 
in  hot  summers.  The  yellow  flesh  of  this  gourd  and  its  numerous 
varieties  yields  a  considerable  amount  of  nutriment,  and  is  the 
more  valuable  as  the  fruit  can  be  kept,  even  in  warm  climates,  for 
a  long  time.  In  France  and  in  the  East  it  is  much  used  in  soups 
and  ragouts,  while  simply  boiled  it  forms  a  substitute  for  other 
table  vegetables;  the  taste  has  been  compared  to  that  of  a  young 
carrot.  In  some  countries  the  larger  kinds  are  employed  as 
cattle  food.  The  seeds  yield  by  expression  a  large  quantity 
of  a  bland  oil,  which  is  used  for  the  same  purposes  as  that  of 
the  poppy  and  olive.  The  "  mammoth  "  gourds  of  English  and 
American  gardeners  (known  in  America  as  squashes)  belong 
to  this  species.  The  pumpkin  (summer  squash  of  America) 
is  Cucurbita  Pepo.  Some  of  the  varieties  of  C.  maxima  and 
Pepo  contain  a  considerable  quantity  of  sugar,  amounting  in 
the  sweetest  kinds  to  4  or  5  %,  and  in  the  hot  plains  of  Hungary 
efforts  have  been  made  to  make  use  of  them  as  a  commercial 
source  of  sugar.  The  young  shoots  of  both  these  large  gourds 
may  be  given  to  cattle,  and  admit  of  being  eaten  as  a  green 
vegetable  when  boiled.  The  vegetable  marrow  is  a  variety 
(ovifera)  of  C.  Pepo.  Many  smaller  gourds  are  cultivated  in 
India  and  other  hot  climates,  and  some  have  been  introduced 
into  English  gardens,  rather  for  the  beauty  of  their  fruit  and 

foliage  than  for  their  escu- 
lent qualities.  Among  these 
is  C.  Pepo  var.  aurantia, 
the  orange  gourd,  bearing  a 
spheroidal  fruit,  like  a  large 
orange  in  form  and  colour; 
in  Britain  it  is  generally 
too  bitter  to  be  palatable, 
though  applied  to  culinary 
purposes  in  Turkey  and  the 
Levant.  C.  Pepo  var.  pyri- 
formis  and  var.  verrucosa, 
the  warted  gourds,  are 
likewise  occasionally  eaten, 
especially  in  the  immature 
state;  and  C.  moschata 
(musk  melon)  is  very  exten- 
sively cultivated  throughout 
India  by  the  natives,  the 
yellow  flesh  being  cooked 
and  eaten. 

_  _         The      bottle-gourds     are 

Photographri  from  .pedmens  in  the  British  P'aced  in  a  separate  genus, 


Museum. 


Group  of  Gourds. 


Lagcnaria,  chiefly    differing 
{rom   Cucurbita  in  the  an- 


1-5.  Various  forms  of  bottle  gourd,  there  being  free  instead  of 


properly  so-called,  L. 
garis,  is  a  climbing  plant  with  downy,  heart-shaped  leaves  and 
beautiful  white  flowers:  the  remarkable  fruit  (figs.  1-5)  first  begins 
to  grow  in  the  form  of  an  elongated  cylinder,  but  gradually  widens 
towards  the  extremity,  until,  when  ripe,  it  resembles  a  flask 
with  a  narrow  neck  and  large  rounded  bulb;  it  sometimes 
attains  a  length  of  7  ft.  When  ripe,  the  pulp  is  removed  from 


the  neck,  and  the  interior  cleared  by  leaving  water  standing 
in  it;  the  woody  rind  that  remains  is  used  as  a  bottle:  or  the 
lower  part  is  cut  off  and  cleared  out,  forming  a  basin-like  vessel 
applied  to  the  same  domestic  purposes  as  the  calabash  (Cres- 
centia)  of  the  West  Indies:  the  smaller  varieties,  divided  length- 
wise, form  spoons.  The  ripe  f nut  is  apt  to  be  bitter  and  cathartic, 
but  while  immature  it  is  eaten  by  the  Arabs  and  Turks.  When 
about  the  size  of  a  small  cucumber,  it  is  stuffed  with  rice  and 
minced  meat,  flavoured  with  pepper,  onions,  &c.,  and  then  boiled, 
forming  a  favourite  dish  with  Eastern  epicures.  The  elongated 
snake-gourds  of  India  and  China  (Trichosanthes)  are  used  in 
curries  and  stews. 

All  the  true  gourds  have  a  tendency  to  secrete  the  cathartic 
principle  colocynthin,  and  in  many  varieties  of  Cucurbila  and  the 
allied  genera  it  is  often  elaborated  to  such  an  extent  as  to 
render  them  unwholesome,  or  even  poisonous.  The  seeds  of 
several  species  therefore  possess  some  anthelmintic  properties; 
those  of  the  common  pumpkin  are  frequently  administered 
in  America  as  a  vermifuge. 

The  cultivation  of  gourds  began  far  beyond  the  dawn  of  history, 
and  the  esculent  species  have  become  so  modified  by  culture 
that  the  original  plants  from  which  they  have  descended  can 
no  longer  be  traced.  The  abundance  of  varieties  in  India  would 
seem  to  indicate  that  part  of  Asia  as  the  birthplace  of  the  present 
edible  forms;  but  some  appear  to  have  been  cultivated  in  all 
the  hotter  regions  of  that  continent,  and  in  North  Africa,  from 
the  earliest  ages,  while  the  Romans  were  familiar  with  at  least 
certain  kinds  of  Cucurbita,  and  with  the  bottle-gourd.  Cucurbita 
Pepo,  the  source  of  many  of  the  American  forms,  is  probably 
a  native  of  that  continent. 

Most  of  the  annual  gourds  mav  be  grown  successfully  in  Britain. 
They  are  usually  raised  in  hotbeds  or  under  frames,  and  planted  out 
in  rich  soil  in  the  early  summer  as  soon  as  the  nights  become  warm. 
The  more  ornamental  kinds  may  be  trained  over  trellis-work,  a 
favourite  mode  of  displaying  them  in  the  East;  but  the  situation 
must  be  sheltered  and  sunny.  Even  Lagenaria  will  sometimes  pro- 
duce fine  fruit  when  so  treated  in  the  southern  counties. 

For  an  account  of  these  cultivations  in  England  see  paper  by  Mr 
J.  W.  Odell,  "  Gourds  and  Cucurbits,"  in  Journ.  Royal  Hort.  Soc. 
xxix.  450  (1904). 

GOURGAUD,  CASPAR,  BAKON  (1783-1852),  French  soldier, 
was  born  at  Versailles  on  the  I4th  of  September  1783;  his  father 
was  a  musician  of  the  royal  chapel.  At  school  he  showed  talent 
in  mathematical  studies  and  accordingly  entered  the  artillery. 
In  1802  he  became  junior  lieutenant,  and  thereafter  served 
with  credit  in  the  campaigns  of  1803-1805,  being  wounded  at 
Austerlitz.  He  was  present  at  the  siege  of  Saragossa  in  1808, 
but  returned  to  service  in  Central  Europe  and  took  part  in  nearly 
all  the  battles  of  the  Danubian  campaign  of  1809.  In  1811 
he  was  chosen  to  inspect  and  report  on  the  fortifications  of 
Danzig.  Thereafter  he  became  one  of  the  ordnance  officers 
attached  to  the  emperor,  whom  he  followed  closely  through 
the  Russian  campaign  of  1812;  he  was  one  of  the  first  to  enter 
the  Kremlin  and  discovered  there  a  quantity  of  gunpowder 
which  might  have  been  used  for  the  destruction  of  Napoleon. 
For  his  services  in  this  campaign  he  received  the  title  of  baron, 
and  became  first  ordnance  officer.  In  the  campaign  of  1813 
in  Saxony  he  further  evinced  his  courage  and  prowess,  especially 
at  Leipzig  and  Hanau;  but  it  was  in  the  first  battle  of  1814, 
near  to  Brienne,  that  he  rendered  the  most  signal  service  by 
killing  the  leader  of  a  small  band  of  Cossacks  who  were  riding 
furiously  towards  Napoleon's  tent.  Wounded  at  the  battle  of 
Montmirail,  he  yet  recovered  in  time  to  share  in  several  of  the 
conflicts  which  followed,  distinguishing  himself  especially  at 
Laon  and  Reims.  Though  enrolled  among  the  royal  guards  of 
Louis  XVIII.  in  the  summer  of  1814,  he  yet  embraced  the  cause 
of  Napoleon  during  the  Hundred  Days  (1815),  was  named  general 
and  aide-de-camp  by  the  emperor,  and  fought  at  Waterloo. 

After  the  second  abdication  of  the  emperor  (June  22nd,  1815) 
Gourgaud  retired  with  him  and  a  few  other  companions  to 
Rochefort.  It  was  to  him  that  Napoleon  entrusted  the  letter 
of  appeal  to  the  prince  regent  for  an  asylum  in  England.  Gour- 
gaud set  off  in  H.M.S.  "  Slaney,"  but  was  not  allowed  to  land 


288 


GOURKO— GOURVILLE 


in  England.  He  determined  to  share  Napoleon's  exile  and 
sailed  with  him  on  H.M.S.  "  Northumberland  "  to  St  Helena. 
The  ship's  secretary,  John  R.  Glover,  has  left  an  entertaining 
account  of  some  of  Gourgaud's  gasconnades  at  table.  His 
extreme  sensitiveness  and  vanity  soon  brought  him  into  collision 
with  Las  Cases  and  Montholon  at  Longwood.  The  former  he 
styles  in  his  journal  a  "  Jesuit  "  and  a  scribbler  who  went  thither 
in  order  to  become  famous.  With  Montholon,  his  senior  in  rank, 
the  friction  became  so  acute  that  he  challenged  him  to  a  duel, 
for  which  he  suffered  a  sharp  rebuke  from  Napoleon.  Tiring 
of  the  life  at  Longwood  and  the  many  slights  which  he  suffered 
from  Napoleon,  he  desired  to  depart,  but  before  he  could  sail 
he  spent  two  months  with  Colonel  Basil  Jackson,  whose  account 
of  him  throws  much  light  on  his  character,  as  also  on  the  "  policy" 
adopted  by  the  exiles  at  Longwood.  In  England  he  was  gained 
over  by  members  of  the  Opposition  and  thereafter  made  common 
cause  with  O'Meara  and  other  detractors  of  Sir  Hudson  Lowe, 
for  whose  character  he  had  expressed  high  esteem  to  Basil  Jack- 
son. He  soon  published  his  Campagne  de  1815,  in  the  preparation 
of  which  he  had  had  some  help  from  Napoleon;  but  Gourgaud's 
Journal  de  Ste-H&ene  was  not  destined  to  be  published  till 
the  year  1899.  Entering  the  arena  of  letters,  he  wrote,  or  colla- 
borated in,  two  well-known  critiques.  The  first  was  a  censure  of 
Count  P.  de  Segur's  work  on  the  campaign  of  1812,  with  the 
result  that  he  fought  a  duel  with  that  officer  and  wounded  him. 
He  also  sharply  criticized  Sir  Walter  Scott's  Life  of  Napoleon. 
He  returned  to  active  service  in  the  army  in  1830;  and  in  1840 
proceeded  with  others  to  St  Helena  to  bring  back  the  remains 
of  Napoleon  to  France.  He  became  a  deputy  to  the  Legislative 
Assembly  in  1849;  he  died  in  1852. 

Gourgaud's  works  are  La  Campagne  de  1815  (London  and  Paris, 
1818);  Napoleon  et  la  Grande  Armee  en  Russie;  examen  critique  de 
I'ouvrage  de  M.  le  comte  P.  de  Segur  (Paris,  1824);  Refutation  de  la 
vie  de  Napoleon  par  Sir  Walter  Scott  (Paris,  1827).  He  collaborated 
with  Montholon  in  the  work  entitled  Memoires  pour  serair  a  I'histoire 
de  France  sous  Napoleon  (Paris,  1822-1823),  and  with  Belliard  and 
others  in  the  work  entitled  Bourrienne  et  ses  erreurs  (2  vols.,  Paris, 
1830);  but  his  most  important  work  is  the  Journal  inedit  de  Ste- 
Helene  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1899),  which  is  a  remarkably  naif  and  lifelike 
record  of  the  life  at  Longwood.  See,  too,  Notes  and  Reminiscences  of 
a  Staff  Officer,  by  Basil  Jackson  (London,  1904),  and  the  bibliography 
to  the  article  LOWE,  SIR  HUDSON.  (J.  HL.  R.) 

GOURKO,  JOSEPH  VLADIMIROVICH,  COUNT  (1828-1901), 
Russian  general,  was  born,  of  Lithuanian  extraction,  on  the 
1 5th  of  November  1828.  He  was  educated  in  the  imperial 
corps  of  pages,  entered  the  hussars  of  the  imperial  bodyguard 
as  sub-lieutenant  in  1846,  became  captain  in  1857,  adjutant 
to  the  emperor  in  1860,  colonel  in  1861,  commander  of  the  4th 
Hussar  regiment  of  Mariupol  in  1866,  and  major-general  of  the 
emperor's  suite  in  1867.  He  subsequently  commanded  the 
grenadier  regiment,  and  in  1873  the  ist  brigade,  2nd  division, 
of  the  cavalry  of  the  guard.  Although  he  took  part  in  the 
Crimean  War,  being  stationed  at  Belbek,  his  claim  to  distinction 
is  due  to  his  services  in  the  Turkish  war  of  1877.  He  led  the  van 
of  the  Russian  invasion,  took  Trnovo  on  the  7th  July,  crossed 
the  Balkans  by  the  Hain  Bogaz  pass,  debouching  near  Hainkioi, 
and,  notwithstanding  considerable  resistance,  captured  Uflani, 
Maglish  and  Kazanlyk;  on  the  i8th  of  July  he  attacked  Shipka, 
which  was  evacuated  by  the  Turks  on  the  following  day.  Thus 
within  sixteen  days  of  crossing  the  Danube  Gourko  had  secured 
three  Balkan  passes  and  created  a  panic  at  Constantinople. 
He  then  made  a  series  of  successful  reconnaissances  of  the 
Tunja  valley,  cut  the  railway  in  two  places,  occupied  Stara 
Zagora  (Turkish,  Eski  Zagra)  and  Nova  Zagora  (Yeni  Zagra), 
checked  the  advance  of  Suleiman's  army,  and  returned  again 
over  the  Balkans.  In  October  he  was  appointed  commander  of 
the  allied  cavalry,  and  attacked  the  Plevna  line  of  communication 
to  Orkhanie  with  a  large  mixed  force,  captured  Gorni-Dubnik, 
Telische  and  Vratza,  and,  in  the  middle  of  November,  Orkhanie 
itself.  Plevna  was  isolated,  and  after  its  fall  in  December 
Gourko  led  the  way  amidst  snow  and  ice  over  the  Balkans  to 
the  fertile  valley  beyond,  totally  defeated  Suleiman,  and  occupied 
Sophia,  Philippopolis  and  Adrianople,  the  armistice  at  the 
end  of  January  1878  stopping  further  operations  (see  Russo- 


TURKISH  WARS).  Gourko  was  made  a  count,  and  decorated 
with  the  2nd  class  of  St  George  and  other  orders.  In  1870-1880 
he  was  governor  of  St  Petersburg,  and  from  188310  1894  governor- 
general  of  Poland.  He  died  on  the  29th  of  January  1901. 

GOURMET,  a  French  term  for  one  who  takes  a  refined  and 
critical,  or  even  merely  theoretical  pleasure  in  good  cooking 
and  the  delights  of  the  table.  The  word  has  not  the  disparaging 
sense  attached  to  the  Fr.  gourmand,  to  whom  the  practical 
pleasure  of  good  eating  is  the  chief  end.  The  O.  Fr.  groumel 
or  gromet  meant  a  servant,  or  shop-boy,  especially  one  employed 
in  a  wine-seller's  shop,  hence  an  expert  taster  of  wines,  from 
which  the  modern  usage  has  developed.  The  etymology  of 
gourmet  is  obscure;  it  may  be  ultimately  connected  with  the 
English  "  groom  "  (<?.».).  The  origin  of  gourmand  is  unknown. 
In  English,  in  the  form  "  grummet,"  the  word  was  early  applied 
to  a  cabin  or  ship's  boy.  Ships  of  the  Cinque  Ports  were  obliged 
to  carry  one  "  grummet  ";  thus  in  a  charter  of  1229  (quoted 
in  the  New  English  Dictionary)  it  is  laid  down  servitia  inde 
debita  Domino  Regi,  xxi.  naves,  et  in  qualibet  nave  xxi.  homines, 
cum  uno  gartione  qui  dicitur  gromet. 

GOUROCK,  a  police  burgh  and  watering-place  of  Renfrew- 
shire, Scotland,  on  the  southern  shore  of  the  Firth  of  Clyde, 
3i  m.  W.  by  N.  of  Greenock  by  the  Caledonian  railway.  Pop. 
(1901)  5261.  It  is  partly  situated  on  a  fine  bay  affording  good 
anchorage,  for  which  it  is  largely  resorted  to  by  the  numerous 
yacht  clubs  of  the  Clyde.  The  extension  of  the  railway  from 
Greenock  (in  1889)  to  the  commodious  pier,  with  a  tunnel  if  m. 
long,  the  longest  in  Scotland,  affords  great  facilities  for  travel 
to  the  ports  of  the  Firth,  the  sea  lochs  on  the  southern  Highland 
coast  and  the  Crinan  Canal.  The  eminence  called  Barrhill 
(480  ft.  high)  divides  the  town  into  two  parts,  the  eastern  known 
as  Kempoch,  the  western  as  Ashton.  Near  Kempoch  point  is 
a  monolith  of  mica-schist,  6  ft.  high,  called  "  Granny  Kempoch," 
which  the  superstitious  of  other  days  regarded  as  possessing 
influence  over  the  winds,  and  which  was  the  scene,  in  1662,  of 
certain  rites  that  led  to  the  celebrants  being  burned  as  witches. 
Gamble  Institute  (named  after  the  founder)  contains  halls, 
recreation  rooms,  a  public  library  and  baths.  It  is  said  that 
Gourock  was  the  first  place  on  the  Clyde  where  herrings  were 
cured.  There  is  tramway  communication  with  Greenock  and 
Ashton.  About  3  m.  S.W.  there  stands  on  the  shore  the  familiar 
beacon  of  the  Cloch.  Gourock  became  a  burgh  of  barony  in  1 694. 

GOURVILLE,  JEAN  HERAULD  (1625-1703),  French  adven- 
turer, was  born  at  La  Rochefoucauld.  At  the  age  of  eighteen 
he  entered  the  house  of  La  Rochefoucauld  as  a  servant,  and  in 
1646  became  secretary  to  Francois  de  la  Rochefoucauld,  author 
of  the  Maximes.  Resourceful  and  quick-witted,  he  rendered 
services  to  his  master  during  the  Fronde,  in  his  intrigues  with 
the  parliament,  the  court  or  the  princes.  In  these  negotiations 
he  BAade  the  acquaintance  of  Conde,  whom  he  wished  to  help 
to  escape  from  the  chateau  of  Vincennes;  of  Mazarin,  for  whom 
he  negotiated  the  reconciliation  with  the  princes;  and  of  Nicolas 
Fouquet.  After  the  Fronde  he  engaged  in  financial  affairs, 
thanks  to  Fouquet.  In  1658  he  farmed  the  taille  in  Guienne. 
He  bought  depreciated  rentes  and  had  them  raised  to  their 
nominal  value  by  the  treasury;  he  extorted  gifts  from  the 
financiers  for  his  protection,  being  Fouquet's  confidant  in  many 
operations  of  which  he  shared  the  profits.  In  three  years  he 
accumulated  an  enormous  fortune,  still  further  increased  by  his 
unfailing  good  fortune  at  cards,  playing  even  with  the  king. 
He  was  involved  in  the  trial  of  Fouquet,  and  in  April  1663  was 
condemned  to  death  for  peculation  and  embezzlement  of  public 
funds;  but  escaping,  was  executed  in  effigy.  He  sent  a  valet 
one  night  to  take  the  effigy  down  from  the  gallows  in  the  court 
of  the  Palais  de  Justice,  and  then  fled  the  country.  He  re- 
mained five  years  abroad,  being  excepted  in  1665  from  the 
amnesty  accorded  by  Louis  XIV.  to  the  condemned  financiers. 
Having  returned  secretly  to  France,  he  entered  the  service  of 
Conde,  who,  unable  to  meet  his  creditors,  had  need  of  a  clever 
manager  to  put  his  affairs  in  order.  In  this  way  he  was  able  to 
reappear  at  court,  to  assist  at  the  campaigns  of  the  war  with 
Holland,  and  to  offer  himself  for  all  the  delicate  negotiations 


GOUT 


289 


for  his  master  or  the  king.  He  received  diplomatic  missions  in 
Germany,  in  Holland,  and  especially  in  Spain,  though  it  was 
only  in  1694,  that  he  was  freed  from  the  condemnation  pro- 
nounced against  him  by  the  chamber  of  justice.  From  1696 
he  fell  ill  and  withdrew  to  his  estate,  where  he  dictated  to  his 
secretary,  in  four  months  and  a  half,  his  Mfmoires,  an  important 
source  for  the  history  of  his  time.  In  spite  of  several  errors, 
introduced  purposely,  they  give  a  clear  idea  of  the  life  and  morals 
of  a  financier  of  the  age  of  Fouquet,  and  throw  light  on  certain 
points  of  the  diplomatic  history.  They  were  first  published  in 
1724. 

There  is  a  modern  edition,  with  notes,  an  introduction  and  ap- 
pendix, by  Lecestre  (Paris,  1894-1895,  2  vols.). 

GOUT,  the  name  rather  vaguely  given,  in  medicine,  to  a 
constitutional  disorder  which  manifests  itself  by  inflammation 
of  the  joints,  with  sometimes  deposition  of  urates  of  soda,  and 
also  by  morbid  changes  in  various  important  organs.  The 
term  gout,  which  was  first  used  about  the  end  of  the  i3th 
century,  is  derived  through  the  Fr.  goulle  from  the  Lat.  gulta, 
a  drop,  in  allusion  to  the  old  pathological  doctrine  of  the  dropping 
of  a  morbid  material  from  the  blood  within  the  joints.  The 
disease  was  known  and  described  by  the  ancient  Greek  physicians 
under  various  terms,  which,  however,  appear  to  have  been 
applied  by  them  alike  to  rheumatism  and  gout.  The  general 
term  arthritis  (apdpov,  a  joint)  was  employed  when  many  joints 
were  the  seat  of  inflammation;  while  in  those  instances  where 
the  disease  was  limited  to  one  part  the  terms  used  bore  reference 
to  such  locality;  hence  podagra  (irodaypa,  from  irovs,  the  foot, 
and  ay  pa,  a  seizure),  chiragra  (x«ip,  the  hand),  gonagra  (yovv, 
the  knee),  &c. 

Hippocrates  in  his  Aphorisms  speaks  of  gout  as  occurring 
most  commonly  in  spring  and  autumn,  and  mentions  the  fact 
that  women  are  less  liable  to  it  than  men.  He  also  gives  directions 
as  to  treatment.  Celsus  gives  a  similar  account  of  the  disease. 
Galen  regarded  gout  as  an  unnatural  accumulation  of  humours 
in  a  part,  and  the  chalk-stones  as  the  concretions  of  these,  and 
he  attributed  the  disease  to  over-indulgence  and  luxury.  Gout 
is  alluded  to  in  the  works  of  Ovid  and  Pliny,  and  Seneca,  in  his 
95th  epistle,  mentions  the  prevalence  of  gout  among  the  Roman 
ladies  of  his  day  as  one  of  the  results  of  their  high  living  and 
debauchery.  Lucian,  in  his  Tragopodagra,  gives  an  amusing 
account  of  the  remedies  employed  for  the  cure  of  gout. 

In  all  times  this  disease  has  engaged  a  large  share  of  the  atten- 
tion of  physicians,  from  its  wide  prevalence  and  from  the  amount 
of  suffering  which  it  entails.  Sydenham,  the  famous  English 
physician  of  the  lyth  century,  wrote  an  important  treatise  on 
the  subject,  and  his  description  of  the  gouty  paroxysm,  all  the 
more  vivid  from  his  having  himself  been  afflicted  with  the  disease 
for  thirty-four  years,  is  still  quoted  by  writers  as  the  most 
graphic  and  exhaustive  account  of  the  symptomatology  of  gout. 
Subsequently  Cullen,  recognizing  gout  as  capable  of  manifesting 
itself  in  various  ways,  divided  the  disease  into  regular  gout, 
which  affects  the  joints  only,  and  irregular  gout,  where  the  gouty 
disposition  exhibits  itself  in  other  forms;  and  the  latter  variety 
he  subdivided  into  atonic  gout,  where  the  most  prominent 
symptoms  are  throughout  referable  to  the  stomach  and  ali- 
mentary canal;  retrocedent  gout,  where  the  inflammatory  attack 
suddenly  disappears  from  an  affected  joint  and  serious  disturb- 
ance takes  place  in  some  internal  organ,  generally  the  stomach 
or  heart;  and  misplaced  gout,  where  from  the  first  the  disease 
does  not  appear  externally,  but  reveals  itself  by  an  inflammatory 
attack  of  some  internal  part.  Dr  Garrod,  one  of  the  most 
eminent  authorities  on  gout,  adopted  a  division  somewhat 
similar  to,  though  simpler  than  that  of  Cullen,  namely,  regular 
gout,  which  affects  the  joints  alone,  and  is  either  acute  or  chronic, 
and  irregular  gout,  affecting  non-articular  tissues,  or  disturbing 
the  functions  of  various  organs. 

It  is  often  stated  that  the  attack  of  gout  comes  on  without 
any  previous  warning;  but,  while  this  is  true  in  many  instances, 
the  reverse  is  probably  as  frequently  the  case,  and  the  pre- 
monitory symptoms,  especially  in  those  who  have  previously 
suffered  from  the  disease,  may  be  sufficiently  precise  to  indicate 
xu.  10 


the  impending  seizure.  Among  the  more  common  of  these 
may  be  mentioned  marked  disorders  of  the  digestive  organs, 
with  a  feeble  and  capricious  appetite,  flatulence  and  pain  after 
eating,  and  uneasiness  in  the  right  side  in  the  region  of  the  liver. 
A  remarkable  tendency  to  gnashing  of  the  teeth  is  sometimes 
observed.  This  symptom  was  first  noticed  by  Dr  Graves, 
who  connected  it  with  irritation  in  the  urinary  organs,  which 
also  is  present  as  one  of  the  premonitory  indications  of  the 
gouty  attack.  Various  forms  of  nervous  disturbance  also  present 
themselves  in  the  form  of  general  discomfort,  extreme  irritability 
of  temper,  and  various  perverted  sensations,  such  as  that  of 
numbness  and  coldness  in  the  limbs.  These  symptoms  may 
persist  for  many  days  and  then  undergo  amelioration  immediately 
before  the  impending  paroxysm.  On  the  night  of  the  attack 
the  patient  retires  to  rest  apparently  well,  but  about  two  or  three 
o'clock  in  the  morning  awakes  with  a  painful  feeling  in  the  foot, 
most  commonly  in  the  ball  of  the  great  toe,  but  it  may  be  in 
the  instep  or  heel,  or  in  the  thumb.  With  the  pain  there  often 
occurs  a  distinct  shivering  followed  by  feverishness.  The  pain 
soon  becomes  of  the  most  agonizing  character:  in  the  words 
of  Sydenham,  "  now  it  is  a  violent  stretching  and  tearing  of  the 
ligaments,  now  it  is  a  gnawing  pain,  and  now  a  pressure  and 
tightening;  so  exquisite  and  lively  meanwhile  is  the  part 
affected  that  it  cannot  bear  the  weight  of  the  bedclothes,  nor 
the  jar  of  a  person  walking  in  the  room." 

When  the  affected  part  is  examined  it  is  found  to  be  swollen 
and  of  a  deep  red  hue.  The  superjacent  skin  is  tense  and  glisten- 
ing, and  the  surrounding  veins  are  more  or  less  distended.  After 
a  few  hours  there  is  a  remission  of  the  pain,  slight  perspiration 
takes  place,  and  the  patient  may  fall  asleep.  The  pain  may 
continue  moderate  during  the  day  but  returns  as  night  advances, 
and  the  patient  goes  through  a  similar  experience  of  suffering 
to  that  of  the  previous  night,  followed  with  a  like  abatement 
towards  morning.  These  nocturnal  exacerbations  occur  with 
greater  or  less  severity  during  the  continuance  of  the  attack, 
which  generally  lasts  for  a  week  or  ten  days.  As  the  symptoms 
decline  the  swelling  and  tenderness  of  the  affected  joint  abate, 
but  the  skin  over  it  pits  on  pressure  for  a  time,  and  with  this 
there  is  often  associated  slight  desquamation  of  the  cuticle. 
During  the  attacks  there  is  much  constitutional  disturbance. 
The  patient  is  restless  and  extremely  irritable,  and  suffers  from 
cramp  in  the  limbs  and  from  dyspepsia,  thirst  and  constipation. 
The  urine  is  scanty  and  high-coloured,  with  a  copious  deposit, 
consisting  chiefly  of  urates.  During  the  continuance  of  the 
symptoms  the  inflammation  may  leave  the  one  foot  and  affect 
the  other,  or  both  may  suffer  at  the  same  time.  After  the  attack 
is  over  the  patient  feels  quite  well  and  fancies  himself  better 
than  he  had  been  for  a  long  time  before;  hence  the  once  popular 
notion  that  a  fit  of  the  gout  was  capable  of  removing  all  other 
ailments.  Any  such  idea,  however,  is  sadly  belied  in  the  ex- 
perience of  most  sufferers  from  this  disease.  It  is  rare  that  the 
first  is  the  only  attack  of  gout,  and  another  is  apt  to  occur  within 
a  year,  although  by  care  and  treatment  it  may  be  warded  off. 
The  disease,  however,  undoubtedly  tends  to  take  a  firmer  hold 
on  the  constitution  and  to  return.  In  the  earlier  recurrences 
the  same  joints  as  were  formerly  the  seat  of  the  gouty  inflam- 
mation suffer  again,  but  in  course  of  time  others  become  im- 
plicated, until  in  advanced  cases  scarcely  any  articulation 
escapes,  and  the  disease  thus  becomes  chronic.  It  is  to  be  noticed 
that  when  gout  assumes  this  form  the  frequently  recurring  attacks 
are  usually  attended  with  less  pain  than  the  earlier  ones,  but 
their  disastrous  effects  are  evidenced  alike  by  the  disturbance 
of  various  important  organs,  especially  the  stomach,  liver, 
kidneys  and  heart,  and  by  the  remarkable  changes  which  take 
place  in  the  joints  from  the  formation  of  the  so-called  chalk- 
stones  or  tophi.  These  deposits,  which  are  highly  characteristic 
of  gout,  appear  at  first  to  take  place  in  the  form  of  a  semifluid 
material,  consisting  for  the  most  part  of  urate  of  soda,  which 
gradually  becomes  more  dense,  and  ultimately  quite  hard. 
When  any  quantity  of  this  is  deposited  in  the  structures  of  a 
joint  the  effect  is  to  produce  stiffening,  and,  as  deposits  appear 
to  take  place  to  a  greater  or  less  amount  in  connexion  with  every 

5 


290 


GOUT 


attack,  permanent  thickening  and  deformity  of  the  parts  is  apt 
to  be  the  consequence.  The  extent  of  this  depends,  of  course, 
on  the  amount  of  the  deposits,  which,  however,  would  seem 
to  be  in  no  necessary  relation  to  the  severity  of  the  attack,  being 
in  some  cases  even  of  chronic  gout  so  slight  as  to  be  barely 
appreciable  externally,  but  on  the  other  hand  occasionally 
causing  great  enlargement  of  the  joints,  and  fixing  them  in  a 
flexed  or  extended  position  which  renders  them  entirely  useless. 
Dr  Garrod  describes  the  appearance  of  a  hand  in  an  extreme 
case  of  this  kind,  and  likens  its  shape  to  a  bundle  of  French 
carrots  with  their  heads  forward,  the  nails  corresponding  to  the 
stalks.  Any  of  the  joints  may  be  thus  affected,  but  most 
commonly  those  of  the  hands  and  feet.  The  deposits  take  place 
in  other  structures  besides  those  of  joints,  such  as  along  the  course 
of  tendons,  underneath  the  skin  and  periosteum,  in  the  sclerotic 
coat  of  the  eye,  and  especially  on  the  cartilages  of  the  external 
ear.  When  largely  deposited  in  joints  an  abscess  sometimes 
forms,  the  skin  gives  way,  and  the  concretion  is  exposed.  Sir 
Thomas  Watson  quotes  a  case  of  this  kind  where  the  patient 
when  playing  at  cards  was  accustomed  to  chalk  the  score  of  the 
game  upon  the  table  with  his  gouty  knuckles. 

The  recognition  of  what  is  termed  irregular  gout  is  less  easy 
than  that  form  above  described,  where  the  disease  gives  abundant 
external  evidence  of  its  presence;  but  that  other  parts  than 
joints  suffer  from  gouty  attacks  is  beyond  question.  The  diag- 
nosis may  often  be  made  in  cases  where  in  an  attack  of  ordinary 
gout  the  disease  suddenly  leaves  the  affected  joints  and  some 
new  series  of  symptoms  arises.  It  has  been  often  observed  when 
cold  has  been  applied  to  an  inflamed  joint  that  the  pain  and 
inflammation  in  the  part  ceased,  but  that  some  sudden  and 
alarming  seizure  referable  to  the  stomach,  brain,  heart  or  lungs 
supervened.  Such  attacks,  which  correspond  to  what  is  termed 
by  Cullen  retrocedent  gout,  often  terminate  favourably,  more 
especially  if  the  disease  again  returns  to  the  joints.  Further, 
the  gouty  nature  of  some  long-continued  internal  or  cutaneous 
disorder  may  be  rendered  apparent  by  its  disappearance  on  the 
outbreak  of  the  paroxysm  in  the  joints.  Gout,  when  of  long 
standing,  is  often  found  associated  with  degenerative  changes  in 
the  heart  and  large  arteries,  the  liver,  and  especially  the  kidneys, 
which  are  apt  to  assume  the  contracted  granular  condition 
characteristic  of  one  of  the  forms  of  Bright's  disease.  A  variety 
of  urinary  calculus — the  uric  acid — formed  by  concretions  of 
this  substance  in  the  kidneys  is  a  not  unfrequent  occurrence 
in  connexion  with  gout;  hence  the  well-known  association  of 
this  disease  and  gravel. 

The  pathology  of  gout  is  discussed  in  the  article  on  METABOLIC 
DISEASES.  Many  points,  however,  still  remain  unexplained. 
As  remarked  by  Trousseau,  "  the  production  in  excess  of  uric 
acid  and  urates  is  a  pathological  phenomenon  inherent  like  all 
others  in  the  disease;  and  like  all  the  others  it  is  dominated 
by  a  specific  cause,  which  we  know  only  by  its  effects,  and  which 
we  term  the  gouty  diathesis."  This  subject  of  diathesis  (habit, 
or  organic  predisposition  of  individuals),  which  is  regarded  as  an 
essential  element  in  the  pathology  of  gout,  naturally  suggests 
the  question  as  to  whether,  besides  being  inherited,  such  a 
peculiarity  may  also  be  acquired,  and  this  leads  to  a  considera- 
tion of  the  causes  which  are  recognized  as  influential  in  favouring 
the  occurrence  of  this  disease. 

It  is  beyond  dispute  that  gout  is  in  a  marked  degree  hereditary, 
fully  more  than  half  the  number  of  cases  being,  according  to 
Sir  C.  Scudamore  and  Dr  Garrod,  of  this  character.  But  it  is 
no  less  certain  that  there  are  habits  and  modes  of  life  the  observ- 
ance of  which  may  induce  the  disease  even  where  no  hereditary 
tendencies  can  be  traced,  and  the  avoidance  of  which  may,  on 
the  other  hand,  go  far  towards  weakening  or  neutralizing  the 
influence  of  inherited  liability.  Gout  is  said  to  affect  the  sedentary 
more  readily  than  the  active.  If,  however,  inadequate  exercise 
be  combined  with  a  luxurious  manner  of  living,  with  habitual 
over-indulgence  in  animal  food  and  rich  dishes,  and  especially 
in  alcoholic  beverages,  then  undoubtedly  the  chief  factors  in  the 
production  of  the  disease  are  present. 

Much  has  been  written  upon  the  relative  influence  of  various 


forms  of  alcoholic  drinks  in  promoting  the  development  of  gout. 
It  is  generally  stated  that  fermented  are  more  injurious  than 
distilled  liquors,  and  that,  in  particular,  the  stronger  wines, 
such  as  port,  sherry  and  madeira,  are  much  more  potent  in  their 
gout-producing  action  than  the  lighter  class  of  wines,  such  as 
hock,  moselle,  &c.,  while  malt  liquors  are  fully  as  hurtful  as  strong 
wines.  It  seems  quite  as  probable,  however,that  over-indulgence 
in  any  form  of  alcohol,  when  associated  with  the  other  conditions 
already  adverted  to,  will  have  very  much  the  same  effect  in 
developing  gout.  The  comparative  absence  of  gout  in  countries 
where  spirituous  liquors  are  chiefly  used,  such  as  Scotland,  is 
cited  as  showing  their  relatively  slight  effect  in  encouraging 
that  disease;  but  it  is  to  be  noticed  that  in  such  countries  there 
is  on  the  whole  a  less  marked  tendency  to  excess  in  the  other 
pleasures  of  the  table,  which  in  no  degree  less  than  alcohol  are 
chargeable  with  inducing  the  gouty  habit.  Gout  is  not  a  common 
disease  among  the  poor  and  labouring  classes,  and  when  it  does 
occur  may  often  be  connected  even  in  them  with  errors  in  living. 
It  is  not  very  rare  to  meet  gout  in  butlers,  coachmen,  &c.,  who 
are  apt  to  live  luxuriously  while  leading  comparatively  easy  lives. 

Gout,  it  must  ever  be  borne  in  mind,  may  also  affect  persons  who 
observe  the  strictest  temperance  in  living,  and  whose  only  excesses 
are  in  the  direction  of  over-work,  either  physical  or  intellectual. 
Many  of  the  great  names  in  history  in  all  times  have  had  their 
existence  embittered  by  this  malady,  and  have  died  from  its 
effects.  The  influence  of  hereditary  tendency  may  often  be 
traced  in  such  instances,  and  is  doubtless  called  into  activity 
by  the  depressing  consequences  of  over-work.  It  may,  notwith- 
standing, be  affirmed  as  generally  true  that  those  who  lead  regular 
lives,  and  are  moderate  in  the  use  of  animal  food  and  alcoholic 
drinks,  or  still  better  abstain  from  the  latter  altogether,  are 
less  likely  to  be  the  victims  of  gout  even  where  an  undoubted 
inherited  tendency  exists. 

Gout  is  more  common  in  mature  age  than  in  the  earlier  years 
of  life,  the  greatest  number  of  cases  in  one  decennial  period  being 
between  the  ages  of  thirty  and  forty,  next  between  twenty  and 
thirty,  and  thirdly  between  forty  and  fifty.  It  may  occasionally 
affect  very  young  persons;  such  cases  are  generally  regarded  as 
hereditary,  but,  so  far  as  diet  is  concerned,  it  has  to  be  remembered 
that  their  home  life  has  probably  been  a  predisposing  cause. 
After  middle  life  gout  rarely  appears  for  the  first  time.  Women 
are  much  less  the  subjects  of  gout  than  men,  apparently  from 
their  less  exposure  to  the  influences  (excepting,  of  course,  that 
of  heredity)  which  tend  to  develop  the  disease,  and  doubtless 
also  from  the  differing  circumstances  of  their  physical  constitu- 
tion. It  most  frequently  appears  in  females  after  the  cessation 
of  the  menses.  Persons  exposed  to  the  influence  of  lead  poisoning, 
such  as  plumbers,  painters,  &c.,  are  apt  to  suffer  from  gout; 
and  it  would  seem  that  impregnation  of  the  system  with  this 
metal  markedly  interferes  with  the  uric  acid  excreting  function 
of  the  kidneys. 

Attacks  of  gout  are  readily  excited  in  those  predisposed  to 
the  disease.  Exposure  to  cold,  disorders  of  digestion,  fatigue, 
and  irritation  or  injuries  of  particular  joints  will  often  precipitate 
the  gouty  paroxysm. 

With  respect  to  the  treatment  of  gout  the  greatest  variety 
of  opinion  has  prevailed  and  practice  been  pursued,  from  the 
numerous  quaint  nostrums  detailed  by  Lucian  to  the  "  expectant " 
or  do-nothing  system  recommended  by  Sydenham.  But  gout, 
although,  as  has  been  shown,  a  malady  of  a  most  severe  and 
intractable  character,  may  nevertheless  be  successfully  dealt 
with  by  appropriate  medicinal  and  hygienic  measures.  The 
general  plan  of  treatment  can  be  here  only  briefly  indicated. 
During  the  acute  attack  the  affected  part  should  be  kept  at 
perfect  rest,  and  have  applied  to  it  warm  opiate  fomentations 
or  poultices,  or,  what  answers  quite  as  well,  be  enveloped  in 
cotton  wool  covered  in  with  oil  silk.  The  diet  of  the  patient 
should  be  light,  without  animal  food  or  stimulants.  The  adminis- 
tration of  some  simple  laxative  will  be  of  service,  as  well  as  the 
free  use  of  alkaline  diuretics,  such  as  the  bicarbonate  or  acetate 
of  potash.  The  medicinal  agent  most  relied  on  for  the  relief 
of  pain  is  colchicum,  which  manifestly  exercises  a  powerful 


acti 


GOUTHIERE 


291 


ion  on  the  disease.  This  drug  (Colchicum  autumnale) ,  which 
is  believed  to  correspond  to  the  hermodactyl  of  the  ancients, 
has  proved  of  such  efficacy  in  modifying  the  attacks  that,  as 
observed  by  Dr  Garrod,  "  we  may  safely  assert  that  colchicum 
possesses  as  specific  a  control  over  the  gouty  inflammation  as 
cinchona  barks  or  their  alkaloids  over  intermittent  fever." 
It  is  usually  administered  in  the  form  of  the  wine  in  doses  of 
10  to  30  drops  every  four  or  six  hours,  or  in  pill  as  the  acetous 
extract  (gr.  J-gr.  i.).  The  effect  of  colchicum  in  subduing  the 
pain  of  gout  is  generally  so  prompt  and  marked  that  it  is  un- 
necessary to  have  recourse  to  opiates;  but  its  action  requires 
lo  be  carefully  watched  by  the  physician  from  its  well-known 
nauseating  and  depressing  consequences,  which,  should  they 
appear,  render  the  suspension  of  the  drug  necessary.  Otherwise 
the  remedy  may  be  continued  in  gradually  diminishing  doses 
for  some  days  after  the  disappearance  of  the  gouty  inflammation. 
Should  gout  give  evidence  of  its  presence  in  an  irregular  form 
by  attacking  internal  organs,  besides  the  medicinal  treatment 
above  mentioned,  the  use  of  frictions  and  mustard  applications 
to  the  joints  is  indicated  with  the  view  of  exciting  its  appearance 
there.  When  gout  has  become  chronic,  colchicum,  although  of 
less  service  than  in  acute  gout,  is  yet  valuable,  particularly 
when  the  inflammatory  attacks  recur.  More  benefit,  however, 
appears  to  be  derived  from  potassium  iodide,  guaiacum,  the 
alkalis  potash  and  lit hia,  and  from  the  administration  of  aspirin 
and  sodium  salicylate.  Salicylate  of  menthol  is  an  effective 
local  application,  painted  on  and  covered  with  a  gutta-percha 
bandage.  Lithia  was  strongly  recommended  by  Dr  Garrod  from 
its  solvent  action  upon  the  urates.  It  is  usually  administered 
in  the  form  of  the  carbonate  (gr.  v.,  freely  diluted). 

The  treatment  and  regimen  to  be  employed  in  the  intervals 
of  the  gouty  attacks  are  of  the  highest  importance.  These 
bear  reference  for  the  most  part  to  the  habits  and  mode  of  life 
of  the  patient.  Restriction  must  be  laid  upon  the  amount  and 
quality  of  the  food,  and  equally,  or  still  more,  upon  the  alcoholic 
stimulants.  "  The  instances,"  says  Sir  Thomas  Watson,  "  are 
not  few  of  men  of  good  sense,  and  masters  of  themselves,  who, 
being  warned  by  one  visitation  of  the  gout,  have  thenceforward 
resolutely  abstained  from  rich  living  and  from  wine  and  strong 
drinks  of  all  kinds,  and  who  have  been  rewarded  for  their  prudence 
and  self-denial  by  complete  immunity  from  any  return  of  the 
disease,  or  upon  whom,  at  any  rate,  its  future  assaults  have  been 
few  and  feeble."  The  same  eminent  authority  adds:  "  I  am 
sure  it  is  worth  any  young  man's  while,  who  has  had  the  gout, 
to  become  a  teetotaller."  By  those  more  advanced  in  life 
who,  from  long  continued  habit,  are  unable  entirely  to  relinquish 
the  use  of  stimulants,  the  strictest  possible  temperance  must 
be  observed.  Regular  but  moderate  exercise  in  the  form, of 
walking  or  riding,  in  the  case  of  those  who  lead  sedentary  lives, 
is  of  great  advantage,  and  all  over-work,  either  physical  or  mental, 
should  be  avoided.  Fatiguez  la  bite,  et  reposez  la  tile  is  the  maxim 
of  an  experienced  French  doctor  (Dr  Debout  d'Estrees  of  Con- 
trexeville).  Unfortunately  the  complete  carrying  out  of  such 
directions,  even  by  those  who  feel  their  importance,  is  too  often 
rendered  difficult  or  impossible  by  circumstances  of  occupation 
and  otherwise,  and  at  most  only  an  approximation  can  be  made. 
Certain  mineral  waters  and  baths  (such  as  those  of  Vichy, 
Royat,  Contrexeville,  &c.)  are  of  undoubted  value  in  cases  of 
gout  and  arthritis.  The  particular  place  must  in  each  case  be 
determined  by  the  physician,  and  special  caution  must  be 
observed  in  recommending  this  plan  of  treatment  in  persons 
whose  gout  is  complicated  by  organic  disease  of  any  kind. 

Dr  Alexander  Haig's  "  uric  acid  free  diet  "  has  found  many  ad- 
His  view  as  regards  the  pathology  is  that  in  gouty  persons 


herents. 


,         .   .  i    •       •  it       •• — r  ~   "oj    —•  •«  C>««vj'    i/«.*0%M*a 

the  blood  is  less  alkaline  than  in  normal,  and  therefore  less  able  to 
hold  in  solution  uric  acid  or  its  salts,  which  are  retained  in  the  joints. 
Assuming  gout  to  be  a  poisoning  by  animal  food  (meat,  fish,  eggs), 
and  by  tea,  coffee,  cocoa  and  other  vegetable  alkaloid-containing  sub- 
stances, he  recommends  an  average  daily  diet  excluding  these,  and 
containing  24  oz.  of  breadstuffs  (toast,  bread,  biscuits  and  puddings) 
together  with  24  oz.  of  fruit  and  vegetables  (excluding  peas,  beans, 
lentils,  mushrooms  and  asparagus) ;  8  oz.  of  the  breadstuffs  may  be 
replaced  by  2 1  oz.  of  milk  or  2  oz.  of  cheese,  butter  and  oil  being  taken 
as  required,  so  that  it  is  not  strictly  a  vegetarian  diet. 


Precisely  the  opposite  view  as  to  diet  has  recently  been  put  forward 
by  Professor  A.  Robin  of  the  Hdpital  Beaujon,  who  says  serious 
mistakes  are  made  in  ordering  patients  to  abstain  from  red  meats 
and  take  light  food,  fish,  eggs,  &c.  The  common  object  in  view  is  the 
diminished  output  of  uric  acid.  This  output  is  chiefly  obtained  from 
food  rich  in  nucleins  and  in  collagenous  matters,  i.e.  young  white 
meats,  eggs,  &c.  Consequently  the  gouty  subject  ought  to  restrict 
himself  to  the  consumption  of  red  meat,  beef  and  mutton,  and  leave 
out  of  his  dietary  all  white  meat  and  internal  organs.  He  should 
take  little  hydrocarbons  and  sugars,  and  be  moderate  in  fats. 
Vegetarian  diet  he  regards  as  a  mistake,  likewise  milk  diet,  as  they 
tend  to  weaken  the  patient.  To  prevent  the  formation  of  uric  acid 
Robin  prescribes  quinic  acid  combined  with  formine  or  urotropine. 

GOUTHIERE,  PIERRE  (1740-1806),  French  metal  worker, 
was  born  at  Troyes  and  went  to  Paris  at  an  early  age  as  the 
pupil  of  Martin  Cour.  During  his  brilliant  career  he  executed 
a  vast  quantity  of  metal  work  of  the  utmost  variety,  the  best  of 
which  was  unsurpassed  by  any  of  his  rivals  in  that  great  art 
period.  It  was  long  believed  that  he  received  many  commissions 
for  furniture  from  the  court  of  Louis  XVI.,  and  especially  from 
Marie  Antoinette,  but  recent  searches  suggest  that  his  work  for 
the  queen  was  confined  to  bronzes.  Gouthiere  can,  however,  well 
bear  this  loss,  nor  will  his  reputation  suffer  should  those  critics 
ultimately  be  justified  who  believe  that  many  of  the  furniture 
mounts  attributed  to  him  were  from  the  hand  of  Thomire.  But 
if  he  did  not  work  for  the  court  he  unquestionably  produced 
many  of  the  most  splendid  belongings  of  the  due  d'Aumont, 
the  duchesse  de  Mazarin  and  Mme  du  Barry.  Indeed  the 
custom  of  the  beautiful  mistress  of  Louis  XV.  brought  about 
the  financial  ruin  of  the  great  artist,  who  accomplished  more 
than  any  other  man  for  the  fame  of  her  chateau  of  Louveciennes.  • 
When  the  collection  of  the  due  d'Aumont  was  sold  by  auction 
in  Paris  in  1782  so  many  objects  mounted  by  Gouthiere  were 
bought  for  Louis  XVI.  and  Marie  Antoinette  that  it  is  not 
difficult  to  perceive  the  basis  of  the  belief  that  they  were  actually 
made  for  the  court.  The  due's  sale  catalogue  is,  however,  in 
existence,  with  the  names  of  the  purchasers  and  the  prices 
realized.  The  auction  was  almost  an  apotheosis  of  Gouthiere. 
The  precious  lacquer  cabinets,  the  chandeliers  and  candelabra, 
the  tables  and  cabinets  in  marquetry,  the  columns  and  vases 
in  porphyry,  jasper  and  choice  marbles,  the  porcelains  of  China 
and  Japan  were  nearly  all  mounted  in  bronze  by  him.  More 
than  fifty  of  these  pieces  bore  Gouthiere's  signature.  The  due 
d'Aumont's  cabinet  represented  the  high-water  mark  of  the 
chaser's  art,  and  the  great  prices  which  were  paid  for  Gouthiere's 
work  at  this  sale  are  the  most  conclusive  criterion  of  the  value 
set  upon  his  achievement  in  his  own  day.  Thus  Marie  Antoinette 
paid  12,000  livres  for  a  red  jasper  bowl  or  brfile-parfums  mounted 
by  him,  which  was  then  already  famous.  Curiously  enough 
it  commanded  only  one-tenth  of  that  price  at  the  Founder  sale 
in  1831;  but  in  1865,  when  the  marquis  of  Hertford  bought 
it  at  the  prince  de  Beauvais's  sale,  it  fetched  31,900  francs.  It 
is  now  in  the  Wallace  Collection,  which  contains  the  finest  and 
most  representative  gathering  of  Gouthiere's  undoubted  work. 
The  mounts  of  gilt  bronze,  cast  and  elaborately  chased,  show 
satyrs'  heads,  from  which  hang  festoons  of  vine  leaves,  while 
within  the  feet  a  serpent  is  coiled  to  spring.  A  smaller  cup  is  one 
of  the  treasures  of  the  Louvre.  There  too  is  a  bronze  clock, 
signed  by  "  Gouthiere,  cizileur  et  doreur  du  Roy  d  Paris,"  dated 
1771,  with  a  river  god,  a  water  nymph  symbolizing  the  Rh6ne 
and  its  tributary  the  Durance,  and  a  female  figure  typifying  the 
city  of  Avignon.  Not  all  of  Gouthiere's  work  is  of  the  highest 
quality,  and  much  of  what  he  executed  was  from  the  designs 
of  others.  At  his  best  his  delicacy,  refinement  and  finish  are 
exceedingly  delightful — in  his  great  moments  he  ranks  with 
the  highest  alike  as  artist  and  as  craftsman.  The  tone  of  soft 
dead  gold  which  is  found  on  some  of  his  mounts  he  is  believed 
to  have  invented,  but  indeed  the  gilding  of  all  his  superlative 
work  possesses  a  remarkable  quality.  This  charm  of  tone  is 
admirably  seen  in  the  bronzes  and  candelabra  which  he  executed 
for  the  chimneypiece  of  Marie  Antoinette's  boudoir  at  Fontaine- 
bleau.  He  continued  to  embellish  Louveciennes  for  Madame 
du  Barry  until  the  Revolution,  and  then  the  guillotine  came  for 
her  and  absolute  ruin  for  him.  When  her  property  was  seized 


2Q2 


GOUVION  SAINT-CYR— GOVERNMENT 


she  owed  him  756,000  livres,  of  which  he  never  received  a  sol, 
despite  repeated  applications  to  the  administrators.  "  Reduit 
d  solliciter  une  place  d  I'hospice,  il  mourut  dans  la  misere."  So 
it  was  stated  in  a  lawsuit  brought  by  his  sons  against  du  Barry's 
heirs. 

GOUVION  SAINT-CYR,  LAURENT,  MARQUIS  DE  (1764-1830), 
French  marshal,  was  born  at  Toul  on  the  ijth  of  April  1764. 
At  the  age  of  eighteen  he  went  to  Rome  with  the  view  of  pro- 
secuting the  study  of  painting,  but  although  he  continued  his 
artistic  studies  after  his  return  to  Paris  in  1784  he  never  definitely 
adopted  the  profession  of  a  painter.  In  1792  he  was  chosen 
a  captain  in  a  volunteer  battalion,  and  served  on  the  staff  of 
General  Custine.  Promotion  rapidly  followed,  and  in  the  course 
of  two  years  he  had  become  a  general  of  division.  In  1796  he 
commanded  the  centre  division  of  Moreau's  army  in  the  campaign 
of  the  Rhine,  and  by  coolness  and  sagacity  greatly  aided  him 
in  the  celebrated  retreat  from  Bavaria  to  the  Rhine.  In  1798 
he  succeeded  Massena  in  the  command  of  the  army  of  Italy. 
In  the  following  year  he  commanded  the  left  wing  of  Jourdan's 
army  in  Germany;  but  when  Jourdan  was  succeeded  by  Massena, 
he  joined  the  army  of  Moreau  in  Italy,  where  he  distinguished 
himself  in  face  of  the  great  difficulties  that  followed  the  defeat 
of  Novi.  When  Moreau,  in  1800,  was  appointed  to  the  command 
of  the  army  of  the  Rhine,  Gouvion  St-Cyr  was  named  his  principal 
lieutenant,  and  on  the  gth  of  May  gained  a  victory  over  General 
Kray  at  Biberach.  He  was  not,  however,  on  good  terms  with 
his  commander  and  retired  to  France  after  the  first  operations 
of  the  campaign.  In  1801  he  was  sent  to  Spain  to  command 
the  army  intended  for  the  invasion  of  Portugal,  and  was  named 
grand  officer  of  the  Legion  of  Honour.  Wh«n  a  treaty  of  peace 
was  shortly  afterwards  concluded  with  Portugal,  he  succeeded 
Lucien  Bonaparte  as  ambassador  at  Madrid.  In  1803  he  was 
appointed  to  the  command  of  an  army  corps  in  Italy,  in  1805 
he  served  with  distinction  under  Massena,  and  in  1806  was 
engaged  in  the  campaign  in  southern  Italy.  He  took  part  in 
the  Prussian  and  Polish  campaigns  of  1807,  and  in  1808,  in  which 
yea<  he  was  made  a  count,  he  commanded  an  army  corps  in 
Catalonia;  but,  not  wishing  to  comply  with  certain  orders 
he  received  from  Paris  (for  which  see  Oman,  Peninsular  War, 
vol.  iii.),  he  resigned  his  command  and  remained  in  disgrace 
till  181 1 .  He  was  still  a  general  of  division,  having  been  excluded 
from  the  first  list  of  marshals  owing  to  his  action  in  refusing 
to  influence  the  troops  in  favour  of  the  establishment  of  the 
Empire.  On  the  opening  of  the  Russian  campaign  he  received 
command  of  an  army  corps,  and  on  the  i8th  of  August  1812 
obtained  a  victory  over  the  Russians  at  Polotsk,  in  recognition 
of  which  he  was  created  a  marshal  of  France.  He  received  a 
severe  wound  in  one  of  the  actions  during  the  general  retreat. 
St-Cyr  distinguished  himself  at  the  battle  of  Dresden  (August 
26-27,  1813),  and  in  the  defence  of  that  place  against  the  Allies 
after  the  battle  of  Leipzig,  capitulating  only  on  the  nth  of 
November,  when  Napoleon  had  retreated  to  the  Rhine.  On 
the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons  he  was  created  a  peer  of  France, 
and  in  July  1815  was  appointed  war  minister,  but  resigned  his 
office  in  the  November  following.  In  June  1817  he  was  appointed 
minister  of  marine,  and  in  September  following  again  resumed 
the  duties  of  war  minister,  which  he  continued  to  discharge 
till  November  1819.  During  this  time  he  effected  many  reforms, 
particularly  in  respect  of  measures  tending  to  make  the  army 
a  national  rather  than  a  dynastic  force.  He  exerted  himself 
also  to  safeguard  the  rights  of  the  old  soldiers  of  the  Empire, 
organized  the  general  staff  and  revised  the  code  of  military  law 
and  the  pension  regulations.  He  was  made  a  marquess  in  1817. 
He  died  at  Hyeres  (Var)  on  the  i7th  of  March  1830.  Gouvion 
St-Cyr  would  doubtless  have  obtained  better  opportunities  of 
acquiring  distinction  had  he  shown  himself  more  blindly  devoted 
to  the  interests  of  Napoleon,  but  Napoleon  paid  him  the  high 
compliment  of  referring  to  his  "  military  genius,"  and  entrusted 
him  with  independent  commands  in  secondary  theatres  of  war. 
It  is  doubtful,  however,  if  he  possessed  energy  commensurate 
with  his  skill,  and  in  Napoleon's  modern  conception  of  war, 
as  three  parts  moral  to  one  technical,  there  was  more  need  for 


the  services  of  a  bold  leader  of  troops  whose  "  doctrine  " — to 
use  the  modern  phrase — predisposed  him  to  self-sacrificing  and 
vigorous  action,  than  for  a  savant  in  the  art  of  war  of  the  type  of 
St-Cyr.  Contemporary  opinion,  as  reflected  by  Marbot,  did 
justice  to  his  "  commanding  talents,"  but  remarked  the  indolence 
which  was  the  outward  sign  of  the  vague  complexity  of  a  mind 
that  had  passed  beyond  the  simplicity  of  mediocrity  without 
attaining  the  simplicity  of  genius. 

He  was  the  author  of  the  following  works,  all  of  the  highest 
value:  Journal  des  operations  de  I'armee  de  Catalogne  en  1808  et 
i8oQ  (Paris,  1821);  Memoires  sur  les  campagnes  des  armies  de  Rhin 
et  de  Rhin-et-MoseUe  de  1794  a  i?97  (Paris,  1829) ;  and  Memoires 
pour  servir  d  Vhistoire  militaire  sous  le  Directoire,  le  Consulat,  et 
I'Empire  (1831). 

See  Gay  de  Vernon's  Vie  de  Gouvion  Saint-Cyr  (1857). 

GOVAN,  a  municipal  and  police  burgh  of  Lanarkshire,  Scotland. 
It  lies  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Clyde  in  actual  contact  with 
Glasgow,  and  in  a  parish  of  the  same  name  which  includes  a  large 
part  of  the  city  on  both  sides  of  the  river.  Pop.  (1891)  61,589; 
(1901)  76,532.  Govan  remained  little  more  than  a  village  till 
1860,  when  the  growth  of  shipbuilding  and  allied  trades  gave 
its  development  an  enormous  impetus.  Among  its  public  build- 
ings are  the  municipal  chambers,  combination  fever  hospital, 
Samaritan  hospital  and  reception  houses  for  the  poor.  Elder 
Park  (40  acres)  presented  to  the  burgh  in  1885  contains  a  statue 
of  John  Elder  (1824-1869),  the  pioneer  shipbuilder,  the  husband 
of  the  donor.  A  statue  of  Sir  William  Pearce  (1833-1888), 
another  well-known  Govan  shipbuilder,  once  M.P.  for  the  burgh, 
stands  at  Govan  Cross.  The  Govan  lunacy  board  opened  in 
1896  an  asylum  near  Paisley.  Govan  is  supplied  with  Glasgow 
gas  and  water,  and  its  tramways  are  leased  by  the  Glasgow 
corporation;  but  it  has  an  electric  light  installation  of  its  own, 
and  performs  all  other  municipal  functions  quite  independently 
of  the  city,  annexation  to  which  it  has  always  strenuously 
resisted.  Prince's  Dock  lies  within  its  bounds  and  the  ship- 
building yards  have  turned  out  many  famous  ironclads  and 
liners.  Besides  shipbuilding  its  other  industries  are  match- 
making, silk-weaving,  hair-working,  copper-working,  tube- 
making,  weaving,  and  the  manufacture  of  locomotives  and 
electrical  apparatus.  The  town  forms  the  greater  part  of  the 
Govan  division  of  Lanarkshire,  which  returns  one  member  to 
parliament. 

GOVERNMENT  (0.  Fr.  governement,  mod.  goitvernement, 
O.  Fr.  governer,  mod.  gouverner,  fnom  Lat.  gubernare,  to  steer  a 
ship,  guide,  .rule;  cf.  Gr.  Kv$tpva.v),  in  its  widest  sense,  the 
ruling  power  in  a  political  society.  In  every  society  of  men  there 
is  a  determinate  body  (whether  consisting  of  one  individual 
or  a  few  or  many  individuals)  whose  commands  the  rest  of  the 
community  are  bound  to  obey.  This  sovereign  body  is  what  in 
more  popular  phrase  is  termed  the  government  of  the  country, 
and  the  varieties  which  may  exist  in  its  constitution  are  known 
as  forms  of  government.  For  the  opposite  theory  of  a  community 
with  "  no  government,"  see  ANARCHISM. 

How  did  government  come  into  existence?  Various  answers 
to  this  question  have  at  times  been  given,  which  may  be  dis- 
tinguished broadly  into  three  classes.  The  first  class  would 
comprehend  the  legendary  accounts  which  nations  have  given 
in  primitive  times  of  their  own  forms  of  government.  These 
are  always  attributed  to  the  mind  of  a  single  lawgiver.  The 
government  of  Sparta  was  the  invention  of  Lycurgus.  Solon, 
Moses,  Numa  and  Alfred  in  like  manner  shaped  the  government 
of  their  respective  nations.  There  was  no  curiosity  about  the 
institutions  of  other  nations — about  the  origin  of  governments 
in  general;  and  each  nation  was  perfectly  ready  to  accept  the 
traditional  vofjaderai  of  any  other. 

The  second  tnay  be  called  the  logical  or  metaphysical  account 
of  the  origin  of  government.  It  contained  no  overt  reference 
to  any  particular  form  of  government,  whatever  its  covert 
references  may  have  been.  It  answered  the  question,  how 
government  in  general  came  into  existence;  and  it  answered 
it  by  a  logical  analysis  of  the  elements  of  society.  The  phenome- 
non to  be  accounted  for  being  government  and  laws,  it  abstracted 
government  and  laws,  and  contemplated  mankind  as  existing 


GOVERNMENT 


293 


•without  them.  The  characteristic  feature  of  this  kind  of  specula^ 
tion  is  that  it  reflects  how  contemporary  men  would  behave 
if  all  government  were  removed,  and  infers  that  men  must  have 
behaved  so  before  government  came  into  existence.  Society 
without  government  resolves  itself  into  a  number  of  individuals 
each  following  his  own  aims,  and  therefore,  in  the  days  before 
government,  each  man  followed  his  own  aims.  It  is  easy  to  see 
how  this  kind  of  reasoning  should  lead  to  very  different  views 
of  the  nature  of  the  supposed  original  state.  With  Hobbes, 
it  is  a  state  of  war,  and  government  is  the  result  of  an  agreement 
among  men  to  keep  the  peace.  With  Locke,  it  is  a  state  of 
liberty  and  equality, — it  is  not  a  state  of  war;  it  is  governed 
by  its  own  law, — the  law  of  nature,  which  is  the  same  thing 
as  the  law  of  reason.  The  state  of  nature  is  brought  to  an  end 
by  the  voluntary  agreement  of  individuals  to  surrender  their 
natural  liberty  and  submit  themselves  to  one  supreme  govern- 
ment. In  the  words  of  Locke,  "  Men  being  by  nature  all  free, 
equal  and  independent,  no  one  can  be  put  out  of  this  estate 
and  subjected  to  the  political  power  of  another  without  his  own 
consent.  The  only  way  whereby  any  one  divests  himself  of  his 
natural  liberty,  and  puts  on  the  bonds  of  civil  society,  is  by  agree- 
ing with  other  men  to  join  and  unite  into  a  community  "  (On 
Civil  Government,  c.  viii.).  Locke  boldly  defends  his  theory 
as  founded  on  historical  fact,  and  it  is  amusing  to  compare  his 
demonstration  of  the  baselessness  of  Sir  R.  Filmer's  speculations 
with  the  scanty  and  doubtful  examples  which  he  accepts  as  the 
foundation  of  his  own.  But  in  general  the  various  forms  of  the 
hypothesis  eliminate  the  question  of  time  altogether.  The 
original  contract  from  which  government  sprang  is  likewise  the 
subsisting  contract  on  which  civil  society  continues  to  be  based. 
The  historical  weakness  of  the  theory  was  probably  always 
recognized.  Its  logical  inadequacy  was  conclusively  demon- 
strated by  John  Austin.  But  it  still  clings  to  speculations  on 
the  principles  of  government. 

The  "  social  compact  "  (see  ROUSSEAU)  is  the  most  famous 
of  the  metaphysical  explanations  of  government.  It  has  had 
the  largest  history,  the  widest  influence  and  the  most  complete 
development.  To  the  same  class  belong  the  various  forms  of 
the  theory  that  governments  exist  by  divine  appointment. 
Of  all  that  has  been  written  about  the  divine  right  of  kings,  a 
great  deal  must  be  set  down  to  the  mere  flatteries  of  courtiers 
and  ecclesiastics.  But  there  remains  a  genuine  belief  that  men 
are  bound  to  obey  their  rulers  because  their  rulers  have  been 
appointed  by  God.  Like  the  social  compact,  the  theory  of 
divine  appointment  avoided  the  question  of  historical  fact. 

The  application  of  the  historical  method  to  the  phenomena 
of  society  has  changed  the  aspect  of  the  question  and  robbed  it 
of  its  political  interest.  The  student  of  the  history  of  society  has 
no  formula  to  express  the  law  by  which  government  is  born.  All 
that  he  can  do  is  to  trace  governmental  forms  through  various 
stages  of  social  development.  The  more  complex  and  the  larger 
the  society,  the  more  distinct  is  the  separation  between  the 
governing  part  and  the  rest,  and  the  more  elaborate  is  the 
subdivision  of  functions  in  the  government.  The  primitive 
type  of  ruler  is  king,  judge,  priest  and  general.  At  the  same 
time,  his  way  of  life  differs  little  from  that  of  his  followers  and 
subjects.  The  metaphysical  theories  were  so  far  right  in  imputing 
greater  equality  of  social  conditions  to  more  primitive  times. 
Increase  of  bulk  brings  with  it  a  more  complex  socialorganization. 
War  tends  to  develop  the  strength  of  the  governmental  organiza- 
tion; peace  relaxes  it.  All  societies  of  men  exhibit  the  germs 
of  government;  but  there  would  appear  to  be  races  of  men  so 
low  that  they  cannot  be  said  to  live  together  in  society  at  all. 
Modern  investigations  have  illustrated  very  fully  the  importance 
of  the  family  (q.v.)  in  primitive  societies,  and  the  belief  in  a 
common  descent  has  much  to  do  with  the  social  cohesion  of  a 
tribe.  The  government  of  a  tribe  resembles  the  government  of  a 
household;  the  head  of  the  family  is  the  ruler.  But  we  cannot 
affirm  that  political  government  has  its  origin  in  family  govern- 
ment, or  that  there  may  not  have  been  states  of  society  in 
which  government  of  some  sort  existed  while  the  family  did 
not. 


I.  FORMS  OF  GOVERNMENT 


Three  Standard  Forms. — Political  writers  from  the  time  of 
Aristotle  have  been  singularly  unanimous  in  their  classification 
of  the  forms  of  government.  There  are  three  ways  in  which 
states  may  be  governed.  They  may  be  governed  by  one  man, 
or  by  a  number  of  men,  small  in  proportion  to  the  whole  number 
of  men  in  the  state,  or  by  a  number  large  in  proportion  to  the 
whole  number  of  men  in  the  state.  The  government  may  be 
a  monarchy,  an  aristocracy  or  a  democracy.  The  same  terms 
are  used  by  John  Austin  as  were  used  by  Aristotle,  and  in  very 
nearly  the  same  sense.  The  determining  quality  in  governments 
in  both  writers,  and  it  may  safely  be  said  in  all  intermediate 
writers,  is  the  numerical  relation  between  the  constituent 
members  of  the  government  and  the  population  of  the  state. 
There  were,  of  course,  enormous  differences  between  the  state- 
systems  present  to  the  mind  of  the  Greek  philosopher  and  the 
English  jurist.  Aristotle  was  thinking  of  the  small  independent 
states  of  Greece,  Austin  of  the  great  peoples  of  modern  Europe. 
The  unit  of  government  in  the  one  case  was  a  city,  in  the  other 
a  nation.  This  difference  is  of  itself  enough  to  invalidate  all 
generalization  founded  on  the  common  terminology.  But  on 
one  point  there  is  a  complete  parallel  between  the  politics  of 
Aristotle  and  the  politics  of  Austin.  The  Greek  cities  were  to 
the  rest  of  the  world  very  much  what  European  nations  and 
European  colonies  are  to  the  rest  of  the  world  now.  They  were 
the  only  communities  in  which  the  governed  visibly  took  some 
share  in  the  work  of  government.  Outside  the  European  system, 
as  outside  the  Greek  system,  we  have  only  the  stereotyped 
uniformity  of  despotism,  whether  savage  or  civilized.  The 
question  of  forms  of  government,  therefore,  belongs  character- 
istically to  the  European  races.  The  virtues  and  defects  of 
monarchy,  aristocracy  and  democracy  are  the  virtues  and 
defects  manifested  by  the  historical  governments  of  Europe. 
The  generality  of  the  language  used  by  political  writers  must 
not  blind  us  to  the  fact  that  they  are  thinking  only  of  a  compara- 
tively small  portion  of  mankind. 

Greek  Politics. — Aristotle  divides  governments  according  to 
two  principles.  In  all  states  the  governing  power  seeks  either 
its  own  advantage  or  the  advantage  of  the  whole  state,  and 
the  government  is_  bad  or  good  accordingly.  In  all  states  the 
governing  power  is  one  man,  or  a  few  men  or  many  men.  Hence 
six  varieties  of  government,  three  of  which  are  bad  and  three 
good.  Each  excellent  form  has  a  corresponding  depraved  form, 
thus: — 

The  good  government  of  one  (Monarchy)  corresponds  to  the 
depraved  form  (Tyranny). 

The  good  government  of  few  (Aristocracy)  corresponds  to 
the  depraved  form  (Oligarchy). 

The  good  government  of  many  (Commonwealth)  corresponds 
to  the  depraved  form  (Democracy). 

The  fault  of  the  depraved  forms  is  that  the  governors  act 
unjustly  where  their  own  interests  are  concerned.  The  worst 
of  the  depraved  forms  is  tyranny,  the  next  oligarchy  and  the 
least  bad  democracy.1  Each  of  the  three  leading  types  exhibits 
a  number  of  varieties.  Thus  in  monarchy  we  have  the  heroic, 
the  barbaric,  the  elective  dictatorship,  the  Lacedemonian 
(hereditary  generalship,  aTparrrfla),  and  absolute  monarchy. 
So  democracy  and  oligarchy  exhibit  four  corresponding  varieties. 
The  best  type  of  democracy  is  that  of  a  community  mainly 
agricultural,  whose  citizens,  therefore,  have  not  leisure  for 
political  affairs,  and  allow  the  law  to  rule.  The  best  oligarchy 
is  that  in  which  a  considerable  number  of  small  proprietors 
have  the  power;  here,  too,  the  laws  prevail.  The  worst 
democracy  consists  of  a  larger  citizen  class  having  leisure  for 
politics;  and  the  worst  oligarchy  is  that  of  a  small  number  of 
very  rich  and  influential  men.  In  both  the  sphere  of  law  is 
reduced  to  a  minimum.  A  good  government  is  one  in  which 
as  much  as  possible  is  left  to  the  laws,  and  as  little  as  possible 
to  the  will  of  the  governor. 

1  Aristotle  elsewhere  speaks  of  the  error  of  those  who  think  that 
any  one  of  the  depraved  forms  is  better  than  any  other. 


294 


GOVERNMENT 


The  Politics  of  Aristotle,  from  which  these  principles  are 
taken,  presents  a  striking  picture  of  the  variety  and  activity 
of  political  life  in  the  free  communities  of  Greece.  The  king  and 
council  of  heroic  times  had  disappeared,  and  self-government 
in  some  form  or  other  was  the  general  rule.  It  is  to  be  noticed, 
however,  that  the  governments  of  Greece  were  essentially 
unstable.  The  political  philosophers  could  lay  down  the  law 
of  development  by  which  one  form  of  government  gives  birth 
to  another.  Aristotle  devotes  a  large  portion  of  his  work  to 
the  consideration  of  the  causes  of  revolutions.  The  dread  of 
tyranny  was  kept  alive  by  the  facility  with  which  an  over- 
powerful  and  unscrupulous  citizen  could  seize  the  whole  machinery 
of  government.  Communities  oscillated  between  some  form  of 
oligarchy  and  some  form  of  democracy.  The  security  of  each 
was  constantly  imperilled  by  the  conspiracies  of  the  opposing 
factions.  Hence,  although  political  life  exhibits  that  exuberant 
variety  of  form  and  expression  which  characterizes  all  the  in- 
tellectual products  of  Greece,  it  lacks  the  quality  of  persistent 
progress.  Then  there  was  no  approximation  to  a  national 
government,  even  of  the  federal  type.  The  varying  confederacies 
and  hegemonies  are  the  nearest  approach  to  anything  of  the  kind. 
What  kind  of  national  government  would  ultimately  have  arisen 
if  Greece  had  not  been  crushed  it  is  needless  to  conjecture; 
the  true  interest  of  Greek  politics  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  free 
citizens  were,  in  the  strictest  sense  of  the  word,  self -governed. 
Each  citizen  took  his  turn  at  the  common  business  of  the  state. 
He  spoke  his  own  views  in  the  agora,  and  from  time  to  time 
in  his  own  person  acted  as  magistrate  or  judge.  Citizenship 
in  Athens  was  a  liberal  education,  such  as  it  never  can  be  made 
under  any  representative  system. 

The  Government  of  Rome. — During  the  whole  period  of  freedom 
the  government  of  Rome  was,  in  theory  at  least,  municipal 
self-government.  Each  citizen  had  a  right  to  vote  laws  in  his 
own  person  in  the  comitia  of  the  centuries  or  the  tribes.  The 
administrative  powers  of  government  were,  however,  in  the  hands 
of  a  bureaucratic  assembly,  recruited  from  the  holders  of  high 
public  office.  The  senate  represented  capacity  and  experience 
rather  than  rank  and  wealth.  Without  some  such  instrument 
the  city  government  of  Rome  could  never  have  made  the  conquest 
of  the  world.  The  gradual  extension  of  the  citizenship  to  other 
Italians  changed  the  character  of  Roman  government.  The 
distant  citizens  could  not  come  to  the  voting  booths;  the  device 
of  representation  was  not  discovered;  and  the  comitia  fell  into 
the  power  of  the  town  voters.  In  the  last  stage  of  the  Roman 
republic,  the  inhabitants  of  one  town  wielded  the  resources  of 
a  world-wide  empire.  We  can  imagine  what  would  be  the  effect 
of  leaving  to  the  people  of  London  or  Paris  the  supreme  control 
of  the  British  empire  or  of  France, — irresistible  temptation, 
inevitable  corruption.  The  rabble  of  the  capital  learn  to  live 
on  the  rest  of  the  empire.1  The  favour  of  the  effeminate  masters 
of  the  world  is  purchased  by  panem  el  circenses.  That  capable 
officers  and  victorious  armies  should  long  be  content  to  serve 
such  masters  was  impossible.  A  conspiracy  of  generals  placed 
itself  at  the  head  of  affairs,  and  the  most  capable  of  them  made 
himself  sole  master.  Under  Caesar,  Augustus  .and  Tiberius, 
the  Roman  people  became  habituated  to  a  new  form  of  govern- 
ment, which  is  best  described  by  the  name  of  Caesarism.  The 
outward  forms  of  republican  government  remained,  but  one 
man  united  in  his  own  person  all  the  leading  offices,  and  used 
them  to  give  a  seemingly  legal  title  to  what  was  essentially 
military  despotism.  There  is  no  more  interesting  constitutional 
study  than  the  chapters  in  which  Tacitus  traces  the  growth 
of  the  new  system  under  the  subtle  and  dissimulating  intellect 
of  Tiberius.  The  new  Roman  empire  was  as  full  of  fictions  as 
the  English  constitution  of  the  present  day.  The  master  of  the 
world  posed  as  the  humble  servant  of  a  menial  senate.  Depre- 

1  None  of  the  free  states  of  Greece  ever  made  extensive  or  per- 
manent conquests;  but  the  tribute  sometimes  paid  by  one  state  to 
another  (as  by  the  Aeginetans  to  the  Athenians)  was  a  manifest  source 
of  corruption.  Compare  the  remarks  of  Hume  (Essays,  part  i.  3,  That 
Politics  may  be  reduced  to  a  Science),  "  free  governments  are  the  most 
ruinous  and  oppressive  for  their  provinces." 


eating  the  outward  symbols  of  sovereignty,  he  was  satisfied  with 
the  modest  powers  of  a  consul  or  a  tribunus  plebis.  The  reign 
of  Tiberius,  little  capable  as  he  was  by  personal  character  of 
captivating  the  favour  of  the  multitude,  did  more  for  imperialism 
than  was  done  by  his  more  famous  predecessors.  Henceforward 
free  government  all  over  the  world  lay  crushed  beneath  the 
military  despotism  of  Rome.  Caesarism  remained  true  to  the 
character  imposed  upon  it  by  its  origin.  The  Caesar  was  an 
elective  not  an  hereditary  king.  The  real  foundation  of  his 
power  was  the  army,  and  the  army  in  course  of  time  openly 
assumed  the  right  of  nominating  the  sovereign.  The  character- 
istic weakness  of  the  Roman  empire  was  the  uncertainty  of  the 
succession.  The  nomination  of  a  Caesar  in  the  lifetime  of  the 
emperor  was  an  ineffective  remedy.  Rival  emperors  were 
elected  by  different  armies;  and  nothing  less  than  the  force 
of  arms  could  decide  the  question  between  them. 

Modern  Governments. — Feudalism. — The  Roman  empire  be- 
queathed to  modern  Europe  the  theory  of  universal  dominion. 
The  nationalities  which  grew  up  after  its  fall  arranged  themselves 
on  the  basis  of  territorial  sovereignty.  Leaving  out  of  account 
the  free  municipalities  of  the  middle  ages,  the  problem  of  govern- 
ment had  now  to  be  solved,  not  for  small  urban  communities, 
but  for  large  territorial  nations.  The  medieval  form  of  govern- 
ment was  feudal.  One  common  type  pervaded  all  the  relations 
of  life.  The  relation  of  king  and  lord  was  like  the  relation  between 
lord  and  vassal  (see  FEUDALISM).  The  bond  between  them 
was  the  tenure  of  land.  In  England  there  had  been,  before 
the  Norman  Conquest,  an  approximation  to  a  feudal  system. 
In  the  earlier  English  constitution,  the  most  striking  features 
were  the  power  of  the  witan,  and  the  common  property  of  the 
nation  in  a  large  portion  of  the  soil.  The  steady  development 
of  the  power  of  the  king  kept  pace  with  the  aggregation  of  the 
English  tribes  under  one  king.  The  conception  that  the  land 
belonged  primarily  to  the  people  gave  way  to  the  conception 
that  everything  belonged  primarily  to  the  king.2  The  Norman 
Conquest  imposed  on  England  the  already  highly  developed 
feudalism  of  France,  and  out  of  this  feudalism  the  free  govern- 
ments of  modern  Europe  have  grown.  One  or  two  of  the  leading 
steps  in  this  process  may  be  indicated  here.  The  first,  and 
perhaps  the  most  important,  was  the  device  of  representation. 
For  an  account  of  its  origin,  and  for  instances  of  its  use  in  England 
before  its  application  to  politics,  we  must  be  content  to  refer 
to  Stubbs's  Constitutional  History,  vol.  ii.  The  problem  of  com- 
bining a  large  area  of  sovereignty  with  some  degree  of  self- 
government,  which  had  proved  fatal  to  ancient  commonwealths, 
was  henceforward  solved.  From  that  time  some  form  of  repre- 
sentation has  been  deemed  essential  to  every  constitution 
professing,  however  remotely,  to  be  free. 

The  connexion  between  representation  and  the  feudal  system 
of  estates  must  be  shortly  noticed.  The  feudal  theory  gave  the 
king  a  limited  right  to  military  service  and  to  certain  aids,  both 
of  which  were  utterly  inadequate  to  meet  the  expenses  of  the 
government,  especially  in  time  of  war.  The  king  therefore 
had  to  get  contributions  from  his  people,  and  he  consulted 
them  in  their  respective  orders.  The  three  estates  were  simply 
the  three  natural  divisions  of  the  people,  and  Stubbs  has  pointed 
out  that,  in  the  occasional  treaties  between  a  necessitous  king 
and  the  order  of  merchants  or  lawyers,  we  have  examples  of 
inchoate  estates  or  sub-estates  of  the  realm.  The  right  of  repre- 
sentation was  thus  in  its  origin  a  right  to  consent  to  taxation. 
The  pure  theory  of  feudalism  had  from  the  beginning  been 
broken  by  William  the  Conqueror  causing  all  free-holders  to 
take  an  oath  of  direct  allegiance  to  himself.  The  institution  of 
parliaments,  and  the  association  of  the  king's  smaller 
tenants  in  capite  with  other  commoners,  still  further  removed  the 

2  Ultimately,  in  the  theory  of  English  law,  the  king  may  be  said  to 
have  become  the  universal  successor  of  the  people.  Same  of  the 
peculiarities  of  the  prerogative  rights  seem  to  be  explainable  only 
on  this  view,  e.g.  the  curious  distinction  between  wrecks  come  to 
land  and  wrecks  still  on  water.  The  common  right  to  wreckage  was 
no  doubt  the  origin  of  the  prerogative  right  to  the  former.  Every 
ancient  common  right  has  come  to  be  a  right  of  the  crown  or  a  right 
held  of  the  crown  by  a  vassal. 


GOVERNMENT 


295 


government  from  the  purely  feudal  type  in  which  the  mesne  lord 
stands  between  the  inferior  vassal  and  the  king. 

Parliamentary  Government. — The  English  System. — The  right 
of  the  commons  to  share  the  power  of  the  king  and  lords  in 
legislation,  the  exclusive  right  of  the  commons  to  impose  taxes, 
the  disappearance  of  the  clergy  as  a  separate  order,  were  all 
important  steps  in  the  movement  towards  popular  government. 
The  extinction  of  the  old  feudal  nobility  in  the  dynastic  wars  of 
the  i  sth  century  simplified  the  question  by  leaving  the  crown 
face  to  face  with  parliament.  The  immediate  result  was  no 
doubt  an  increase  in  the  power  of  the  crown,  which  probably 
never  stood  higher  than  it  did  in  the  reigns  of  Henry  VIII.  and 
Elizabeth;  but  even  these  powerful  monarchs  were  studious 
in  their  regard  for  parliamentary  conventionalities.  After  a 
long  period  of  speculative  controversy  and  civil  war,  the  settle- 
ment of  1688  established  limited  monarchy  as  the  government 
of  England.  Since  that  time  the  external  form  of  government 
has  remained  unchanged,  and,  so  far  as  legal  description  goes, 
the  constitution  of  William  III.  might  be  taken  for  the  same 
system  as  that  which  still  exists.  The  silent  changes  have, 
however,  been  enormous.  The  most  striking  of  these,  and  that 
which  has  produced  the  most  salient  features  of  the  English 
system,  is  the  growth  of  cabinet  government.  Intimately  con- 
nected with  this  is  the  rise  of  the  two  great  historical  parties  of 
English  politics.  The  normal  state  of  government  in  England 
is  that  the  cabinet  of  the  day  shall  represent  that  which  is,  for 
the  time,  the  stronger  of  the  two.  Before  the  Revolution  the 
king's  ministers  had  begun  to  act  as  a  united  body;  but  even 
after  the  Revolution  the  union  was  still  feeble  and  fluctuating, 
and_'each  individual  minister  was  bound  to  the  others  only  by 
the  tie  of  common  service  to  the  king.  Under  the  Hanoverian 
sovereigns  the  ministry  became  consolidated,  the  position  of 
the  cabinet  became  definite,  and  its  dependence  on  parliament, 
and  more  particularly  on  the  House  of  Commons,  was  established. 
Ministers  were  chosen  exclusively  from  one  house  or  the  other, 
and  they  assumed  complete  responsibility  for  every  act  done 
in  the  name  of  the  crown.  The  simplicity  of  English  politics 
has  divided  parliament  into  the  representatives  of  two  parties, 
and  the  party  in  opposition  has  been  steadied  by  the  conscious- 
ness that  it,  too,  has  constitutional  functions  of  high  importance, 
because  at  any  moment  it  may  be  called  to  provide  a  ministry. 
Criticism  is  sobered  by  being  made  responsible.  Along  with 
this  movement  went  the  withdrawal  of  the  personal  action  of 
the  sovereign  in  politics.  No  king  has  attempted  to  veto  a 
bill  since  the  Scottish  Militia  Bill  was  vetoed  by  Queen  Anne. 
No  ministry  has  been  dismissed  by  the  sovereign  since  1834. 
Whatever  the  power  of  the  sovereign  may  be,  it  is  unquestionably 
limited  to  his  personal  influence  over  his  ministers.  And  it 
must  be  remembered  that  since  the  Reform  Act  of  1832  ministers 
have  become,  in  practice,  responsible  ultimately,  not  to  parlia- 
ment, but  to  the  House  of  Commons.  Apart,  therefore,  from 
democratic  changes  due  to  a  wider  suffrage,  we  find  that  the 
House  of  Commons,  as  a  body,  gradually  made  itself  the  centre 
of  the  government.  Since  the  area  of  the  constitution  has  been 
enlarged,  it  may  be  doubted  whether  the  orthodox  descriptions 
of  the  government  any  longer  apply.  The  earlier  constitutional 
writers,  such  as  Blackstone  and  J.  L.  Delolme,  regard  it  as  a 
wonderful  compound  of  the  three  standard  forms, — monarchy, 
aristocracy  and  democracy.  Each  has  its  place,  and  each  acts 
as  a  check  upon  the  others.  Hume,  discussing  the  question 
"  Whether  the  British  government  inclines  more  to  absolute 
monarchy  or  to  a  republic,"  decides  in  favour  of  the  former 
alternative.  "  The  tide  has  run  long  and  with  some  rapidity 
to  the  side  of  popular  government,  and  is  just  beginning  to 
turn  toward  monarchy."  And  he  gives  it  as  his  own  opinion 
that  absolute  monarchy  would  be  the  easiest  death,  the  true 
euthanasia  of  the  British  constitution.  These  views  of  the 
En^ish  government  in  the  i8th  century  may  be  contrasted 
with  Bagehot's  sketch  of  the  modern  government  as  a  working 
instrument.1 

JSee  Bagehot's  English  Constitution;  or,  for  a  more  recent 
analysis,  Sidney  Low's  Governance  of  England. 


Iaiiaiy 


Leading  Features  of  Parliamentary  Government. — The  parlia- 
mentary  government  developed  by  England  out  of  feudal 
materials  has  been  deliberately  accepted  as  the  type  of  constitu- 
tional government  all  over  the  world.  Its  leading  features  are 
popular  representation  more  or  less  extensive,  a  bicameral 
legislature,  and  a  cabinet  or  consolidated  ministry.  In  connexion 
with  all  of  these,  numberless  questions  of  the  highest  practical 
importance  have  arisen,  the  bare  enumeration  of  which  would 
surpass  the  limits  of  our  space.  We  shall  confine  ourselves  to 
a  few  very  general  considerations. 

The  Two  Chambers. — First,  as  to  the  douole  chamber.  This, 
which  is  perhaps  more  accidental  than  any  other  portion  of 
the  British  system,  has  been  the  most  widely  imitated.  In  most 
European  countries,  in  the  British  colonies,  in  the  United 
States  Congress,  and  in  the  separate  states  of  the  Union,2  there 
are  two  houses  of  legislature.  This  result  has  been  brought 
about  partly  by  natural  imjtatiqn  of  the  accepted  type  of  free 
government,  partly  from  a  conviction  that  the  second  chamber 
will  moderate  the  democratic  tendencies  of  the  first.  But  the 
elements  of  the  British  original  cannot  be  reproduced  to  order 
under  different  conditions.  There  have,  indeed,  been  a  few 
attempts  to  imitate  the  special  character  of  hereditary  nobih'ty 
attaching  to  the  British  House  of  Lords.  In  some  countries, 
where  the  feudal  tradition  is  still  strong  (e.g.  Prussia,  Austria, 
Hungary),  the  hereditary  element  in  the  upper  chambers  has 
survived  as  truly  representative  of  actual  social  and  economic 
relations.  But  where  these  social  conditions  do  not  obtain 
(e.g.  in  France  after  the  Revolution)  the  attempt  to  establish 
an  hereditary  peerage  on  the  British  model  has  always  failed. 
For  the  peculiar  solidarity  between  the  British  nobility  and  the 
general  mass  of  the  people,  the  outcome  of  special  conditions 
and  tendencies,  is  a  result  beyond  the  power  of  constitution- 
makers  to  attain.  The  British  system  too,  after  its  own  way, 
has  for  a  long  period  worked  without  any  serious  collision 
between  the  Houses, — the  standing  and  obvious  danger  of  the 
bicameral  system.  The  actual  ministers  of  the  day  must  possess 
the  confidence  of  the  House  of  Commons;  they  need  not — in  fact 
they  often  do  not — possess  the  confidence  of  the  House  of  Lords. 
It  is  only  in  legislation  that  the  Lower  House  really  shares  its 
powers  with  the  Upper;  and  (apart  from  any  such  change  in 
the  constitution  as  was  suggested  in  1907  by  Sir  H.  Campbell- 
Bannerman)  the  constitution  possesses,  in  the  unlimited  power 
of  nominating  peers,  a  well-understood  last  resource  should 
the  House  of  Lords  persist  in  refusing  important  measures 
demanded  by  the  representatives  of  the  people.  In  the  United 
Kingdom  it  is  well  understood  that  the  real  sovereignty  lies 
with  the  people  (the  electorate),  and  the  House  of  Lords 
recognizes  the  principle  that  it  must  accept  a  measure  when  the 
popular  will  has  been  clearly  expressed.  In  all  but  measures 
of  first-class  importance,  however,  the  House  of  Lords  is  a  real 
second  chamber,  and  in  these  there  is  little  danger  of  a  collision 
between  the  Houses.  There  is  the  widest  possible  difference 
between  the  British  and  any  other  second  chamber.  In  the 
United  States  the  Senate  (constituted  on  the  system  of  equal 
representation  of  states)  is  the  more  important  of  the  two 
Houses,  and  the  only  one  whose  control  of  the  executive  can  be 
compared  to  that  exercised  by  the  British  House  of  Commons. 

The  real  strength  of  popular  government  in  England  lies  in 
the  ultimate  supremacy  of  the  House  of  Commons.  That 
supremacy  had  been  acquired,  perhaps  to  its  full  extent,  before 
the  extension  of  the  suffrage  made  the  constituencies  democratic. 
Foreign  imitators,  it  may  be  observed,  have  been  more  ready  to 
accept  a  wide  basis  of  representation  than  to  confer  real  power 
on  the  representative  body.  In  all  the  monarchical  countries 
of  Europe,  however  unrestricted  the  right  of  suffrage  may  be, 
the  real  victory  of  constitutional  government  has  yet  to  be  won. 
Where  the  suffrage  means  little  or  nothing,  there  is  little  or  no 
reason  for  guarding  it  against  abuse.  The  independence  of  the 
executive  in  the  United  States  brings  that  country,  from  one 

2  For  an  account  of  the  double  chamber  system  in  the  state  legis- 
latures see  UNITED  STATES:  Constitution  and  Government,  and  also 
S.  G.  Fisher,  The  Evolution  of  the  Constitution  (Philadelphia,  1897). 


296 


GOVERNMENT 


point  of  view,  more  near  to  the  state  system  of  the  continent 
of  Europe  than  to  that  of  the  United  Kingdom.  The  people 
make  a  more  complete  surrender  of  power  to  the  government 
(State  or  Federal)  than  is  done  in  England. 

Cabinet  Government. — The  peculiar  functions  of  the  English 
cabinet  are  not  easily  matched  in  any  foreign  system.  They  are 
a  mystery  even  to  most  educated  Englishmen.  The  cabinet 
(g.v.)  is  much  more  than  a  body  consisting  of  chiefs  of  depart- 
ments. It  is  the  inner  council  of  the  empire,  the  arbiter  of 
national  policy,  foreign  or  domestic,  the  sovereign  in  commission. 
The  whole  power  of  the  House  of  Commons  is  concentrated  in 
its  hands.  At  the  same  time,  it  has  no  place  whatever  in  the 
legal  constitution.  Its  numbers  and  its  constitution  are  not 
fixed  even  by  any  rule  of  practice.  It  keeps  no  record  of  its 
proceedings.  The  relations  of  an  individual  minister  to  the 
cabinet,  and  of  the  cabinet  to  its  head  and  creator,  the  premier, 
are  things  known  only  to  the  initiated.  With  the  doubtful 
exception  of  France,  no  other  system  of  government  presents 
us  with  anything  like  its  equivalent.  In  the  United  States, 
as  in  the  European  monarchies,  we  have  a  council  of  ministers 
surrounding  the  chief  of  the  state. 

Change  of  Power  in  the  English  System. — One  of  the  most 
difficult  problems  of  government  is  how  to  provide  for  the 
devolution  of  political  power,  and  perhaps  no  other  question 
is  so  generally  and  justly  applied  as  the  test  of  a  working  con- 
stitution. If  the  transmission  works  smoothly,  the  constitution, 
whatever  may  be  its  other  defects,  may  at  least  be  pronounced 
stable.  It  would  be  tedious  to  enumerate  all  the  contrivances 
which  this  problem  has  suggested  to  political  societies.  Here, 
as  usual,  oriental  despotism  stands  at  the  bottom  of  the  scale. 
When  sovereign  power  is  imputed  to  one  family,  and  the  law 
of  succession  fails  to  designate  exclusively  the  individual  entitled 
to  succeed,  assassination  becomes  almost  a  necessary  measure 
of  precaution.  The  prince  whom  chance  or  intrigue  has  pro- 
moted to  the  throne  of  a  father  or  an  uncle  must  make  himself 
safe  from  his  relatives  and  competitors.  Hence  the  scenes 
which  shock  the  European  conscience  when  "  Amurath  an 
Amurath  succeeds."  The  strong  monarchical  governments 
of  Europe  have  been  saved  from  this  evil  by  an  indisputable 
law  of  succession,  which  macks  out  from  his  infancy  the  next 
successor  to  the  throne.  The  king  names  his  ministers,  and  the 
law  names  the  king.  In  popular  or  constitutional  governments 
far  more  elaborate  precautions  are  required.  It  is  one  of  the  real 
merits  of  the  English  constitution  that  it  has  solved  this  problem 
— in  a  roundabout  way  perhaps,  after  its  fashion — but  with  per- 
fect success.  The  ostensible  seat  of  power  is  the  throne,  and 
down  to  a  time  not  long  distant  the  demise  of  the  crown  suspended 
all  the  other  powers  of  the  state.  In  point  of  fact,  however,  the 
real  change  of  power  occurs  on  a  change  of  ministry.  The  con- 
stitutional practice  of  the  ipth  century  settled,  beyond  the 
reach  of  controversy,  the  occasions  on  which  a  ministry  is  bound 
to  retire.  It  must  resign  or  dissolve  when  it  is  defeated *  in  the 
House  of  Commons,  and  if  after  a  dissolution  it  is  beaten  again, 
it  must  resign  without  alternative.  It  may  resign  if  it  thinks  its 
majority  in  the  House  of  Commons  not  sufficiently  large.  The 
dormant  functions  of  the  crown  now  come  into  existence.  It 
receives  back  political  power  from  the  old  ministry  in  order  to 
transmit  it  to  the  new.  When  the  new  ministry  is  to  be  formed, 
and  how  it  is  to  be  formed,  is  also  clearly  settled  by  established 
practice.  The  outgoing  premier  names  his  successor  by  recom- 
mending the  king  to  consult  him;  and  that  successor  must  be 
the  recognized  leader  of  his  successful  rivals.  All  this  is  a 
matter  of  custom,  not  of  law;  and  it  is  doubtful  if  any  two 
authorities  could  agree  in  describing  the  custom  in  language 
of  precision.  In  theory  the  monarch  may  send  for  any  one 
he  please's,  and  charge  him  with  the  formation  of  a  government; 
but  the  ability  to  form  a  government  restricts  this  liberty  to 
the  recognized  head  of  a  party,  subject  to  there  being  such  an 
individual.  It  is  certain  that  the  intervention  of  the  crown 

1  A  government  "  defeat "  may,  of  course,  not  really  represent  a 
hostile  vote  in  exceptional  cases,  and  in  some  instances  a  government 
has  obtained  a  reversal  of  the  vote  and  has  not  resigned. 


facilitates  the  transfer  of  power  from  one  party  to  another,  by 
giving  it  the  appearance  of  a  mere  change  of  servants.  The 
real  disturbance  is  that  caused  by  the  appeal  to  the  electors. 
A  general  election  is  always  a  struggle  between  the  great  political 
parties  for  the  possession  of  the  powers  of  government.  It 
may  be  noted  that  modern  practice  goes  far  to  establish  the  rule 
that  a  ministry  beaten  at  the  hustings  should  resign  at  once 
without  waiting  for  a  formal  defeat  in  the  House  of  Commons. 

The  English  custom  makes  the  ministry  dependent  on  the  will 
of  the  House  of  Commons;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  the  House 
of  Commons  itself  is  dependent  on  the  will  of  the  ministry.  In 
the  last  result  both  depend  on  the  will  of  the  constituencies, 
as  expressed  at  the  general  election.  There  is  no  fixity  in  either 
direction  in  the  tenure  of  a  ministry.  It  may  be  challenged  at 
any  moment,  and  it  lasts  until  it  is  challenged  and  beaten.  And 
that  there  should  be  a  ministry  and  a  House  of  Commons  in 
harmony  with  each  other  but  out  of  harmony  with  the  people  is 
rendered  all  but  impossible  by  the  law  and  the  practice  as  to 
the  duration  of  parliaments. 

Change  of  Power  in  the  United  States. — The  United  States 
offers  a  very  different  solution  of  the  problem.  The  American 
president  is  at  once  king  and  prime  minister;  and  there  is  no 
titular  superior  to  act  as  a  conduit-pipe  between  him  and  his 
successor.  His  crown  is  rigidly  fixed;  he  can  be  removed  only 
by  the  difficult  method  of  impeachment.  No  hostile  vote 
on  matters  of  legislation  can  affect  his  position.  But  the  end  of 
his  term  is  known  from  the  first  day  of  his  government;  and 
almost  before  he  begins  to  reign  the  political  forces  of  the  country 
are  shaping  out  a  new  struggle  for  the  succession.  Further,  a 
change  of  government  in  America  means  a  considerable  change 
in  the  administrative  staff  (see  CIVIL  SERVICE).  The  com- 
motion caused  by  a  presidential  election  in  the  United  States 
is  thus  infinitely  greater  and  more  prolonged  than  that  caused 
by  a  general  election  in  England.  A  change  of  power  in  England 
affects  comparatively  few  personal  interests,  and  absorbs  the 
attention  of  the  country  for  a  comparatively  short  space  of  time. 
In  the  United  States  it  is  long  foreseen  and  elaborately  prepared 
for,  and  when  it  comes  it  involves  the  personal  fortunes  of  large 
numbers  of  citizens.  And  yet  the  British  constitution  is  more 
democratic  than  the  American,  in  the  sense  that  the  popular 
will  can  more  speedily  be  brought  to  bear  upon  the  government. 

Change  of  Power  in  France. — The  established  practice  of 
England  and  America  may  be  compared  with  the  constitutional- 
ism of  France.  Here  the  problem  presents  different  conditions. 
The  head  of  the  state  is  neither  a  premier  of  the  English,  nor 
a  president  of  the  American  type.  He  is  served  by  a  prime 
minister  and  a  cabinet,  who,  like  an  English  ministry,  hold  office 
on  the  condition  of  parliamentary  confidence;  but  he  holds 
office  himself  on  the  same  terms,  and  is,  in  fact,  a  minister  like 
the  others.  So  far  as  the  transmission  of  power  from  cabinet 
to  cabinet  is  concerned,  he  discharges  the  functions  of  an  English 
king.  But  the  transmission  of  power  between  himself  and  his 
successor  is  protected  by  no  constitutional  devices  whatever, 
and  experience  would  seem  to  show  that  no  such  devices  are 
really  necessary.  Other  European  countries  professing  con- 
stitutional government  appear  to  follow  the  English  practice. 
The  Swiss  republic  is  so  peculiarly  situated  that  it  is  hardly  fair  to 
compare  it  with  any  other.  But  it  is  interesting  to  note  that, 
while  the  rulers  of  the  states  are  elected  annually,  the  same 
persons  are  generally  re-elected. 

The  Relation  between  Government  and  Laws. — It  might  be 
supposed  that,  if  any  general  proposition  could  be  established 
about  government,  it  would  be  one  establishing  some  constant 
relation  between  the  form  of  a  government  and  the  character 
of  the  laws  which  it  enforces.  The  technical  language  of  the 
English  school  of  jurists  is  certainly  of  a  kind  to  encourage  such 
a  supposition.  The  entire  body  of  law  in  force  in  a  country 
at  any  moment  is  regarded  as  existing  solely  by  the  fiat  of  the 
governing  power.  There  is  no  maxim  more  entirely  in  the  spirit 
of  this  jurisprudence  than  the  following: — "  The  real  legislator 
is  not  he  by  whom  the  law  was  first  ordained,  but  he  by  whose 
will  it  continues  to  be  law."  The  whole  of  the  vast  repertory 


GOVERNMENT 


297 


of  rules  which  make  up  the  law  of  England — the  rules  of  practice 
in  the  courts,  the  local  customs  of  a  county  or  a  manor,  the 
principles  formulated  by  the  sagacity  of  generations  of  judges, 
equally  with  the  statutes  for  the  year,  are  conceived  of  by  the 
school  of  Austin  as  created  by  the  will  of  the  sovereign  and  the 
two  Houses  of  Parliament,  or  so  much  of  them  as  would  now 
satisfy  the  definition  of  sovereignty.  It  would  be  out  of  place 
to  examine  here  the  difficulties  which  embarrass  this  definition, 
but  the  statement  we  have  made  carries  on  its  face  a  demonstra- 
tion of  its  own  falsity  in  fact.  There  is  probably  no  government 
in  the  world  of  which  it  could  be  said  that  it  might  change  at 
will  the  substantive  laws  of  the  country  and  still  remain  a 
government.  However  well  it  may  suit  the  purposes  of  analytical 
jurisprudence  to  define  a  law  as  a  command  set  by  sovereign  to 
subject,  we  must  not  forget  that  this  is  only  a  definition,  and  that 
the  assumption  it  rests  upon  is,  to  the  student  of  society,  any- 
thing but  a  universal  fact.  From  his  point  of  view  the  cause  of 
a  particular  law  is  not  one  but  many,  and  of  the  many  the  deliber- 
ate will  of  a  legislator  may  not  be  one.  Sir  Henry  Maine  has 
illustrated  this  point  by  the  case  of  the  great  tax-gathering 
empires  of  the  east,  in  which  the  absolute  master  of  millions 
of  men  never  dreams  of  making  anything  in  the  nature  of  a  law 
at  all.  This  view  is  no  doubt  as  strange  to  the  English  statesman 
as  to  the  English  jurist.  The  most  conspicuous  work  of  govern- 
ment in  his  view  is  that  of  parliamentary  legislation.  For  a 
large  portion  of  the  year  the  attention  of  the  whole  people  is 
bent  on  the  operations  of  a  body  of  men  who  are  constantly 
engaged  in  making  new  laws.  It  is  natural,  therefore,  to  think 
of  law  as  a  factitious  thing,  made  and  unmade  by  the  people 
who  happen  for  the  time  being  to  constitute  parliament.  It  is 
forgotten  how  small  a  proportion  the  laws  actually  devised  by 
parliament  are  of  the  law  actually  prevailing  in  the  land.  No 
European  country  has  undergone  so  many  changes  in  the  form 
of  government  as  France.  It  is  surprising  how  little  effect  these 
political  revolutions  have  had  on  the  body  of  French  law. 
The  change  from  empire  to  republic  is  not  marked  by  greater 
legislative  effects  than  the  change  from  a  Conservative  to  a 
Liberal  ministry  in  England  would  be. 

These  reflections  should  make  us  cautious  in  accepting  any 
general  proposition  about  forms  of  government  and  the  spirit 
of  their  laws.  We  must  remember,  also,  that  the  classification 
of  governments  according  to  the  numerical  proportion  between 
governors  and  governed  supplies  but  a  small  basis  for  generaliza- 
tion. What  parallel  can  be  drawn  between  a  small  town,  in  which 
half  the  population  are  slaves,  and  every  freeman  has  a  direct 
voice  in  the  government,  and  a  great  modern  state,  in  which 
there  is  not  a  single  slave,  while  freemen  exercise  their  sovereign 
powers  at  long  intervals,  and  through  the  action  of  delegates 
and  representatives  ?  Propositions  as  vague  as  those  of  Montes- 
quieu may  indeed  be  asserted  with  more  or  less  plausibility. 
But  to  take  any  leading  head  of  positive  law,  and  to  say  that 
monarchies  treat  it  in  one  way,  aristocracies  and  democracies 
in  another,  is  a  different  matter. 

II.  SPHERE  or  GOVERNMENT 


The  action  of  the  state,  or  sovereign  power,  or  government 
in  a  civilized  community  shapes  itself  into  the  threefold  functions 
of  legislation,  judicature  and  administration.  The  two  first 
are  perfectly  well-defined,  and  the  last  includes  all  the  kinds 
of  state  action  not  included  in  the  other  two.  It  is  with  reference 
to  legislation  and  administration  that  the  line  of  permissible 
state-action  requires  to  be  drawn.  There  is  no  doubt  about  the 
province  of  the  judicature,  and  that  function  of  government 
may  therefore  be  dismissed  with  a  very  few  observations. 

The  complete  separation  of  the  three  functions  marks  a 
high  point  of  social  organization.  In  simple  societies  the  same 
officers  discharge  all  the  duties  which  we  divide  between  the 
legislator,  the  administrator  and  the  judge.  The  acts  them- 
selves are  not  consciously  recognized  as  being  of  different  kinds. 
The  evolution  of  all  the  parts  of  a  highly  complex  government 
from  one  original  is  illustrated  in  a  striking  way  by  the  history 
of  English  institutions.  All  the  conspicuous  parts  of  the  modern 


government,  however  little  they  may  resemble  each  other  now, 
can  be  followed  back  without  a  break  to  their  common  origin. 
Parliament,  the  cabinet,  the  privy  council,  the  courts  of  law, 
all  carry  us  back  to  the  same  nidus  in  the  council  of  the  feudal 
king. 

Judicature. — The  business  of  judicature,  requiring  as  it  does 
the  possession  of  a  high  degree  of  technical  skill  and  knowledge, 
is  generally  entrusted  by  the  sovereign  body  or  people  to  a 
separate  and  independent  class  of  functionaries.  In  England 
the  appellate  jurisdiction  of  the  House  of  Lords  still  maintains 
in  theory  the  connexion  between  the  supreme  legislative  and  the 
supreme  judicial  functions.  In  some  states  of  the  American  Union 
certain  judicial  functions  of  the  upper  house  were  for  a  time  main- 
tained after  the  example  of  the  English  constitution  as  it  existed 
when  the  states  were  founded.  In  England  there  is  also  still 
a  considerable  amount  of  judicial  work  in  which  the  people  takes 
its  share.  The  inferior  magistracies,  except  in  populous  places, 
are  in  the  hands  of  private  persons.  And  by  the  jury  system 
the  ascertainment  of  fact  has  been  committed  in  very  large 
measure  to  persons  selected  indiscriminately  from  the  mass 
of  the  people,  subject  to  a  small  property  qualification.  But 
the  higher  functions  of  the  judicature  are  exercised  by  persons 
whom  the  law  has  jealously  fenced  off  from  external  interference 
and  control.  The  independence  of  the  bench  distinguishes  the 
English  system  from  every  other.  It  was  established  in  principle 
as  a  barrier  against  monarchical  power,  and  hence  has  become 
one  of  the  traditional  ensigns  of  popular  government.  In  many 
of  the  American  states  the  spirit  of  democracy  has  demanded 
the  subjection  of  the  judiciary  to  popular  control.  The  judges 
are  elected  directly  by  the  people,  and  hold  office  for  a  short 
term,  instead  of  being  appointed,  as  in  England,  by  the  respons- 
ible executive,  and  removable  only  by  a  vote  of  the  two  Houses. 
At  the  same  time  the  constitution  of  the  United  States  has 
assigned  to  the  supreme  court  of  the  Union  a  perfectly  unique 
position.  The  supreme  court  is  the  guardian  of  the  constitution 
(as  are  the  state  courts  of  the  constitution  of  the  states:  see 
UNITED  STATES).  It  has  to  judge  whether  a  measure  passed 
by  the  legislative  powers  is  not  void  by  reason  of  being  uncon- 
stitutional, and  it  may  therefore  have  to  veto  the  deliberate 
resolutions  of  both  Houses  of  Congress  and  the  president.  It 
is  admitted  that  this  singular  experiment  in  government  has  been 
completely  justified  by  its  success. 

Limits  of  State  Interference  in  Legislation  and  Administration. — 
The  question  of  the  limits  of  state  action  does  not  arise  with 
reference  to  the  judiciary.  The  enforcement  of  the  laws  is  a 
duty  which  the  sovereign  power  must  of  absolute  necessity 
take  upon  itself.  But  to  what  conduct  of  the  citizens  the  laws 
shall  extend  is  the  most  perplexing  of  all  political  questions. 
The  correlative  question  with  regard  to  the  executive  would 
be  what  works  of  public  convenience  should  the  state  undertake 
through  its  own  servants.  The  whole  question  of  the  sphere 
of  government  may  be  stated  in  these  two  questions:  What 
should  the  state  do  for  its  citizens  ?  and  How  far  should  the 
state  interfere  with  the  action  of  its  citizens  ?  These  questions 
are  the  direct  outcome  of  modern  popular  government;  they 
are  equally  unknown  to  the  small  democracies  of  ancient  times 
and  to  despotic  governments  at  all  times.  Accordingly  ancient 
political  philosophy,  rich  as  it  is  in  all  kinds  of  suggestions, 
has  very  little  to  say  that  has  any  bearing  on  the  sphere  of 
government.  The  conception  that  the  power  of  the  state  can 
be  and  ought  to  be  limited  belongs  to  the  times  of  "  government 
by  discussion,"  to  use  Bagehot's  expression, — to  the  time  when 
the  sovereign  number  is  divided  by  class  interests,  and  when 
the  action  of  the  majority  has  to  be  carried  out  in  the  face  of 
strong  minorities,  capable  of  making  themselves  heard.  Aristotle 
does  indeed  dwell  on  one  aspect  of  the  question.  He  would 
limit  the  action  of  the  government  in  the  sense  of  leaving  as  little 
as  possible  to  the  personal  will  of  the  governors,  whether  one 
or  many.  His  maxim  is  that  the  law  should  reign.  But  that  the 
sphere  of  law  itself  should  be  restricted,  otherwise  than  by 
general  principles  of  morality,  is  a  consideration  wholly  foreign 
to  ancient  philosophy.  The  state  is  conceived  as  acting  like 


298 


GOVERNOR— GOWER,  J. 


a  just  man,  and  justice  in  the  state  is  the  same  thing  as  justice 
in  the  individual.  The  Greek  institutions  which  the  philosophers 
are  unanimous  in  commending  are  precisely  those  which  the  most 
state-ridden  nations  of  modern  times  would  agree  in  repudiating. 
The  exhaustive  discussion  of  all  political  measures,  which  for 
over  two  centuries  has  been  a  fixed  habit  of  English  public  life, 
has  of  itself  established  the  principle  that  there  are  assignable 
limits  to  the  action  of  the  state.  Not  that  the  limits  ever  have 
been  assigned  in  terms,  but  popular  sentiment  has  more  or 
less  vaguely  fenced  off  departments  of  conduct  as  sacred  from 
the  interference  of  the  law.  Phrases  like  "  the  liberty  of  the 
subject,"  the  "  sanctity  of  private  property,"  an  Englishman's 
house  is  his  castle,"  "  the  rights  of  conscience,"  are  the  common- 
places of  political  discussion,  and  tell  the  state,  "  Thus  far  shall 
thou  go  and  no  further." 

The  two  contrasting  policies  are  those  of  laissez-faire  (let 
alone)  and  Protection,  or  individualism  and  state-socialism, 
the  one  a  policy  of  non-interference  with  the  free  play  of  social 
forces,  the  other  of  their  regulation  for  the  benefit  of  the  com- 
munity. The  laissez-faire  theory  was  prominently  upheld  by 
John  Stuart  Mill,  whose  essay  on  Liberty,  together  with  the 
concluding  chapters  of  his  treatise  on  Political  Economy,  gives 
a  tolerably  complete  view  of  the  principles  of  government. 
There  is  a  general  presumption  against  the  interference  of  govern- 
ment, which  is  only  to  be  overcome  by  very  strong  evidence 
of  necessity.  Governmental  action  is  generally  less  effective 
than  voluntary  action.  The  necessary  duties  of  government 
are  so  burdensome,  that  to  increase  them  destroys  its  efficiency. 
Its  powers  are  already  so  great  that  individual  freedom  is 
constantly  in  danger.  As  a  general  rule,  nothing  which  can  be 
done  by  the  voluntary  agency  of  individuals  should  be  left  to 
the  state.  Each  man  is  the  best  judge  of  his  own  interests. 
But,  on  the  other  hand,  when  the  thing  itself  is  admitted  to 
be  useful  or  necessary,  and  it  cannot  be  effected  by  voluntary 
agency,  or  when  it  is  of  such  a  nature  that  the  consumer  cannot 
be  considered  capable  of  judging  of  the  quality  supplied,  then 
Mill  would  allow  the  state  to  interpose.  Thus  the  education 
of  children ,  and  even  of  adults,  would  fairly  come  within  the 
province  of  the  state.  Mill  even  goes  so  far  as  to  admit  that, 
where  a  restriction  of  the  hours  of  labour,  or  the  establishment 
of  a  periodical  holiday,  is  proved  to  be  beneficial  to  labourers 
as  a  class,  but  cannot  be  carried  out  voluntarily  on  account  of 
the  refusal  of  individuals  to  co-operate,  government  may  justifi- 
ably compel  them  to  co-operate.  Still  further,  Mill  would  desire 
to  see  some  control  exercised  by  the  government  over  the  opera- 
tions of  those  voluntary  associations  which,  consisting  of  large 
numbers  of  shareholders,  necessarily  leave  their  affairs  in  the 
hands  of  one  or  a  few  persons.  In  short,  Mill's  general  rule 
against  state  action  admits  of  many  important  exceptions, 
founded  on  no  principle  less  vague  than  that  of  public  expediency. 
The  essay  on  Liberty  is  mainly  concerned  with  freedom  of 
individual  character,  and  its  arguments  apply  to  control  exercised, 
not  only  by  the  state,  but  by  society  in  the  form  of  public  opinion. 
The  leading  principle  is  that  of  Humboldt, "  the  absolute  and 
essential  importance  of  human  development  in  its  richest 
•diversity."  Humboldt  broadly  excluded  education,  religion 
and  morals  from  the  action,  direct  and  indirect,  of  the  state. 
Mill,  as  we  have  seen,  conceives  education  to  be  within  the  pro- 
vince of  the  state,  but  he  would  confine  its  action  to  compelling 
parents  to  educate  their  children. 

The  most  thoroughgoing  opponent  of  state  action,  however, 
is  Herbert  Spencer.  In  his  Social  Statics,  published  in  1850, 
he  holds  it  to  be  the  essential  duty  of  government  to  protect — 
to  maintain  men's  rights  to  life,  to  personal  liberty  and  to 
property;  and  the  theory  that  the  government  ought  to  under- 
take other  offices  besides  that  of  protector  he  regards  as  an 
untenable  theory.  Each  man  has  a  right  to  the  fullest  exercise 
of  all  his  faculties,  compatible  with  the  same  right  in  others. 
This  is  the  fundamental  law  of  equal  freedom,  which  it  is  the 
duty  and  the  only  duty  of  the  state  to  enforce.  If  the  state 
goes  beyond  this  duty,  it  becomes,  not  a  protector,  but  an 
aggressor.  Thus  all  state  regulations  of  commerce,  all  religious 


establishments,  all  government  relief  of  the  poor,  all  state 
systems  of  education  and  of  sanitary  superintendence,  even 
the  state  currency  and  the  post-office,  stand  condemned,  not 
only  as  ineffective  for  their  respective  purposes,  but  as  involving 
violations  of  man's  natural  liberty. 

The  tendency  of  modern  legislation  is  more  a  question  of 
political  practice  than  of  political  theory.  In  some  cases  state 
interference  has  been  abolished  or  greatly  limited.  These  cases 
are  mainly  two — in  matters  of  opinion  (especially  religious 
opinion),  and  in  matters  of  contract. 

The  mere  enumeration  of  the  individual  instances  would  occupy  a 
formidable  amount  of  space.  The  reader  is  referred  to  such  articles 
as  ENGLAND,  CHURCH  OF;  ESTABLISHMENT;  MARRIAGE;  OATH; 
ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH,  &c.,  and  COMPANY;  CONTRACT; 
PARTNERSHIP,  &c.  In  other  cases  the  state  has  interfered  for  the 
protection  and  assistance  of  definite  classes  of  persons.  For  example, 
the  education  and  protection  of  children  (see  CHILDREN,  LAW  RE- 
LATING TO;  EDUCATION;  TECHNICAL  EDUCATION);  the  regulation 
of  factory  labour  and  dangerous  employment  (see  LABOUR  LEGISLA- 
TION); improved  conditions  of  health  (see  ADULTERATION;  HOUS- 
ING; PUBLIC  HEALTH,  LAW  OF,  &c.);  coercion  for  moral  purposes 
(see  BET  AND  BETTING;  CRIMINAL  LAW;  GAMING  AND  WAGERING; 
LIQUOR  LAWS;  LOTTERIES,  &c.).  Under  numerous  other  headings 
in  this  work  the  evolution  of  existing  forms  of  government  is  dis- 
cussed ;  see  also  the  bibliographical  note  to  the  article  CONSTITUTION 
AND  CONSTITUTIONAL  LAW. 

GOVERNOR  (from  the  Fr.  gouverneur,  from  gouverner,  O.  Fr. 
governer,  Lat.  gubernare,  to  steer  a  ship,  to  direct,  guide),  in 
general,  one  who  governs  or  exercises  authority;  specifically, 
an  official  appointed  to  govern  a  district,  province,  town,  &c. 
In  British  colonies  or  dependencies  the  representative  of  the 
crown  is  termed  a  governor.  Colonial  governors  are  classed 
as  governors-general,  governors  and  lieutenant-governors, 
according  to  the  status  of  the  colony  or  group  of  colonies  over 
which  they  preside.  Their  powers  vary  according  to  the  position 
which  they  occupy.  In  all  cases  they  represent  the  authority 
of  the  crown.  In  the  United  States  (q.v.)  the  official  at  the 
head  of  every  state  government  is  called  a  governor. 

GOW,  NIEL  (1727-1807),  Scottish  musician  of  humble  parent- 
age, famous  as  a  violinist  and  player  of  reels,  but  more  so  for 
the  part  he  played  in  preserving  the  old  melodies  of  Scotland. 
His  compositions,  and  those  of  his  four  sons,  Nathaniel,  the 
most  famous  (1763-1831),  William  (1751-1791),  Andrew  (1760- 
1803),  and  John  (1764-1826),  formed  the  "  Gow  Collection," 
comprising  various  volumes  edited  by  Niel  and  his  sons,  a 
valuable  repository  of  Scottish  traditional  airs.  The  most  im- 
portant of  Niel's  sons  was  Nathaniel,  who  is  remembered  as 
the  author  of  the  well-known  "  Caller  Herrin,"  taken  from  the 
fishwives'  cry,  a  tune  to  which  words  were  afterwards  written 
byLadyNairne.  Nathaniel's  son,  NIEL  Gow  Junior(i795-i8z3), 
was  the  author  of  the  famous  songs  "  Flora  Macdonald'sLament " 
and  "  Cam'  ye  by  Athol." 

GOWER,  JOHN  (d.  1408),  English  poet,  died  at  an  advanced 
age  in  1408,  so  that  he  may  be  presumed  to  have  been  born 
about  1330.  He  belonged  to  a  good  Kentish  family,  but  the 
suggestion  of  Sir  Harris  Nicolas  that  the  poet  is  to  be  identified 
with  a  John  Gower  who  was  at  one  time  possessed  of  the  manor 
of  Kentwell  is  open  to  serious  objections.  There  is  no  evidence 
that  he  ever  li  ved  as  a  country  gentleman,  but  he  was  undoubtedly 
possessed  of  some  wealth,  and  we  know  that  he  was  the  owner 
of  the  manors  of  Feltwell  in  Suffolk  and  Moulton  in  Norfolk. 
In  a  document  of  1382  he  is  called  an  "  Esquier  de  Kent,"  and 
he  was  certainly  not  in  holy  orders.  That  he  was  acquainted 
with  Chaucer  we  know,  first  because  Chaucer  in  leaving  England 
for  Italy  in  1378  appointed  Gower  and  another  to  represent 
him  in  his  absence,  secondly  because  Chaucer  addressed  his 
Troilus  and  Criseide  to  Gower  and  Strode  (whom  he  addresses 
as  "  moral  Gower  "  and  "  philosophical  Strode  ")  for  criticism 
and  correction,  and  thirdly  because  of  the  lines  in  the  first  edition 
of  Gower's  Confessio  amantis,  "  And  gret  wel  Chaucer  whan  ye 
mete,"  &c.  There  is  no  sufficient  ground  for  the  suggestion, 
based  partly  on  the  subsequent  omission  of  these  lines  and 
partly  on  the  humorous  reference  of  Chaucer  to  Gower's  Confessio 
amantis  in  the  introduction  to  the  M an  of  Law's  Tale,  that  the 
friendship  was  broken  by  a  quarrel.  From  his  Latin  poem 


GOWER 


299 


'ox  clamantis  we  know  that  he  was  deeply  and  painfully 
interested  in  the  peasants'  rising  of  1381;  and  by  the  alterations 
which  the  author  made  in  successive  revisions  of  this  work 
we  can  trace  a  gradually  increasing  sense  of  disappointment  in 
the  youthful  king,  whom  he  at  first  acquits  of  all  responsibility 
for  the  state  of  the  kingdom  on  account  of  his  tender  age.  That 
he  became  personally  known  to  the  king  we  learn  from  his 
own  statement  in  the  first  edition  of  the  Confessio  amantis, 
where  he  says  that  he  met  the  king  upon  the  river,  was  invited 
to  enter  the  royal  barge,  and  in  the  conversation  which  followed 
received  the  suggestion  which  led  him  to  write  his  principal 
English  poem.  At  the  same  time  we  know,  especially  from  the 
later  revisions  of  the  Confessio  amantis,  that  he  was  a  great 
admirer  of  the  king's  brilliant  cousin,  Henry  of  Lancaster, 
afterwards  Henry  IV.,  whom  he  came  eventually  to  regard  as  a 
possible  saviour  of  society  from  the  misgovernment  of  Richard  II. 
We  have  a  record  that  in  1393  he  received  a  collar  from  his 
favourite  political  hero,  and  it  is  to  be  observed  that  the 
effigy  upon  Gower's  tomb  is  wearing  a  collar  of  SS.  with  the 
swan  badge  which  was  used  by  Henry. 

The  first  edition  of  the  Confessio  amantis  is  dated  1390,  and 
this  contains,  at  least  in  some  copies,  a  secondary  dedication 
to  the  then  earl  of  Derby.  The  later  form,  in  which  Henry 
became  the  sole  object  of  the  dedication,  is  of  the  year  1393. 
Gower's  political  opinions  are  still  more  strongly  expressed  in 
the  Cronica  Iripartita. 

In  1398  he  was  married  to  Agnes  Groundolf,  and  from  the 
special  licence  granted  by  the  bishop  of  Winchester  for  the 
celebration  of  this  marriage  in  John  Gower's  private  oratory 
we  gather  that  he  was  then  living  in  lodgings  assigned  to  him 
within  the  priory  of  St  Mary  Overy,  and  perhaps  also  that  he 
was  too  infirm  to  be  married  in  the  parish  church.  It  is  probable 
that  this  was  not  his  first  marriage,  for  there  are  indications 
in  his  early  French  poem  that  he  had  a  wife  at  the  time  when 
that  was  written.  His  will  is  dated  the  isth  of  August  1408, 
and  his  death  took  place  very  soon  after  this.  He  had  been 
blind  for  some  years  before  his  death.  A  magnificent  tomb 
with  a  recumbent  effigy  was  erected  over  his  grave  in  the  chapel 
of  St  John  the  Baptist  within  the  church  of  the  priory,  now 
St  Saviour's,  Southwark,  and  this  is  still  to  be  seen,  though  not 
quite  in  its  original  state  or  place.  From  the  inscription  on  the 
tomb,  as  well  as  from  other  indications,  it  appears  that  he  was  a 
considerable  benefactor  of  the  priory  and  contributed  largely 
to  the  rebuilding  of  the  church. 

The  effigy  on  Gower's  tomb  rests  its  head  upon  a  pile  of  three 
folio  volumes  entitled  Speculum  meditantis,  Vox  clamantis 
and  Confessio  amantis.  These  are  his  three  principal  works. 
The  first  of  these  was  long  supposed  to  have  perished,  but  a  copy 
of  it  was  discovered  in  the  year  1895  under  the  title  Mir  our 
de  I'omme.  It  is  a  French  poem  of  about  30,000  lines  in  twelve- 
line  stanzas,  and  under  the  form  of  an  allegory  of  the  human  soul 
describes  the  seven  deadly  sins  and  their  opposing  virtues,  and 
then  the  various  estates  of  man  and  the  vices  incident  to  each, 
concluding  with  a  narrative  of  the  life  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  and 
with  praise  of  her  as  the  means  of  reconciliation  between  God 
and  man.  The  work  is  extremely  tedious  for  the  most  part, 
but  shows  considerable  command  over  the  language  and  a  great 
facility  in  metrical  expression. 

Gower's  next  work  was  the  Vox  clamantis  in  Latin  elegiac 
verse,  in  which  the  author  takes  occasion  from  the  peasants' 
insurrection  of  1381  to  deal  again  with  the  faults  of  the  various 
classes  of  society.  In  the  earlier  portion  the  insurrection  itself 
is  described  in  a  rather  vivid  manner,  though  under  the  form 
of  an  allegory:  the  remainder  contains  much  the  same  material 
as  we  have  already  seen  in  that  part  of  the  French  poem  where 
the  classes  of  society  are  described.  Gower's  Latin  verse  is 
very  fair,  as  judged  by  the  medieval  standard,  but  in  this  book 
he  has  borrowed  very  freely  from  Ovid,  Alexander  Neckam, 
Peter  de  Riga  and  others. 

Gower's  chief  claim,  however,  to  reputation  as  a  poet  rests 
upon  his  English  work,  the  Confessio  amantis,  in  which  he 
displays  in  his  native  language  a  real  gift  as  a  story-teller.  He 


is  himself  the  lover  of  his  poem,  in  spite  of  his  advancing  years, 
and  he  makes  his  confession  to  Genius,  the  priest  of  Venus, 
under  the  usual  headings  supplied  by  the  seven  deadly  sins. 
These  with  their  several  branches  are  successively  described, 
and  the  nature  of  them  illustrated  by  tales,  which  are  directed 
to  the  illustration  both  of  the  general  nature  of  the  sin,  and  of  the 
particular  form  which  it  may  take  in  a  lover.  Finally  he  receives 
at  once  his  absolution,  and  his  dismissal  from  the  service  of 
Venus,  for  which  his  age  renders  him  unfit.  The  idea  is  ingenious, 
and  there  is  often  much  quaint  ness  of  fancy  in  the  application 
of  moral  ideas  to  the  relations  of  the  lover  and  his  mistress. 
The  tales  are  drawn  from  very  various  sources  and  are  often 
extremely  well  told.  The  metre  is  the  short  couplet,  and  it  is 
extremely  smooth  and  regular.  The  great  fault  of  the  Confessio 
amantis  is  the  extent  of  its  digressions,  especially  in  the  fifth 
and  seventh  books. 

Gower  also  wrote  in  1397  a  short  series  of  French  ballades 
on  the  virtue  of  the  married  state  (Traitie  pour  essampler  les 
amantz  maries),  and  after  the  accession  of  Henry  IV.  he  produced 
the  Cronica  tripartita,  a  partisan  account  in  Latin  leonine 
hexameters  of  the  events  of  the  last  twelve  years  of  the  reign 
of  Richard  II.  About  the  same  time  he  addressed  an  English 
poem  in  seven-line  stanzas  to  Henry  IV.  (In  Praise  of  Peace), 
and  dedicated  to  the  king  a  series  of  French  ballades  (Cinkante 
Balades),  which  deal  with  the  conventional  topics  of  love,  but 
are  often  graceful  and  even  poetical  in  expression.  Several 
occasional  Latin  pieces  also  belong  to  the  later  years  of  his 
life. 

On  the  whole  Gower  must  be  admitted  to  have  had  consider- 
able literary  powers;  and  though  not  a  man  of  genius,  and  by 
no  means  to  be  compared  with  Chaucer,  yet  he  did  good  service 
in  helping  to  establish  the  standard  literary  language,  which  at 
the  end  of  the  I4th  century  took  the  place  of  the  Middle  English 
dialects.  The  Confessio  amantis  was  long  regarded  as  a  classic 
of  the  language,  and  Gower  and  Chaucer  were  often  mentioned 
side  by  side  as  the  fathers  of  English  poetry. 

A  complete  edition  of  Gower's  works  in  four  volumes,  edited  by 
G.  C.  Macaulay,  was  published  in  1899-1902,  the  first  volume  con- 
taining the  French  works,  the  second  and  third  the  English,  and  the 
fourth  the  Latin,  with  a  biography.  Before  this  the  Confessio 
amantis  had  been  published  in  the  following  editions:  Caxton  (1483) ; 
Berthelette  (1532  and  1554);  Chalmers,  British  Poets  (1810);  Rein- 
hold  Pauli  (1857);  H.  Morley  (1889,  incomplete).  The  two  series 
of  French  ballades  and  the  Praise  of  Peace  were  printed  for  the 
Roxburghe  Club  in  1818,  and  the  Vox  clamantis  and  Cronica 
tripartita  were  edited  by  H.  O.  Coxe  for  the  Roxburghe  Club  in 
1850.  The  Cronica  tripartita,  the  Praise  of  Peace  and  some  of  the 
minor  Latin  poems  were  printed  in  Wright's  Political  Poems  (Rolls 
series,  14).  The  Praise  of  Peace  appeared  in  the  early  folio  editions 
of  Chaucer,  and  has  been  edited  also  by  Dr  Skeat  in  his  Chaucerian 
and  other  Pieces.  Reference  may  be  made  to  Todd's  Illustrations  of 
the  Lives  and  Writings  of  Gower  and  Chaucer;  the  article  (by  Sir 
H.  Nicolas)  in  the  Retrospective  Review  for  1828 ;  Observations  on  the 
Language  of  Chaucer  and  Gower,  by  F.  J.  Child ;  H.  Morley's  English 
Writers,  iv. ;  Ten  Brink's  History  of  Early  English  Literature,  ii. ;  and 
Courthope's  History  of  English  Poetry,  i.  (G.  C.  M.) 

GOWER,  a  seigniory  and  district  in  the  county  of  Glamorgan, 
lying  between  the  rivers  Tawe  and  Loughor  and  between 
Breconshire  and  the  sea,  its  length  from  the  Breconshire  border 
to  Worm's  Head  being  28  m.,  and  its  breadth  about  8  m.  It 
corresponds  to  the  ancient  commote  of  Gower  (in  Welsh  Gwyr) 
which  in  early  Welsh  times  was  grouped  with  two  other  commotes 
stretching  westwards  to  the  Towy  and  so  formed  part  of  the 
principality  of  Ystrad  Tywi.  Its  early  association  with  the 
country  to  the  west  instead  of  with  Glamorgan  is  perpetuated  by 
its  continued  inclusion  in  the  diocese  of  St  Davids,  its  two  rural 
deaneries,  West  and  East  Gower,  being  in  the  archdeaconry 
of  Carmarthen.  What  is  meant  by  Gower  in  modern  popular 
usage,  however,  is  only  the  peninsular  part  or  "  English  Gower  " 
(that  is  the  Welsh  Bro-wyr,  as  distinct  from  Gwyr  proper), 
roughly  corresponding  to  the  hundred  of  Swansea  and  lying 
mainly  to  the  south  of  a  line  drawn  from  Swansea  to  Loughor. 

The  numerous  limestone  caves  of  the  coast  are  noted  for  their 
immense  deposits  of  animal  remains,  but  their  traces  of  man  are 
far  scantier,  those  found  in  Bacon  Hole  and  in  Paviland  cave 


300 


GOWER 


being  the  most  important.  In  the  Roman  period  the  river  Tawe, 
or  the  great  morass  between  it  and  the  Neath,  probably  formed 
the  boundary  between  the  Silures  and  the  Goidelic  population 
to  the  west.  The  latter,  reinforced  perhaps  from  Ireland, 
continued  to  be  the  dominant  race  in  Gower  till  their  conquest 
or  partial  expulsion  in  the  4th  century  by  the  sons  of  Cunedda 
who  introduced  a  Brythonic  element  into  the  district.  Centuries 
later  Scandinavian  rovers  raided  the  coasts,  leaving  traces  of 
their  more  or  less  temporary  occupation  in  such  place-names 
as  Burry  Holms,  Worms  Head  and  Swansea,  and  probably 
also  in  some  cliff  earthworks.  About  the  year  1 100  the  conquest 
of  Gower  was  undertaken  by  Henry  de  Newburgh,  first  earl  of 
Warwick,  with  the  assistance  of  Maurice  de  Londres  and  others. 
His  followers,  who  were  mostly  Englishmen  from  the  marches 
and  Somersetshire  with  perhaps  a  sprinkling  of  Flemings,  settled 
for  the  most  part  on  the  southern  side  of  the  peninsula,  leaving 
the  Welsh  inhabitants  of  the  northern  half  of  Gower  practically 
undisturbed.  These  invaders  were  probably  reinforced  a  little 
later  by  a  small  detachment  of  the  larger  colony  of  Flemings 
which  settled  in  south  Pembrokeshire.  Moated  mounds,  which 
in  some  cases  developed  into  castles,  were  built  for  the  protection 
of  the  various  manors  into  which  the  district  was  parcelled  out, 
the  castles  of  Swansea  and  Loughor  being  ascribed  to  the  earl 
of  Warwick  and  that  of  Oystermouth  to  Maurice  de  Londres. 
These  were  repeatedly  attacked  and  burnt  by  the  Welsh  during 
the  1 2th  and  i3th  centuries,  notably  by  Griffith  ap  Rhys  in 
1113,  by  his  son  the  Lord  Rhys  in  1189,  by  his  grandsons  acting 
in  concert  with  Llewelyn  the  Great  in  1215,  and  by  the  last 
Prince  Llewelyn  in  1257.  With  the  Norman  conquest  the  feudal 
system  was  introduced,  and  the  manors  were  held  in  capite 
of  the  lord  by  the  tenure  of  castle-guard  of  the  castle  of  Swansea, 
the  caput  baroniae. 

About  1189  the  lordship  passed  from  the  Warwick  family 
to  the  crown  and  was  granted  in  1203  by  King  John  to  William 
de  Braose,  in  whose  family  it  remained  for  over  120  years  except 
for  three  short  intervals  when  it  was  held  for  a  second  time  by 
King  John  (1211-1215),  by  Llewelyn  the  Great  (1216-1223), 
and  the  Despensers  (c.  1323-1326).  In  1208  the  Welsh  and 
English  inhabitants  who  had  frequent  cause  to  complain  of 
their  treatment,  received  each  a  charter,  in  similar  terms,  from 
King  John,  who  also  visited  the  town  of  Swansea  in  1210  and 
in  1215  granted  its  merchants  liberal  privileges.  In  1283 
a  number  of  de  Braose's  tenants — unquestionably  Welshmen — 
left  Gower  for  the  royal  lordship  of  Carmarthen,  declaring  that 
they  would  live  under  the  king  rather  than  under  a  lord  marcher. 
In  the  following  year  the  king  visited  de  Braose  at  Oystermouth 
Castle,  which  seems  to  have  been  made  the  lord's  chief  residence, 
after  the  destruction  of  Swansea  Castle  by  Llewelyn.  Later 
on  the  king's  officers  of  the  newly  organized  county  of  Carmarthen 
repeatedly  claimed  jurisdiction  over  Gower,  thereby  endeavour- 
ing to  reduce  its  status  from  that  of  a  lordship  marcher  with 
semi-regal  Jurisdiction,  into  that  of  an  ordinary  constituent  of 
the  new  county.  De  Braose  resisted  the  claim  and  organized  the 
English  part  of  his  lordship  on  the  lines  of  a  county  palatine, 
with  its  own  comitatus  and  chancery  held  in  Swansea  Castle, 
the  sheriff  and  chancellor  being  appointed  by  himself.  The 
inhabitants,  who  had  no  right  of  appeal  to  the  crown  against 
their  lord  or  the  decisions  of  his  court,  petitioned  the  king, 
who  in  1305  appointed  a  special  commission  to  enquire  into 
their  alleged  grievances,  but  in  the  following  year  the  de  Braose 
of  the  time,  probably  in  alarm,  conceded  liberal  privileges  both 
to  the  burgesses  of  Swansea  and  to  the  English  and  Welsh 
inhabitants  of  his  "  county  "  of  English  Gower.  He  was  the 
last  lord  seignior  to  live  within  the  seigniory,  which  passed  from 
him  to  his  son-in-law  John  de  Mowbray.  Other  troubles  befell 
the  de  Braose  barons  and  their  successors  in  title,  for  their  right 
to  the  lordship  was  contested  by  the  Beauchamps,  representa- 
tives of  the  earlier  earls  of  Warwick,  in  prolonged  litigation 
carried  on  intermittently  from  1278  to  1396,  the  Beaucnamps 
being  actually  in  possession  from  1354,  when  a  decision  was 
given  in  their  favour,  till  its  reversal  in  1396.  It  then  reverted 
to  the  Mowbrays  and  was  held  by  them  until  the  4th  duke  of 


Norfolk  exchanged  it  in  1489,  for  lands  in  England,  with  William 
Herbert,  earl  of  Pembroke.  The  latter's  granddaughter  brought 
it  to  her  husband  Charles  Somerset,  who  in  1506  was  granted 
her  father's  subtitle  of  Baron  Herbert  of  Chepstow,  Raglan  and 
Gower,  and  from  him  the  lordship  has  descended  to  the  present 
lord,  the  duke  of  Beaufort. 

Gower  was  made  subject  to  the  ordinary  law  of  England  by 
its  inclusion  in  1535  in  the  county  of  Glamorgan  as  then  re- 
organized; its  chancery,  which  from  about  the  beginning  of 
the  I4th  century  had  been  located  at  Oystermouth  Castle,  came 
to  an  end,  but  though  the  Welsh  acts  of  1535  and  1542  purported 
to  abolish  the  rights  and  privileges  of  the  lords  marchers  as 
conquerors,  yet  some  of  these,  possibly  from  being  regarded  as 
private  rights,  have  survived  into  modern  times.  For  instance, 
the  seignior  maintained  a  franchise  gaol  in  Swansea  Castle  till 
1858,  when  it  was  abolished  by  act  of  parliament,  the  appoint- 
ment of  coroner  for  Gower  is  still  vested  in  him,  all  writs  are 
executed  by  the  lord's  officers  instead  of  by  the  officers  of  the 
sheriff  for  the  county,  and  the  lord's  rights  to  the  foreshore, 
treasure  trove,  felon's  goods  and  wrecks  are  undiminished. 

The  characteristically  English  part  of  Gower  lies  to  the  south 
and  south-west  of  its  central  ridge  of  Cefn  y  Bryn.  It  was  this 
part  that  was  declared  by  Professor  Freeman  to  be  "  more  Teu- 
tonic than  Kent  itself."  The  seaside  fringe  lying  between  this 
area  and  the  town  of  Swansea,  as  well  as  the  extreme  north-west 
of  the  peninsula,  also  became  anglicized  at  a  comparatively 
early  date,  though  the  place-names  and  the  names  of  the  in- 
habitants are  still  mainly  Welsh.  The  present  line  of  demarca- 
tion between  the  two  languages  is  one  drawn  from  Swansea 
in  a  W.N.W.  direction  to  Llanrhidian  on  the  north  coast.  It 
has  remained  practically  the  same  for  several  centuries,  and  is 
likely  to  continue  so,  as  it  very  nearly  coincides  with  the  southern 
outcrop  of  the  coal  measures,  the  industrial  population  to 
the  north  being  Welsh-speaking,  the  agriculturists  to  the  south 
being  English.  In  1901  the  Gower  rural  district  (which  includes 
the  Welsh-speaking  industrial  parish  of  Llanrhidian,  with  about 
three-sevenths  of  the  total  population)  had  64-5  %  of  the  popula- 
tion above  three  years  of  age  that  spoke  English  only,  5-2% 
that  spoke  Welsh  only,  the  remainder  being  bilinguals,  as  com- 
pared with  17  %  speaking  English  only,  17-7  speaking  Welsh  only 
and  the  rest  bilinguals  in  the  Swansea  rural  district,  and  7% 
speaking  English  only,  55-2  speaking  Welsh  only  and  the  rest 
bilinguals  in  the  Pontardawe  rural  district,  the  last  two  districts 
constituting  Welsh  Gower. 

More  than  one-fourth  of  the  whole  area  of  Gower  is  unenclosed 
common  land,  of  which  in  English  Gower  fully  one-half  is 
apparently  capable  of  cultivation.  Besides  the  demesne  manors 
of  the  lord  seignior,  six  in  number,  there  are  some  twelve  mesne 
manors  and  fees  belonging  to  the  Penrice  estate,  and  nearly 
twenty  more  belonging  to  various  other  owners.  The  tenure  is 
customary  freehold,  though  in  some  cases  described  as  copyhold, 
and  in  the  ecclesiastical  manor  of  Bishopston,  descent  is  by 
borough  English.  The  holdings  are  on  the  whole  probably  smaller 
in  size  than  in  any  other  area  of  corresponding  extent  in  Wales, 
and  agriculture  is  still  in  a  backward  state. 

In  the  Arthurian  romances  Gower  appears  in  the  form  of 
Goire  as  the  island  home  of  the  dead,  a  view  which  probably 
sprang  up  among  the  Celts  of  Cornwall,  to  whom  the  peninsula 
would  appear  as  an  island.  It  is  also  surmised  by  Sir  John  Rhys 
that  Malory's  Brandegore  (i.e.  Bran  of  Gower)  represents  the 
Celtic  god  of  the  other  world  (Rhys,  Arthurian  Legend,  160, 
3  29  et  seq.) .  On  Cefn  Bryn,  almost  in  the  centre  of  the  peninsula, 
is  a  cromlech  with  a  large  capstone  known  as  Arthur's  Stone. 
The  unusually  large  number  of  cairns  on  this  hill,  given  as  eighty 
by  Sir  Gardner  Wilkinson,  suggests  that  this  part  of  Gower 
was  a  favourite  burial-place  in  early  British  times. 

See  Rev.  J.  D.  Davies,  A  History  of  West  Gower  (4  vols.,  1877- 
1894);  Col.  W.  Li-Morgan,  An  Antiquarian  Survey  of  East  Gower 
(1899);  an  article  (probably  by  Professor  Freeman)  entitled 
"  Anglia  Trans-Walliana  "  in  the  Saturday  Review  for  May  20, 
1876;  "The  Signory  of  Gower"  by  G.  T.  Clark  in  Archaeologia 
Cambrensis  for  1893-1894;  The  Surveys  of  Gower  and  Kilvey,  ed.  by 
Baker  and  Grant-Francis  (1861-1870).  (D.  LL.  T.) 


GOWN— COWRIE,  EARL  OF 


301 


GOWN,  properly  the  term  for  a  loose  outer  garment  formerly 
worn  by  either  sex  but  now  generally  for  that  worn  by  women. 
While  "  dress  "  is  the  usual  English  word,  except  in  such  com- 
binations as  "  tea-gown,"  "  dressing-gown  "  and  the  like,  where 
the  original  loose  flowing  nature  of  the  "  gown  "  is  referred  to, 
"  gown  "  is  the  common  American  word.  "  Gown  "  comes  from 
the  O.  Fr.  goune  or  gonne.  The  word  appears  in  various  Romanic 
languages,  cf.  Ital.  gonna.  The  medieval  Lat.  gunna  is  used  of 
a  garment  of  skin  or  fur.  A  Celtic  origin  has  been  usually 
adopted,  but  the  Irish,  Gaelic  and  Manx  words  are  taken  from 
the  English.  Outside  the  ordinary  use  of  the  word,  "  gown  " 
is  the  name  for  the  distinctive  robes  worn  by  holders  of  particular 
offices  or  by  members  of  particular  professions  or  of  universities, 
&c.  (see  ROBES). 

GOWRIE,  JOHN  RUTHVEN,  3RD  EARL  OF  (c.  1577-1600), 
Scottish  conspirator,  was  the  second  son  of  William,  4th  Lord 
Ruthven  and  ist  earl  of  Cowrie  (cr.  1581),  by  his  wife  Dorothea, 
daughter  of  Henry  Stewart,  2nd  Lord  Methven.  The  Ruthven 
family  was  of  ancient  Scottish  descent,  and  had  owned  extensive 
estates  in  the  time  of  William  the  Lion;  the  Ruthven  peerage 
dated  from  the  year  1488.  The  ist  earl  of  Cowrie  (?  1541-1584), 
and  his  father,  Patrick,  3rd  Lord  Ruthven  (c.  1520-1566),  had 
both  been  concerned  in  the  murder  of  Rizzio  in  1566;  and 
both  took  an  active  part  on  the  side  of  the  Kirk  in  the  constant 
intrigues  and  factions  among  the  Scottish  nobility  of  the  period. 
The  former  had  been  the  custodian  of  Mary,  queen  of  Scots, 
during  her  imprisonment  in  Loch  Leven,  where,  according  to 
the  queen,  he  had  pestered  her  with  amorous  attentions;  he 
had  also  been  the  chief  actor  in  the  plot  known  as  the  "  raid  of 
Ruthven  "  when  King  James  VI.  was  treacherously  seized 
while  a  guest  at  the  castle  of  Ruthven  in  1582,  and  kept  under 
restraint  for  several  months  while  the  earl  remained  at  the  head 
of  the  government.  Though  pardoned  for  this  conspiracy  he 
continued  to  plot  against  the  king  in  conjunction  with  the  earls 
of  Mar  and  Angus,  and  he  was  executed  for  high  treason  on 
the  2nd  of  May  1584;  his  friends  complaining  that  the  confession 
on  which  he  was  convicted  of  treason  was  obtained  by  a  promise 
of  pardon  from  the  king.  His  eldest  son,  William,  2nd  earl  of 
Cowrie,  only  survived  till  1588,  the  family  dignities  and  estates, 
which  had  been  forfeited,  having  been  restored  to  him  in  1586. 

When,  therefore,  John  Ruthven  succeeded  to  the  earldom 
while  still  a  child,  he  inherited  along  with  his  vast  estates  family 
traditions  of  treason  and  intrigue.  There  was  also  a  popular 
belief,  though  without  foundation,  that  there  was  Tudor  blood 
in  his  veins;  and  Burnet  afterwards  asserted  that  Gowrie 
stood  next  in  succession  to  the  crown  of  England  after  King 
James  VI.  Like  his  father  and  grandfather  before  him,  the 
young  earl  attached  himself  to  the  party  of  the  reforming 
preachers,  who  procured  his  election  in  1592  as  provost  of 
Perth,  a  post  that  was  almost  hereditary  in  the  Ruthven  family. 
He  received  an  excellent  education  at  the  grammar  school  of 
Perth  and  the  university  of  Edinburgh,  where  he  was  in  the 
summer  of  1593,  about  the  time  when  his  mother,  and  his  sister 
the  countess  of  Atholl,  aided  Bothwell  in  forcing  himself  sword 
in  hand  into  the  king's  bedchamber  in  Holyrood  Palace.  A 
few  months  later  Gowrie  joined  with  Atholl  and  Montrose  in 
offering  to  serve  Queen  Elizabeth,  then  almost  openly  hostile 
to  the  Scottish  king;  and  it  is  probable  that  he  had  also  relations 
with  the  rebellious  Bothwell.  Gowrie  had  thus  been  already 
deeply  engaged  in  treasonable  conspiracy  when,  in  August 
1594,  he  proceeded  to  Italy  with  his  tutor,  William  Rhynd,  to 
study  at  the  university  of  Padua.  On  his  way  home  in  1599 
he  remained  for  some  months  at  Geneva  with  the  reformer 
Theodore  Beza;  and  at  Paris  he  made  acquaintance  with  the 
English  ambassador,  who  reported  him  to  Cecil  as  devoted  to 
Elizabeth's  service,  and  a  nobleman  "  of  whom  there  may  be 
exceeding  use  made."  In  Paris  he  may  also  at  this  time  have 
had  further  communication  with  the  exiled  Bothwell;  in  London 
he  was  received  with  marked  favour  by  Queen  Elizabeth  and  her 
ministers. 

These  circumstances  owe  their  importance  to  the  light  they 
throw  on  the  obscurity  of  the  celebrated  "  Gowrie  conspiracy," 


con- 
spiracy. 


which  resulted  in  the  slaughter  of  the  earl  and  his  brother  by 
attendants  of  King  James  at  Gowrie  House,  Perth,  a  few  weeks 
after  Cowrie's  return  to  Scotland  in  May  1600.  This  The 
event  ranks  among  the  unsolved  enigmas  of  history.  Oon-rfe 
The  mystery  is  caused  by  the  improbabilities  inherent  in 
any  of  the  alternative  hypotheses  suggested  to  account 
for  the  unquestionable  facts  of  the  occurrence;  the  discrepancies 
in  the  evidence  produced  at  the  time;  the  apparent  lack  of 
forethought  or  plan  on  the  part  of  the  chief  actors,  whichever 
hypothesis  be  adopted,  as  well  as  the  thoughtless  folly  of  their 
actual  procedure;  and  the  insufficiency  of  motive,  whoever 
the  guilty  parties  may  have  been.  The  solutions  of  the  mystery 
that  have  been  suggested  are  three  in  number:  first,  that 
Gowrie  and  his  brother  had  concocted  a  plot  to  murder,  or 
more  probably  to  kidnap  King  James,  and  that  they  lured  him 
to  Gowrie  House  for  this  purpose;  secondly,  that  James  paid 
a  surprise  visit  to  Gowrie  House  with  the  intention,  which  he 
carried  out,  of  slaughtering  the  two  Ruthvens;  and  thirdly, 
that  the  tragedy  was  the  outcome  of  an  unpremeditated  brawl 
following  high  words  between  the  king  and  the  earl,  or  his 
brother.  To  understand  the  relative  probabilities  of  these 
hypotheses  regard  must  be  had  to  the  condition  of  Scotland  in 
the  year  1600  (see  SCOTLAND:  History).  Here  it  can  only  be 
recalled  that  plots  to  capture  the  person  of  the  sovereign  for  the 
purpose  of  coercing  his  actions  were  of  frequent  occurrence, 
more  than  one  of  which  had  been  successful,  and  in  several  of 
which  the  Ruthven  family  had  themselves  taken  an  active 
part;  that  the  relations  between  England  and  Scotland  were 
at  this  time  more  than  usually  strained,  and  that  the  young 
earl  of  Gowrie  was  reckoned  in  London  among  the  adherents 
of  Elizabeth;  that  the  Kirk  party,  being  at  variance  with 
James,  looked  upon  Gowrie  as  an  hereditary  partisan  of  their 
cause,  and  had  recently  sent  an  agent  to  Paris  to  recall  him 
to  Scotland  as  their  leader;  that  Gowrie  was  believed  to  be 
James's  rival  for  the  succession  to  the  English  crown.  Moreover, 
as  regards  the  question  of  motive  it  is  to  be  observed,  on  the 
one  hand,  that  the  Ruthvens  believed  Cowrie's  father  to  have 
been  treacherously  done  to  death,  and  his  widow  insulted  by 
the  king's  favourite  minister;  while,  on  the  other,  James  was 
indebted  in  a  large  sum  of  money  to  the  earl  of  Cowrie's  estate, 
and  popular  gossip  credited  either  Gowrie  or  his  brother,  Alex- 
ander Ruthven,  with  being  the  lover  of  the  queen.  Although 
the  evidence  on  these  points,  and  on  every  minute  circumstance 
connected  with  the  tragedy  itself,  has  been  exhaustively  examined 
by  historians  of  the  Gowrie  conspiracy,  it  cannot  be  asserted 
that  the  mystery  has  been  entirely  dispelled;  but,  while  it  is 
improbable  that  complete  certainty  will  ever  be  arrived  at  as 
to  whether  the  guilt  lay  with  James  or  with  the  Ruthven  brothers, 
the  most  modern  research  in  the  light  of  materials  inaccessible 
or  overlooked  till  the  2oth  century,  points  pretty  clearly  to  the 
conclusion  that  there  was  a  genuine  conspiracy  by  Gowrie  and 
his  brother  to  kidnap  the  king.  If  this  be  the  true  solution, 
it  follows  that  King  James  was  innocent  of  the  blood  of  the 
Ruthvens;  and  it  raises  the  presumption  that  his  own  account 
of  the  occurrence  was,  in  spite  of  the  glaring  improbabilities 
which  it  involved,  substantially  true. 

The  facts  as  related  by  James  and  other  witnesses  were,  in 
outline,  as  follows.  On  the  5th  of  August  1600  the  king  rose 
early  to  hunt  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Falkland  Palace,  about 
14  m.  from  Perth.  Just  as  he  was  setting  forth  in  company 
with  the  duke  of  Lennox,  the  earl  of  Mar,  Sir  Thomas  Erskine 
and  others,  he  was  accosted  by  Alexander  Ruthven  (known 
as  the  master  of  Ruthven),  a  younger  brother  of  the  earl  of 
Gowrie,  who  had  ridden  from  Perth  that  morning  to  inform 
the  king  that  he  had  met  on  the  previous  day  a  man  in  posses- 
sion of  a  pitcher  full  of  foreign  gold  coins,  whom  he  had  secretly 
locked  up  in  a  room  at  Gowrie  House.  Ruthven  urged  the  king 
to  ride  to  Perth  to  examine  this  man  for  himself  and  to  take 
possession  of  the  treasure.  After  some  hesitation  James  gave 
credit  to  the  story,  suspecting  that  the  possessor  of  the  coins 
was  one  of  the  numerous  Catholic  agents  at  that  time  moving 
about  Scotland  in  disguise.  Without  giving  a  positive  reply  to 


304 


GOYEN— GOZLAN 


and  Maranhao.  A  considerable  part  of  southern  Goyaz,  however, 
slopes  southward  and  the  drainage  is  through  numerous  small 
streams  flowing  into  the  Paranahyba,  a  large  tributary  of  the 
Parana.  The  general  elevation  of  the  plateau  is  estimated  to 
be  about  2700  ft.,  and  the  highest  elevation  was  reported  in 
1892  to  be  the  Serra  dos  Pyrenees  (5250  ft.).  Crossing  the 
state  N.N.E.  to  S.S.W.  there  is  a  well-defined  chain  of  mountains, 
of  which  the  Pyrenees,  Santa  Rita  and  Santa  Martha  ranges 
form  parts,  but  their  elevation  above  the  plateau  is  not  great. 
The  surface  of  the  plateau  is  generally  open  campo  and  scrubby 
arboreal  growth  called  caatingas,  but  the  streams  are  generally 
bordered  with  forest,  especially  in  the  deeper  valleys.  Towards 
the  N.  the  forest  becomes  denser  and  of  the  character  of  the 
Amazon  Valley.  The  climate  of  the  plateau  is  usually  described 
as  temperate,  but  it  is  essentially  sub-tropical.  The  valley  regions 
are  tropical,  and  malarial  fevers  are  common.  The  cultivation 
of  the  soil  is  limited  to  local  needs,  except  in  the  production  of 
tobacco,  which  is  exported  to  neighbouring  states.  The  open 
campos  afford  good  pasturage,  and  live  stock  is  largely  exported. 
Gold-mining  has  been  carried  on  in  a  primitive  manner  for  more 
than  two  centuries,  but  the  output  has  never  been  large  and  no 
very  rich  mines  have  been  discovered.  Diamonds  have  been 
found,  but  only  to  a  very  limited  extent.  There  is  a  considerable 
export  of  quartz  crystal,  commercially  known  as  "  Brazilian 
pebbles,"  used  in  optical  work.  Although  the  northern  and 
southern  extremities  of  Goyiz  lie  within  two  great  river  systems — 
the  Tocantins  and  Parana— the  upper  courses  of  which  are 
navigable,  both  of  them  are  obstructed  by  falls.  The  only 
outlet  for  the  state  has  been  by  means  of  mule  trains  to  the 
railway  termini  of  Sao  Paulo  and  Minas  Geraes,  pending  the 
extension  of  railways  from  both  of  those  states,  one  entering 
Goyaz  by  way  of  Catalao,  near  the  southern  boundary,  and  the 
other  at  some  point  further  N. 

The  capital  of  the  state  is  GOYAZ,  or  Villa-Boa  de  Goyaz,  a 
mining  town  on  the  Rio  Vermelho,  a  tributary  of  the  Araguaya 
rising  on  the  northern  slopes  of  the  Serra  de  Santa  Rita.  Pop. 
(1890)  6807.  Gold  was  discovered  here  in  1682  by  Bartholomeu 
Bueno,  the  first  European  explorer  of  this  region,  and  the 
settlement  founded  by  him  was  called  Santa  Anna,  which  is 
still  the  name  of  the  parish.  The  site  of  the  town  is  a  barren, 
rocky  mountain  valley,  1900  ft.  above  sea-level,  in  which  the 
heat  is  most  oppressive  at  times  and  the  nights  are  unpleasantly 
cold.  Goyaz  is  the  see  of  a  bishopric  founded  in  1826,  and 
possesses  a  small  cathedral  and  some  churches. 

GOYEN,  JAN  JOSEPHSZOON  VAN  (1596-1656),  Dutch 
painter,  was  born  at  Leiden  on  the  I3th  of  January  1596,  learned 
painting  under  several  masters  at  Leiden  and  Haarlem,  married 
in  1618  and  settled  at  the  Hague  about  1631.  He  was  one  of 
the  first  to  emancipate  himself  from  the  traditions  of  minute 
imitation  embodied  in  the  works  of  Breughel  and  Savery. 
Though  he  preserved  the  dun  scale  of  tone  peculiar  to  those 
painters,  he  studied  atmospheric  effects  in  black  and  white  with 
considerable  skill.  He  had  much  influence  on  Dutch  art.  He 
formed  Solomon  Ruysdael  and  Pieter  Potter,  forced  attention 
from  Rembrandt,  and  bequeathed  some  of  his  precepts  to  Pieter 
de  Molyn,  Coelenbier,  Saftleven,  van  der  Kabel  and  even 
Berghem.  His  life  at  the  Hague  for  twenty-five  years  was  very 
prosperous,  and  he  rose  in  1640  to  be  president  of  his  gild.  A 
friend  of  van  Dyck  and  Bartholomew  van  der  Heist,  he  sat 
to  both  these  artists  for  his  likeness.  His  daughter  Margaret 
married  Jan  Steen,  and  he  had  steady  patrons  in  the  stadtholder 
Frederick  Henry,  and  the  chiefs  of  the  municipality  of  the 
Hague.  He  died  at  the  Hague  in  1656,  possessed  of  land  and 
houses  to  the  amount  of  15,000  florins. 

Between  1610  and  1616  van  Goyen  wandered  from  one  school 
to  the  other.  He  was  first  apprenticed  to  Isaak  Swanenburgh; 
he  then  passed  through  the  workshops  of  de  Man,  Klok  and 
de  Hoorn.  In  1616  he  took  a  decisive  step  and  joined  Esaias 
van  der  Velde  at  Haarlem;  amongst  his  earlier  pictures,  some 
of  1621  (Berlin  Museum)  and  1623  (Brunswick  Gallery)  show 
the  influence  of  Esaias  very  perceptibly.  The  landscape  is 
minute.  Details  of  branching  and  foliage  are  given,  and  the 


figures  are  important  in  relation  to  the  distances.  After  1625 
these  peculiarities  gradually  disappear.  Atmospheric  effect  in 
landscapes  of  cool  tints  varying  from  grey  green  to  pearl  or  brown 
and  yellow  dun  is  the  principal  object  which  van  Goyen  holds 
in  view,  and  he  succeeds  admirably  in  light  skies  with  drifting 
misty  cloud,  and  downs  with  cottages  and  scanty  shrubbery 
or  stunted  trees.  Neglecting  all  detail  of  foliage  he  now  works 
in  a  thin  diluted  medium,  laying  on  rubbings  as  of  sepia  or 
Indian  ink,  and  finishing  without  loss  of  transparence  or  lucidity. 
Throwing  his  foreground  into  darkness,  he  casts  alternate  light 
and  shade  upon  the  more  distant  planes,  and  realizes  most 
pleasing  views  of  large  expanse.  In  buildings  and  water,  with 
shipping  near  the  banks,  he  sometimes  has  the  strength  if  not 
the  colour  of  Albert  Cuyp.  The  defect  of  his  work  is  chiefly 
want  of  solidity.  But  even  this  had  its  charm  for  van  Goyen's 
contemporaries,  and  some  time  elapsed  before  Cuyp,  who 
imitated  him,  restricted  his  method  of  transparent  tinting  to 
the  foliage  of  foreground  trees. 

Van  Goyen's  pictures  are  comparatively  rare  in  English  collec- 
tions, but  his  work  is  seen  to  advantage  abroad,  and  chiefly 
at  the  Louvre,  and  in  Berlin,  Gotha,  Vienna,  Munich  and 
Augsburg.  Twenty-eight  of  his  works  were  exhibited  together 
at-  Vienna  in  1873.  Though  he  visited  France  once  or  twice, 
van  Goyen  chiefly  confined  himself  to  the  scenery  of  Holland 
and  the  Rhine.  Nine  times  from  1633  to  1655  he  painted  views 
of  Dordrecht.  Nimeguen  was  one  of  his  favourite  resorts. 
But  he  was  also  fond  of  Haarlem  and  Amsterdam,  and  he  did 
not  neglect  Arnheim  or  Utrecht.  One  of  his  largest  pieces  is 
a  view  of  the  Hague,  executed  in  1651  for  the  municipality,  and 
now  in  the  town  collection  of  that  city.  Most  of  his  panels 
represent  reaches  of  the  Rhine,  the  Waal  and  the  Maese.  But 
he  sometimes  sketched  the  downs  of  Scheveningen,  or  the  sea 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Rhine  and  Scheldt;  and  he  liked  to  depict 
the  calm  inshore,  and  rarely  ventured  upon  seas  stirred  by  more 
than  a  curling  breeze  or  the  swell  of  a  coming  squall.  He  often 
painted  winter  scenes,  with  ice  and  skaters  and  sledges,  in  the 
style  familiar  to  Isaac  van  Ostade.  There  are  numerous  varieties 
of  these  subjects  in  the  master's  works  from  1621  to  1653.  One 
historical  picture  has  been  assigned  to  van  Goyen — the  "  Em- 
barkation of  Charles  II."  in  the  Bute  collection.  But  this  canvas 
was  executed  after  van  Goyen's  death.  When  he  tried  this 
form  of  art  he  properly  mistrusted  his  own  powers.  But  he 
produced  little  in  partnership  with  his  contemporaries,  and  we 
can  only  except  the  "  Watering-place  "  in  the  gallery  of  Vienna, 
where  the  landscape  is  enlivened  with  horses  and  cattle  by 
Philip  Wouvermans.  Even  Jan  Steen,  who  was  his  son-in-law, 
only  painted  figures  for  one  of  his  pictures,  and  it  is  probable 
that  this  piece  was  completed  after  van  Goyen's  death.  More 
than  250  of  van  Goyen's  pictures  are  known  and  accessible. 
Of  this  number  little  more  than  70  are  undated.  None  exist 
without  the  full  name  or  monogram,  and  yet  there  is  no  painter 
whose  hand  it  is  easier  to  trace  without  the  help  of  these 
adjuncts.  An  etcher,  but  a  poor  one,  van  Goyen  has  only 
bequeathed  to  us  two  very  rare  plates. 

GOZLAN,  LEON  (1806-1866),  French  novelist  and  play- 
writer,  was  born  on  the  ist  of  September  1806,  at  Marseilles. 
When  he  was  still  a  boy,  his  father,  who  had  made  a  large 
fortune  as  a  ship-broker,  met  with  a  series  of  misfortunes,  and 
Leon,  before  completing  his  education,  had  to  go  to  sea  in  order 
to  earn  a  living.  In  1828  we  find  him  in  Paris,  determined  to 
run  the  risks  of  literary  life.  His  townsman,  Joseph  Mery, 
who  was  then  making  himself  famous  by  his  political  satires, 
introduced  him  to  several  newspapers,  and  Gozlan's  brilliant 
articles  in  the  Figaro  did  much  harm  to  the  already  tottering 
government  of  Charles  X.  His  first  novel  was  Les  Memoires 
d'un  apothicaire  (1828),  and  this  was  followed  by  numberless 
others,  among  which  may  be  mentioned  Washington  Levert 
et  Socrate  Leblanc  (1838),  Le  Notaire  de  Chantilly  (1836),  Aristide 
Froissart  (1843)  (one  of  the  most  curious  and  celebrated  of  his 
productions),  Les  Nuits  du  Pere  Lachaise  (1846),  Le  Tapis  vert 
(1855),  La  Folle  du  logis  (1857),  Les  Emotions  de  Poly  dor  e  Maras- 
qitin  (1857),  &c.  His  best-known  works  for  the  theatre  are — 


GOZO— GOZZOLI 


305 


La  Pluie  et  k  beau  temps  (1861),  and  Une  Tempete  dans  un 
verre  d'eau  (1850),  two  curtain-raisers  which  have  kept  the 
stage;  Le  Lion  empaille  (1848),  La  Queue  du  Men  d'Alcibiade 
(1849),  Louise  de  Nanteuil  (1854),  Le  Gateau  des  reines  (1855), 
Les  Paniers  de  la  comtesse  (1852);  and  he  adapted  several  of 
his  own  novels  to  the  stage.  Gozlan  also  wrote  a  romantic 
and  picturesque  description  of  the  old  manors  and  mansions 
of  his  country  entitled  Les  Chateaux  de  France  (2  vols.,  1844), 
originally  published  (1836)  as  Les  Tourelles,  which  has  some 
archaeological  value,  and  a  biographical  essay  on  Balzac  (Balzac 
chez  lui,  1862).  He  was  made  a  member  of  the  Legion  of 
Honour  in  1846,  and  in  1859  an  officer  of  that  order.  Gozlan 
died  on  the  i4th  of  September  1866,  in  Paris. 

See  also  P.  Audebrand,  Leon  Gozlan  (1887). 

GOZO  (Gozzo),  an  island  of  the  Maltese  group  in  the  Medi- 
terranean Sea,  second  in  size  to  Malta.  It  lies  N.W.  and  31  m. 
from  the  nearest  point  of  Malta,  is  of  oval  form,  8f  m.  in  length 
and  4^  m.  in  extreme  breadth,  and  has  an  area  of  nearly  25  m. 
Its  chief  town,  Victoria,  formerly  called  Rabato  (pop.  in  1901, 
5057)  stands  near  the  middle  of  the  island  on  one  of  a  cluster 
of  steep  conical  hills,  3i  m.  from  the  port  of  Migiarro  Bay, 
on  the  south-east  shore,  below  Fort  Chambray.  The  character 
of  the  island  is  similar  to  that  of  Malta.  The  estimated  popula- 
tion in  1907  was  21,911. 

GOZZI,  CARLO,  COUNT  (1722-1806),  Italian  dramatist, 
was  descended  from  an  old  Venetian  family,  and  was  born  at 
Venice  in  March  1722.  Compelled  by  the  embarrassed  condition 
of  his  father's  affairs  to  procure  the  means  of  self-support,  he, 
at  the  age  of  sixteen,  joined  the  army  in  Dalmatia;  but  three 
years  afterwards  he  returned  to  Venice,  where  he  soon  made 
a  reputation  for  himself  as  the  wittiest  member  of  the  Granel- 
leschi  society,  to  which  the  publication  of  several  satirical 
pieces  had  gained  him  admission.  This  society,  nominally 
devoted  to  conviviality  and  wit,  had  also  serious  literary  aims, 
and  was  especially  zealous  to  preserve  the  Tuscan  literature 
pure  and  untainted  by  foreign  influences.  The  displacement 
of  the  old  Italian  comedy  by  the  dramas  of  Pietro  Chiari  (1700- 
1 788)  and  Goldoni,  founded  on  French  models,  threatened  defeat 
to  all  their  efforts;  and  in  1757  Gozzi  came  to  the  rescue  by 
publishing  a  satirical  poem,  Tartana  degli  influssi  per  I' anno 
bisestile,  and  in  1761  by  his  comedy,  Fiaba  dell'  amore  delle  tre 
melarancie,  a  parody  of  the  manner  of  the  two  obnoxious  poets, 
founded  on  a  fairy  tale.  For  its  representation  he  obtained 
the  services  of  the  Sacchi  company  of  players,  who,  on  account 
of  the  popularity  of  the  comedies  of  Chiari  and  Goldoni — which 
afforded  no  scope  for  the  display  of  their  peculiar  talents — had 
been  left  without  employment;  and  as  their  satirical  powers 
were  thus  sharpened  by  personal  enmity,  the  play  met  with 
extraordinary  success.  Struck  by  the  effect  produced  on  the 
audience  by  the  introduction  of  the  supernatural  or  mythical 
element,  which  he  had  merely  used  as  a  convenient  medium 
for  his  satirical  purposes,  Gozzi  now  produced  a  series  of  dramatic 
pieces  based  on  fairy  tales,  which  for  a  period  obtained  great 
popularity,  but  after  the  breaking  up  of  the  Sacchi  company 
were  completely  disregarded.  They  have,  however,  obtained 
high  praise  from  Goethe,  Schlegel,  Madame  de  Stael  and  Sis- 
mondi;  and  one  of  them,  Re  Turandote,  was  translated  by 
Schiller.  In  his  later  years  Gozzi  set  himself  to  the  production 
)f  tragedies  in  which  the  comic  element  was  largely  introduced; 
jut  as  this  innovation  proved  unacceptable  to  the  critics  he  had 
•ecourse  to  the  Spanish  drama,  from  which  he  obtained  models 
'or  various  pieces,  which,  however,  met  with  only  equivocal 
mccess.  He  died  on  the  4th  of  April  1806. 

His  collected  works  were  published  under  his  own  superintend- 
ence, at  Venice,  in  1792,  in  10  volumes;  and  his  dramatic  works, 
ranslated  into  German  by  Werthes,  were  published  at  Bern  in 
795.  See  Gozzi's  work,  Memorie  inutiti  della  vita  di  Carlo  Gozzi 
3  vols.,  Venice,  1797),  translated  into  French  by  Paul  de  Musset 
1848),  and  into  English  by  J.  A.  Symonds  (1889);  F.  Horn,  Ober 
lozzis  dramatische  Poesie  (Venice,  1803);  Gherardini,  Vita  di  Gasp. 
"<ozzi  (1821);  "Charles  Gozzi,"  by  Paul  de  Musset,  in  the  Revue 
'es  deux  mondes  for  isth  November  1844;  Magrini,  Carlo  Gozzi 

la  fiabe:  saegi  storici,  biografici,  e  critici  (Cremona,  1876),  and  the 
ime  author  s  book  on  Gozzi's  life  and  times  (Benevento,  1883). 


J 


GOZZI,  GASPARO,  COUNT  (1713-1786),  eldest  brother  of' 
Carlo  Gozzi,  was  born  on  the  4th  of  December  1713.  In  1739 
he  married  the  poetess  Luise  Bergalli,  and  she  undertook  the 
management  of  the  theatre  of  Sant'  Angelo,  Venice,  he  supplying 
the  performers  with  dramas  chiefly  translated  from  the  French. 
The  speculation  proved  unfortunate,  but  meantime  he  had 
attained  a  high  reputation  for  his  contributions  to  the  Gazzetta 
Veneta,  and  he  soon  came  to  be  known  as  one  of  the  ablest 
critics  and  purest  and  most  elegant  stylists  in  Italy.  For  a 
considerable  period  he  was  censor  of  the  press  in  Venice,  and  in 
1774  he  was  appointed  to  reorganize  the  university  system  at 
Padua.  He  died  at  Padua  on  the  26th  of  December  1786. 

His  principal  writings  are  Osservatore  Veneto  periodico  (1761),  on 
the  model  of  the  English  Spectator,  and  distinguished  by  its  high 
moral  tone  and  its  light  and  pleasant  satire;  Lettere  famigliari 
(1755),  a  collection  of  short  racy  pieces  in  prose  and  verse,  on  subjects 
of  general  interest ;  Sermoni,  poems  in  blank  verse  after  the  manner 
of  Horace;  II  Mondo  morale  (1760),  a  personification  of  human 
passions  with  inwoven  dialogues  in  the  style  of  Lucian ;  and  Giudizio 
degli  antichi  poeti  sopra  la  moderna  censura  di  Dante  (1755),  a  defence 
of  the  great  poet  against  the  attacks  of  Bettinelli.  He  also  trans- 
lated various  works  from  the  French  and  English,  including  Mar- 
montel's  Tales  and  Pope's  Essay  on  Criticism.  His  collected  works 
were  published  at  Venice,  1794-1798,  in  12  volumes,  and  several 
editions  have  appeared  since. 

GOZZOLI,  BENOZZO,  Italian  painter,  was  born  in  Florence 
in  1424,  or  perhaps  1420,  and  in  the  early  part  of  his  career 
assisted  Fra  Angelico,  whom  he  followed  to  Rome  and  worked 
with  at  Orvieto.  In  Rome  he  executed  in  Santa  Maria  in 
Aracoeli  a  fresco  of  "  St  Anthony  and  Two  Angels."  In  1449 
he  left  Angelico,  and  went  to  Montefalco,  nearFoligno  in  Umbria. 
In  S.  Fortunato,  near  Montefalco,  he  painted  a  "  Madonna  and 
Child  with  Saints  and  Angels,"  and  three  other  works.  One  of 
these,  the  altar-piece  representing  "  St  Thomas  receiving  the 
Girdle  of  the  Virgin,"  is  now  in  the  Lateran  Museum,  and 
shows  the  affinity  of  Gozzoli's  early  style  to  Angelico's.  He 
next  painted  in  the  monastery  of  S.  Francesco,  Montefalco, 
filling  the  choir  with  a  triple  course  of  subjects  from  the  life 
of  the  saint,  with  various  accessories,  including  heads  of  Dante, 
Petrarch  and  Giotto.  This  work  was  completed  in  1452,  and 
is  still  marked  by  the  style  of  Angelico,  crossed  here  and  there 
with  a  more  distinctly  Giottesque  influence.  In  the  same  church, 
in  the  chapel  of  St  Jerome,  is  a  fresco  by  Gozzoli  of  the  Virgin 
and  Saints,  the  Crucifixion  and  other  subjects.  He  remained 
at  Montefalco  (with  an  interval  at  Viterbo)  probably  till  1456, 
employing  Mesastris  as  assistant.  Thence  he  went  to  Perugia, 
and  painted  in  a  church  a  "  Virgin  and  Saints,"  now  in  the  local 
academy,  and  soon  afterwards  to  his  native  Florence,  the  head- 
quarters of  art.  By  the  end  of  1459  he  had  nearly  finished 
his  important  labour  in  the  chapel  of  the  Palazzo  Riccardi,  the 
"  Journey  of  the  Magi  to  Bethlehem,"  and,  in  the  tribune  of 
this  chapel,  a  composition  of  "  Angels  in  a  Paradise."  His 
picture  in  the  National  Gallery,  London,  a  "  Virgin  and  Child 
with  Saints,"  1461,  belongs  also  to  the  period  of  his  Florentine 
sojourn.  Another  small  picture  in  the  same  gallery,  the  "  Rape 
of  Helen,"  is  of  dubious  authenticity.  In  1464  Gozzoli  left 
Florence  for  S.  Gimignano,  where  he,  executed  some  extensive 
works;  in  the  church  of  S.  Agostino,  a  composition  of  St 
Sebastian  protecting  the  City  from  the  Plague  of  this  same 
year,  1464;  over  the  entire  choir  of  the  church,  a  triple  course 
of  scenes  from  the  legends  of  St  Augustine,  from  the  time  of 
his  entering  the  school  of  Tegaste  on  to  his  burial,  seventeen 
chief  subjects,  with  some  accessories;  in  the  Pieve  di  S. 
Gimignano,  the  "Martyrdom  of  Sebastian,"  and  other  subjects, 
and  some  further  works  in  the  city  and  its  vicinity.  Here  his 
style  combined  something  of  Lippo  Lippi  with  its  original 
elements,  and  he  received  co-operation  from  Giusto  d'Andrea. 
He  stayed  in  this  city  till  1467,  and  then  began,  in  the  Campo 
Santo  of  Pisa,  from  1469,  the  vast  series  of  mural  paintings 
with  which  his  name  is  specially  identified.  There  are  twenty- 
four  subjects  from  the  Old  Testament,  from  the  "  Invention  of 
Wine  by  Noah  "  to  the  "  Visit  of  the  Queen  of  Sheba  to  Solomon." 
He  contracted  to  paint  three  subjects  per  year  for  about  ten 
ducats  each — a  sum  which  may  be  regarded  as  equivalent  to 


I 


304 


GOYEN— GOZLAN 


and  Maranhao.  A  considerable  part  of  southern  Goyaz,  however, 
slopes  southward  and  the  drainage  is  through  numerous  small 
streams  flowing  into  the  Paranahyba,  a  large  tributary  of  the 
Parana.  The  general  elevation  of  the  plateau  is  estimated  to 
be  about  2700  ft.,  and  the  highest  elevation  was  reported  in 
1892  to  be  the  Serra  dos  Pyrenees  (5250  ft.).  Crossing  the 
state  N.N.E.  to  S.S.W.  there  is  a  well-defined  chain  of  mountains, 
of  which  the  Pyrenees,  Santa  Rita  and  Santa  Martha  ranges 
form  parts,  but  their  elevation  above  the  plateau  is  not  great. 
The  surface  of  the  plateau  is  generally  open  campo  and  scrubby 
arboreal  growth  called  caatingas,  but  the  streams  are  generally 
bordered  with  forest,  especially  in  the  deeper  valleys.  Towards 
the  N.  the  forest  becomes  denser  and  of  the  character  of  the 
Amazon  Valley.  The  climate  of  the  plateau  is  usually  described 
as  temperate,  but  it  is  essentially  sub-tropical.  The  valley  regions 
are  tropical,  and  malarial  fevers  are  common.  The  cultivation 
of  the  soil  is  limited  to  local  needs,  except  in  the  production  of 
tobacco,  which  is  exported  to  neighbouring  states.  The  open 
campos  afford  good  pasturage,  and  live  stock  is  largely  exported. 
Gold-mining  has  been  carried  on  in  a  primitive  manner  for  more 
than  two  centuries,  but  the  output  has  never  been  large  and  no 
very  rich  mines  have  been  discovered.  Diamonds  have  been 
found,  but  only  to  a  very  limited  extent.  There  is  a  considerable 
export  of  quartz  crystal,  commercially  known  as  "  Brazilian 
pebbles,"  used  in  optical  work.  Although  the  northern  and 
southern  extremities  of  Goyaz  lie  within  two  great  river  systems — 
the  Tocantins  and  Parana— the  upper  courses  of  which  are 
navigable,  both  of  them  are  obstructed  by  falls.  The  only 
outlet  for  the  state  has  been  by  means  of  mule  trains  to  the 
railway  termini  of  Sao  Paulo  and  Minas  Geraes,  pending  the 
extension  of  railways  from  both  of  those  states,  one  entering 
Goyaz  by  way  of  Catalao,  near  the  southern  boundary,  and  the 
other  at  some  point  further  N. 

The  capital  of  the  state  is  GOYAZ,  or  Villa-Boa  de  Goyaz,  a 
mining  town  on  the  Rio  Vermelho,  a  tributary  of  the  Araguaya 
rising  on  the  northern  slopes  of  the  Serra  de  Santa  Rita.  Pop. 
(1890)  6807.  Gold  was  discovered  here  in  1682  by  Bartholomeu 
Bueno,  the  first  European  explorer  of  this  region,  and  the 
settlement  founded  by  him  was  called  Santa  Anna,  which  is 
still  the  name  of  the  parish.  The  site  of  the  town  is  a  barren, 
rocky  mountain  valley,  1900  ft.  above  sea-level,  in  which  the 
heat  is  most  oppressive  at  times  and  the  nights  are  unpleasantly 
cold.  Goyaz  is  the  see  of  a  bishopric  founded  in  1826,  and 
possesses  a  small  cathedral  and  some  churches. 

GOYEN,  JAN  JOSEPHSZOON  VAN  (1596-1656),  Dutch 
painter,  was  born  at  Leiden  on  the  I3th  of  January  1596,  learned 
painting  under  several  masters  at  Leiden  and  Haarlem,  married 
in  1618  and  settled  at  the  Hague  about  1631.  He  was  one  of 
the  first  to  emancipate  himself  from  the  traditions  of  minute 
imitation  embodied  in  the  works  of  Breughel  and  Savery. 
Though  he  preserved  the  dun  scale  of  tone  peculiar  to  those 
painters,  he  studied  atmospheric  effects  in  black  and  white  with 
considerable  skill.  He  had  much  influence  on  Dutch  art.  He 
formed  Solomon  Ruysdael  and  Pieter  Potter,  forced  attention 
from  Rembrandt,  and  bequeathed  some  of  his  precepts  to  Pieter 
de  Molyn,  Coelenbier,  Saftleven,  van  der  Kabel  and  even 
Berghem.  His  life  at  the  Hague  for  twenty-five  years  was  very 
prosperous,  and  he  rose  in  1640  to  be  president  of  his  gild.  A 
friend  of  van  Dyck  and  Bartholomew  van  der  Heist,  he  sat 
to  both  these  artists  for  his  likeness.  His  daughter  Margaret 
married  Jan  Steen,  and  he  had  steady  patrons  in  the  stadtholder 
Frederick  Henry,  and  the  chiefs  of  the  municipality  of  the 
Hague.  He  died  at  the  Hague  in  1656,  possessed  of  land  and 
houses  to  the  amount  of  15,000  florins. 

Between  1610  and  1616  van  Goyen  wandered  from  one  school 
to  the  other.  He  was  first  apprenticed  to  Isaak  Swanenburgh; 
he  then  passed  through  the  workshops  of  de  Man,  Klok  and 
de  Hoorn.  In  1616  he  took  a  decisive  step  and  joined  Esaias 
van  der  Velde  at  Haarlem;  amongst  his  earlier  pictures,  some 
of  1621  (Berlin  Museum)  and  1623  (Brunswick  Gallery)  show 
the  influence  of  Esaias  very  perceptibly.  The  landscape  is 
minute.  Details  of  branching  and  foliage  are  given,  and  the 


figures  are  important  in  relation  to  the  distances.  After  1625 
these  peculiarities  gradually  disappear.  Atmospheric  effect  in 
landscapes  of  cool  tints  varying  from  grey  green  to  pearl  or  brown 
and  yellow  dun  is  the  principal  object  which  van  Goyen  holds 
in  view,  and  he  succeeds  admirably  in  light  skies  with  drifting 
misty  cloud,  and  downs  with  cottages  and  scanty  shrubbery 
or  stunted  trees.  Neglecting  all  detail  of  foliage  he  now  works 
in  a  thin  diluted  medium,  laying  on  rubbings  as  of  sepia  or 
Indian  ink,  and  finishing  without  loss  of  transparence  or  lucidity. 
Throwing  his  foreground  into  darkness,  he  casts  alternate  light 
and  shade  upon  the  more  distant  planes,  and  realizes  most 
pleasing  views  of  large  expanse.  In  buildings  and  water,  with 
shipping  near  the  banks,  he  sometimes  has  the  strength  if  not 
the  colour  of  Albert  Cuyp.  The  defect  of  his  work  is  chiefly 
want  of  solidity.  But  even  this  had  its  charm  for  van  Goyen's 
contemporaries,  and  some  time  elapsed  before  Cuyp,  who 
imitated  him,  restricted  his  method  of  transparent  tinting  to 
the  foliage  of  foreground  trees. 

Van  Goyen's  pictures  are  comparatively  rare  in  English  collec- 
tions, but  his  work  is  seen  to  advantage  abroad,  and  chiefly 
at  the  Louvre,  and  in  Berlin,  Gotha,  Vienna,  Munich  and 
Augsburg.  Twenty-eight  of  his  works  were  exhibited  together 
at-  Vienna  in  1873.  Though  he  visited  France  once  or  twice, 
van  Goyen  chiefly  confined  himself  to  the  scenery  of  Holland 
and  the  Rhine.  Nine  times  from  1633  to  1655  he  painted  views 
of  Dordrecht.  Nimeguen  was  one  of  his  favourite  resorts. 
But  he  was  also  fond  of  Haarlem  and  Amsterdam,  and  he  did 
not  neglect  Arnheim  or  Utrecht.  One  of  his  largest  pieces  is 
a  view  of  the  Hague,  executed  in  1651  for  the  municipality,  and 
now  in  the  town  collection  of  that  city.  Most  of  his  panels 
represent  reaches  of  the  Rhine,  the  Waal  and  the  Maese.  But 
he  sometimes  sketched  the  downs  of  Scheveningen,  or  the  sea 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Rhine  and  Scheldt;  and  he  liked  to  depict 
the  calm  inshore,  and  rarely  ventured  upon  seas  stirred  by  more 
than  a  curling  breeze  or  the  swell  of  a  coming  squall.  He  often 
painted  winter  scenes,  with  ice  and  skaters  and  sledges,  in  the 
style  familiar  to  Isaac  van  Ostade.  There  are  numerous  varieties 
of  these  subjects  in  the  master's  works  from  1621  to  1653.  One 
historical  picture  has  been  assigned  to  van  Goyen — the  "  Em- 
barkation of  Charles  II."  in  the  Bute  collection.  But  this  canvas 
was  executed  after  van  Goyen's  death.  When  he  tried  this 
form  of  art  he  properly  mistrusted  his  own  powers.  But  he 
produced  little  in  partnership  with  his  contemporaries,  and  we 
can  only  except  the  "  Watering-place  "  in  the  gallery  of  Vienna, 
where  the  landscape  is  enlivened  with  horses  and  cattle  by 
Philip  Wouvermans.  Even  Jan  Steen,  who  was  his  son-in-law, 
only  painted  figures  for  one  of  his  pictures,  and  it  is  probable 
that  this  piece  was  completed  after  van  Goyen's  death.  More 
than  250  of  van  Goyen's  pictures  are  known  and  accessible. 
Of  this  number  little  more  than  70  are  undated.  None  exist 
without  the  full  name  or  monogram,  and  yet  there  is  no  painter 
whose  hand  it  is  easier  to  trace  without  the  help  of  these 
adjuncts.  An  etcher,  but  a  poor  one,  van  Goyen  has  only 
bequeathed  to  us  two  very  rare  plates. 

GOZLAN,  LEON  (1806-1866),  French  novelist  and  play- 
writer,  was  born  on  the  ist  of  September  1806,  at  Marseilles. 
When  he  was  still  a  boy,  his  father,  who  had  made  a  large 
fortune  as  a  ship-broker,  met  with  a  series  of  misfortunes,  and 
Leon,  before  completing  his  education,  had  to  go  to  sea  in  order 
to  earn  a  living.  In  1828  we  find  him  in  Paris,  determined  to 
run  the  risks  of  literary  life.  His  townsman,  Joseph  Mery, 
who  was  then  making  himself  famous  by  his  political  satires, 
introduced  him  to  several  newspapers,  and  Gozlan's  brilliant 
articles  in  the  Figaro  did  much  harm  to  the  already  tottering 
government  of  Charles  X.  His  first  novel  was  Les  Memoires 
d'un  apothicaire  (1828),  and  this  was  followed  by  numberless 
others,  among  which  may  be  mentioned  Washington  Leeert 
et  Socrate  Leblanc  (1838),  Le  Notaire  de  Chantilly  (1836),  Aristide 
Froissart  (1843)  (one  of  the  most  curious  and  celebrated  of  his 
productions),  Les  Nuits  du  Pere  Lachaise  (1846),  Le  Tapis  vert 
(1855),  La  Folle  du  logis  (1857),  Les  Emotions  de  Polydore  Maras- 
quin  (1857),  &c.  His  best-known  works  for  the  theatre  are — 


GOZO— GOZZOLI 


305 


La  Pluie  el  le  beau  temps  (1861),  and  Une  Tempete  dans  un 
verre  d'eau  (1850),  two  curtain-raisers  which  have  kept  the 
stage;  Le  Lion  empaille  (1848),  La  Queue  du  chien  d'Alcibiade 
(1849),  Louise  de  Nanteuil  (1854),  Le  Gateau  des  reines  (1855), 
Les  Paniers  de  la  comtesse  (1852);  and  he  adapted  several  of 
his  own  novels  to  the  stage.  Gozlan  also  wrote  a  romantic 
and  picturesque  description  of  the  old  manors  and  mansions 
of  his  country  entitled  Les  Chateaux  de  France  (2  vols.,  1844), 
originally  published  (1836)  as  Les  Tourelles,  which  has  some 
archaeological  value,  and  a  biographical  essay  on  Balzac  (Balzac 
chez  lui,  1862).  He  was  made  a  member  of  the  Legion  of 
Honour  in  1846,  and  in  1859  an  officer  of  that  order.  Gozlan 
died  on  the  I4th  of  September  1866,  in  Paris. 
See  also  P.  Audebrand,  Leon  Gozlan  (1887). 
GOZO  (Gozzo),  an  island  of  the  Maltese  group  in  the  Medi- 
terranean Sea,  second  in  size  to  Malta.  It  lies  N.W.  and  3!  m. 
from  the  nearest  point  of  Malta,  is  of  oval  form,  8f  m.  in  length 
and  4^  m.  in  extreme  breadth,  and  has  an  area  of  nearly  25  m. 
Its  chief  town,  Victoria,  formerly  called  Rabato  (pop.  in  1901, 
5057)  stands  near  the  middle  of  the  island  on  one  of  a  cluster 
of  steep  conical  hills,  3^  m.  from  the  port  of  Migiarro  Bay, 
on  the  south-east  shore,  below  Fort  Chambray.  The  character 
of  the  island  is  similar  to  that  of  Malta.  The  estimated  popula- 
tion in  1907  was  21,911. 

GOZZI,  CARLO,  COUNT  (1722-1806),  Italian  dramatist, 
was  descended  from  an  old  Venetian  family,  and  was  born  at 
Venice  in  March  1722.  Compelled  by  the  embarrassed  condition 
of  his  father's  affairs  to  procure  the  means  of  self-support,  he, 
at  the  age  of  sixteen,  joined  the  army  in  Dalmatia;  but  three 
years  afterwards  he  returned  to  Venice,  where  he  soon  made 
a  reputation  for  himself  as  the  wittiest  member  of  the  Granel- 
leschi  society,  to  which  the  publication  of  several  satirical 
pieces  had  gained  him  admission.  This  society,  nominally 
devoted  to  conviviality  and  wit,  had  also  serious  literary  aims, 
and  was  especially  zealous  to  preserve  the  Tuscan  literature 
pure  and  untainted  by  foreign  influences.  The  displacement 
of  the  old  Italian  comedy  by  the  dramas  of  Pietro  Chiari  (1700- 
1788)  and  Goldoni,  founded  on  French  models,  threatened  defeat 
to  all  their  efforts;  and  in  1757  Gozzi  came  to  the  rescue  by 
publishing  a  satirical  poem,  Tartana  degli  influssi  per  I' anno 
bisestile,  and  in  1761  by  his  comedy,  Fiaba  dell'  amore  delle  tre 
melarancie,  a  parody  of  the  manner  of  the  two  obnoxious  poets, 
founded  on  a  fairy  tale.  For  its  representation  he  obtained 
the  services  of  the  Sacchi  company  of  players,  who,  on  account 
of  the  popularity  of  the  comedies  of  Chiari  and  Goldoni — which 
afforded  no  scope  for  the  display  of  their  peculiar  talents — had 
been  left  without  employment;  and  as  their  satirical  powers 
were  thus  sharpened  by  personal  enmity,  the  play  met  with 
extraordinary  success.  Struck  by  the  effect  produced  on  the 
audience  by  the  introduction  of  the  supernatural  or  mythical 
element,  which  he  had  merely  used  as  a  convenient  medium 
for  his  satirical  purposes,  Gozzi  now  produced  a  series  of  dramatic 
pieces  based  on  fairy  tales,  which  for  a  period  obtained  great 
popularity,  but  after  the  breaking  up  of  the  Sacchi  company 
were  completely  disregarded.  They  have,  however,  obtained 
high  praise  from  Goethe,  Schlegel,  Madame  de  Stael  and  Sis- 
mondi;  and  one  of  them,  Re  Turandote,  was  translated  by 
Schiller.  In  his  later  years  Gozzi  set  himself  to  the  production 
)f  tragedies  in  which  the  comic  element  was  largely  introduced ; 
jut  as  this  innovation  proved  unacceptable  to  the  critics  he  had 
•ecourse  to  the  Spanish  drama,  from  which  he  obtained  models 
or  various  pieces,  which,  however,  met  with  only  equivocal 
.uccess.  He  died  on  the  4th  of  April  1806. 

His  collected  works  were  published  under  his  own  superintend- 

mce,  at  Venice,  in  1792,  in  10  volumes;  and  his  dramatic  works, 

ranslated  into  German  by  Werthes,  were  published  at  Bern  in 

795.     See  Gozzi's  work,  Memorie  inutili  detta  vita  di  Carlo  Gozzi 

3  vols.,  Venice,  1797),  translated  into  French  by  Paul  de  Musset 

1848),  and  into  English  by  J.  A.  Symonds  (1889);  F.  Horn,  Uber 

lozzis  dramatische  Poesie  (Venice,  1803);  Gherardini,  Vita  di  Gasp. 

•    rozzi  (1821);  "  Charles  Gozzi,"  by  Paul  de  Musset,  in  the  Revue 

,    es  deux  mondes  for  ijjth  November  1844;  Magrini,  Carlo  Gozzi 

la  fiabe:  saggi  storici,  biografici,  e  critici  (Cremona,  1876),  and  the 

imc  author's  book  on  Gozzi's  life  and  times  (Benevento,  1883). 


GOZZI,  GASPARO,  COUNT  (1713-1786),  eldest  brother  of* 
Carlo  Gozzi,  was  born  on  the  4th  of  December  1713.  In  1739 
he  married  the  poetess  Luise  Bergalli,  and  she  undertook  the 
management  of  the  theatre  of  Sant'  Angelo,  Venice,  he  supplying 
the  performers  with  dramas  chiefly  translated  from  the  French. 
The  speculation  proved  unfortunate,  but  meantime  he  had 
attained  a  high  reputation  for  his  contributions  to  the  Gazzetta 
Veneta,  and  he  soon  came  to  be  known  as  one  of  the  ablest 
critics  and  purest  and  most  elegant  stylists  in  Italy.  For  a 
considerable  period  he  was  censor  of  the  press  in  Venice,  and  in 
1774  he  was  appointed  to  reorganize  the  university  system  at 
Padua.  He  died  at  Padua  on  the  26th  of  December  1786. 

His  principal  writings  are  Osservatore  Veneto  periodico  (1761),  on 
the  model  of  the  English  Spectator,  and  distinguished  by  its  high 
moral  tone  and  its  light  and  pleasant  satire;  Lettere  famigliari 
(!755)i a  collection  of  short  racy  pieces  in  prose  and  verse,  on  subjects 
of  general  interest ;  Sermoni,  poems  in  blank  verse  after  the  manner 
of  Horace;  II  Mondo  morale  (1760),  a  personification  of  human 
passions  with  inwoven  dialogues  in  the  style  of  Lucian ;  and  Giudizio 
degli  antichi  poeti  sopra  la  moderna  censura  di  Dante  (1755),  a  defence 
of  the  great  poet  against  the  attacks  of  Bettinelli.  He  also  trans- 
lated various  works  from  the  French  and  English,  including  Mar- 
montel's  Tales  and  Pope's  Essay  on  Criticism.  His  collected  works 
were  published  at  Venice,  1794-1798,  in  12  volumes,  and  several 
editions  have  appeared  since. 

GOZZOLI,  BENOZZO,  Italian  painter,  was  born  in  Florence 
in  1424,  or  perhaps  1420,  and  in  the  early  part  of  his  career 
assisted  Fra  Angelico,  whom  he  followed  to  Rome  and  worked 
with  at  Orvieto.  In  Rome  he  executed  in  Santa  Maria  in 
Aracoeli  a  fresco  of  "  St  Anthony  and  Two  Angels."  In  1449 
he  left  Angelico,  and  went  to  Montefalco,  near  Foligno  in  Umbria. 
In  S.  Fortunate,  near  Montefalco,  he  painted  a  "  Madonna  and 
Child  with  Saints  and  Angels,"  and  three  other  works.  One  of 
these,  the  altar-piece  representing  "  St  Thomas  receiving  the 
Girdle  of  the  Virgin,"  is  now  in  the  Lateran  Museum,  and 
shows  the  affinity  of  Gozzoli's  early  style  to  Angelico's.  He 
next  painted  in  the  monastery  of  S.  Francesco,  Montefalco, 
filling  the  choir  with  a  triple  course  of  subjects  from  the  life 
of  the  saint,  with  various  accessories,  including  heads  of  Dante, 
Petrarch  and  Giotto.  This  work  was  completed  in  1452,  and 
is  still  marked  by  the  style  of  Angelico,  crossed  here  and  there 
with  a  more  distinctly  Giottesque  influence.  In  the  same  church, 
in  the  chapel  of  St  Jerome,  is  a  fresco  by  Gozzoli  of  the  Virgin 
and  Saints,  the  Crucifixion  and  other  subjects.  He  remained 
at  Montefalco  (with  an  interval  at  Viterbo)  probably  till  1456, 
employing  Mesastris  as  assistant.  Thence  he  went  to  Perugia, 
and  painted  in  a  church  a  "  Virgin  and  Saints,"  now  in  the  local 
academy,  and  soon  afterwards  to  his  native  Florence,  the  head- 
quarters of  art.  By  the  end  of  1459  he  had  nearly  finished 
his  important  labour  in  the  chapel  of  the  Palazzo  Riccardi,  the 
"  Journey  of  the  Magi  to  Bethlehem,"  and,  in  the  tribune  of 
this  chapel,  a  composition  of  "  Angels  in  a  Paradise."  His 
picture  in  the  National  Gallery,  London,  a  "  Virgin  and  Child 
with  Saints,"  1461,  belongs  also  to  the  period  of  his  Florentine 
sojourn.  Another  small  picture  in  the  same  gallery,  the  "  Rape 
of  Helen,"  is  of  dubious  authenticity.  In  1464  Gozzoli  left 
Florence  for  S.  Gimignano,  where  he,  executed  some  extensive 
works;  in  the  church  of  S.  Agostino,  a  composition  of  St 
Sebastian  protecting  the  City  from  the  Plague  of  this  same 
year,  1464;  over  the  entire  choir  of  the  church,  a  triple  course 
of  scenes  from  the  legends  of  St  Augustine,  from  the  time  of 
his  entering  the  school  of  Tegaste  on  to  his  burial,  seventeen 
chief  subjects,  with  some  accessories;  in  the  Pieve  di  S. 
Gimignano,  the  "  Martyrdom  of  Sebastian,"  and  other  subjects, 
and  some  further  works  in  the  city  and  its  vicinity.  Here  his 
style  combined  something  of  Lippo  Lippi  with  its  original 
elements,  and  he  received  co-operation  from  Giusto  d'Andrea. 
He  stayed  in  this  city  till  1467,  and  then  began,  in  the  Campo 
Santo  of  Pisa,  from  1469,  the  vast  series  of  mural  paintings 
with  which  his  name  is  specially  identified.  There  are  twenty- 
four  subjects  from  the  Old  Testament,  from  the  "  Invention  of 
Wine  by  Noah  "  to  the  "  Visit  of  the  Queen  of  Sheba  to  Solomon." 
He  contracted  to  paint  three  subjects  per  year  for  about  ten 
ducats  each — a  sum  which  may  be  regarded  as  equivalent  ta 


3°6 


GRAAFF  REINET— GRABE 


£100  at  the  present  day.  It  appears,  however,  that  this  contract 
was  not  strictly  adhered  to,  for  the  actual  rate  of  painting  was 
only  three 'pictures  in  two  years.  Perhaps  the  great  multitude 
of  figures  and  accessories  was  accepted  as  a  set-off  against  the 
slower  rate  of  production.  By  January  1470  he  had  executed 
the  fresco  of"  Noah  and  his  Family," — followed  by  the  "  Curse 
of  Ham,"  the  "Building  of  the  Tower  of  Babel  "  (which  contains 
portraits  of  Cosmo  de'  Medici,  the  young  Lorenzo  Politian  and 
others),  the"  Destruction  of  Sodom, "the  "Victory  of  Abraham," 
the  "  Marriages  of  Rebecca  and  of  Rachel,"  the  "  Life  of  Moses," 
&c.  In  the  Cappella  Ammannati,  facing  a  gate  of  the  Campo 
Santo,  he  painted  also  an  "Adoration  of  the  Magi,"  wherein 
appears  a  portrait  of  himself.  All  this  enormous  mass  of  work, 
in  which  Gozzoli  was  probably  assisted  by  Zanobi  Macchiavelli, 
was  performed,  in  addition  to  several  other  pictures  during  his 
stay  in  Pisa  (we  need  only  specify  the  "  Glory  of  St  Thomas 
Aquinas,"  now  in  the  Louvre),  in  sixteen  years,  lasting  up  to 
1485.  This  is  the  latest  date  which  can  with  certainty  be 
assigned  to  any  work  from  his  hand,  although  he  is  known  to 
have  been  alive  up  to  1498.  In  1478  the  Pisan  authorities  had 
given  him,  as  a  token  of  their  regard,  a  tomb  in  the  Campo 
Santo.  He  had  likewise  a  house  of  his  own  in  Pisa,  and  houses 
and  land  in  Florence.  In  rectitude  of  life  he  is  said  to  have  been 
worthy  of  his  first  master,  Fra  Angelico. 

The  art  of  Gozzoli  does  not  rival  that  of  his  greatest  contem- 
poraries either  in  elevation  or  in  strength,  but  is  pre-eminently 
attractive  by  its  sense  of  -what  is  rich,  winning,  lively  and 
abundant  in  the  aspects  of  men  and  things.  His  landscapes, 
thronged  with  birds  and  quadrupeds,  especially  dogs,  are  more 
varied,  circumstantial  and  alluring  than  those  of  any  predecessor; 
his  compositions  are  crowded  with  figures,  more  characteristically 
true' when  happily  and  gracefully  occupied  than  when  the  demands 
of  the  subject  require  tragic  or  dramatic  intensity,  or  turmoil 
of  action;  his  colour  is  bright,  vivacious  and  festive.  Gozzoli's 
genius  was,  on  the  whole,  more  versatile  and  assimilative  than 
vigorously  original;  his  drawing  not  free  from  considerable 
imperfections,  especially  in  the  extremities  and  articulations, 
and  in  the  perspective  of  his  gorgeously-schemed  buildings. 
In  fresco-painting  he  used  the  methods  of  tempera,  and  the  decay 
of  his  works  has  been  severe  in  proportion.  Of  his  untiring 
industry  the  recital  of  his  labours  and  the  number  of  works 
produced  are  the  most  forcible  attestation. 

Vasari,  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle,  and  the  other  ordinary  authori- 
ties, can  be  consulted  as  to  the  career  of  Gozzoli.  A  separate 
Life  of  him,  by  H.  Stokes,  was  published  in  1903  in  Newnes's  Art 
library.  (W.  M.  R.) 

GRAAFF  REINET,  a  town  of  South  Africa,  185  m.  by  rail 
N.W.  by  N.  of  Port  Elizabeth.  Pop.  (1904)  10,083,  °f  whom 
4055  were  whites.  The  town  lies  2463  ft.  above  the  sea  and  is 
built  on  the  banks  of  the  Sunday  river,which  rises  a  little  farther 
north  on  the  southern  slopes  of  the  Sneeuwberg,  and  here 
ramifies  into  several  channels.  The  Dutch  church  is  a  handsome 
stone  building  with  seating  accommodation  for  1 500  people.  The 
college  is  an  educational  centre  of  some  importance;  it  was 
rebuilt  in  1906.  Graaff  Reinet  is  a  flourishing  market  for 
agricultural  produce,  the  district  being  noted  for  its  mohair 
industry,  its  orchards  and  vineyards. 

The  town  was  founded  by  the  Cape  Dutch  in  1786,  being  named 
after  the  then  governor  of  Cape  Colony,  C.  J.  van  de  Graaff, 
and  his  wife.  In  1 795  the  burghers,  smarting  under  the  exactions 
of  the  Dutch  East  India  Company  proclaimed  a  republic. 
Similar  action  was  taken  by  the  burghers  of  Swellendam.  Before 
the  authorities  at  Cape  Town  could  take  decisive  measures 
against  the  rebels,  they  were  themselves  compelled  to  capitulate 
to  the  British.  The  burghers  having  endeavoured,  unsuccessfully, 
to  get  aid  from  a  French  warship  at  Algoa  Bay  surrendered  to 
Colonel  (afterwards  General  Sir)  J.  O.  Vandeleur.  In  January 
1799  Marthinus  Prinsloo,  the  leader  of  the  republicans  in  1795, 
again  rebelled,  but  surrendered  in  April  following.  Prinsloo 
and  nineteen'  others  were  imprisoned  in  Cape  Town  castle. 
After  trial,  Prinsloo  and  another  commandant  were  sentenced 
to  death  and  others  to  banishment.  The  sentences  were  not 


carried  out  and  the  prisoners  were  released,  March  1803,  on  the 
retrocession  of  the  Cape  to  Holland.  In  1801  there  had  been 
another  revolt  in  Graaff  Reinet,  but  owing  to  the  conciliatory 
measures  of  General  F.  Dundas  (acting  governor  of  the  Cape) 
peace  was  soon  restored.  It  was  this  district,  where  a  republican 
government  in  South  Africa  was  first  proclaimed,  which  furnished 
large  numbers  of  the  voortrekkers  in  1835-1842.  It  remains  a 
strong  Dutch  centre. 

See  J.  C.  Voight,  Fifty  Years  of  the  History  of  the  Republic  in 
South  Africa  1795-1845,  vol.  i.  (London,  1899). 

GRABBE,  CHRISTIAN  DIETRICH  (1801-1836),  German 
dramatist,  was  born  at  Detmold  on  the  nth  of  December  1801. 
Entering  the  university  of  Leipzig  in  1819  as  a  student  of  law, 
he  continued  the  reckless  habits  which  he  had  begun  at  Detmold, 
and  neglected  his  studies.  Being  introduced  into  literary 
circles,  he  conceived  the  idea  of  becoming  an  actor  and  wrote 
the  drama  Herzog  Theodor  von  Gothland  (1822).  This,  though 
showing  considerable  literary  talent,  lacks  artistic  form,  and 
is  morally  repulsive.  Ludwig  Tieck,  while  encouraging  the 
young  author,  pointed  out  its  faults,  and  tried  to  reform  Grabbe 
himself.  In  1822  Grabbe  removed  to  Berlin  University,  and  in 
1824  passed  his  advocate's  examination.  He  now  settled  in  his 
native  town  as  a  lawyer  and  in  1827  was  appointed  a  MilUar- 
auditeur.  In  1833  he  married,  but  in  consequence  of  his  drunken 
habits  was  dismissed  from  his  office,  and,  separating  from  his 
wife,  visited  Dtisseldorf,  where  he  was  kindly  received  by  Karl 
Immermann.  After  a  serious  quarrel  with  the  latter,  he  returned 
to  Detmold,  where,  as  a  result  of  his  excesses,  he  died  on  the  i2th 
of  September  1836. 

Grabbe  had  real  poetical  gifts,  and  many  of  his  dramas  contain 
fine  passages  and  a  wealth  of  original  ideas.  They  largely 
reflect  his  own  life  and  character,  and  are  characterized  by 
cynicism  and  indelicacy.  Their  construction  also  is  defective 
and  little  suited  to  the  requirements  of  the  stage.  The  boldly 
conceived  Don  Juan  und  Faust  (1829)  and  the  historical  dramas 
Friedrich  Barbarossa  (1829),  Heinrich  VI.  (1830),  and  Napoleon 
oder  die  Hundert  Tage  (1831),  the  last  of  which  places  the  battle 
of  Waterloo  upon  the  stage,  are  his  best  works.  Among  others 
are  the  unfinished  tragedies  Marius  and  Sulla  (continued  by 
Erich  Korn,  Berlin,  1890);  and  Hannibal  (1835,  supplemented 
and  edited  by  C.  Spielmann,  Halle,  1901);  and  the  patriotic 
Hermannsschlacht  or  the  battle  between  Arminius  and  Varus 
(posthumously  published  with  a  biographical  notice,  by  E. 
Duller,  1838). 

Grabbe's  works  have  been  edited  by  O.  Blumenthal  (4  vols., 
1875),  and  E.  Grisebach  (4  vols.,  1902).  For  further  notices  of  his 
life,  see  K.  Ziegler,  Grabbes  Leben  und  Charakter  (1855);  O. 
Blumenthal,  Beitrdge  zur  Kenntnis  Grabbes  (1875);  C.  A.  Piper, 
Grabbe  (1898),  and  A.  Ploch,  Grabbes  Stellung  in  der  deutschen  Litera- 
tur  (1905). 

GRABE,  JOHN  ERNEST  (1666-1711),  Anglican  divine,  was 
born  on  the  loth  of  July  1666,  at  Konigsberg,  where  his  father, 
Martin  Sylvester  Grabe,  was  professor  of  theology  and  history. 
In  his  theological  studies  Grabe  succeeded  in  persuading  himself 
of  the  schismatical  character  of  the  Reformation,  and  accordingly 
he  presented  to  the  consistory  of  Samland  in  Prussia  a  memorial 
in  which  he  compared  the  position  of  the  evangelical  Protestant 
churches  with  that  of  the  Novatians  and  other  ancient  schis- 
matics. He  had  resolved  to  join  the  Church  of  Rome  when  a 
commission  of  Lutheran  divines  pointed  out  flaws  in  his  written 
argument  and  called  his  attention  to  the  English  Church  as 
apparently  possessing  that  apostolic  succession  and  manifesting 
thatifidelity  to  ancient  institutions  which  he  desired.  He 
came  to  England,  settled  in  Oxford,  was  ordained  in  1700,  and 
became  chaplain  of  Christ  Church.  His  inclination  was  towards 
the  party  of  the  nonjurors.  The  learned  labours  to  which  the 
remainder  of  his  life  was  devoted  were  rewarded  with  an  Oxford 
degree  and  a  royal  pension.  He  died  on  the  3rd  of  November 
1711,  and  in  1726  a  monument  was  erected  to  him  by  Edward 
Harley,  earl  of  Oxford,  in  Westminster  Abbey.  He  was  buried 
in  St  Pancras  Church,  London. 

•  Some  account  of  Grabe's  life  is  given  in  R.  Nelson's  Life  of  George 
Bull,  and  by  George  Hickes  in  a  discourse  prefixed  to  the  pamphlet 
against  W.  Whiston's  Collection  of  Testimonies  against  the  True 


GRACCHUS 


307 


Deity  of  the  Son  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  His  works,  which  show  him 
to  have  been  learned  and  laborious  but  somewhat  deficient  in 
critical  acumen,  include  a  Spicilegium  SS.  Patrum  et  haereticorum 
(1698-1699),  which  was  designed  to  cover  the  first  three  centuries 
of  the  Christian  church,  but  was  not  continued  beyond  the  close  of 
the  second.  A  second  edition  of  this  work  was  published  in  1714. 
He  brought  out  an  edition  of  Justin  Martyr's  Apologia  prima  (1700), 
of  Irenaeus,  Adversus  omnes  haereses  (1702),  of  the  Septuagint, 
and  of  Bishop  Bull's  Latin  works  (1703).  His  edition  of  the  Septua- 
gint was  based  on  the  Codex  Alexandrinus;  it  appeared  in  4  volumes 
(1707-1720),  and  was  completed  by  Francis  Lee  and  by  George 
Wigan. 

GRACCHUS,  in  ancient  Rome,  the  name  of  a  plebeian  family 
of  the  Sempronian  gens.  Its  most  distinguished  representatives 
were  .the  famous  tribunes  of  the  people,  Tiberius  and  Gaius 
Sempronius  Gracchus,  (4)  and  (5)  below,  usually  called  simply 
"  the  Gracchi." 

1.  TIBERIUS   SEMPRONIUS   GRACCHUS,   consul  in   238   B.C., 
carried  on  successful  operations  against  the  Ligurian  mountaineers, 
and,  at  the  conclusion  of  the  Carthaginian  mercenary  war, 
was  in  command  of  the  fleet  which  at  the  invitation  of  the 
insurgents  took  possession  of  the  island  of  Sardinia. 

2.  TIBERIUS  SEMPRONIUS  GRACCHUS,  probably  the  son  of 
( i ),  distinguished  himself  during  the  second  Punic  war.     Consul 
in  215,  he  defeated  the  Capuans  who  had  entered  into  an  alliance 
with  Hannibal,  and  in  214  gained  a  signal  success  over  Hanno 
near  Beneventum,  chiefly  owing  to  the  wlones  (slave- volunteers), 
to  whom  he  had  promised  freedom  in  the  event  of  victory.     In 
213  Gracchus  was  consul  a  second  time  and  carried  on  the  war 
in  Lucania;  in  the  following  year,  while  advancing  northward 
to  reinforce  the  consuls  in  their  attack  on  Capua,  he  was  betrayed 
into  the  hands  of  the  Carthaginian  Mago  by  a  Lucanian  of  rank, 
who  had  formerly  supported  the  Roman  cause  and  was  connected 
with  Gracchus  himself  by  ties  of  hospitality.     Gracchus  fell 
fighting  bravely;  his  body  was  sent  to  Hannibal,  who  accorded 
him  a  splendid  burial. 

3.  TIBERIUS    SEMPRONIUS    GRACCHUS   (c.    210-151   B.C.), 
father  of  the  tribunes,  and  husband  of  Cornelia,  the  daughter 
of  the  elder  Scipio  Africanus,  was  possibly  the  son  of  a  Publius 
Sempronius  Gracchus  who  was  tribune  in   189.     Although  a 
determined  political  opponent  of  the  two    Scipios    (Asiaticus 
and  Africanus),  as  tribune  in  187  he  interfered  on  their  behalf 
when  they  were  accused  of  having  accepted  bribes  from  the  king 
of  Syria  after  the  war.   In  185  he  was  a  member  of  the  commission 
sent  to  Macedonia  to  investigate  the  complaints  made  by  Eumenes 
II.  of  Pergamum  against  Philip  V.  of  Macedon.     In  his  curule 
aedileship  (182)  he  celebrated  the  games  on  so  magnificent  a  scale 
that  the  burdens  imposed  upon  the  Italian  and  extra-Italian 
communities  led  to  the  official  interference  of  the  senate.     In 
181  he  went  as  praetor  to  Hither  Spain,  and,  after  gaining 
signal  successes  in  the  field,  applied  himself  to  the  pacification 
of  the  country.     His  strict  sense  of  justice  and  sympathetic 
attitude  won  the  respect  and  affection  of  the  inhabitants;  the 
land  had  rest  for  a  quarter  of  a  century.     When  consul  in  177, 
he  was  occupied  in  putting  down  a  revolt  in  Sardinia,  and  brought 
back  so  many  prisoners  that  Sardi  venales  (Sardinians  for  sale) 
became  a  proverbial  expression  for  a  drug  in  the  market.    In 
169  Gracchus  was  censor,  and  both  he  and  his  colleague  (C. 
Claudius  Pulcher)  showed   themselves   determined   opponents 
of  the  capitalists.     They  deeply  offended  the  equestrian  order 
by  forbidding  any  contractor  who  had  obtained  contracts  under 
the  previous  censors  to  make  fresh  offers.     Gracchus  stringently 
enforced  the  limitation  of  the  freedmen  to  the  four  city  tribes, 
which  completely  destroyed  their  influence  in  the  comitia.     In 
165  and  161  he  went  as  ambassador  to  several  Asiatic  princes, 
with  whom   he   established   friendly   relations.     Amongst   the 
•places  visited  by  him  was  Rhodes,  where  he  delivered  a  speech 
in  Greek,  which  he  afterwards  published.    In  163  he  was  again 
consul. 

4.  TIBERIUS  SEMPRONIUS  GRACCHUS  (163-133  B.C.),  son  of 
(3),  was  the  elder  of  the  two  great  reformers.     He  and  his  brother 
were  brought  up  by  their  mother  Cornelia,  assisted  by  the 
rhetorician  Diophanes  of  Mytilene  and  the  Stoic  Blossius  of 
Cumae.     In  147  he  served  under  his  brother-in-law  the  younger 


Scipio  in  Africa  during  the  last  Punic  war,  and  was  the  first 
to  mount  the  walls  in  the  attack  on  Carthage.  When  quaestor 
in  137,  he  accompanied  the  consul  C.  Hostilius  Mancinus  to 
Spain.  During  the  Numantine  war  the  Roman  army  was  saved 
from  annihilation  only  by  the  efforts  of  Tiberius,  with  whom 
alone  the  Numantines  consented  to  treat,  out  of  respect  for  the 
memory  of  his  father.  The  senate  refused  to  ratify  the  agree- 
ment; Mancinus  was  handed  over  to  the  enemy  as  a  sign  that 
it  was  annulled,  and  only  personal  popularity  saved  Tiberius 
himself  from  punishment.  In  133  he  was  tribune,  and  cham- 
pioned the  impoverished  farmer  class  and  the  lower  orders. 
His  proposals  (see  AGRARIAN  LAWS)  met  with  violent  opposition, 
and  were  not  carried  until  he  had,  illegally  and  unconstitutionally, 
secured  the  deposition  of  his  fellow-tribune,  M.  Octavius,  who 
had  been  persuaded  by  the  optimates  to  veto  them.  The  senate 
put  every  obstacle  in  the  way  of  the  three  commissioners  ap- 
pointed to  carry  out  the  provisions  of  the  law,  and  Tiberius,  in 
view  of  the  bitter  enmity  he  had  aroused,  saw  that  it  was  necessary 
to  strengthen  his  hold  on  the  popular  favour.  The  legacy  to 
the  Roman  people  of  the  kingdom  and  treasures  of  Attalus  III. 
of  Pergamum  gave  him  an  opportunity.  He  proposed  that  the 
money  realized  by  the  sale  of  the  treasures  should  be  divided, 
for  the  purchase  of  implements  and  stock,  amongst  those  to 
whom  assignments  of  land  had  been  made  under  the  new  law. 
He  is  also  said  to  have  brought  forward  measures  for  shortening 
the  period  of  military  service,  for  extending  the  right  of  appeal 
from  the  judices  to  the  people,  for  abolishing  the  exclusive 
privilege  of  the  senators  to  act  as  jurymen,  and  even  for  admit- 
ting the  Italian  allies  to  citizenship.  To  strengthen  his  position 
further,  Tiberius  offered  himself  for  re-election  as  tribune  for  the 
following  year.  The  senate  declared  that  it  was  illegal  to  hold 
this  office  for  two  consecutive  years;  but  Tiberius  treated  this 
objection  with  contempt.  To  win  the  sympathy  of  the  people, 
he  appeared  in  mourning,  and  appealed  for  protection  for  his 
wife  and  children,  and  whenever  he  left  his  house  he  was  accom- 
panied by  a  bodyguard  of  3000  men,  chiefly  consisting  of  the 
city  rabble.  The  meeting  of  the  tribes  for  the  election  of  tribunes 
broke  up  in  disorder  on  two  successive  days,  without  any  result 
being  attained,  although  on  both  occasions  the  first  divisions 
voted  in  favour  of  Tiberius.  A  rumour  reached  the  senate  that 
he  was  aiming  at  supreme  power,  that  he  had  touched  his  head 
with  his  hand,  a  sign  that  he  was  asking  for  a  crown.  An  appeal 
to  the  consul  P.  Mucius  Scaevola  to  order  him  to  be  put  to  death 
at  once  having  failed,  P.  Scipio  Nasica  exclaimed  that  Scaevola 
was  acting  treacherously  towards  the  state,  and  called  upon 
those  who  agreed  with  him  to  take  up  arms  and  follow  him. 
During  the  riot  that  followed,  Tiberius  attempted  to  escape, 
but  stumbled  on  the  slope  of  the  Capitol  and  was  beaten  to  death 
with  the  end  of  a  bench.  At  night  his  body,  with  those  of  300 
others,  was  thrown  into  the  Tiber.  The  aristocracy  boldly 
assumed  the  responsibility  for  what  had  occurred,  and  set  up  a 
commission  to  inquire  into  the  case  of  the  partisans  of  Tiberius, 
many  of  whom  were  banished  and  others  put  to  death.  Even 
the  moderate  Scaevola  subsequently  maintained  that  Nasica 
was  justified  in  his  action;  and  it  was  reported  that  Scipio, 
when  he  heard  at  Numantia  of  his  brother-in-law's  death, 
repeated  the  line  of  Homer — "  So  perish  all  who  do  the  like 
again." 

See  Livy,  Epit.  58;  Appian,  Bell.  civ.  i.  9-17;  Plutarch,  Tiberius 
Gracchus;  Veil.  Pat.  ii.  2,  3. 

5.  GAIUS  SEMPRONIUS  GRACCHUS  (153-121  B.C.),  younger 
brother  of  (4),  was  a  man  of  greater  abilities,  bolder  and  more 
passionate,  although  possessed  of  considerable  powers  of  self- 
control,  and  a  vigorous  and  impressive  orator.  When  twenty 
years  of  age  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  commissioners  to 
carry  out  the  distribution  of  land  under  the  provisions  of  his 
brother's  agrarian  law.  At  the  time  of  Tiberius's  death,  Gaius 
was  serving  under  his  brother-in-law  Scipio  in  Spain,  but 
probably  returned  to  Rome  in  the  following  year  (132).  In 
131  he  supported  the  bill  of  C.  Papirius  Carbo,  the  object  of 
which  was  to  make  it  legal  for  a  tribune  to  offer  himself  as  candi- 
date for  the  office  in  two  consecutive  years,  and  thus  to  remove 


3o8 


GRACE,  W.  G. 


one  of  the  chief  obstacles  that  had  hampered  Tiberius.  The  bil! 
was  then  rejected,  but  appears  to  have  subsequently  passed  in 
a  modified  form,  as  Gaius  himself  was  re-elected  without  any 
disturbance.  Possibly,  however,  his  re-election  was  illegal 
and  he  had  only  succeeded  where  his  brother  had  failed.  For 
the  nex£  few  years  nothing  is  heard  of  Gaius.  Public  opinion 
pointed  him  out  as  the  man  to  avenge  his  brother's  death  anc 
carry  out  his  plans,  and  the  aristocratic  party,  warned  by  the 
example  of  Tiberius,  were  anxious  to  keep  him  away  from  Rome 
In  126  Gaius  accompanied  the  consul  L.  Aurelius  Orestes  as 
quaestor  to  Sardinia,  then  in  a  state  of  revolt.  Here  he  made 
himself  so  popular  that  the  senate  in  alarm  prolonged  the 
command  of  Orestes,  in  order  that  Gaius  might  be  obliged  to 
remain  there  in  his  capacity  of  quaestor.  But  he  returned  to 
Rome  without  the  permission  of  the  senate,  and,  when  called 
to  account  by  the  censors,  defended  himself  so  successfully 
that  he  was  acquitted  of  having  acted  illegally.  The  disappointed 
aristocrats  then  brought  him  to  trial  on  the  charge  of  being 
implicated  in  the  revolt  of  Fregellae,  and  in  other  ways  unsuccess- 
fully endeavoured  to  undermine  his  influence.  Gaius  then 
decided  to  act;  against  the  wishes  of  his  mother  he  became 
a  candidate  for  the  tribuneship,  and,  in  spite  of  the  determined 
opposition  of  the  aristocracy,  he  was  elected  for  the  year  123, 
although  only  fourth  on  the  list.  The  legislative  proposals1 
brought  forward  by  him  had  for  their  object: — the  punish- 
ment of  his  brother's  enemies;  the  relief  of  distress  and  the 
attachment  to  himself  of  the  city  populace;  the  diminution 
of  the  power  of  the  senate  and  the  increase  of  that  of  the  equiies; 
the  amelioration  of  the  political  status  of  the  Italians  and 
provincials. 

A  law  was  passed  that  no  Roman  citizen  should  be  tried  in 
a  matter  affecting  his  life  or  political  status  unless  the  people  had 
previously  given  its  assent.  This  was  specially  aimed  at  Popilius 
Laenas,  who  had  taken  an  active  part  in  the  prosecution  of  the 
adherents  of  Tiberius.  Another  law  enacted  that  any  magistrate 
who  had  been  deprived  of  office  by  decree  of  the  people  should  be 
incapacitated  from  holding  office  again.  This  was  directed  against 
M.  Octavius,  who  had  been  illegally  deprived  of  his  tribunate 
through  Tiberius.  This  unfair  and  vindictive  measure  was  with- 
drawn at  the  earnest  request  of  Cornelia. 

He  revived  his  brother's  agrarian  law,  which,  although  it 
had  not  been  repealed,  had  fallen  into  abeyance.  By  his  Lex 
Frumentaria  every  citizen  resident  in  Rome  was  entitled  to  a  certain 
amount  of  corn  at  about  half  the  usual  price;  as  the  distribution 
only  applied  to  those  living  in  the  capital,  the  natural  result  was 
that  the  poorer  country  citizens  flocked  into  Rome  and  swelled  the 
number  of  Gaius's  supporters.  No  citizen  was  to  be  obliged  to 
serve  in  the  army  before  the  commencement  of  his  eighteenth  year, 
and  his  military  outfit  was  to  be  supplied  by  the  state,  instead  of 
being  deducted  from  his  pay.  Gaius  also  proposed  the  establishment 
of  colonies  in  Italy  (at  Tarentum  and  Capua),  and  sent  out  to  the 
site  of  Carthage  6000  colonists  to  found  the  new  city  of  Junonia, 
the  inhabitants  of  which  were  to  possess  the  rights  of  Roman 
citizens;  this  was  the  first  attempt  at  over-sea  colonization.  A  new 
system  of  roads  was  constructed  which  afforded  easier  access  to 
Rome.  Having  thus  gained  over  the  city  proletariat,  in  order 
to  secure  a  majority  in  the  comitia  by  its  aid,  Gaius  did  away  with 
the  system  of  voting  in  the  comitia  centuriata,  whereby  the  five 
property  classes  in  each  tribe  gave  their  votes  one  after  another 
and  introduced  promiscuous  voting  in  an  order  fixed  by  lot. 

The  judices  in  the  standing  commissions  for  the  trial  of  par- 
ticular offences  (the  most  important  of  which  was  that  dealing 
with  the  trial  of  provincial  magistrates  for  extortion,  de  repetundis) 
were  in  future  to  be  chosen  from  the  equites  (q.v.),  not  as  hitherto 
from  the  senate.  The  taxes  of  the  new  province  of  Asia  were  to  be 
let  out  by  the  censors  to  Roman  publicani  (who  belonged  to  the 
equestrian  order)  who  paid  down  a  lump  sum  for  the  right  of 
collecting  them.  It  is  obvious  that  this  afforded  the  equites  ex- 
tensive opportunities  for  money-making  and  extortion,  while  the 
alteration  in  the  appointment  of  the  judices  gave  them  the  same 
practical  immunity  and  perpetuated  the  old  abuses,  with  the  differ- 
ence that  it  was  no  longer  senators,  but  equites,  who  could  look 
forward  with  confidence  to  being  leniently  dealt  with  by  men 
belonging  to  their  own  order ;  Gaius  also  expected  that  this  moneyed 
aristocracy,  which  had  taken  the  part  of  the  senate  against  Tiberius, 
would  now  support  him  against  it.  It  was  enacted  that  the  pro- 
vinces to  be  assigned  to  the  consuls,  should  be  determined  before, 

'These  measures  cannot  be  arranged  in  any  definite  chronological 
order  nor  can  it  be  decided  which  belong  to  his  first,  which  to  his 
second  tnbuneship.  See  W.  Warde  Fowler  in  Eng His I 
1905,  pp.  209  sqq.,  417  sqq. 


instead  of  after  their  election ;  and  the  consuls  themselves  had  to 
settle,  by  lot  or  other  arrangement,  which  province  each  of  them 
would  take.* 

These  measures  raised  Gaius  to  the  height  of  his  popularity, 
and  during  the  year  of  his  first  tribuneship  he  may  be  considered 
the  absolute  ruler  of  Rome.    He  was  chosen  tribune  for  the  second 
time  for  the  year  122.     To  this  period  is  probably  to  be  assigned 
his  proposal  that  the  franchise  should  be  given  to  all  the  Latin 
communities  and  that  the  status  of  the  Latins  should  be  con- 
ferred upon  the  Italian  allies.     In  125  M.  Fulvius  Flaccus  had 
brought  forward  a  similar  measure,  but  he  was  got  out  of  the  way 
by  the  senate,  who  sent  him  to  fight  in  Gaul.     This  proposal, 
more  statesmanlike  than  any  of  the  others,  was  naturally  opposed 
by   the   aristocratic   party,    and   lessened   Gaius's  popularity 
amongst  his  own  supporters,  who  viewed  with  disfavour  the 
prospect  of  an  increase  in  the  number  of  Roman  citizens.     The 
senate  put  up  M.  Livius  Drusus  to  outbid  him,  and  his  absence 
from  Rome  while  superintending  the  organization  of  the  newly- 
founded  colony,  Junonia-Carthago,  was  taken  advantage  of  by 
his  enemies  to  weaken  his  influence.     On  his  return  he  found  his 
popularity  diminished.     He  failed  to  secure  the  tribuneship 
for  the  third  time,  and  his  bitter  enemy  L.  Opimius  was  elected 
consul.     The  latter  at  once  decided  to  propose  the  abandonment 
of  the  new  colony,  which  was  to  occupy  the  site  cursed  by 
Scipio,  while  its  foundation  had  been  attended  by  unmistakable 
manifestations  of  the  wrath  of  the  gods.     On  the  day  when  the 
matter  was  to  be  put  to  the  vote,  a  lictor  named  Antyllius,  who 
had  insulted  the  supporters  of  Gaius,  was  stabbed  to  death. 
This  gave  his  opponents  the  desired  opportunity.     Gaius  was 
declared  a  public  enemy,  and  the  consuls  were  invested  with 
dictatorial  powers.     The  Gracchans,  who  had  taken  up  their 
position  in  the  temple  of  Diana  on  the  Aventine,  offered  little 
resistance  to  the  attack  ordered  by  Opimius.     Gaius  managed 
to  escape  across  the  Tiber,  where  his  dead  body  was  found  on 
the  following  day  in  the  grove  of  Furrina  by  the  side  of  that 
of  a  slave,  who  had  probably  slain  his  master  and  then  himself. 
The  property  of  the  Gracchans  was  confiscated,  and  a  temple 
of  Concord  erected  in  the  Forum  from  the  proceeds.     Beneath 
the  inscription  recording  the  occasion  on  which  the  temple  had 
been  built  some  one  during  the  night  wrote  the  words:   "The 
work  of  Discord  makes  the  temple  of  Concord." 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.— See  Livy,  Epit.  60;  Appian,  Bell.  Civ.  i.  21- 
Plutarch,  Gaius  Gracchus;  Orosius  v.  12;  Aulus  Gellius  x.  3, 
xi.  10.  For  an  account  of  the  two  tribunes  see  Mommsen,  Hist, 
of  Rome  (Eng.  trans.),  bk.  iv.,  chs.  2  and  3;  C.  Neumann,  Geschichte 
Roms  wdhrend  des  Verfalles  der  Republik  (1881) ;  A.  H.  J.  Greenidge, 
History  of  Rome  (1904);  E.  Meyer,  Untersuchungen  zur  Geschichte 
der  Gracchen  (1894);  G.  E.  Underbill,  Plutarch's  Lives  of  the  Gracchi 
(1892);  W.  Warde  Fowler  in  English  Historical  Review  (1905), 
jp.  209  and  417;  Long,  Decline  of  the  Roman  Republic,  chs.  10-13, 

~l-3'  conte'iinK.a  careful  examination  of  the  ancient  authorities; 

-  F.  Hertzberg  in  Ersch  and  Gruber's  Allgemeine  Encyclopddie; 
C.  W.  Oman,  Seven  Roman  Statesmen  of  the  later  Republic  (lOtt): 
T.  Lau,  Die  Gracchen  und  ihre  Zeil  (1854).  The  exhaustive  mono- 
graph by  C.  W.  Nitzsch,  Die  Gracchen  und  ihre  ndchsten  Vorgdnger 
(1847),  also  contains  an  account  of  the  other  members  of  the  family, 
with  full  references  to  ancient  authorities  in  the  notes.  (J.  H.  F.) 

GRACE,  WILLIAM  GILBERT  (1848-  ),  English  cricketer, 
was  born  at  Downend,  Gloucestershire,  on  the  i8th  of  July 
1848.  He  found  himself  in  an  atmosphere  charged  with  cricket, 
lis  father  (Henry  Mills  Grace)  and  his  uncle  (Alfred  Pocock) 
being  as  enthusiastic  over  the  game  as  his  elder  brothers,  Henry, 
Alfred  and  Edward  Mills;  indeed,  in  E.  M.  Grace  the  family 
name  first  became  famous.  A  younger  brother,  George  Frederick, 
also  added  to  the  cricket  reputation  of  the  family.  "W.  G." 
witnessed  his  first  great  match  when  he  was  hardly  six  years 
old,  the  occasion  being  a  game  between  W.  Clarke's  All-England 

leven  and  twenty-two  of  West  Gloucestershire.  He  was 
indowed  by  nature  with  a  splendid  physique  as  well  as  with 
powers  of  self-restraint  and  determination.  At  the  acme  of  his 
:areer  he  stood  full  6  ft.  2  in.,  being  powerfully  proportioned, 
oose  yet  strong  of  limb.  A  non-smoker,  and  very  moderate 

^  l} j'S  suSKested  by  W.  Warde  Fowler  that  Gracchus  proposed 
o  add  a  certain  number  of  equites  to  the  senate,  thereby  increasing 
t  to  900,  but  the  plan  was  never  carried  out. 


GRACE 


309 


in  all  matters,  he  kept  himself  in  condition  all  the  year  round, 
shooting,  hunting  or  running  with  the  beagles  as  soon  as  the 
cricket  season  was  over.  He  was  also  a  fine  runner,  440  yds. 
over  20  hurdles  being  his  best  distance;  and  it  may  be  quoted 
as  proof  of  his  stamina  that  on  the  3oth  of  July  1866  he  scored 
224  not  out  for  England  v.  Surrey,  and  two  days  later  won  a 
race  in  the  National  and  Olympian  Association  meeting  at  the 
Crystal  Palace.  The  title  of  "  champion  "  was  well  earned  by 
one  who  for  thirty-six  years  (1865-1900  inclusive)  was  actively 
engaged  in  first-class  cricket.  In  each  of  these  years  he  was 
invited  to  represent  the  Gentlemen  in  their  matches  against  the 
Players,  and,  when  an  Australian  eleven  visited  England,  to 
play  for  the  mother  country.  As  late  as  1899  he  played  in  the 
first  of  the  five  international  contests;  in  1900  he  played  against 
the  players  at  the  Oval,  scoring  58  and  3.  At  fifty-three  he 
scored  nearly  1300  runs  in  first-class  cricket,  made  100  runs  and 
over  on  three  different  occasions  and  could  claim  an  average 
of  42  runs.  Moreover,  his  greatest  triumphs  were  achieved 
when  only  the  very  best  cricket  grounds  received  serious  atten- 
tion; when,  as  some  consider,  bowling  was  maintained  at  a  higher 
standard  and  when  all  hits  had  to  be  run  out.  He,  with  his  two 
brothers,  E.  M.  and  G.  F.,  assisted  by  some  fine  amateurs,  made 
Gloucestershire  in  one  season  a  first-class  county;  and  it  was 
he  who  first  enabled  the  amateurs  of  England  to  meet  the  paid 
players  on  equal  terms  and  to  beat  them.  There  was  hardly  a 
"  record  "  connected  with  the  game  which  did  not  stand  to  his 
credit.  Grace  was  one  of  the  finest  fieldsmen  in  England,  in  his 
earlier  days  generally  taking  long-leg  and  cover-point,  in  later 
times  generally  standing  point.  He  was,  at  his  best,  a  fine 
thrower,  fast  runner  and  safe  "  catch."  As  a  bowler  he  was 
long  in  the  first  flight,  originally  bowling  fast,  but  in  later  times 
adopting  a  slowe r  and  more  tricky  style,  frequently  very  effective. 
By  profession  he  was  a  medical  man.  In  later  years  he  became 
secretary  and  manager  of  the  London  County  Cricket  Club. 
He  was  married  in  1873  to  Miss  Agnes  Day,  and  one  of  his  sons 
played  for  two  years  in  the  Cambridge  eleven.  He  was  the 
recipient  of  two  national  testimonials:  the  first,  amounting  to 
£1500,  being  presented  to  him  in  the  form  of  a  clock  and  a 
cheque  at  Lord's  ground  by  Lord  Charles  Russell  on  the  22nd 
of  July  1879;  the  second,  collected  by  the  M.C.C.,  the  county 
of  Gloucestershire,  the  Daily  Telegraph  and  the  Sportsman, 
amounted  to  about  £10,000,  and  was  presented  to  him  in  1896. 
He  visited  Australia  in  1873-1874  (captain),  and  in  1891-1892 
with  Lord  Sheffield's  Eleven  (captain);  the  United  States  and 
Canada  in  1872,  with  R.  A. -Fitzgerald's  team. 

Dr  Grace  played  his  first  great  match  in  1863.  when,  being  only 
fifteen  years  of  age,  he  scored  32  against  the  All-England  Eleven 
and  the  bowling  of  Jackson,  Tarrant  and  Tinley;  but  the  scores 
which  first  made  his  name  prominent  were  made  in  1864,  viz. 
1 70  and  56  not  out  for  the  South  Wales  Club  against  the  Gentlemen 
of  Sussex.  It  was  in  1865  that  he  first  took  an  active  part  in  first- 
class  cricket,  being  then  6  ft.  in  height,  and  1 1  stone  in  weight, 
and  playing  twice  for  the  Gentlemen  ».  the  Players,  but  his  selection 
was  mainly  due  to  his  bowling  powers,  the  best  exposition  of  which 
was  his  aggregate  of  13  wickets  for  84  runs  for  the  Gentlemen  of 
the  South  ».  the  Players  of  the  South.  His  highest  score  was  400 
not  out,  made  in  July  1876  against  twenty-two  of  Grimsby;  but 
on  three  occasions  he  was  twice  dismissed  without  scoring  in  matches 
against  odds,  a  fate  that  never  befell  him  in  important  cricket. 
In  first-class  matches  his  highest  score  was  344,  made  for  the  M.C.C. 
v.  Kent  at  Canterbury,  in  August  1876;  two  days  later  he  made 
177  for  Gloucestershire  r.  Notts,  and  two  days  after  this  318  not 
out  for  Gloucestershire  v.  Yorkshire,  the  two  last-named  opposing 
counties  being  possessed  of  exceptionally  strong  bowling;  tnus  in 
three  consecutive  innings  Grace  scored  839  runs,  and  was  only  got 
out  twice.  .His  344  was  the  third  highest  individual  score  made  in 
a  big  match  in  England  up  to  the  end  of  1901.  He  also  scored  301 
for  Gloucestershire  v.  Sussex  at  Bristol,  in  August  1896.  He  made 
over  200  runs  on  ten  occasions,  the  most  notable  perhaps  being  in 
187 1 ,  when  he  performed  the  feat  twice,  each  time  in  benefit  matches, 
and  each  time  in  the  second  innings,  having  been  each  time  got  out 
in  the  first  over  of  the  first  innings.  He  scored  over  loo  runs  on 
121  occasions,  the  hundredth  score  being  288,  made  at  Bristol  for 
Gloucestershire  v.  Somersetshire  in  1895.  He  made  every  figure 
from  o  to  100,  on  one  occasion  "  closing  '  the  innings  when  heliad 
made  93,  the  only  total  he  had  never  made  between  these  limits. 
In  1871  he  made  ten  "  centuries,"  ranging  from  268  to  116.  In  the 
matches  between  the  Gentlemen  and  {'layers  he  scored  "  three 


figures  "  fifteen  times,  and  at  every  place  where  the§e  matches  have 
been  played.  He  made  over  100  in  each  of  his  "  fint  appearance!  " 
at  Oxford  and  Cambridge.  Three  times  he  made  over  loo  in  each 
innings  of  the  same  match,  viz.  at  Canterbury,  in  1868,  for  South  v. 
North  of  the  Thames,  130  and  102  not  out;  at  Clifton,  in  1887, 
for  Gloucestershire  v.  Kent,  101  and  103  not  out;  and  at  Clifton, 
in  1888,  for  Gloucestershire  v.  Yorkshire,  148  and  153.  In  1869, 
playing  at  the  Oval  for  the  Gentlemen  of  the  South  v.  the  Players 
of  the  South,  Grace  and  B.  B.  Cooper  put  on  283  runs  for  the  first 
wicket,  Grace  scoring  180  and  Cooper  101.  In  1886  Grace  and 
Scptton  put  on  170  runs  for  the  first  wicket  of  England  v,  Australia; 
this  occurred  at  the  Oval  in  August,  and  Grace  s  total  score  was 
170.  In  consecutive  innings  against  the  Players  from  1871  to  1874 
he  scored  217,  77  and  112, 117, 163,  158  and  70.  He  only  twice  scored 
over  loo  in  a  big  match  in  Australia,  nor  did  he  ever  make  200  at 
Lord's,  his  highest  being  196  for  the  M.C.C.  v.  Cambridge  University 
in  1894.  His  highest  aggregates  were  2739  (1871),  2622  (1876). 
2346  (1895),  2139  (1873),  2135  (1896)  and  2062  (1887).  He  scored 
three  successive  centuries  in  first-class  cricket  in  1871,  1872,  1873, 
1874  and  1876.  Playing  against  Kent  at  Gravescnd  in  1895,  he 
was  batting,  bowling  or  fielding  during  the  whole  time  the  game 
was  in  progress,  his  scores  being  257  and  73  not  out.  He  scored 
over  1000  runs  and  took  over  100  wickets  in  seven  different  seasons, 
viz.  in  1874,  1665  runs  and  129  wickets;  in  1875,  1498  runs,  193 
wickets;  in  1876,  2622  runs,  124  wickets;  in  1877,  1474  runs,  179 
wickets;  in  1878,  1151  runs,  153  wickets;  in  1885,  1688  runs. 
i  iH  wickets;  in  1886,  1846  runs,  122  wickets.  He  never  captured 
200  wickets  in  a  season,  his  highest  record  being  192  in  1*75.  Play- 
ing against  Oxford  University  in  1886,  he  took  all  the  wickets  in 
the  first  innings,  at  a  cost  of  49  runs.  In  1895  he  not  only  made 
his  hundredth  century,  but  actually  scored  loop  runs  in  the  month 
of  May  alone,  his  chief  scores  in  that  month  being  103,  288,  256,  73 
and  169,  he  being  then  forty-seven  years  old.  He  also  made  during 
that  year  scores  of  125,  119,  118,  104  and  103  not  put,  hjs  aggregate 
for  the  year  being  2346  and  his  average  51;  his  innings  of  118 
was  made  against  the  Players  (at  Lord's),  the  chief  bowlers  being 
Richardson,  Mold,  Peel  and  Attewell;  he  scored  level  with  his 
partner,  A.  E.  Stoddart  (his  junior  by  fifteen  years),  the  pair  making 
151  before  a  wicket  fell,  Grace  making  in  all  118  out  of  241.  This 
may  fairly  be  considered  one  of  his  most  wonderful  years.  In  1808 
the  match  between  Gentlemen  v.  Players  was,  as  a  special  compli- 
ment, arranged  by  the  M.C.C.  committee  to  take  place  on  his  birth- 
day, and  he  celebrated  the  event  by  scoring  43  and  31  not  out, 
though  handicapped  by  lameness  and  an  injured  hand.  In  twenty- 
six  different  seasons  he  scored  over  1000  runs,  in  three  of  these 
years  being  the  only  man  to  do  so  and  five  times  being  one  out  of 
two. 

During  the  thirty-six  years  up  to  and  including  1900  he  scored 
nearly  51,000  runs,  with  an  average  of  43;  and  in  bowling  he  took 
more  than  2800  wickets,  at  an  average  cost  of  about  20  runs  per 
wicket.  He  made  his  highest  aggregate  (2739  runs)  and  had  his 
highest  average  (78)  in  1871 ;  his  average  for  the  decade  1868-1877 
was  57  runs.  His  style  as  a  batsman  was  more  commanding  than 
graceful,  but  as  to  its  soundness  and  efficacy  there  were  never 
two  opinions;  the  severest  criticism  ever  passed  upon  his  powers 
was  to  the  effect  that  he  did  not  play  slow  bowling  quite  as  well 
as  fast.  (W.  J.  F.) 

GRACE  (Fr.  grace,  Lat.  gratia,  from  gratus,  beloved,  pleasing; 
formed  from  the  root  era-,  Gr.  \aa-,  cf.  \aipu,  x&ppa,  xApts), 
a  word  of  many  shades  of  meaning,  but  always  connoting  the 
idea  of  favour,  whether  that  in  which  one  stands  to  others 
or  that  which  one  shows  to  others.  The  New  English  Dictionary 
groups  the  meanings  of  the  word  under  three  main  heads: 
(i)  Pleasing  quality,  gracefulness,  (2)  favour,  goodwill,  (3) 
gratitude,  thanks. 

It  is  in  the  second  general  sense  of  "  favour  bestowed  "  that 
the  word  has  its  most  important  connotations.  In  this  sense 
it  means  something  given  by  superior  authority  as  a  concession 
made  of  favour  and  goodwill,  not  as  an  obligation  or  of  right. 
Thus,  a  concession  may  be  made  by  a  sovereign  or  other  public 
authority  "  by  way  of  grace."  Previous  to  the  Revolution  of 
1688  such  concessions  on  the  part  of  the  crown  were  known  in 
constitutional  law  as  "  Graces."  "  Letters  of  Grace  "  (gratiae, 
gratiosa  rescripta)  is  the  name  given  to  papal  rescripts  granting 
special  privileges,  indulgences,  exemptions  and  the  like.  In 
the  language  of  the  universities  the  word  still  survives  in  a 
shadow  of  this  sense.  The  word  "  grace  "  was  originally  a 
dispensation  granted  by  the  congregation  of  the  university, 
or  by  one  of  the  faculties,  from  some  statutable  conditions  re- 
quired for  a  degree.  In  the  English  universities  these  conditions 
ceased  to  be  enforced,  and  the  "  grace  "  thus  became  an  essential 
preliminary  to  any  degree;  so  that  the  word  has  acquired  the 
meaning  of  (o)  the  licence  granted  by  congregation  to  take  a 


GRACES,  THE— GRACIAN  Y  MORALES 


310 

degree,  (ft)  other  decrees  of  the  governing  body  (originally  dis- 
pensations from  statutes),  all  such  degrees  being  called  "  graces  " 
at  Cambridge,  (c)  the  permission  which  a  candidate  for  a  degree 
must  obtain  from  his  college  or  hall. 

To  this  general  sense  of  exceptional  favour  belong  the  uses 
of  the  word  in  such  phrases  as  "  do  me  this  grace,"  "  to  be  in 
some  one's  good  graces  "  and  certain  meanings  of  "  the  grace  of 
God."  The  style  "  by  the  grace  of  God,"  borne  by  the  king  of 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland  among  other  sovereigns,  though, 
as  implying  the  principle  of  "  legitimacy,"  it  has  been  since  the 
Revolution  sometimes  qualified  on  the  continent  by  the  addition 
of  "  and  the  will  of  the  people,"  means  in  effect  no  more  than  the 
"  by  Divine  Providence,"  which  is  the  style  borne  by  archbishops. 
To  the  same  general  sense  of  exceptional  favour  belong  the 
phrases  implying  the  concession  of  a  right  to  delay  in  fulfilling 
certain  obligations,  e.g.  "  a  fortnight's  grace."  In  law  the  "  days 
of  grace  "  are  the  period  allowed  for  the  payment  of  a  bill  of 
exchange,  after  the  term  for  which  it  has  been  drawn  (in  England 
three  days),  or  for  the  payment  of  an  insurance  premium,  &c. 
In  religious  language  the  "  Day  of  Grace  "  is  the  period  still 
open  to  the  sinner  in  which  to  repent.  In  the  sense  of  clemency 
or  mercy,  too,  "  grace  "  is  still,  though  rarely  used:  "  an  Act 
of  Grace  "  is  a  formal  pardon  or  a  free  and  general  pardon  granted 
by  act  of  parliament.  Since  to  grant  favours  is  the  prerogative 
of  the  great,  "  Your  Grace,"  "  His  Grace,"  &c.,  became  dutiful 
paraphrases  for  the  simple  "  you  "  and  "  he.  "  Formerly  used 
in  the  royal  address  ("  the  King's  Grace,"  &c.),  the  style  is  in 
England  now  confined  to  dukes  and  archbishops,  though  the 
style  of  "  his  most  gracious  majesty  "  is  still  used.  In  Germany 
the  equivalent,  Euer  Gnaden,  is  the  style  of  princes  who  are  not 
Durchlaucht  (i.e.  Serene  Highness),  and  is  often  used  as  a  polite 
address  to  any  superior. 

In  the  language  of  theology,  though  in  the  English  Bible  the 
word  is  used  in  several  of  the  above  senses,  "  grace  "  (Gr.  x<*P's) 
has  special  meanings.  Above  all,  it  signifies  the  spontaneous, 
unmerited  activity  of  the  Divine  Love  in  the  salvation  of  sinners, 
and  the  Divine  influence  operating  in  man  for  his  regeneration 
and  sanctification.  Those  thus  regenerated  and  sanctified  are 
said  to  be  in  a  "  state  of  grace."  In  the  New  Testament  grace 
is  the  forgiving  mercy  of  God,  as  opposed  to  any  human  merit 
(Rom.  xi.  6;  Eph.  ii.  5;  Col.  i.  6,  &c.);  it  is  applied  also  to 
certain  gifts  of  God  freely  bestowed  ,  e.g.  miracles,  tongues,  &c. 
(Rom.  xv.  15;  i  Cor.  xv.  10;  Eph.  iii.  8,  &c.),  to  the  Christian 
virtues,  gifts  of  God  also,  e.g.  charity,  holiness,  &c.  (2  Cor. 
viii.  7;  2  Pet.  iii.  18).  It  is  also  used  of  the  Gospel  generally, 
as  opposed  to  the  Law  (John  i.  17;  Rom.  vi.  14;  i  Pet.  v.  12, 
&c.);  connected  with  this  is  the  use  of  the  term  "  year  of  grace  " 
for  a  year  of  the  Christian  era. 

The  word  "  grace  "  is  the  central  subject  of  three  great 
theological  controversies:  (i)  that  of  the  nature  of  human 
depravity  and  regeneration  (see  PELAGIUS),  (2)  that  of  the 
relation  between  grace  and  free-will  (see  CALVIN,  JOHN,  and 
ARMINIUS,  JACOBUS),  (3)  that  of  the  "  means  of  grace  "  between 
Catholics  and  Protestants,  i.e.  whether  the  efficacy  of  the 
sacraments  as  channels  of  the  Divine  grace  is  ex  opere  operate 
or  dependent  on  the  faith  of  the  recipient. 

In  the  third  general  sense,  of  thanks  for  favours  bestowed, 
"  grace  "  survives  as  the  name  for  the  thanksgiving  before  or 
after  meals.  The  word  was  originally  used  in  the  plural,  and 
"  to  do,  give,  render,  yield  graces  "  was  said,  in  the  general 
sense  of  the  French  rendre  graces  or  Latin  gralias  agere,  of  any 
giving  thanks.  The  close,  and  finally  exclusive,  association 
of  the  phrase  "  to  say  grace  "  with  thanksgiving  at  meals  was 
possibly  due  to  the  formula  "  Gratias  Deo  agamus  "  ("  let  us 
give  thanks  to  God  ")  with  which  the  ceremony  began  in  monastic 
refectories.  The  custom  of  saying  grace,  which  obtained  in 
pre-Christian  times  among  the  Jews,  Greeks  and  Romans,  and 
was  adopted  universally  by  Christian  peoples,  is  probably  less 
widespread  in  private  houses  than  it  used  to  be.  It  is,  however, 
still  maintained  at  public  dinners  and  also  in  schools,  colleges 
and  institutions  generally.  Such  graces  are  generally  in  Latin 
and  of  great  antiquity:  they  are  sometimes  short,  e.g.  "  Laus 


Deo,"  "  Benedictus  benedicat,"  and  sometimes,  as  a't  the 
Oxford  and  Cambridge  colleges,  of  considerable  length.  In 
some  countries  grace  has  sunk  to  a  polite  formula;  in  Germany, 
e.g.  it  is  usual  before  and  after  meals  to  bow  to  one's  neighbours 
and  say  "  Gesegnete  Malzeit ! "  (May  your  meal  be  blessed), 
a  phrase  often  reduced  in  practice  to  "  Malzeit  "  simply. 

GRACES,  THE,  (Gr.  XApirts,  Lat.  Gratiae),  in  Greek  mythology, 
the  personification  of  grace  and  charm,  both  in  nature  and  in 
moral  action.  The  transition  from  a  single  goddess,  Charis,  to 
a  number  or  group  of  Charites,  is  marked  in  Homer.  In  the 
Iliad  one  Charis  is  the  wife  of  Hephaestus,  another  the  promised 
wife  of  Sleep,  while  the  plural  Charites  often  occurs.  The  Charites 
are  usually  described  as  three  in  number — Aglaia  (brightness), 
Euphrosyne  (joyfulness),  Thalia  (bloom) — daughters  of  Zeus 
and  Hera  (or  Eurynome,  daughter  of  Oceanus),  or  of  Helios 
and  Aegle;  in  Sparta,  however,  only  two  were  known,  Cleta 
(noise)  and  Phaenna  (light),  as  at  Athens  Auxo  (increase)  and 
Hegemone  (queen).  They  are  the  friends  of  the  Muses,  with 
whom  they  live  on  Mount  Olympus,  and  the  companions  of 
Aphrodite,  of  Peitho,  the  goddess  of  persuasion,  and  of  Hermes, 
the  god  of  eloquence,  to  each  of  whom  charm  is  an  indispensable 
adjunct.  The  need  of  their  assistance  to  the  artist  is  indicated 
by  the  union  of  Hephaestus  and  Charis.  The  most  ancient 
seat  of  their  cult  was  Orchomenus  in  Boeotia,  where  their  oldest 
images,  in  the  form  of  stones  fallen  from  heaven,  were  set  up 
in  their  temple.  Their  worship  was  said  to  have  been  instituted 
by  Eteocles,  whose  three  daughters  fell  into  a  well  while  dancing 
in  their  honour.  At  Orchomenus  nightly  dances  took  place, 
and  the  festival  Charitesia,  accompanied  by  musical  contests, 
was  celebrated;  in  Paros  their  worship  was  celebrated  without 
music  or  garlands,  since  it  was  there  that  Minos,  while  sacrificing 
to  the  Charites,  received  the  news  of  the  death  of  his  son 
Androgeus;  at  Messene  they  were  revered  together  with  the 
Eumenides;  at  Athens,  their  rites,  kept  secret  from  the  profane, 
were  held  at  the  entrance  to  the  Acropolis.  It  was  by  Auxo, 
Hegemone  and  Agraulos,  the  daughter  of  Cecrops,  that  young 
Athenians,  on  first  receiving  their  spear  and  shield,  took  the 
oath  to  defend  their  country.  In  works  of  art  the  Charites  were 
represented  in  early  times  as  beautiful  maidens  of  slender  form, 
hand  in  hand  or  embracing  one  another  and  wearing  drapery; 
later,  the  conception  predominated  of  three  naked  figures 
gracefully  intertwined.  Their  attributes  were  the  myrtle,  the 
rose  and  musical  instruments.  In  Rome  the  Graces  were 
never  the  objects  of  special  religious  reverence,  but  were  described 
and  represented  by  poets  and  artists  in  accordance  with  Greek 
models. 

See  F.  H.  Krause,  Musen,  Gratien,  Horen,  und  Nymphen  (1871), 
and  the  articles  by  Stoll  and  Furtwangler  in  Roscher's  Lexikon  der 
Mythologie,  and  by  S.  Gsell  in  Daremberg  and  Saglio's  Dictionnaire 
des  antiquMs,  with  the  bibliography. 

GRACIAN  Y  MORALES,  BALTASAR  (1601-1658),  Spanish 
prose  writer,  was  born  at  Calatayud  (Aragon)  on  the  8th  of 
January  1601.  Little  is  known  of  his  personal  history  except 
that  on  May  14,  1619,  he  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus,  and  that 
ultimately  he  became  rector  of  the  Jesuit  college  at  Tarazona, 
where  he  died  on  the  6th  of  December,  1658.  His  principal 
works  are  El  Htroe  (1630),  which  describes  in  apophthegmatic 
phrases  the  qualities  of  the  ideal  man;  the  Arte  de  ingenio, 
tratado  de  la  Agudeza  (1642),  republished  six  years  afterwards 
under  the  title  of  Agudeza,  y  arte  de  ingenio  (1648),  a  system 
of  rhetoric  in  which  the  principles  of  conceptismo  as  opposed 
to  culteranismo  are  inculcated;  El  Discrete  (1645),  a  delineation 
of  the  typical  courtier;  El  Ordculo  manual  y  arte  de  prudencia 
(1647),  a  system  of  rules  for  the  conduct  of  life;  and  El  Criticdn 
(1651-1653-1657),  an  ingenious  philosophical  allegory  of  human 
existence.  The  only  publication  which  bears  Gracian's  name  is 
El  Comulgatorio  (1655);  his  more  important  books  were  issued 
under  the  pseudonym  of  Lorenzo  Gracian  (possibly  a  brother 
of  the  writer)  or  under  the  anagram  of  Gracian  de  Marlones. 
Gracian  was  punished  for  publishing  without  his  superior's 
permission  El  Criticdn  (in  which  Defoe  is  alleged  to  have  found 
the  germ  of  Robinson  Crusoe) ;  but  no  objection  was  taken  to 


CRACKLE— GRADUATE 


its  substance.  He  has  been  excessively  praised  by  Schopenhauer, 
whose  appreciation  of  the  author  induced  him  to  translate  the 
Or&culo  manual,  and  he  has  been  unduly  depreciated  by  Ticknor 
and  others.  He  is  an  acute  thinker  and  observer,  misled  by  his 
systematic  misanthropy  and  by  his  fantastic  literary  theories. 

See  Karl  Borinski,  Baltasar  Gracidn  und  die  Hoflitteratur  in 
Deutschland  (Halle,  1894) ;  Benedetto  Croce,  /  Trallatisti  italiani  del 
"  concettismo "  e  Baltasar  Gracidn  (Napoli,  1899);  Narciso  Jos6 
Liflan  y  Heredia,  Baltasar  Gracidn  (Madrid,  1902).  Schopenhauer 
and  Joseph  Jacobs  have  respectively  translated  the  Ordculo  manual 
into  German  and  English. 

GRACKLE  (Lat.  Graccidus  or  Gractdus),  a  word  much  used  in 
ornithology,  generally  in  a  vague  sense,  though  restricted  to 
members  of  the  families  Sturnidae  belonging  to  the  Old  World 
and  Icteridae  belonging  to  the  New.  Of  the  former  those  to  which 
it  has  been  most  commonly  applied  are  the  species  known  as 
mynas,  mainas,  and  minors  of  India  and  the  adjacent  countries, 
and  especially  the  Gracida  religiosa  of  Linnaeus,  who,  according 
to  Jerdon  and  others,  was  probably  led  to  confer  this  epithet 
upon  it  by  confounding  it  with  the  Sturnus  or  Acridotheres 
tristis,1  which  is  regarded  by  the  Hindus  as  sacred  to  Ram  Deo, 
one  of  their  deities,  while  the  true  Gracida  religiosa  does  not 
seem  to  be  anywhere  held  in  veneration.  This  last  is  about  10  in. 


Gracida  religiosa. 

in  length,  clothed  in  a  plumage  of  glossy  black,  with  purple 
and  green  reflections,  and  a  conspicuous  patch  of  white  on  the 
quill-feathers  of  the  wings.  The  bill  is  orange  and  the  legs 
yellow,  but  the  bird's  most  characteristic  feature  is  afforded 
by  the  curious  wattles  of  bright  yellow,  which,  beginning  behind 
the  eyes,  run  backwards  in  form  of  a  lappet  on  each  side,  and  then 
return  in  a  narrow  stripe  to  the  top  of  the  head.  Beneath  each 
eye  also  is  a  bare  patch  of  the  same  colour.  This  species  is 
common  in  southern  India,  and  is  represented  farther  to  the 
north,  in  Ceylon,  Burma,  and  some  of  the  Malay  Islands  by 
cognate  forms.  They  are  all  frugivorous,  and,  being  easily 
tamed  and  learning  to  pronounce  words  very  distinctly,  are 
favourite  cage-birds.2 

In  America  the  name  Crackle  has  been  applied  to  several 
species  of  the  genera  Scolecophagus  and  Quiscalus,  though-  these 
are  more  commonly  called  in  the  United  States  and  Canada 
"  blackbirds,"  and  some  of  them  "  boat-tails."  They  all  belong 
to  the  family  Icteridae.  The  best  known  of  these  are  the  rusty 
grackle,  S.  ferrugineus,  which  is  found  in  almost  the  whole  of 
North  America,  and  Q.  purpureus,  the  purple  grackle  or  crow- 

1  By  some  writers  the  birds  of  the  genera  Acridotheres  and  Temenu- 
chus  are  considered  to  be  the  true  mynas,  and  the  species  of  Gracula 
are  called  hill  mynas  "  by  way  of  distinction. 

For  a  valuable  monograph  on  the  various  species  of  Gracula  and 
its  allies  see  Professor  Schlegel's  "  Bijdrage  tot  de  Kennis  von  het 
Ueschlacht  Beo  (Nederlandsch  Tijdschrift  voor  de  Dierkunde  i.  1-9). 


blackbird,  of  more  limited  range,  for  though  abundant  in  most 
parts  to  the  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  it  seems  not  to  appear 
on  the  Pacific  side.  There  is  also  Brewer's  or  the  blue-headed 
grackle,  5.  cyanocephalus,  which  has  a  more  western  range,  not 
occurring  to  the  eastward  of  Kansas  and  Minnesota.  A  fourth 
species,  Q.  major,  inhabits  the  Atlantic  States  as  far  north  as 
North  Carolina.  All  these  birds  are  of  exceedingly  omnivorous 
habit,  and  though  destroying  large  numbers  of  pernicious 
insects  are  in  many  places  held  in  bad  repute  from  the  mischief 
they  do  to  the  corn-crops.  (A.  N.) 

GRADISCA,  a  town  of  Austria,  in  the  province  of  Gorz  and 
Gradisca,  10  m.  S.W.  of  Gorz  by  rail.  Pop.  (1900)  3843,  mostly 
Italians.  It  is  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Isonzo  and  was 
formerly  a  strongly  fortified  place.  Its  principal  industry  is  silk 
spinning.  Gradisca  originally  formed  part  of 'the  margraviate 
of  Friuli,  came  under  the  patriarchate  of  Aquileia  in  1028, . 
and  in  1420  to  Venice.  Between  1471  and  1481  Gradisca  was 
fortified  by  the  Venetians,  but  in  1511  they  surrendered  it  to 
the  emperor  Maximilian  I.  In  1647  Gradisca  and  its  territory, 
including  Aquileia  and  forty-three  smaller  places,  were  erected 
into  a  separate  countship  in  favour  of  Johann  Anton  von 
Eggenberg,  duke  of  Krumau.  On  the  extinction  of  his  line 
in  1717,  it  reverted  to  Austria,  and  was  completely  incor- 
porated with  Gorz  in  1754.  The  name  was  revived  by  the 
constitution  of  1861,  which  established  the  crownland  of  Gorz 
and  Gradisca. 

GRADO,  a  town  of  northern  Spain,  in  the  province  of  Oviedo; 
ii  m.  W.  by  N.  of  the  city  of  Oviedo,  on  the  river  Cubia,  a 
left-hand  tributary  of  the  Nalon.  Pop.  (1000)  17,125.  Grado 
is  built  in  the  midst  of  a  mountainous,  well-wooded  and  fertile 
region.  It  has  some  trade  in  timber,  live  stock,  cider  and 
agricultural  produce.  The  nearest  railway  station  is  that  of  the 
Fabrica  de  Trubia,  a  royal  cannon-foundry  and  small-arms 
factory,  5  m.  S.E. 

GRADUAL  (Med.  Lat.  gradualis,  of  or  belonging  to  steps  or 
degrees;  gradus,  step),  advancing  or  taking  place  by  degrees 
or  step  by  step;  hence  used  of  a  slow  progress  or  a  gentle  de- 
clivity or  slope,  opposed  to  steep  or  precipitous.  As  a  sub- 
stantive, "  gradual  "  (Med.  Lat.  graduale  or  gradale)  is  used  of 
a  service  book  or  antiphonal  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
containing  certain  antiphons,  called  "  graduals,"  sung  at  the 
service  of  the  Mass  after  the  reading  or  singing  of  the  Epistle. 
This  antiphon  received  the  name  either  because  it  was  sung 
on  the  steps  of  the  altar  or  while  the  deacon  was  mounting  the 
steps  of  the  ambo  for  the  reading  or  singing  of  the  Gospel.  For 
the  so-called  Gradual  Psalms,  cxx.-cxxxiv.,  the  "  songs  of 
degrees,"  LXX.  ($17  ava  (SadftSiv,  see  PSALMS,  BOOK  OF. 

GRADUATE  (Med.  Lat.  graduare,  to  admit  to  an  academical 
degree,  gradus),  in  Great  Britain  a  verb  now  only  used  in  the 
academical  sense  intransitively,  i.e.  "  to  take  or  proceed  to  a 
university  degree,"  and  figuratively  of  acquiring  knowledge  of, 
or  proficiency  in,  anything.  The  original  transitive  sense  of 
"  to  confer  or  admit  to  a  degree  "  is,  however,  still  preserved  in 
America,  where  the  word  is,  moreover,  not  strictly  confined  to 
university  degrees,  but  is  used  also  of  those  successfully  com- 
pleting a  course  of  study  at  any  educational  establishment. 
As  a  substantive,  a  "  graduate  "  (Med.  Lat.  graduatus)  is  one 
who  has  taken  a  degree  in  a  university.  Those  who  have 
matriculated  at  a  university,  but  not  yet  taken  a  degree,  are 
known  as  "undergraduates."  The  word  "student,"  used  of 
undergraduates  e.g.  in  Scottish  universities,  is  never  applied 
generally  to  those  of  the  English  and  Irish  universities.  At 
Dxford  the  only  "students"  are  the  "senior  students"  (i.e. 
iellows)  and  "  junior  students  "  (i.e.  undergraduates  on  the 
foundation,  or  "  scholars  ")  of  Christ  Church.  The  verb  "  to 
graduate  "  is  also  used  of  dividing  anything  into  degrees  or  parts 
in  accordance  with  a  given  scale.  For  the  scientific  application 
see  GRADUATION  below.  It  may  also  mean  "  to  arrange  in 
gradations  "  or  "  to  adjust  or  apportion  according  to  a  given 
scale."  Thus  by  "  a  graduated  income-tax "  is  meant  the 
system  by  which  the  percentage  paid  differs  according  to  the 
amount  of  income  on  a  pre-arranged  scale. 


312 


GRADUATION 


GRADUATION  (see  also  GRADUATE),  the  art  of  dividing  straight 
scales,  circular  arcs  or  whole  circumferences  into  any  required 
number  of  equal  parts.  It  is  the  most  important  and  difficult 
part  of  the  work  of  the  mathematical  instrument  maker,  and  is 
required  in  the  construction  of  most  physical,  astronomical, 
nautical  and  surveying  instruments. 

The  art  was  first  practised  by  clockmakers  for  cutting  the 
teeth  of  their  wheels  at  regular  intervals;  but  so  long  as  it  was 
confined  to  them  no  particular  delicacy  or  accurate  nicety  in 
its  performance  was  required.  This  only  arose  when  astronomy 
began  to  be  seriously  studied,  and  the  exact  position  of  the 
heavenly  bodies  to  be  determined,  which  created  the  necessity 
for  strictly  accurate  means  of  measuring  linear  and  angular 
magnitudes.  Then  it  was  seen  that  graduation  was  an  art  which 
required  special  talents  and  training,  and  the  best  artists  gave 
great  attention  to  the  perfecting  of  astronomical  instruments. 
Of  these  may  be  named  Abraham  Sharp  (1651-1742),  John 
Bird  (1709-1776),  John  Smeaton  (1724-1792),  Jesse  Ramsden 
(1735-1800),  John  Troughton,  Edward  Troughton  (1753-1835), 
William  Simms  (1793-1860)  and  Andrew  Ross. 

The  first  graduated  instrument  must  have  been  done  by  the 
hand  and  eye  alone,  whether  it  was  in  the  form  of  a  straight- 
edge with  equal  divisions,  or  a  screw  or  a  divided  plate;  but, 
once  in  the  possession  of  one  such  divided  instrument,  it  was  a 
comparatively  easy  matter  to  employ  it  as  a  standard.  Hence 
graduation  divides  itself  into  two  distinct  branches,  original 
graduation  and  copying,  which  latter  may  be  done  either  by  the 
hand  or  by  a  machine  called  a  dividing  engine.  Graduation 
may  therefore  be  treated  under  the  three  heads  of  original 
graduation,  copying  and  machine  graduation. 

Original  Graduation. — In  regard  to  the  graduation  of  straight 
scales  elementary  geometry  provides  the  means  of  dividing 
a  straight  line  into  any  number  of  equal  parts  by  the  method 
of  continual  bisection;  but  the  practical  realization  of  the 
geometrical  construction  is  so  difficult  as  to  render  the  method 
untrustworthy.  This  method,  which  employs  the  common 
diagonal  scale,  was  used  in  dividing  a  quadrant  of  3  ft.  radius, 
which  belonged  to  Napier  of  Merchiston,  and  which  only  read 
to  minutes — a  result,  according  to  Thomson  and  Tait  (Nat. 
Phil.),  "  giving  no  greater  accuracy  than  is  now  attainable  by 
the  pocket  sextants  of  Troughton  and  Simms,  the  radius  of 
whose  arc  is  little  more  than  an  inch." 

The  original  graduation  of  a  straight  line  is  done  either  by  the 
method  of  continual  bisection  or  by  stepping.  In  continual  bisection 
the  entire  length  of  the  line  is  first  laid  down.  Then,  as  nearly  as 
possible,  half  that  distance  is  taken  in  the  beam-compass  and  marked 
off  by  faint  arcs  from  each  end  of  the  line.  Should  these  marks 
coincide  the  exact  middle  point  of  the  line  is  obtained.  If  not,  as 
will  almost  always  be  the  case,  the  distance  between  the  marks  is 
carefully  bisected  by  hand  with  the  aid  of  a  magnifying  glass.  The 
same  process  is  again  applied  to  the  halves  thus  obtained,  and  so  on 
in  succession,  dividing  the  line  into  parts  represented  by  2,  4,  8,  1 6, 
&c.  till  the  desired  divisions  are  reached.  In  the  method  of  stepping 
the  smallest  division  required  is  first  taken,  as  accurately  as  possible, 
by  spring  dividers,  and  that  distance  is  then  laid  off,  by  successive 
steps,  from  one  end  of  the  line.  In  this  method,  any  error  at  starting 
will  be  multiplied  at  each  division  by  the  number  of  that  division. 
Errors  so  made  are  usually  adjusted  by  the  dots  being  put  either 
back  or  forward  a  little  by  means  of  the  dividing  punch  guided  by  a 
magnifying  glass.  This  is  an  extremely  tedious  process,  as  the  dots, 
when  so  altered  several  times,  are  apt  to  get  insufferably  large  and 
shapeless. 

The  division  of  circular  arcs  is  essentially  the  same  in  principle 
as  the  graduation  of  straight  lines. 

The  first  example  of  note  is  the  8-ft.  mural  circle  which  was 
graduated  by  George  Graham  (1673-1751)  for  Greenwich  Obser- 
vatory in  1725.  In  this  two  concentric  arcs  of  radii  96-85  and 
95-8  in.  respectively  were  first  described  by  the  beam-compass.  On 
the  inner  of  these  the  arc  of  90°  was  to  be  divided  into  degrees  and 
1 2th  parts  of  a  degree,  while  the  same  on  the  outer  was  to  be  divided 
into  96  equal  parts  and  these  again  into  i6th  parts.  The  reason  for 
adopting  the  latter  was  that,  96  and  16  being  both  powers  of  2,  the 
divisions  could  be  got  at  by  continual  bisection  alone,  which,  in 
Graham's  opinion,  who  first  employed  it,  is  the  only  accurate 
method,  and  would  thus  serve  as  a  check  upon  the  accuracy  of  the 
divisions  of  the  outer  arc.  With  the  same  distance  on  the  beam- 
compass  as  was  used  to  describe  the  inner  arc,  laid  off  from  o°, 
the  point  60°  was  at  once  determined.  With  the  points  o°  and  60° 


as  centres  successively,  and  a  distance  on  the  beam-compass  very 
nearly  bisecting  the  arc  of  60°,  two  slight  marks  were  made  on  the 
arc;  the  distance  between  these  marks  was  divided  by  the  hand 
aided  by  a  lens.'and  this  gave  the  point  30°.  The  chord  of  60° 
laid  off  from  the  point  30°  gave  the  point  00°,  and  the  quadrant 
was  now  divided  into  three  equal  parts.  Each  of  these  parts  was 
similarly  bisected,  and  the  resulting  divisions  again  trisected,  giving 
18  parts  of  5°  each.  Each  of  these  quinquesected  gave  degrees,  the 
1 2th  parts  of  which  were  arrived  at  by  bisecting  and  trisecting  as 
before.  The  outer  arc  was  divided  by  continual  bisection  alone, 
and  a  table  was  constructed  by  which  the  readings  of  the  one  arc 
could  be  converted  into  those  of  the  other.  After  the  dots  indi- 
cating the  required  divisions  were  obtained,  either  straight  strokes 
all  directed  towards  the  centre  were  drawn  through  them  by  the 
dividing  knife,  or  sometimes  small  arcs  were  drawn  through  them 
by  the  beam-compass  having  its  fixed  point  somewhere  on  the  line 
which  was  a  tangent  to  the  quadrantal  arc  at  the  point  where  a 
division  was  to  be  marked. 

The  next  important  example  of  graduation  was  done  by  Bird  in 
1767.  His  quadrant,  which  was  also  8-ft.  radius,  was  divided 
into  degrees  and  1 2th  parts  of  a  degree.  He  employed  the  method 
of  continual  bisection  aided  by  chords  taken  from  an  exact  scale  of 
equal  parts,  which  could  read  to  -ooi  of  an  inch,  and  which  he  had 
previously  graduated  by  continual  bisections.  With  the  beam- 
compass  an  arc  of  radius  95-938  in.  was  first  drawn.  From  this 
radius  the  chords  of  30°,  15°,  10°  20',  4°  40'  and  42°  40'  were  com- 
puted, and  each  of  them  by  means  of  the  scale  of  equal  parts  laid 
off  on  a  separate  beam-compass  to  be  ready.  The  radius  laid  off 
from  o°  gave  the  point  60° ;  by  the  chord  of  30°  the  arc  of  60°  was 
bisected ;  from  the  point  30°  the  radius  laid  off  gave  the  point  90° ; 
the  chord  of  15°  laid  off  backwards  from  90°  gave  the  point  75°; 
from  75°  was  laid  off  forwards  the  chord  of  10°  20';  and  from  90° 
was  laid  off  backwards  the  chord  of  4°  40';  and  these  were  found  to 
coincide  in  the  point  85°  20'.  Now  85°  20'  being  =5'  X  1024  = 
5'X210,  the  final  divisions  of  85°  20'  were  found  by  continual  bi- 
sections. For  the  remainder  of  the  quadrant  beyond  85°  20', 
containing  56  divisions  of  5'  each,  the  chord  of  64  such  divisions 
was  laid  off  from  the  point  85°  40',  and  the  corresponding  arc 
divided  by  continual  bisections  as  before.  There  was  thus  a  severe 
check  upon  the  accuracy  of  the  points  already  found,  viz.  15°,  30°, 
6°°,  75  ,  90°,  which,  however,  were  found  to  coincide  with  the 
corresponding  points  obtained  by  continual  bisections.  The  short 
lines  through  the  dots  were  drawn  in  the  way  already  mentioned. 

The  next  eminent  artists  in  original  graduation  are  the  brothers 
John  and  Edward  Troughton.  The  former  was  the  first  to  devise  a 
means  of  graduating  the  quadrant  by  continual  bisection  without 
the  aid  of  such  a  scale  of  equal  parts  as  was  used  by  Bird.  His 
method  was  as  follows:  The  radius  of  the  quadrant  laid  off  from 
O°  gave  the  point  60°.  This  arc  bisected  and  the  half  laid  off  from 
60°  gave  the  point  90°.  The  arc  between  60°  and  90°  bisected  gave 
75°;  the  arc  between  75°  and  90°  bisected  gave  the  point  82°  30', 
and  the  arc  between  82°  30'  and  90°  bisected  gave  the  point  86°  15'. 
Further,  the  arc  between  82°  30'  and  86°  15'  trisected,  and  two- 
thirds  of  it  taken  beyond  82°  30',  gave  the  point  85°,  while  the  arc 
between  85°  and  86  15'  also  trisected,  and  one-third  part  laid  off 
beyond  85°,  gave  the  point  85°  25'.  Lastly,  the  arc  between  85° 
and  85°  25'  being  quinquesected,  and  four-fifths  taken  beyond  85°, 
gave  85°  20',  which  as  before  is  =  5'X210,  and  so  can  be  finally- 
divided  by  continual  bisection. 

The  method  of  original  graduation  discovered  by  Edward  Trough- 
ton  is  fully  described  in  the  Philosophical  Transactions  for  1809,  as 
employed  by  himself  to  divide  a  meridian  circle  of  4  ft.  radius.  The 
circle  was  first  accurately  turned  both  on  its  face  and  its  inner  and 
outer  edges.  _A  roller  was  next  provided,  of  such  diameter  that  it 
revolved  16  times  on  its  own  axis  while  made  to  roll  once  round 
the  outer  edge  of  the  circle.  This  roller,  made  movable  on  pivots, 
was  attached  to  a  frame-work,  which  could  be  slid  freely,  yet  tightly, 
along  the  circle,  the  roller  meanwhile  revolving,  by  means  of  frictional 
contact,  on  the  outer  edge.  The  roller  was  also,  after  having  been 
properly  adjusted  as  to  size,  divided  as  accurately  as  possible  into 
16  equal  parts  by  lines  parallel  to  its  axis.  While  the  frame  carrying 
the  roller  was  moved  once  round  along  the  circle,  the  points  of 
contact  of  the  roller-divisions  with  the  circle  were  accurately  ob- 
served by  two  microscopes  attached  to  the  frame,  one  of  which 
(which  we  shall  call  H)  commanded  the  ring  on  the  circle  near  its 
edge,  which  was  to  receive  the  divisions  and  the  other  viewed  the 
roller-divisions.  The  points  of  contact  thus  ascertained  were  marked 
with  faint  dots,  and  the  meridian  circle  thereby  divided  into  256 
very  nearly  equal  parts. 

The  next  part  of  the  operation  was  to  find  out  and  tabulate  the 
errors  of  these  dots,  which  are  called  apparent  errors,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  error  of  each  dot  being  ascertained  on  the  supposition 
that  its  neighbours  are  all  correct.  For  this  purpose  two  micro- 
scopes (which  we  shall  call  A  and  B)  were  taken,  with  cross  wires 
and  micrometer  adjustments,  consisting  of  a  screw  and  head  divided 
into  loo  divisions,  50  of  which  read  in  the  one  and  50  in  the  opposite 
direction.  These  microscopes  were  fixed  so  that  their  cross-wires 
respectively  bisected  the  dots  o  and  128,  which  were  supposed  to 
be  diametrically  opposite.  The  circle  was  now  turned  half-way 
round  on  its  axis,  so  that  dot  128  coincided  with  the  wire  of  A, 


GRADUATION 


3*3 


and,  should  dot  0  be  found  to  coincide  with  B,  then  the  two  dots 
were  180°  apart.  If  not,  the  cross  wire  of  B  was  moved  till  it  coin- 
cided with  dot  o,  and  the  number  of  divisions  of  the  micrometer 
head  noted.  Half  this  number  gave  clearly  the  error  of  dot  128, 
and  it  was  tabulated  +  or—  according  as  the  arcual  distance  between 
o  and  128  was  found  to  exceed  or  fall  short  of  the  remaining  part 
of  the  circumference.  The  microscope  B  was  now  shifted,  A  re- 
maining opposite  dot  o  as  before,  till  its  wire  bisected  dot  64,  and, 
by  giving  the  circle  one  quarter  of  a  turn  on  its  axis,  the  difference 
of  the  arcs  between  dots  p  and  64  and  between  64  and  128  was 
obtained.  The  half  of  this  difference  gave  the  apparent  error  of 
dot  64,  which  was  tabulated  with  its  proper,  sign.  With  the  micro- 
scope A  still  in  the  same  position  the  error  of  dot  192  was  obtained, 
and  in  the  same  way  by  shifting  B  to  dot  32  the  errors  of  dots  32, 
96,  160  and  224  were  successively  ascertained.  In  this  way  the 
apparent  errors  of  all  the  256  dots  were  tabulated. 

From  this  table  of  apparent  errors  a  table  of  real  errors  was 
drawn  up  by  employing  the  following  formula  :  — 

i(^»+*e)+2  =  the  real  error  of  dot  b, 

where  xtt  is  the  real  error  of  dot  o,  xc  the  real  error  of  dot  c,  and  z 
the  apparent  error  of  dot  b  midway  between  o  and  c.  Having  got 
the  real  errors  of  any  two  dots,  the  table  of  apparent  errors  gives 
the  means  of  finding  the  real  errors  of  all  the  other  dots. 

The  last  part  of  Troughton's  process  was  to  employ  them  to  cut 
the  final  divisions  of  the  circle,  which  were  to  be  spaces  of  5'  each. 


Now  the  mean  interval  between  any  two  dots  is  36o°/256  =  5'Xi6J, 
and  hence,  in  the  final  division,  this  interval  must  be  divided  into 
J6|  equal  parts.  To  accomplish  this  a  small  instrument,  called  a 
subdividing  sector,  was  provided.  It  was  formed  of  thin  brass  and 
had  a  radius  about  four  times  that  of  the  roller,  but  made  adjustable 
as  to  length.  The  sector  was  placed  concentrically  on  the  axis, 
and  rested  on  the  upper  end  of  the  roller.  It  turned  by  frictional 
adhesion  along  with  the  roller,  but  was  sufficiently  loose  to  allow 
of  its  being  moved  back  by  hand  to  any  position  without  affecting 
the  roller.  While  the  roller  passes  over  an  angular  space  equal  to 
the  mean  interval  between  two  dots,  any  point  of  the  sector  must 
pass  over  16  times  that  interval,  that  is  to  say,  over  an  angle  re- 
presented by  36o°Xi6/256  =  22°  30'.  This  interval  was  therefore 
divided  by  i6J,  and  a  space  equal  to  16  of  the  parts  taken.  This  was 
laid  off  on  the  arc  of  the  sector  and  divided  into  16  equal  parts,  each 
equal  to  1°  20';  and,  to  provide  for  the  necessary  fths  of  a  division, 
there  was  laid  off  at  each  end  of  the  sector,  and  beyond  the  16 
equal  parts,  two  of  these  parts  each  subdivided  into  8  equal  parts. 
A  microscope  with  cross  wires,  which  we  shall  call  I,  was  placed  on 
the  main  frame,  so  as  to  command  a  view  of  the  sector  divisions, 
just  as  the  microscope  H  viewed  the  final  divisions  of  the  circle. 
Before  the  first  or  zero  mark  was  cut,  the  zero  of  the  sector  was 
brought  under  I  and  then  the  division  cut  at  the  point  on  the  circle 
indicated  by  H,  which  also  coincided  with  the  dot  o.  The  frame 
was  then  slipped  along  the  circle  by  the  slow  screw  motion  provided 
for  the  purpose,  till  the  first  sector-division,  by  the  action  of  the 
roller,  was  brought  under  I.  The  second  mark  was  then  cut  on  the 
circle  at  the  point  indicated  by  H.  That  the  marks  thus  obtained 
are  5'  apart  is  evident  when  we  reflect  that  the  distance  between 
them  must  be  ^th  of  a  division  on  the  section  which  by  construction 
is  i°  20'.  In  this  way  the  first  16  divisions  were  cut;  but  before 
cutting  the  I7th  it  was  necessary  to  adjust  the  micrometer  wires 
of  H  to  the  real  error  of  dot  I,  as  indicated  by  the  table,  and  bring 
back  the  sector,  not  to  zero,  but  to  Jth  short  of  zero.  Starting 
from  this  position  the  divisions  between  dots  I  and  2  were  filled  in, 
and  then  H  was  adjusted  to  the  real  error  of  dot  2,  and  the  sector 
brought  back  to  its  proper  division  before  commencing  the  third 
course.  Proceeding  in  this  manner  through  the  whole  circle,  the 
microscope  H  was  finally  found  with  its  wire  at  zero,  and  the  sector 
with  its  l6th  division  under  its  microscope  indicating  that  the 
circle  had  been  accurately  divided. 

Copying.  —  In  graduation  by  copying  the  pattern  must  be 
either  an  accurately  divided  straight  scale,  or  an  accurately 
divided  circle,  commonly  called  a  dividing  plate. 

In  copying  a  straight  scale  the  pattern  and  scale  to  be  divided, 
usually  called  the  work,  are  first  fixed  side  by  side,  with  their 
upper  faces  in  the  same  plane.  The  dividing  square,  which  closely 
resembles  an  ordinary  joiner's  square,  is  then  laid  across  both, 
and  the  point  of  the  dividing  knife  dropped  into  the  zero  division 
of  the  pattern.  The  square  is  now  moved  up  close  to  the  point 
of  the  knife;  and,  while  it  is  held  firmly  in  this  position  by  the 
left  hand,  the  first  division  on  the  work  is  made  by  drawing  the 
knife  along  the  edge  of  the  square  with  the  right  hand. 

It  frequently  happens  that  the  divisions  required  on  a  scale 
are  either  greater  or  less  than  those  on  the  pattern.  To  meet 
this  case,  and  still  use  the  same  pattern,  the  work  must  be  fixed 
at  a  certain  angle  of  inclination  with  the  pattern.  This  angle 
is  found  in  the  following  way.  Take  the  exact  ratio  of  a  division 
on  the  pattern  to  the  required  division  on  the  scale.  Call  this 


ratio  a.  Then,  if  the  required  divisions  are  longer  than  those 
of  the  pattern,  the  angle  is  cos^a,  but,  if  shorter,  the  angle  is 
sec~*a.  In  the  former  case  two  operations  are  required  before 
the  divisions  are  cut:  first,  the  square  is  laid  on  the  pattern, 
and  the  corresponding  divisions  merely  notched  very  faintly 
on  the  edge  of  the  work;  and,  secondly,  the  square  is  applied 
to  the  work  and  the  final  divisions  drawn  opposite  each  faint 
notch.  In  the  second  case,  that  is,  when  the  angle  is  sec^o,  the 
dividing  square  is  applied  to  the  work,  and  the  divisions  cut 
when  the  edge  of  the  square  coincides  with  the  end  of  each 
division  on  the  pattern. 

In  copying  circles  use  is  made  of  the  dividing  plate.  This 
is  a  circular  plate  of  brass,  of  36  in.  or  more  in  diameter,  carefully 
graduated  near  its  outer  edge.  It  is  turned  quite  flat,  and  has 
a  steel  pin  fixed  in  its  centre,  and  at  right  angles  to  its  plane. 
For  guiding  the  dividing  knife  an  instrument  called  an  index 
is  employed.  This  is  a  straight  bar  of  thin  steel  of  length  equal 
to  the  radius  of  the  plate.  A  piece  of  metal,  having  a  V  notch 
with  its  angle  a  right  angle,  is  riveted  to  one  end  of  the  bar  in 
such  a  position  that  the  vertex  of  the  notch  is  exactly  in  a  line 
with  the  edge  of  the  steel  bar.  In  this  way,  when  the  index  is 
laid  on  the  plate,  with  the  notch  grasping  the  central  pin,  the 
straight  edge  of  the  steel  bar  lies  exactly  along  a  radius.  The 
work  to  be  graduated  is  laid  flat  on  the  dividing  plate,  and  fixed 
by  two  clamps  in  a  position  exactly  concentric  with  it.  The 
index  is  now  laid  on,  with  its  edge  coinciding  with  any  required 
division  on  the  dividing  plate,  and  the  corresponding  division 
on  the  work  is  cut  by  drawing  the  dividing  knife  along  the 
straight  edge  of  the  index. 

Machine  Graduation. — The  first  dividing  engine  was  probably 
that  of  Henry  Hindley  of  York,  constructed  in  1740,  and  chiefly 
used  by  him  for  cutting  the  teeth  of  clock  wheels.  This  was 
followed  shortly  after  by  an  engine  devised  by  the  due  de 
Chaulnes  ;but  the  first  notable  engine  was  that  made  by  Ramsdea, 
of  which  an  account  was  published  by  the  Board  of  Longitude 
in  1777.  He  was  rewarded  by  that  board  with  a  sum  of  £300, 
and  a  further  sum  of  £3 1 5  was  given  to  him  on  condition  that  he 
would  divide,  at  a  certain  fixed  rate,  the  instruments  of  other 
makers.  The  essential  principles  of  Ramsden's  machine  have 
been  repeated  in  almost  all  succeeding  engines  for  dividing 
circles. 

Ramsden's  machine  consisted  of  a  large  brass  prate  45  in.  in  dia- 
meter, carefully  turned  and  movable  on  a  vertical  axis.  The  edge 
of  the  plate  was  ratched  with  2160  teeth,  into  which  a  tangent 
screw  worked,  by  means  of  which  the  plate  could  be  made  to  turn 
through  any  required  angle.  Thus  six  turns  of  the  screw  moved 
the  plate  through  i°,  and  Vijth  of  a  turn  through  lioth  of  a  degree. 
On  the  axis  of  the  tangent  screw  was  placed  a  cylinder  haying  a 
spiral  groove  cut  on  its  surface.  A  ratchet-wheel  containing  60 
teeth  was  attached  to  this  cylinder,  and  was  so  arranged  that,  when 
the  cylinder  moved  in  one  direction,  it  carried  the  tangent  screw 
with  it,  and  so  turned  the  plate,  but  when  it  moved  in  the  opposite 
direction,  it  left  the  tangent  screw,  and  with  it  the  plate,  stationary. 
Round  the  spiral  groove  of  the  cylinder  a  catgut  band  was  wound, 
one  end  of  which  was  attached  to  a  treadle  and  the  other  to  a  counter- 
poise weight.  When  the  treadle  was  depressed  the  tangent  screw 
turned  round,  and  when  the  pressure  was  removed  it  returned,  in 
obedience  to  the  weight,  to  its  former  position  without  affecting 
the  screw.  Provision  was  also  made  whereby  certain  stops  could  be 
placed  in  the  way  of  the  screw,  which  only  allowed  it  the  requisite 
amount  of  turning.  The  work  to  be  divided  was  firmly  fixed  on  the 
plate,  and  made  concentric  with  it.  The  divisions  were  cut,  while 
the  screw  was  stationary,  by  means  of  a  dividing  knife  attached  to 
a  swing  frame,  which  allowed  it  to  have  only  a  radial  motion.  In 
this  way  the  artist  could  divide  very  rapidly  by  alternately  depress- 
ing the  treadle  and  working  the  dividing  knife. 

Ramsden  also  constructed  alinear  dividing  engine  on  essentially 
the  same  principle.  If  we  imagine  the  rim  of  the  circular 
plate  with  its  notches  stretched  out  into  a  straight  line  and  made 
movable  in  a  straight  slot,  the  screw,  treadle,  &c.,  remaining 
as  before,  we  get  a  very  good  idea  of  the  linear  engine. 

In  1793  Edward  Troughton  finished  a  circular  dividing 
engine,  of  which  the  plate  was  smaller  than  in  Ramsden's,  and 
which  differed  considerably  in  simplifying  matters  of  detail. 
The  plate  was  originally  divided  by  Troughton's  own  method, 
already  described,  and  the  divisions  so  obtained  were  employed 


GRADUS— GRAETZ 


to  ratch  the  edge  of  the  plate  for  receiving  the  tangent  screw 
with  great  accuracy.  Andrew  Ross  (Trans.  Soc.  Arts,  1830- 
1831)  constructed  a  dividing  machine  which  differs  considerably 
from  those  of  Ramsden  and  Troughton. 

The  essential  point  of  difference  is  that,  in  Ross_'s  engine,  the 
tangent  screw  does  not  turn  the  engine  plate;  that  is  done  by  an 
independent  apparatus,  and  the  function  of  the  tangent  screw  is 
only  to  stop  the  plate  after  it  has  passed  through  the  required 
angular  interval  between  two  divisions  on  the  work  to  be  graduated. 
Round  the  circumference  of  the  plate  are  fixed  48  projections  which 
just  look  as  if  the  circumference  had  been  divided  into  as  many 
deep  and  somewhat  peculiarly  shaped  notches  or  teeth.  Through 
each  of  these  teeth  a  hole  is  bored  parallel  to  the  plane  of  the  plate 
and  also  to  a  tangent  to  its  circumference.  Into  these  holes  are 
screwed  steel  screws  with  capstan  heads  and  flat  ends.  The  tangent 
screw  consists  only  of  a  single  turn  of  a  large  square  thread  which 
works  in  the  teeth  or  notches  of  the  plate.  This  thread  is  pierced 
by  90  equally  distant  holes,  all  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  screw, 
and  at  the  same  distance  from  it.  Into  each  of  these  holes  is  in- 
serted a  steel  screw  exactly  similar  to  those  in  the  teeth,  but  with 
its  end  rounded.  It  is  the  rounded  and  flat  ends  of  these  sets  of 
screws  coming  together  that  stop  the  engine  plate  at  the  desired 
position,  and  the  exact  point  can  be  nicely  adjusted  by  suitably 
turning  the  screws. 

A  description  is  given  of  a  dividing  engine  made  by  William 
Simms  in  the  Memoirs  of  the  Astronomical  Society,  1843.  Simms 


Dividing  Engine. 


became  convinced  that  to  copy  upon  smaller  circles  the  divisions 
which  had  been  put  upon  a  large  plate  with  very  great  accuracy 
was  not  only  more  expeditious  but  more  exact  than  original 
graduation.  His  machine  involved  essentially  the  same  prin- 
ciple as  Troughton's.  The  accompanying  figure  is  taken  by 
permission. 

The  plate  A  is  46  in.  in  diameter,  and  is  composed  of  gun-metal 
cast  in  one  solid  piece.  It  has  two  sets  of  5'  divisions — one  very 
faint  on  an  inlaid  ring  of  silver,  and  the  other  stronger  on  the  gun- 
metal.  These  were  put  on  by  original  graduation,  mainly  on  the 
plan  of  Edward  Troughton.  One  very  great  improvement  in  this 
engine  is  that  the  axis  B  is  tubular,  as  seen  at  C.  The  object  of  this 
hollow  is  to  receive  the  axis  of  the  circle  to  be  divided,  so  that  it 
can  be  fixed  flat  to  the  plate  by  the  clamps  E,  without  having  first 
to  be  detached  from  the  axis  and  other  parts  to  which  it  has  already 
been  carefully  fitted.  This  obviates  the  necessity  for  resetting, 
which  can  hardly  be  done  without  some  error.  D  is  the  tangent 
screw,  and  F  the  frame  carrying  it,  which  turns  on  carefully  polished 
steel  pivots.  The  screw  is  pressed  against  the  edge  of  the  plate 
by  a  spiral  spring  acting  under  the  end  of  the  lever  G,  and  by  screw- 
ing the  lever  down  the  screw  can  be  altogether  removed  from  contact 
with  the  plate.  The  edge  of  the  plate  is  ratched  by  4320  teeth  which 
were  cut  opposite  the  original  division  by  a  circular  cutter  attached 
to  the  screw  frame.  H  is  the  spiral  barrel  round  which  the  catgut 
band  is  wound,  one  end  of  which  is  attached  to  the  crank  L  on  the 
end  of  the  axis  J  and  the  other  to  a  counterpoise  weight  not  seen. 
On  the  other  end  of  J  is  another  crank  inclined  to  L  and  carrying  a 
band  and  counterpoise  weight  seen  at  K.  The  object  of  this  weight 
is  to  balance  the  former  and  give  steadiness  to  the  motion.  On  the 


axis  J  is  seen  a  pair  of  bevelled  wheels  which  move  the  rod  I,  which, 
by  another  pair  of  bevelled  wheels  attached  to  the  box  N,  gives 
motion  to  the  axis  M,  on  the  end  of  which  is  an  eccentric  for  moving 
the  bent  lever  O,  which  actuates  the  bar  carrying  the  cutter.  Be- 
tween the  eccentric  and  the  point  of  the  screw  P  is  an  undulating 
plate  by  which  long  divisions  can  be  cut.  The  cutting  apparatus 
is  supported  upon  the  two  parallel  rails  which  can  be  elevated  or 
depressed  at  pleasure  by  the  nuts  Q.  Also  the  cutting  apparatus 
can,  be  moved  forward  or  backward  upon  these  rails  to  suit  circles 
of  different  diameters.  The  box  N  is  movable  upon  the  bar  R,  and 
the  rod  I  is  adjustable  as  to  length  by  having  a  kind  of  telescope 
joint.  The  engine  is  self-acting,  and  can  be  driven  either  by  hand 
or  by  a  steam-engine  or  other  motive  power.  It  can  be  thrown  in 
or  out  of  gear  at  once  by  a  handle  seen  at  S. 

Mention  may  be  made  of  Donkin's  linear  dividing  engine, 
in  which  a  compensating  arrangement  is  employed  whereby 
great  accuracy  is  obtained  notwithstanding  the  inequalities  of 
the  screw  used  to  advance  the  cutting  tool.  Dividing  engines 
have  also  been  made  by  Reichenbach,  Repsold  and  others  in 
Germany,  Gambey  in  Paris  and  by  several  other  astronomical 
instrument-makers.  A  machine  constructed  by  E.  R.  Watts 
&  Son  is  described  by  G.  T.  McCaw,  in  the  Monthly  Not.  R.  A.  S., 
January  1909. 

REFERENCES. — Bird,  Method  of  dividing  Astronomical  Instruments 
(London,  1767);  Due  de  Chaulnes,  Nouvelle  Mtthode  pour  diviser 
les  instruments  de  mathematique  et  d'astronomie  (1768);  Ramsden, 
Description  of  an  Engine  for  dividing  Mathematical  Instruments 
(London,  1777);  Troughton's  memoir,  Phil.  Trans.  (1809);  Memoirs 
of  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society,  v.  325,  viii.  141,  ix.  17,  35. 
See  also  J.  E.  Watkins,  "  On  the  Ramsden  Machine,"  Smithsonian 
Rep.  (1890),  p.  721;  and  L.  Ambronn,  Astronomische  Instrumenten- 
kunde  (1899).  (J.  BL.) 

GRADUS,  or  GRADUS  AD  PARNASSUM  (a  step  to  Parnassus), 
a  Latin  (or  Greek)  dictionary,  in  which  the  quantities  of  the 
vowels  of  the  words  are  marked.  Synonyms,  epithets  and 
poetical  expressions  and  extracts  are  also  included  under  the 
more  important  headings,  the  whole  being  intended  as  an  aid 
for  students  in  Greek  and  Latin  verse  composition.  The  first 
Latin  gradus  was  compiled  in  1702  by  the  Jesuit  Paul  Aler 
(1656-1727),  a  famous  schoolmaster.  There  is  a  Latin  gradus 
by  C.  D.  Yonge  (1850);  English-Latin  by  A.  C.  Ainger  and 
H.  G.  Wintle  (1890);  Greek  by  J.  Brasse  (1828)  and  E.  Maltby 
(1815),  bishop  of  Durham. 

GRAETZ,  HEINRICH  (1817-1891),  the  foremost  Jewish 
historian  of  modern  times,  was  born  in  Posen  in  1817  and  died 
at  Munich  in  1891.  He  received  a  desultory  education,  and 
was  largely  self-taught.  An  important  stage  in  his  development 
was  the  period  of  three  years  that  he  spent  at  Oldenburg  as 
assistant  and  pupil  of  S.  R.  Hirsch,  whose  enlightened  orthodoxy 
was  for  a  time  very  attractive  to  Graetz.  Later  on  Graetz 
proceeded  to  Breslau,  where  he  matriculated  in  1842.  Breslau 
was  then  becoming  the  headquarters  of  Abraham  Geiger,  the 
leader  of  Jewish  reform.  Graetz  was  repelled  by  Geiger's 
attitude,  and  though  he  subsequently  took  radical  views  of  the 
Bible  and  tradition  (which  made  him  an  opponent  of  Hirsch), 
Graetz  remained  a  life-long  foe  to  reform.  He  contended  for 
freedom  of  thought;  he  had  no  desire  to  fight  for  freedom 
of  ritual  practice.  He  momentarily  thought  of  entering  the 
rabbinate,  but  he  was  unsuited  to  that  career.  For  some  years 
he  supported  himself  as  a  tutor.  He  had  previously  won  repute 
by  his  published  essays,  but  in  1853  the  publication  of  the 
fourth  volume  of  his  history  of  the  Jews  made  him  famous.  This 
fourth  volume  (the  first  to  be  published)  dealt  with  the  Talmud. 
It  was  a  brilliant  resuscitation  of  the  past.  Graetz's  skill  in 
piecing  together  detached  fragments  of  information,  his  vast 
learning  and  extraordinary  critical  acumen,  were  equalled  by 
his  vivid  power  of  presenting  personalities.  No  Jewish  book 
of  the  igth  century  produced  such  a  sensation  as  this,  and 
Graetz  won  at  a  bound  the  position  he  still  occupies  as  recog- 
nized master  of  Jewish  history.  His  Geschichte  der  Juden, 
begun  in  1853,  was  completed  in  1875;  new  editions  of  the 
several  volumes  were  frequent.  The  work  has  been  translated 
into  many  languages;  it  appeared  in  English  in  five  volumes 
in  1891-1895.  The  History  is  defective  in  its  lack  of  objectivity; 
Graetz's  judgments  are  sometimes  biassed,  and  in  particular  he 
lacks  sympathy  with  mysticism.  But  the  history  is  a  work 


GRAEVIUS— GRAFE,  K.  F.  VON 


of  genius.  Simultaneously  with  the  publication  •  of  vol.  iv. 
Graetz  was  appointed  on  the  staff  of  the  new  Breslau  Seminary, 
of  which  the  first  director  was  Z.  Frankel.  Graetz  passed  the 
remainder  of  his  life  in  this  office;  in  1869  he  was  created  pro- 
fessor by  the  government,  and  also  lectured  at  the  Breslau 
University.  Graetz  attained  considerable  repute  as  a  biblical 
critic.  He  was  the  author  of  many  bold  conjectures  as  to  the 
date  of  Ruth,  Ecclesiastes,  Esther  and  other  biblical  books. 
His  critical  edition  of  the  Psalms  (1882-1883)  was  his  chief  con- 
tribution to  biblical  exegesis,  but  after  his  death  Professor 
Bacher  edited  Graetz's  Emendaliones  to  many  parts  of  the 
Hebrew  scriptures. 

A  full  bibliography  of  Graetz's  works  is  given  in  the  Jewish 
Quarterly  Review,  iv.  194;  a  memoir  of  Graetz  is  also  to  be  found 
there.  Another  full  memoir  was  prefixed  to  the  "  index  "  volume 
of  the  History  in  the  American  re-issue  of  the  English  translation 
in  six  volumes  (Philadelphia,  1898).  (I.  A.) 

GRAEVIUS  (properly  GRAVE  or  GREFFE),  JOHANN  GE0RG 
(1632-1703),  German  classical  scholar  and  critic,  was  born  at 
Naumburg,  Saxony,  on  the  2Qth  of  January  1632.  He  was 
originally  intended  for  the  law,  but  having  made  the  acquaintance 
of  j.  F.  Gronovius  during  a  casual  visit  to  Deventer,  under  his 
influence  he  abandoned  jurisprudence  for  philology.  He  com- 
pleted his  studies  under  D.  Heinsius  at  Leiden,  and  under  the 
Protestant  theologians  A.  Morus  and  D.  Blondel  at  Amsterdam. 
During  his  residence  in  Amsterdam,  under  Blondel's  influence 
he  abandoned  Lutheranism  and  joined  the  Reformed  Church; 
and  in  1656  he  was  called  by  the  elector  of  Brandenburg  to 
the  chair  of  rhetoric  in  the  university  of  Duisburg.  Two  years 
afterwards,  on  the  recommendation  of  Gronovius,  he  was  chosen 
to  succeed  that  .scholar  at  Deventer;  in  1662  he  was  translated 
to  the  university  of  Utrecht,  where  he  occupied  first  the  chair 
of  rhetoric,  and  from  1667  until  his  death  (January  nth,  1703) 
that  of  history  and  politics.  Graevius  enjoyed  a  very  high 
reputation  as  a  teacher,  and  his  lecture-room  was  crowded 
by  pupils,  many  of  them  of  distinguished  rank,  from  all  parts 
of  the  civilized  world.  He  was  honoured  with  special  recogni- 
tion by  Louis  XIV.,  and  was  a  particular  favourite  of  William  III. 
of  England,  who  made  him  historiographer  royal. 

His  two  most  important  works  are  the  Thesaurus  antiquitatum 
Romanarum  (1694-1699,  in  12  volumes),  and  the  Thesaurus  anti- 
quitatum et  historiarum  Italiae  published  after  his  death,  and 
continued  by  the  elder  Burmann  (1704-1725).  His  editions  of  the 
classics,  although  they  marked  a  distinct  advance  in  scholarship, 
are  now  for  the  most  part  superseded.  They  include  Hesiod  (1667), 
Lucian,  Pseudosophista  (1668),  Justin,  Historiae  Philippicae  (1669), 
Suetonius  (1672),  Catullus,  Tibullus  et  Propertius  (1680),  and 
several  of  the  works  of  Cicero  (his  best  production).  He  also  edited 
many  of  the  writings  of  contemporary  scholars.  The  Oratio  funebris 
by  P.  Burmann  (1703)  contains  an  exhaustive  list  of  the  works 
of  this  scholar;  see  also  P.  H.  Kttlb  in  Ersch  and  Gruber's  Allgemeine 
Encyklopddie,  and  J.  E.  Sandys,  History  of  Classical  Scholarship,  ii. 
(1908). 

GRAF,  ARTURO  (1848-  ),  Italian  poet,  of  German  ex- 
traction, was  born  at  Athens.  He  was  educated  at  Naples 
University  and  became  a  lecturer  on  Italian  literature  in  Rome, 
till  in  1882  he  was  appointed  professor  at  Turin.  He  was  one 
of  the  founders  of  the  Giornale  della  letleratura  italiana,  and  his 
publications  include  valuable  prose  criticism;  but  he  is  best 
known  as  a  poet.  His  various  volumes  of  verse — Poesie  e 
novelle  (1874),  Dopo  il  tramonto  versi  (1893),  &c. — give  him  a 
high  place  among  the  recent  lyrical  writers  of  his  country. 

GRAF,  KARL  HEINRICH  (1815-1869),  German  Old  Testa- 
ment scholar  and  orientalist,  was  born  at  Miilhausen  in  Alsace 
on  the  28th  of  February  1815.  He  studied  Biblical  exegesis 
and  oriental  languages  at  the  university  of  Strassburg  under 
E.  Reuss,  and,  after  holding  various  teaching  posts,  was  made 
instructor  in  French  and  Hebrew  at  the  Landesschule  of  Meissen, 
receiving  in  1852  the  title  of  professor.  He  died  on  the  i6th  of 
July  1869.  Graf  was  one  of  the  chief  founders  of  Old  Testament 
criticism.  In  his  principal  work,  Die  geschichtlichen  Biicher 
des  Allen  Testaments  (1866),  he  sought  to  show  that  the  priestly 
legislation  of  Exodus,  Leviticus  and  Numbers  is  of  later  origin 
than  the  book  of  Deuteronomy.  He  still,  however,  held  the 
accepted  view,  that  the  Elohistic  narratives  formed  part  of  the 


Grundschrifl  and  therefore  belonged  to  the  oldest  portions  of 
the  Pentateuch.  The  reasons  urged  against  the  contention  that 
the  priestly  legislation  and  the  Elohistic  narratives  were  separ- 
ated by  a  space  of  500  years  were  so  strong  as  to  induce  Graf, 
in  an  essay,  "  Die  sogenannte  Grundschrift  des  Pentateuchs," 
published  shortly  before  his  death,  to  regard  the  whole  Grund- 
schrift  as  post-exilic  and  as  the  latest  portion  of  the  Pentateuch. 
The  idea  had  already  been  expressed  by  E.  Reuss,  but  since 
Graf  was  the  first  to  introduce  it  into  Germany,  the  theory, 
as  developed  by  Julius  Wellhausen,  has  been  called  the  Graf- 
Wellhausen  hypothesis. 

Graf  also  wrote,  Der  Segen  Moses  Deut.33  (1857)  and  Der  Prophet 
Jeremia  erklart  ( 1 862) .  See  T.  K.  Chey  ne,  Founders  of  Old  Testament 
Criticism  (1893);  and  Otto  Pfleiderer's  book  translated  into  English 
by  J.  F.  Smith  as  Development  of  Theology  (1890). 

GRAFE,  ALBRECHT  VON  (1828-1870),  German  oculist,  son 
of  Karl  Ferdinand  von  Grafe,  was  born  at  Berlin  on  the  22nd 
of  May  1828.  At  an  early  age  he  manifested  a  preference  for  the 
study  of  mathematics,  but  this  was  gradually  superseded  by  an 
interest  in  natural  science,  which  led  him  ultimately  to  the  study 
of  medicine.  After  prosecuting  his  studies  at  Berlin,  Vienna, 
Prague,  Paris,  London,  Dublin  and  Edinburgh,  and  devoting 
special  attention  to  ophthalmology  he,  in  1850,  began  practice 
as  an  oculist  in  Berlin,  where  he  founded  a  private  institution 
for  the  treatment  of  the  eyes,  which  became  the  model  of  many 
similar  ones  in  Germany  and  Switzerland.  In  1853  he  was 
appointed  teacher  of  ophthalmology  in  Berlin  university;  in 
1858  he  became  extraordinary  professor,  and  in  1866  ordinary 
professor.  Grafe  contributed  largely  to  the  progress  of  the 
science  of  ophthalmology,  especially  by  the  establishment  in 
1855  of  his  Archivfiir  Ophthalmologie,  in  which  he  had  Ferdinand 
Arlt  (1812-1887)  and  F.  C.  Donders  (1818-1889)  as  collaborators. 
Perhaps  his  two  most  important  discoveries  were  his  method 
of  treating  glaucoma  and  his  new  operation  for  cataract.  He 
was  also  regarded  as  an  authority  in  diseases  of  the  nerves 
and  brain.  He  died  at  Berlin  on  the  2oth  of  July  1870. 

See  Ein  Wort  der  Erinnerung  an  Albrecht  von  Grafe  (Halle,  1870) 
by  his  cousin,  Alfred  Grafe  ( 1 830-1 899) ,  also  a  distinguished  ophthal- 
mologist, and  the  author  of  Das  Sehen  der  Schielenden  (Wiesbaden, 
1897);  and  E.  Michaelis,  Albrecht  von  Grafe.  Sein  Leben  und 
Wirken  (Berlin,  1877). 

GRAFE,  HEINRICH  (1802-1868),  German  educationist,  was 
born  at  Buttstadt  in  Saxe-Weimar  on  the  3rd  of  May  1802, 
He  studied  mathematics  and  theology  at  Jena,  and  in  1823 
obtained  a  curacy  in  the  town  church  of  Weimar.  He  was 
transferred  to  Jena  as  rector  of  the  town  school  in  1825;  in  1840 
he  was  also  appointed  extraordinary  professor  of  the  science 
of  education  (Padagogik)  in  that  university;  and  in  1842  he 
became  head  of  the  Biirgerschttle  (middle  class  school)  in  Cassel. 
After  reorganizing  the  schools  of  the  town,  he  became  director 
of  the  new  Realschule  in  1843;  and,  devoting  himself  to  the 
interests  of  educational  reform  in  electoral  Hesse,  he  became 
in  1849  a  member  of  the  school  commission,  and  also  entered 
the  house  of  representatives,  where  he  made  himself  somewhat 
formidable  as  an  agitator.  In  1852  for  having  been  implicated 
in  the  September  riots  and  in  the  movement  against  the  unpopular 
minister  Hassenpflug,  who  had  dissolved  the  school  commission, 
he  was  condemned  to  three  years'  imprisonment,  a  sentence 
afterwards  reduced  to  one  of  twelve  months.  On  his  release  he 
withdrew  to  Geneva,  where  he  engaged  in  educational  work 
till  i8ss>  when  he  was  appointed  director  of  the  school  of  industry 
at  Bremen.  He  died  in  that  city  on  the  2ist  of  July  1868. 

Besides  being  the  author  of  many  text-books  and  occasional 
papers  on  educational  subjects,  he  wrote  Das  Rechtsverhdltnis  der 
Volksschule  von  innen  und  aussen  (1829);  Die  Schulreform  (1834); 
Schule  und  Unterricht  (1839);  Allgemeine  Padagogik  (1845);  Die 
deutsche  Volksschule  (1847).  Together  with  Naumann,  he  also  edited 
theArchivfurdaspraktische  Volksschulwesen  (1828-1835). 

GRAFE,  KARL  FERDINAND  VON  (1787-1840),  German 
surgeon,  was  born  at  Warsaw  on  the  8th  of  March  1787.  He 
studied  medicine  at  Halle  and  Leipzig,  and  after  obtaining 
licence  from  the  Leipzig  university,  he  was  in  1807  appointed 
private  physician  to  Duke  Alexius  of  Anhalt-Bernburg.  In 
1811  he  became  professor  of  surgery  and  director  of  the  surgical 


316 


GRAFFITO— GRAFTON,  DUKES  OF 


clinic  at  Berlin,  and  during  the  war  with  Napoleon  he  was  super- 
intendent of  the  military  hospitals.  When  peace  was  concluded 
in  1815,  he  resumed  his  professorial  duties.  He  was  also  appointed 
physician  to  the  general  staff  of  the  army,  and  he  became  a 
director  of  the  Friedrich  Wilhelm  Institute  and  of  the  Medico- 
Chirurgical  Academy.  He  died  suddenly  on  the  4th  of  July  1 840 
at  Hanover,  whither  he  had  been  called  to  operate  on  the  eyes 
of  the  crown  prince.  Grafe  did  much  to  advance  the  practice 
of  surgery  in  Germany,  especially  in  the  treatment  of  wounds. 
He  improved  the  rhinoplastic  process,  and  its  revival  was  chiefly 
due  to  him.  His  lectures  at  the  university  of  Berlin  attracted 
students  from  all  parts  of  Europe. 

The  following  are  his  principal  works:  Normen  fur  die  Ablosung 
grosser  Gliedmassen  (Berlin,  1812);  Rhinoplastik  (1818);  Neue  Bei- 
trage  zur  Kunst  Theile  des  Angesichts  organisch  zu  ersetzen  (1821); 
Die  epidemisch-kontagiose  Augenblennorrhoe  Agyptens  in  den 
europdischen  Befreiungsheeren  (1824);  and  Jahresberichte  iiber  das 
klinisch-chirurgisch-augendrztliche  Institut  der  Universitdt  zu  Berlin 
(1817-1834).  He  also  edited,  with  Ph.  von  Walther,  the  Journal 
fur  Chirurgie  and  A  ugenheilkunde.  See  E.  M  ichaelis,  Karl  Ferdinand 
von  Grafe  in  seiner  jojdhrigen  Wirken  fur  Stan-t  und  Wissenschaft 
(Berlin,  1840) 

GRAFFITO,  plural  graffiti,  the  Italian  word  meaning  "  scribb- 
ling "  or  "  scratchings  "  (graffiare,  to  scribble,  Gr.  7  pa<j>tiv) , 
adopted  by  archaeologists  as  a  general  term  for  the  casual 
writings,  rude  drawings  and  markings  on  ancient  buildings, 
in  distinction  from  the  more  formal  or  deliberate  writings  known 
as  "  inscriptions."  These  "  graffiti,"  either  scratched  on  stone 
or  plaster  by  a  sharp  instrument  such  as  a  nail,  or,  more  rarely, 
written  in  red  chalk  or  black  charcoal,  are  found  in  great  abund- 
ance, e.g.  on  the  monuments  of  ancient  Egypt.  The  best -known 
"  graffiti  "  are  those  in  Pompeii  and  in  the  catacombs  and  else- 
where in  Rome.  They  have  been  collected  by  R.  Garrucci 
(Graffiti  di  Pompei,  Paris,  1856),  and  L.  Correra  ("  Graffiti  di 
Roma  "  in  Bolletino  della  commissione  municipale  archaeologica, 
Rome,  1893;  see  also  Corp.  Ins.  Lat.  iv.,  Berlin,  1871). 
The  subject  matter  of  these  scribblings  is  much  the  same  as 
that  of  the  similar  scrawls  made  to-day  by  boys,  street  idlers 
and  the  casual  "  tripper."  The  schoolboy  of  Pompeii  wrote  out 
lists  of  nouns  and  verbs,  alphabets  and  lines  from  Virgil  for 
memorizing,  lovers  wrote  the  names  of  their  beloved,  "  sports- 
men "  scribbled  the  names  of  horses  they  had  been  "  tipped," 
and  wrote  those  of  their  favourite  gladiators.  Personal  abuse 
is  frequent,  and  rude  caricatures  are  found,  such  as  that  of  one 
Peregrinus  with  an  enormous  nose,  or  of  Naso  or  Nasso  with 
hardly  any.  Aulus  Vettius  Firmus  writes  up  his  election  address 
and  appeals  to  the  pilicrepi  or  ball-players  for  their  votes  for 
him  as  aedile.  Lines  of  poetry,  chiefly  suited  for  lovers  in  de- 
jection or  triumph,  are  popular,  and  Ovid  and  Propertius  appear 
to  be  favourites.  Apparently  private  owners  of  property  felt 
the  nuisance  of  the  defacement  of  their  walls,  and  at  Rome 
near  the  Porta  Portuensis  has  been  found  an  inscription  begging 
people  not  to  scribble  (scariphare)  on  the  walls. 

Graffiti  are  of  some  importance  to  the  palaeographer  and  to 
the  philologist  as  illustrating  the  forms  and  corruptions  of  the 
various  alphabets  and  languages  used  by  the  people,  and  occasion- 
ally guide  the  archaeologist  to  the  date  of  the  building  on  which 
they  appear,  but  they  are  chiefly  valuable  for  the  light  they 
throw  on  the  everyday  life  of  the  "  man  in  the  street  "  of  the 
period,  and  for  the  intimate  details  of  customs  and  institutions 
which  no  literature  or  formal  inscriptions  can  give.  The  graffiti 
dealing  with  the  gladiatorial  shows  at  Pompeii  are  in  this  respect 
particularly  noteworthy;  the  rude  drawings  such  as  that  of 
the  secular  caught  in  the  net  of  the  retiarius  and  lying  entirely 
at  his  mercy,  give  a  more  vivid  picture  of  what  the  incidents 
of  these  shows  were  like  than  any  account  in  words  (see  Garrucci, 
op.  cit.,  Pis.  x.-xiv.;  A.  Mau,  Pompeii  in  Leben  und  Kunst,  2nd 
ed.,  1908,  ch.  xxx.).  In  1866  in  the  Trastevere  quarter  of  Rome, 
near  the  church  of  S.  Crisogono,  was  discovered  the  guard-house 
(excubitorium)  of  the  seventh  cohort  of  the  city  police  (vigiles), 
the  walls  being  covered  by  the  scribblings  of  the  guards,  illustrat- 
ing in  detail  the  daily  routine,  the  hardships  and  dangers,  and 
the  feelings  of  the  men  towards  their  officers  (W.  Henzen, 


"  L'  Escubitorio  della  Settima  coorte  dei  Vigili  "  in  Bull.  Inst., 
1867,  and  Annali  Inst.,  1874;  see  also  R.  Lanciani,  Ancient 
Rome  in  the  Light  of  Recent  Discoveries,  230,  and  Ruins  and 
Excavations  of  Ancient  Rome,  1897,  548).  The  most  famous 
graffito  yet  discovered  is  that  generally  accepted  as  representing 
a  caricature  of  Christ  upon  the  cross,  found  on  the  walls  of  the 
Domus  Gelotiana  on  the  Palatine  in  1857,  and  now  preserved 
in  the  Kircherian  Museum  of  the  Collegio  Romano.  Deeply 
scratched  in  the  wall  is  a  figure  of  a  man  clad  in  the  short  tunica 
with  one  hand  upraised  in  salutation  to  another  figure,  with 
the  head  of  an  ass,  or  possibly  a  horse,  hanging  on  a  cross; 
beneath  is  written  in  rude  Greek  letters  "  Anaxamenos  worships 
(his)  god."  It  has  been  suggested  that  this  represents  an 
adherent  of  some  Gnostic  sect  worshipping  one  of  the  animal- 
headed  deities  of  Egypt  (see  Ferd.  Becker,  Das  Spottcrucifix 
der  romischen  Kaiser •palaste,  Breslau,  1866;  F.  X.  Kraus,  Das 
Spoltcrucifix  vom  Palatin,  Freiburg  in  Breisgau,  1872;  and 
Visconti  and  Lanciani,  Guida  del  Palatine). 

There  is  an  interesting  article,  with  many  quotations  of  graffiti, 
in  the  Edinburgh  Review,  October  1859,  vol.  ex.  (C.  WE.) 

GRAFLY,  CHARLES  (1862-  ),  American  sculptor,  was 
born  at  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania,  on  the  3rd  of  December 
1862.  He  was  a  pupil  of  the  schools  of  the  Pennsylvania  Academy 
of  the  Fine  Arts,  Philadelphia,  and  of  Henri  M.  Chapu  and  Jean 
Dampt,  and  the  Ecole  des  Beaux  Arts,  Paris.  He  received  an 
Honorable  Mention  in  the  Paris  Salon  of  1891  for  his  "  Mauvais 
Presage,"  now  at  the  Detroit  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  a  gold  medal 
at  the  Paris  Exposition,  in  1900,  and  medals  at  Chicago,  1893, 
Atlanta,  1895,  and  Philadelphia  (the  gold  Medal  of  Honor, 
Pennsylvania  Academy  of  the  Fine  Arts),  1899.  In  1892  he 
became  instructor  in  sculpture  at  the  Pennsylvania  Academy 
of  the  Fine  Arts,  also  filling  the  same  chair  at  the  Drexel  Institute, 
Philadelphia.  He  was  elected  a  full  member  of  the  National 
Academy  of  Design  in  1905.  His  better-known  works  include: 
"  General  Reynolds,"  Fairmount  Park,  Philadelphia;  "  Foun- 
tain of  Man "  (made  for  the  Pan-American  Exposition  at 
Buffalo);  "From  Generation  to  Generation";  "Symbol  of« 
Life  ";  "  Vulture  of  War,"  and  many  portrait  busts. 

GRAFRATH,  a  town  in  Rhenish  Prussia,  on  the  Itterbach, 
14  m.  E.  of  Dusseldorf  on  the  railway  Hilden-Vohwinkel.  Pop. 
(1905)  9030.  It  has  a  Roman  Catholic  and  two  Evangelical 
churches,  and  there  was  an  abbey  here  from  1185  to  1803.  The 
principal  industries  are  iron  and  steel,  while  weaving  is  carried 
on  in  the  town. 

GRAFT  (a  modified  form  of  the  earlier  "  graff,"  through 
the  French  from  the  Late  Lat.  graphium,  a  stylus  or  pencil), 
a  small  branch,  shoot  or  "  scion,"  transferred  from  one  plant  or 
tree  to  another,  the  "  stock,"  and  inserted  in  it  so  that  the  two 
unite  (see  HORTICULTURE).  The  name  was  adopted  from  the 
resemblance  in  shape  of  the  "  graft  "  to  a  pencil.  The  transfer 
of  living  tissue  from  one  portion  of  an  organism  to  another  part 
of  the  same  or  different  organism  where  it  adheres  and  grows 
is  also  known  as  "  grafting,"  and  is  frequently  practised  in 
modern  surgery.  The  word  is  applied,  in  carpentry,  to  an 
attachment  of  the  ends  of  timbers,  and,  as  a  nautical  term,  to 
the  "  whipping  "  or  "  pointing  "  of  a  rope's  end  with  fine  twine 
to  prevent  unravelling.  "  Graft  "  is  used  as  a  slang  term,  in 
England,  for  a  "  piece  of  hard  work."  In  American  usage 
Webster's  Dictionary  (ed.  1904)  defines  the  word  as  "  the  act  of 
any  one,  especially  an  official  or  public  employe,  by  which  he 
procures  money  surreptitiously  by  virtue  of  his  office  or  position; 
also  the  surreptitious  gain  thus  procured."  It  is  thus  a  word 
embracing  blackmail  and  illicit  commission.  The  origin  of  the 
English  use  of  the  word  is  probably  an  obsolete  word  "  graft," 
a  portion  of  earth  thrown  up  by  a  spade,  from  the  Teutonic  root 
meaning  "  to  dig,"  seen  in  German  graben,  and  English  "  grave." 

GRAFTON,  DUKES  OF.  The  English  dukes  of  Grafton  are 
descended  from  HENRY  FITZROY  (1663-1690),  the  natural  son 
of  Charles  II.  by  Barbara  Villiers  (countess  of  Castlemaine  and 
duchess  of  Cleveland).  In  1672  he  was  married  to  the  daughter 
and  heiress  of  the  earl  of  Arlington  and  created  earl  of  Euston; 
in  1675  he  was  created  duke  of  Grafton.  He  was  brought 


GRAFTON,  R.— GRAHAM,  SIR  G. 


31? 


up  as  a  sailor,  and  saw  military  service  at  the  siege  of  Luxemburg 
in  1684.  At  James  II. 's  coronation  he  was  lord  high  constable. 
In  the  rebellion  of  the  duke  of  Monmouth  he  commanded  the 
royal  troops  in  Somersetshire;  but  later  he  acted  with  Churchill 
(duke  of  Marlborough),  and  joined  William  of  Orange  against 
the  king.  He  died  of  a  wound  received  at  the  storming  of  Cork, 
while  leading  William's  forces,  being  succeeded  as  2nd  duke 
by  his  son  Charles  (1682-1757). 

AUGUSTUS  HENRY  FITZROY,  3rd  duke  of  Grafton  (1735-1811), 
one  of  the  leading  politicians  of  his  time,  was  the  grandson  of  the 
and  duke,  and  was  educated  at  Westminster  and  Cambridge.  He 
first  became  known  in  politics  as  an  opponent  of  Lord  Bute;  in 
1765  he  was  secretary  of  state  under  the  marquis  of  Rockingham; 
but  he  retired  next  year,  and  Pitt  (becoming  earl  of  Chatham) 
formed  a  ministry  in  which  Grafton  was  first  lord  of  the  treasury 
(1766)  but  only  nominally  prime  minister.  Chatham's  illness 
at  the  end  of  1767  resulted  in  Grafton  becoming  the  effective 
leader,  but  political  differences  and  the  attacks  of  "  Junius  " 
led  to  his  resignation  in  January  1770.  He  became  lord  privy 
seal  in  Lord  North's  ministry  (1771)  but  resigned  in  1775,  being 
in  favour  of  conciliatory  action  towards  the  American  colonists. 
In  the  Rockingham  ministry  of  1782  he  was  again  lord  privy 
seal.  In  later  years  he  was  a  prominent  Unitarian. 

Besides  his  successor,  the  4th  duke  (1760-1844),  and  numerous 
other  children,  he  was  the  father  of  General  Lord  Charles  Fitz- 
roy  (1764-1829),  whose  sons  Sir  Charles  Fitzroy  (1798-1858), 
governor  of  New  South  Wales,  and  Robert  Fitzroy  (g.v.),  the 
hydrographer,  were  notable  men.  The  4th  duke's  son,  who 
succeeded  as  sth  duke,  was  father  of  the  6th  and  7th  dukes. 

The  3rd  duke  left  in  manuscript  a  Memoir  of  his  public  career, 
of  which  extracts  have  been  printed  in  Stanhope's  History,  Walpole's 
Memories  of  George  III.  (Appendix,  vol.  iv.),  and  Campbell's  Lives 
of  the  Chancellors. 

GRAFTON,  RICHARD  (d.  1572),  English  printer  and  chron- 
icler, was  probably  born  about  1513.  He  received  the  freedom 
of  the  Grocers'  Company  in  1534.  Miles  Coverdale's  version 
of  the  Bible  had  first  been  printed  in  1535.  Grafton  was  early 
brought  into  touch  with  the  leaders  of  religious  reform,  and  in 
1537  he  undertook,  in  conjunction  with  Edward  Whitchurch, 
to  produce  a  modified  version  of  Coverdale's  text,  generally 
known  as  Matthew's  Bible  (Antwerp,  1537).  He  went  to  Paris 
to  reprint  Coverdale's  revised  edition  ( 1 538) .  There  Whitchurch 
and  he  began  to  print  the  folio  known  as  the  Great  Bible  by 
special  licence  obtained  by  Henry  VIII.  from  the  French  govern- 
ment. Suddenly,  however,  the  work  was  officially  stopped  and 
the  presses  seized.  Grafton  fled,  but  Thomas  Cromwell  eventu- 
ally bought  the  presses  and  type,  and  the  printing  was  completed 
in  England.  The  Great  Bible  was  reprinted  several  times  under 
his  direction,  the  last  occasion  being  1553.  In  1544  Grafton 
and  Whitchurch  secured  the  exclusive  right  of  printing  church 
service  books,  and  on  the  accession  of  Edward  VI.  he  was 
appointed  king's  printer,  an  office  which  he  retained  throughout 
the  reign.  In  this  capacity  he  produced  The  Booke  of  the  Common 
Praier  and  Administration  of  the  Sacramentes,  and  other  Rites 
and  Ceremonies  of  the  Churehe:  after  the  Use  of  the  Churche  of 
Englande  (1549  fol.),  and  Actes  of  Parliament  (1552  and  1553). 
In  1553  he  printed  Lady  Jane  Grey's  proclamation  and  signed 
himself  the  queen's  printer.  For  this  he  was  imprisoned  for  a 
short  time,  and  he  seems  thereafter  to  have  retired  from  active 
business.  His  historical  works  include  a  continuation  (1543) 
of  Hardyng's  Chronicle  from  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Edward 
IV.  down  to  Grafton's  own  times.  He  is  said  to  have  taken 
considerable  liberties  with  the  original,  and  may  practically  be 
regarded  as  responsible  for  the  whole  work.  He  printed  in  1 548 
Edward  Hall's  Union  of  the .  .  .  Families  of  Lancastre  and 
Yorke,  adding  the  history  of  the  years  from  1532  to  1547.  After 
he  retired  from  the  printing  business  he  published  An  Abridge- 
ment of  the  Chronicles  of  England  (1562),  Manuell  of  the  Chronicles 
of  England  (1565),  Chronicle  at  large  and  meere  Historye  of  the 
Ajfayres  of  England  (1568).  In  these  books  he  chiefly  adapted 
the  work  of  his  predecessors,  but  in  some  cases  he  gives  detailed 
accounts  of  contemporary  events.  His  name  frequently  appears 


in  the  records  of  St  Bartholomew's  and  Christ's  hospitals,  and 
in  1553  he  was  treasurer-general  of  the  hospitals  of  King  Edward's 
foundation.  In  1553-1554  and  1556-1557  he  represented  the 
City  in  Parliament,  and  in  1562-1563  he  sat  for  Coventry. 

An  elaborate  account  of  Grafton  was  written  in  1901  by  Mr  J.  A. 
Kingdon  under  the  auspices  of  the  Grocers'  Company,  with  the  title 
Richard  Grafton,  Citizen  and  Grocer  of  London,  &c.,  in  continuation 
of  Incidents  in  the  Lives  of  T.  Poyntz  and  R.  Grafton  (1895).  His 
Chronicle  at  large  was  reprinted  by  Sir  Henry  Ellis  in  1809. 

GRAFTON,  a  city  of  Clarence  county,  New  South  Wales, 
lying  on  both  sides  of  the  Clarence  river,  at  a  distance  of  45  m. 
from  its  mouth,  342  m.  N.E.  of  Sydney  by  sea.  Pop.  (1901) 
4174,  South  Grafton,  976.  The  two  sections,  North  Grafton 
and  South  Grafton,  form  separate  municipalities.  The  river 
is  navigable  from  the  sea  to  the  town  for  ships  of  moderate 
burden,  and  for  small  vessels  to  a  point  35  m.  beyond  it.  The 
entrance  to  the  river  has  been  artificially  improved.  Grafton 
is  the  seat  of  the  Anglican  joint-bishopric  of  Grafton  and  Armidale, 
and  of  a  Roman  Catholic  bishopric  created  in  1888,  both  of  which 
have  fine  cathedrals.  Dairy-farming  and  sugar-growing  are 
important  industries,  and  there  are  several  sugar-mills  in  the 
neighbourhood;  great  numbers  of  horses,  also,  are  bred  for  the 
Indian  and  colonial  markets.  Tobacco,  cereals  and  fruits  are 
also  grown.  Grafton  has  a  large  shipping  trade  with  Sydney. 
There  is  rail-connexion  with  Brisbane,  &c.  The  city  became  a 
municipality  in  1859. 

GRAFTON,  a  township  in  the  S.E.  part  of  Worcester  county, 
Massachusetts,  U.S.A.  Pop.  (1905)  5052 ;  (1910)  5705.  It  is 
served  by  the  New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford,  and  the 
Boston  &  Albany  railways,  and  by  interurban  electric  lines. 
The  township  contains  several  villages  (including  Grafton,  North 
Grafton,  Saundersville,  Fisherville  and  Farnumsville) ;  the 
principal  village,  Grafton,  is  about  7  m.  S.E.  of  Worcester.  The 
villages  are  residential  suburbs  of  Worcester,  and  attract  many 
summer  residents.  In  the  village  of  Grafton  there  is  a  public 
library.  There  is  ample  water  power  from  the  Blackstone 
river  and  its  tributaries,  and  among  the  manufactures  of  Grafton 
are  cotton-goods,  boots  and  shoes,  &c.  Within  what  is  now 
Grafton  stood  the  Nipmuck  Indian  village  of  Hassanamesit. 
John  Eliot,  the  "  apostle  to  the  Indians,"  visited  it  soon  after 
1651,  and  organized  the  third  of  his  bands  of  "  praying  Indians  " 
there;  in  1671  he  established  a  church  for  them,  the  second  of 
the  kind  in  New  England,  and  also  a  school.  In  1654  the  Massa- 
chusetts General  Court  granted  to  the  Indians,  for  their  exclusive 
use,  a  tract  of  about  4  sq.  m.,  of  which  they  remained  the  sole 
proprietors  until  1718,  when  they  sold  a  small  farm  to  Elisha 
Johnson,  the  first  permanent  white  settler  in  the  neighbourhood. 
In  1728  a  group  of  residents  of  Marlboro,  Sudbury,  Concord  and 
Stowe,  with  the  permission  of  the  General  Court,  bought  from  the 
Indians  7500  acres  of  their  lands,  and  agreed  to  establish  forty 
English  families  on  the  tract  within  three  years,  and  to  maintain 
a  church  and  school  of  which  the  Indians  should  have  free  use. 
The  township  was  incorporated  in  1735,  and  was  named  in  honour 
of  the  2nd  duke  of  Grafton.  The  last  of  the  pure-blooded 
Indians  died  about  1825. 

GRAFTON,  a  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Taylor  county,  West 
Virginia,  U.S.A.,  on  Tygart  river,  about  100  m.  by  rail  S.E.  of 
Wheeling.  Pop.  (1890)  3159;  (1900)  5650,  including  226  foreign- 
born  and  162  negroes;  (1910)  7563.  It  is  served  by  four  divisions 
of  the  Baltimore  &  Ohio  railway,  which  maintains  extensive  car 
shops  here.  The  city  is  about  1000  ft.  above  sea-level.  It  has 
a  small  national  cemetery,  and  about  4  m.  W.,  at  Pruntytown, 
is  the  West  Virginia  Reform  School.  Grafton  is  situated  near 
large  coal-fields,  and  is  supplied  with  natural  gas.  Among  its 
manufactures  are  machine-shop  and  foundry  products,  window 
glass  and  pressed  glass  ware,  and  grist  mill  and  planing-mill 
products.  The  first  settlement  was  made  about  1852,  and 
Grafton  was  incorporated  in  1856  and  chartered  as  a  city  in 
1899.  In  1903  the  population  and  area  of  the  city  were  increased 
by  the  annexation  of  the  town  of  Fetterman  (pop.  in  1900,  796), 
of  Beaumont  (unincorporated),  and  of  other  territory. 

GRAHAM,  SIR  GERALD  (1831-1899),  British  general,  was 
born  on  the  27th  of  June  1831  at  Acton,  Middlesex.  He  was 


3i8 


GRAHAM,  SIR  JAMES— GRAHAM,  T. 


educated  at  Dresden  and  Woolwich  Academy,  and  entered  the 
Royal  Engineers  in  1850.  He  served  with  distinction  through 
the  Russian  War  of  1854  to  1856,  was  present  at  the  battles  of 
the  Alma  and  Inkerman,  was  twice  wounded  in  the  trenches 
before  Sevastopol,  and  was  awarded  the  Victoria  Cross  for 
gallantry  at  the  attack  on  the  Redan  and  for  devoted  heroism 
on  numerous  occasions.  He  also  received  the  Legion  of  Honour, 
and  was  promoted  to  a  brevet  majority.  In  the  China  War  of 
1860  he  took  part  in  the  actions  of  Sin-ho  and  Tang-ku,  the 
storming  of  the  Taku  Forts,  where  he  was  severely  wounded, 
and  the  entry  into  Peking  (brevet  lieutenant-colonelcy  and  C.B.). 
Promoted  colonel  in  1869,  he  was  employed  in  routine  duties 
until  1877,  when  he  was  appointed  assistant-director  of  works 
for  barracks  at  the  war  office,  a  position  he  held  until  his  promo- 
tion to  major-general  in  1881.  In  command  of  the  advanced 
force  in  Egypt  in  1882,  he  bore  the  brunt  of  the  fighting,  was 
present  at  the  action  of  Magfar,  commanded  at  the  first  battle 
of  Kassassin,  took  part  in  the  second,  and  led  his  brigade  at 
Tell-el-Kebir.  For  his  services  in  the  campaign  he  received  the 
K.C.B.  and  thanks  of  parliament.  In  1884  he  commanded  the 
expedition  to  the  eastern  Sudan,  and  fought  the  successful 
battles  of  El  Teb  and  Tamai.  On  his  return  home  he  received 
the  thanks  of  parliament  and  was  made  a  lieutenant-general 
for  distinguished  service  in  the  field.  In  1885  he  commanded 
the  Suakin  expedition,  defeated  the  Arabs  at  Hashin  and 
Tamai,  and  advanced  the  railway  from  Suakin  to  Otao,  when  the 
expedition  was  withdrawn  (thanks  of  parliament  and  G.C.M.G.). 
In  1896  he  was  made  G.C.B.,  and  in  1899  colonel-commandant 
Royal  Engineers.  He  died  on  the  I7th  of  December  1899. 
He  published  in  1875  a  translation  of  Goetze's  Operations  of 
the  German  Engineers  in  1870-1871,  and  in  1887  Last  Words 
•with  Gordon. 

GRAHAM,  SIR  JAMES  ROBERT  GEORGE,  Bart.  (1792- 
1861),  British  statesman,  son  of  a  baronet,  was  born  at  Naworth, 
Cumberland,  on  the  ist  of  June  1792,  and  was  educated  at 
Westminster  and  Oxford.  Shortly  after  quitting  the  university, 
while  making  the  "  grand  tour  "  abroad,  he  became  private 
secretary  to  the  British  minister  in  Sicily.  Returning  to  England 
in  1818  he  was  elected  to  parliament  as  member  for  Hull  in  the 
Whig  interest;  but  he  was  unseated  at  the  election  of  1820. 
In  1824  he  succeeded  to  the  baronetcy;  and  in  1826  he  re-entered 
parliament  as  representative  for  Carlisle,  a  seat  which  he  soon 
exchanged  for  the  county  of  Cumberland.  In  the  same  year 
he  published  a  pamphlet  entitled  "  Corn  and  Currency,"  which 
brought  him  into  prominence  as  a  man  of  advanced  Liberal 
opinions;  and  he  became  one  of  the  most  energetic  advocates 
in  parliament  of  the  Reform  Bill.  On  the  formation  of  Earl 
Grey's  administration  he  received  the  post  of  first  lord  of  the 
admiralty,  with  a  seat  in  the  cabinet.  From  1832  to  1837  he 
sat  for  the  eastern  division  of  the  county  of  Cumberland.  Dis- 
sensions on  the  Irish  Church  question  led  to  his  withdrawal 
from  the  ministry  in  1834,  and  ultimately  to  his  joining  the 
Conservative  party.  Rejected  by  his  former  constituents  in 
1837,  he  was  in  1838  elected  for  Pembroke,  and  in  1841  for 
Dorchester.  In  the  latter  year  he  took  office  under  Sir  Robert 
Peel  as  secretary  of  state  for  the  home  department,  a  post  he 
retained  until  1846.  As  home  secretary  he  incurred  considerable 
odium  in  Scotland,  by  his  unconciliating  policy  on  the  church 
question  prior  to  the  "  disruption  "  of  1843;  and  in  1844  the 
detention  and  opening  of  letters  at  the  post-office  by  his  warrant 
raised  a  storm  of  public  indignation,  which  was  hardly  allayed 
by  the  favourable  report  of  a  parliamentary  committee  of 
investigation.  From  1846  to  1852  he  was  out  of  office;  but  in 
the  latter  year  he  joined  Lord  Aberdeen's  cabinet  as  first  lord 
of  the  admiralty,  in  which  capacity  he  acted  also  for  a  short 
time  in  the  Palmerston  ministry  of  1855.  The  appointment  of 
a  select  committee  of  inquiry  into  the  conduct  of  the  Russian 
war  ultimately  led  to  his  withdrawal  from  official  life.  He 
continued  as  a  private  member  to  exercise  a  considerable  in- 
fluence on  parliamentary  opinion.  He  died  at  Netherby, 
Cumberland,  on  the  25th  of  October  1861. 

His  Life,  by  C.  S.  Parker,  was  published  in  1907. 


GRAHAM,  SYLVESTER  (1794-1851),  American  dietarian, 
was  born  in  Suffield,  Connecticut,  in  1 794.  He  studied  at  Amherst 
College,  and  was  ordained  to  the  Presbyterian  ministry  in  1826, 
but  he  seems  to  have  preached  but  little.  He  became  an  ardent 
advocate  of  temperance  reform  and  of  vegetarianism,  having 
persuaded  himself  that  a  flesh  diet  was  the  cause  of  abnormal 
cravings.  His  last  years  were  spent  in  retirement  and  he  died 
at  Northampton,  Massachusetts,  on  the  nth  of  September 
1851.  His  name  is  now  remembered  because  of  his  advocacy 
of  unbolted  (Graham)  flour,  and  as  the  originator  of  "  Graham 
bread. "  But  his  reform  was  much  broader  than  this.  He  urged, 
primarily,  physiological  education,  and  in  his  Science  of  Human 
Life  (1836;  republished,  with  biographical  memoir,  1858) 
furnished  an  exhaustive  text-book  on  the  subject.  He  had 
carefully  planned  a  complete  regimen  including  many  details 
besides  a  strict  diet.  A  Temperance  (or  Graham)  Boarding 
House  was  opened  in  New  York  City  about  1832  by  Mrs  Asenath 
Nicholson,  who  published  Nature's  Own  Book  (2nd  ed.,  1835) 
giving  Graham's  rules  for  boarders;  and  in  Boston  a  Graham 
House  was  opened  in  1837  at  23  Brattle  Street. 

There  were  many  Grahamites  at  Brook  Farm,  and  the  American 
Physiological  Society  published  in  Boston  in  1837  and  1838  a  weekly 


Graham  wrote  Essay  on  Cholera  (1832);  The  Esculapian  Tablets 
of  the  Nineteenth  Century  (1834);  Lectures  to  Young  Men  on  Chastity 
(2nd  ed.,  1837);  and  Bread  and  Bread  Making;  and  projected  a 
work  designed  to  show  that  his  system  was  not  counter  to 'the 
Holy  Scriptures. 

GRAHAM,  THOMAS  (1805-1869),  British  chemist,  born  at 
Glasgow  on  the  2oth  of  December  1805,  was  the  son  of  a  merchant 
of  that  city.  In  1819  he  entered  the  university  of  Glasgow  with 
the  intention  of  becoming  a  minister  of  the  Established  Church. 
But  under  the  influence  of  Thomas  Thomson  (1773-1852), 
the  professor  of  chemistry,  he  developed  a  taste  for  experimental 
science  and  especially  for  molecular  physics,  a  subject  which 
formed  his  main  preoccupation  throughout  his  life.  After 
graduating  in  1824,  he  spent  two  years  in  the  laboratory  of 
Professor  T.  C.  Hope  at  Edinburgh,  and  on  returning  to  Glasgow 
gave  lessons  in  mathematics,  and  subsequently  chemistry, 
until  the  year  1829,  when  he  was  appointed  lecturer  in  the 
Mechanics'  Institute.  In  1830  he  succeeded  Dr  Andrew  Ure 
(1778-1857)  as  professor  of  chemistry  in  the  Andersonian  Institu- 
tion, and  in  1837,  on  the  death  of  Dr  Edward  Turner,  he  was 
transferred  to  the  chair  of  chemistry  in  University  College, 
London.  There  he  remained  till  1855,  when  he  succeeded  Sir 
John  Herschel  as  Master  of  the  Mint,  a  post  he  held  until  his 
death  on  the  i6th  of  September  1869.  The  onerous  duties 
his  work  at  the  Mint  entailed  severely  tried  his  energies,  and 
in  quitting  a  purely  scientific  career  he  was  subjected  to  the 
cares  of  official  life,  for  which  he  was  not  fitted  by  temperament. 
The  researches,  however,  which  he  conducted  between  1861 
and  1869  were  as  brilliant  as  any  of  those  in  which  he  engaged. 
Graham  was  elected  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1836, 
and  a  corresponding  member  of  the  Institute  of  France  in  1847, 
while  Oxford  made  him  a  D.  C.  L.  in  1855.  He  took  a  leading  part 
in  the  foundation  of  the  London  Chemical  and  the  Cavendish 
societies,  and  served  as  first  president  of  both,  in  1841  and  1846. 
Towards  the  close  of  his  life  the  presidency  of  the  Royal  Society 
was  offered  him,  but  his  failing  health  caused  him  to  decline 
the  honour. 

Graham's  work  is  remarkable  at  once  for  its  originality  and 
for  the  simplicity  of  the  methods  employed  in  obtaining  most 
important  results.  He  communicated  papers  to  the  Philosophical 
Society  of  Glasgow  before  the  work  of  that  society  was  recorded 
in  Transactions,  but  his  first  published  paper,  "  On  the  Absorp- 
tion of  Gases  by  Liquids,"  appeared  in  the  Annals  of  Philosophy 
for  1826.  The  subject  with  which  his  name  is  most  prominently 
associated  is  the  diffusion  of  gases.  In  his  first  paper  on  this 
subject  (1829)  he  thus  summarizes  the  knowledge  experiment 
had  afforded  as  to  the  laws  which  regulate  the  movement  of 
gases.  "  Fruitful  as  the  miscibility  of  gases  has  been  in  in- 
teresting speculations,  the  experimental  information  we  possess 


GRAHAME— GRAHAM'S  TOWN 


on  the  subject  amounts  to  little  more  than  the  well-established 
fact  that  gases  of  a  different  nature  when  brought  into  contact 
do  not  arrange  themselves  according  to  their  density,  but  they 
spontaneously  diffuse  through  each  other  so  as  to  remain  in  an 
intimate  state  of  mixture  for  any  length  of  time."  For  the 
fissured  jar  of  J.  W.  Dobereiner  he  substituted  a  glass  tube 
closed  by  a  plug  of  plaster  of  Paris,  and  with  this  simple  ap- 
pliance he  developed  the  law  now  known  by  his  name  "  that 
the  diffusion  rate  of  gases  is  inversely  as  the  square  root  of  their 
density."  (See  DIFFUSION.)  He  further  studied  the  passage 
of  gases  by  transpiration  through  fine  tubes,  and  by  effusion 
through  a  minute  hole  in  a  platinum  disk,  and  was  enabled  to  show 
that  gas  may  enter  a  vacuum  in  three  different  ways:  (i)  by  the 
molecular  movement  of  diffusion,  in  virtue  of  which  a  gas  pene- 
trates through  the  pores  of  a  disk  of  compressed  graphite;  (2) 
by  effusion  through  an  orifice  of  sensible  dimensions  in  a  platinum 
disk  the  relative  times  of  the  effusion  of  gases  in  mass  being 
similar  to  those  of  the  molecular  diffusion,  although  a  gas  is 
usually  carried  by  the  former  kind  of  impulse  with  a  velocity 
many  thousand  times  as  great  as  is  demonstrable  by  the  latter; 
and  (3)  by  the  peculiar  rate  of  passage  due  to  transpiration  through 
fine  tubes,  in  which  the  ratios  appear  to  be  in  direct  relation  with 
no  other  known  property  of  the  same  gases — thus  hydrogen  has 
exactly  double  the  transpiration  rate  of  nitrogen,  the  relation  of 
those  gases  as  to  density  being  as  I  114.  He  subsequently 
examined  the  passage  of  gases  through  septa  or  partitions  of  india- 
rubber,  unglazed  earthenware  and  plates  of  metals  such  as 
palladium,  and  proved  that  gases  pass  through  these  septa 
neither  by  diffusion  nor  effusion  nor  by  transpiration,  but  in  virtue 
of  a  selective  absorption  which  the  septa  appear  to  exert  on  the 
gases  in  contact  with  them.  By  this  means  ("  atmolysis  ")  he 
was  enabled  partially  to  separate  oxygen  from  air. 

His  early  work  on  the  movements  of  gases  led  him  to  examine 
the  spontaneous  movements  of  liquids,  and  as  a  result  of  the 
experiments  he  divided  bodies  into  two  classes — crystalloids, 
such  as  common  salt,  and  colloids,  of  which  gum-arabic  is  a  type 
— the  former  having  high  and  the  latter  low  diffusibility.  He 
also  proved  that  the  process  of  liquid  diffusion  causes  partial 
decomposition  of  certain  chemical  compounds,  the  potassium 
sulphate,  for  instance,  being  separated  from  the  aluminium 
sulphate  in  alum  by  the  higher  diffusibility  of  the  former  salt. 
He  also  extended  his  work  on  the  transpiration  of  gases  to  liquids, 
adopting  the  method  of  manipulation  devised  by  J.  L.  M.  Poise- 
uille.  He  found  that  dilution  with  water  does  not  effect  pro- 
portionate alteration  in  the  transpiration  velocities  of  different 
liquids,  and  a  certain  determinable  degree  of  dilution  retards 
the  transpiration  velocity. 

With  regard  to  Graham's  more  purely  chemical  work,  in  1833 
he  showed  that  phosphoric  anhydride  and  water  form  three 
distinct  acids,  and  he  thus  established  the  existence  of  polybasic 
acids,  in  each  of  which  one  or  more  equivalents  of  hydrogen  are 
replaceable  by  certain  metals  (see  ACID).  In  1835  he  published 
the  results  of  an  examination  of  the  properties  of  water  of  crys- 
tallization as  a  constituent  of  salts.  Not  the  least  interesting 
part  of  this  inquiry  was  the  discovery  of  certain  definite  salts  with 
alcohol  analogous  to  hydrates,  to  which  the  name  of  alcoholates 
was  given.  A  brief  paper  entitled  "  Speculative  Ideas  on  the 
Constitution  of  Matter  "  (1863)  possesses  special  interest  in  con- 
nexion with  work  done  since  his  death,  because  in  it  he  ex- 
pressed the  view  that  the  various  kinds  of  matter  now  recognized 
as  different  elementary  substances  may  possess  one  and  the  same 
ultimate  or  atomic  molecule  in  different  conditions  of  movement. 

Graham's  Elements  of  Chemistry,  first  published  in  1833,  went 
through  several  editions,  and  appeared  also  in  German,  remodelled 
under  J.  Otto's  direction.  His  Chemical  and  Physical  Researches 
were  collected  by  Dr  James  Young  and  Dr  Angus  Smith,  and 
printed  "  for  presentation  only  "  at  Edinburgh  in  1876,  Dr  Smith 
contributing  to  the  volume  a  valuable  preface  and  analysis  of  its 
contents.  See  also  T.  E.  Thorpe,  Essays  in  Historical  Chemistry 
(1902) 

GRAHAME,  JAMES  (.1765-1811),  Scottish  poet,  was  born  in 
Glasgow  on  the  22nd  of  April  1765,  the  son  of  a  successful 
lawyer.  After  completing  his  literary  course  at  Glasgow  univer- 


sity, Grahame  went  in  1784  to  Edinburgh,  where  he  qualified 
as  writer  to  the  signet,  and  subsequently  for  the  Scottish  bar, 
of  which  he  was  elected  a  member  in  1795.  But  his  preferences 
nad  always  been  for  the  Church,  and  when  he  was  forty-four 
he  took  Anglican  orders,  and  became  a  curate  first  at  Shipton, 
Gloucestershire,  and  then  at  Sedgefield,  Durham.  His  works 
include  a  dramatic  poem,  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  (1801),  The 
Sabbath  (1804),  British  Georgics  (1804),  The  Birds  of  Scotland 
(1806),  and  Poems  on  the  Abolition  of  the  Slave  Trade  (1810). 
His  principal  work,  The  Sabbath,  a  sacred  and  descriptive  poem 
in  blank  verse,  is  characterized  by  devotional  feeling  and  by 
happy  delineation  of  Scottish  scenery.  In  the  notes  to  his  poems 
he  expresses  enlightened  views  on  popular  education,  the  criminal 
law  and  other  public  questions.  He  was  emphatically  a  friend 
of  humanity — a  philanthropist  as  well  as  a  poet.  He  died  in 
Glasgow  on  the  i4th  of  September  1811. 

GRAHAM'S  DYKE  (or  SHEUGH  =  trench),  a  local  name  for  the 
Roman  fortified  frontier,  consisting  of  rampart,  forts  and  road, 
which  ran  across  the  narrow  isthmus  of  Scotland  from  the  Forth 
to  the  Clyde  (about  36  m.),  and  formed  from  A.D.  140  till  about 
185  the  northern  frontier  of  Roman  Britain.  The  name  is 
locally  explained  as  recording  a  victorious  assault  on  the  defences 
by  one  Robert  Graham  and  his  men;  it  has  also  been  connected 
with  the  Grampian  Hills  and  the  Latin  surveying  term  groma. 
But,  as  is  shown  by  its  earliest  recorded  spelling,  Grymisdyke 
(Fordun,  A.D.  1385),  it  is  the  same  as  the  term  Grim's  Ditch  which 
occurs  several  times  in  England  in  connexion  with  early  ramparts 
— for  example,  near  Wallingford  in  south  Oxfordshire  or  between 
Berkhampstead  (Herts)  and  Bradenham  (Bucks).  Grim  seems 
to  be  a  Teutonic  god  or  devil,  who  might  be  credited  with  the 
wish  to  build  earthworks  in  unreasonably  short  periods  of  time. 
By  antiquaries  the  Graham's  Dyke  is  usually  styled  the  Wall 
of  Pius  or  the  Antonine  Vallum,  after  the  emperor  Antoninus 
Pius,  in  whose  reign  it  was  constructed.  See  further  BRITAIN: 
Roman.  (F.  J.  H.) 

GRAHAM'S  TOWN,  a  city  of  South  Africa,  the  administrative 
centre  for  the  eastern  part  of  the  Cape  province,  106  m.  by  rail 
N.E.  of  Port  Elizabeth  and  43  m.  by  rail  N.N.W.  of  Port  Alfred. 
Pop.  (1904)  13,887,  of  whom  7283  were  whites  and  1837  were 
electors.  The  town  is  built  in  a  basin  of  the  grassy  hills  forming 
the  spurs  of  the  Zuurberg,  1760  ft.  above  sea-level.  It  is  a 
pleasant  place  of  residence,  has  a  remarkably  healthy  climate, 
and  is  regarded  as  the  most  English-like  town  in  the  Cape.  The 
streets  are  broad,  and  most  of  them  lined  with  trees.  In  the 
High  Street  are  the  law  courts,  the  Anglican  cathedral  of  St 
George,  built  from  designs  by  Sir  Gilbert  Scott,  and  Commemora- 
tion Chapel,  the  chief  place  of  worship  of  the  Wesleyans,  erected 
by  the  British  emigrants  of  1820.  The  Roman  Catholic  cathedral 
of  St  Patrick,  a  Gothic  building,  is  to  the  left  of  the  High  Street. 
The  town  hall,  also  in  the  Gothic  style,  has  a  square  clock  tower 
built  on  arches  over  the  pavement.  Graham's  Town  is  one 
of  the  chief  educational  centres  in  the  Cape  province.  Besides 
the  public  schools  and  the  Rhodes  University  College  (which 
in  1904  took  over  part  of  the  work  carried  on  since  1855  by  St 
Andrew's  College),  scholastic  institutions  are  maintained  by 
religious  bodies.  The  town  possesses  two  large  hospitals,  which 
receive  patients  from  all  parts  of  South  Africa,  and  the  govern- 
ment bacteriological  institute.  It  is  the  centre  of  trade  for  an 
extensive  pastoral  and  agricultural  district.  Owing  to  the  sour 
quality  of  the  herbage  in  the  surrounding  zuurveld,  stock-breeding 
and  wool-growing  have  been,  however,  to  some  extent  replaced 
by  ostrich-farming,  for  which  industry  Graham's  Town  is  the 
most  important  entre.p6t.  Dairy  farming  is  much  practised  in 
the  neighbourhood. 

In  1812  the  site  of  the  town  was  chosen  as  the  headquarters 
of  the  British  troops  engaged  in  protecting  the  frontier  of  Cape 
Colony  from  the  inroads  of  the  Kaffirs,  and  it  was  named  after 
Colonel  John  Graham  (1778-1821),  then  commanding  the  forces. 
(Graham  had  commanded  the  light  infantry  battalion  at  the 
taking  of  the  Cape  by  the  British  in  the  action  of  the  6th  of 
January  1806.  He  also  took  part  in  campaigns  in  Italy  and 
Holland  during  the  Napoleonic  wars.)  In  1819  an  attempt  was 


320 


GRAIL,  THE  HOLY 


made  by  the  Kaffirs  to  surprise  Graham's  Town,  and  10,000 
men  attacked  it,  but  they  were  repulsed  by  the  garrison,  which 
numbered  not  more  than  320  men,  infantry  and  artillery,  under 
Lieut.-Colonel  (afterwards  General  Sir)  Thomas  Willshire.  In 
1822  the  town  was  chosen  as  the  headquarters  of  the  4000 
British  immigrants  who  had  reached  Cape  Colony  in  1820.  It 
has  maintained  its  position  as  the  most  important  inland  town 
of  the  eastern  part  of  the  Cape  province.  In  1864  the  Cape 
parliament  met  in  Graham's  Town,  the  only  instance  of  the 
legislature  sitting  elsewhere  than  in  Cape  Town.  It  is  governed 
by  a  municipality.  The  rateable  value  in  1906  was  £891,536 
and  the  rate  levied  2|d.  in  the  pound. 

See  T.  Sheffield,  The  Story  of  the  Settlement  .  .  .  (2nd  ed., 
Graham's  Town,  1884);  C.  T.  Campbell,  British  South  Africa  .  .  . 
with  notices  of  some  of  the  British  Settlers  of  1820  (London,  1897). 

GRAIL,  THE  HOLY,  the  famous  talisman  of  Arthurian 
romance,  the  object  of  quest  on  the  part  of  the  knights  of  the 
Round  Table.  It  is  mainly,  if  not  wholly,  known  to  English 
readers  through  the  medium  of  Malory's  translation  of  the 
French  Quete  du  Saint,  Graal,  where  it  is  the  cup  or  chalice  of  the 
Last  Supper,  in  which  the  blood  which  flowed  from  the  wounds 
of  the  crucified  Saviour  has  been  miraculously  preserved. 
Students  of  the  original  romances  are  aware  that  there  is  in  these 
texts  an  extraordinary  diversity  of  statement  as  to  the  nature 
and  origin  of  the  Grail,  and  that  it  is  extremely  difficult  to 
determine  the  precise  value  of  these  differing  versions.1  Broadly 
speaking  the  Grail  romances  have  been  divided  into  two  main 
classes:  (i)  those  dealing  with  the  search  for  the  Grail,  the 
Quest,  and  (2)  those  relating  to  its  early  history.  These  latter 
appear  to  be  dependent  on  the  former,  for  whereas  we  may 
have  a  Quest  romance  without  any  insistence  on  the  previous 
history  of  the  Grail,  that  history  is  never  found  without  some 
allusion  to  the  hero  who  is  destined  to  bring  the  quest  to  its 
successful  termination.  The  Quest  versions  again  fall  into  three 
distinct  classes,  differentiated  by  the  personality  of  the  hero 
who  is  respectively  Gawain,  Perceval  or  Galahad.  The  most 
important  and  interesting  group  is  that  connected  with  Perceval, 
and  he  was  regarded  as  the  original  Grail  hero,  Gawain  being, 
as  it  were,  his  understudy.  Recent  discoveries,  however,  point 
to  a  different  conclusion,  and  indicate  that  the  Gawain  stories 
represent  an  early  tradition,  and  that  we  must  seek  in  them 
rather  than  in  the  Perceval  versions  for  indications  as  to  the 
ultimate  origin  of  the  Grail. 

The  character  of  this  talisman  or  relic  varies  greatly,  as  will 
be  seen  from  the  following  summary. 

i.  GAWAIN,  included  in  the  continuation  to  Chretien's  Perceval 
by  Wauchier  de  Denain,  and  attributed  to  Bleheris  the  Welshman, 
who  is  probably  identical  with  the  Bledhericus  of  Giraldus 
Cambrensis,  and  considerably  earlier  than  Chretien  de  Troyes. 
Here  the  Grail  is  a  food-providing,  self-acting  talisman,  the  pre- 
cise nature  of  which  is  not  specified;  it  is  designated  as  the 
"  rich  "  Grail,  and  serves  the  king  and  his  court  sans  serjanU 
ft  sans  seneschal,  the  butlers  providing  the  guests  with  wine. 
In  another  version,  given  at  an  earlier  point  of  the  same  con- 
tinuation, but  apparently  deriving  from  a  later  source,  the 
Grail  is  borne  in  procession  by  a  weeping  maiden,  and  is  called 
the  "  holy  "  Grail,  but  no  details  as  to  its  history  or  character 
are  given.  In  a  third  version,  that  of  Diu  Crdne,  a  long  and  con- 
fused romance,  the  origin  of  which  has  not  been  determined, 
the  Grail  appears  as  a  reliquary,  in  which  the  Host  is  presented 
to  the  king,  who  once  a  year  partakes  alike  of  it  and  of  the  blood 
which  flows  from  the  lance.  Another  account  is  given  in  the 
prose  Lancelot,  but  here  Gawain  has  been  deposed  from  his 
post  as  first  hero  of  the  court,  and,  as  is  to  be  expected  from  the 
treatment  meted  out  to  him  in  this  romance,  the  visit  ends 
in  his  complete  discomfiture.  The  Grail  is  here  surrounded  with 
the  atmosphere  of  awe  and  reverence  familiar  to  us  through  the 

'The  etymology  of  the  O.  Fr.  graal  or  greal,  of  which  "grail" 
is  an  adaptation,  has  been  much  discussed.  The  Low  Lat.  original, 
gradate  or  grasale,  a  flat  dish  or  platter,  has  generally  been  taken  to 
represent  a  diminutive  cratetta  of  crater,  bowl,  or  a  lost  cratale, 
formed  from  the  same  word  (see  W.  W.  Skeat,  Preface  to  Joseph 
of  Arimathie,  Early  Eng.  Text  Soc.). — ED. 


Quete,  and  is  regarded  as  the  chalice  of  the  Last  Supper.    These 
are  the  Gawain  versions. 

2.  PERCEVAL. — The    most    important    Perceval   text   is    the 
Conte  del  Grael,  or  Perceval  le  Galois  of  Chr6tien  de   Troyes. 
Here  the  Grail  is  wrought  of  gold  richly  set  with  precious  stones; 
it  is  carried  in  solemn  procession,  and  the  light  issuing  from  it 
extinguishes  that  of  the  candles.    What  it  is  is  not  explained, 
but  inasmuch  as  it  is  the  vehicle  in  which  is  conveyed  the  Host 
on  which  the  father  of  the  Fisher  king  depends  for  nutriment, 
it  seems  not  improbable  that  here,  as  in  Diu  Crone,  it  is  to  be 
understood  as  a  reliquary.     In  the  Parzival  of  Wolfram  von 
Eschenbach,  the  ultimate  source  of  which  is  identical  with  that 
of  Chretien,  on  the  contrary,  the  Grail  is  represented  as  a  precious 
stone,  brought  to  earth  by  angels,  and  committed  to  the  guardian- 
ship of  the  Grail  king  and  his  descendants.     It  is  guarded  by  a 
body  of  chosen  knights,  or  templars,  and  acts  alike  as  a  life  and 
youth  preserving  talisman — no  man  may  die  within  eight  days 
of  beholding  it,  and  the  maiden  who  bears  it  retains  perennial 
youth — and  an  oracle  choosing  its  own  servants,  and  indicating 
whom  the  Grail  king  shall  wed.     The  sole  link  with  the  Christian 
tradition  is  the  statement  that  its  virtue  is  renewed  every  Good 
Friday  by  the  agency  of  a  dove  from  heaven.     The  discrepancy 
between  this  and  the  other  Grail  romances  is  most  startling. 

In  the  short  prose  romance  known  as  the  "  Didot  "  Perceval 
we  have,  for  the  first  time,  the  whole  history  of  the  relic  logically 
set  forth.  The  Perceval  forms  the  third  and  concluding  section  of 
a  group  of  short  romances,  the  two  preceding  being  the  Joseph 
of  Arimathea  and  the  Merlin.  In  the  first  we  have  the  precise 
history  of  the  Grail,  how  it  was  the  dish  of  the  Last  Supper, 
confided  by  our  Lord  tp  the  care  of  Joseph,  whom  he  miraculously 
visited  in  the  prison  to  which  he  had  been  committed  by  the 
Jews.  It  was  subsequently  given  by  Joseph  to  his  brother-in- 
law  Brons,  whose  grandson  Perceval  is  destined  to  be  the  final 
winner  and  guardian  of  the  relic.  The  Merlin  forms  the  con- 
necting thread  between  this  definitely  ecclesiastical  romance  and 
the  chivalric  atmosphere  of  Arthur's  court;  and  finally,  in  the 
Perceval,  the  hero,  son  of  Alain  and  grandson  to  Brons,  is  warned 
by  Merlin  of  the  quest  which  awaits  him  and  which  he  achieves 
after  various  adventures. 

In  the  Perlesvaus  the  Grail  is  the  same,  but  the  working  out  of 
the  scheme  is  much  more  complex;  a  son  of  Joseph  of  Arimathea, 
Josephe,  is  introduced,  and  we  find  a  spiritual  knighthood  similar 
to  that  used  so  effectively  in  the  Parzival. 

3.  GALAHAD. — The  QuUe  du  Saint  Graal,  the  only  romance 
of  which  Galahad  is  the  hero,  is  dependent  on  and  a  completion 
of  the  Lancelot  development  of  the  Arthurian  cycle.     Lancelot, 
as  lover  of  Guinevere,  could  not  be  permitted  to  achieve  so 
spiritual  an  emprise,  yet  as  leading  knight  of  Arthur's  court  it 
was  impossible  to  allow  him  to  be  surpassed  by  another.     Hence 
the  invention  of  Galahad,  son  to  Lancelot  by  the  Grail  king's 
daughter;   predestined   by  his   lineage   to   achieve   the  quest, 
foredoomed,  the  quest  achieved,  to  vanish,  a  sacrifice  to  his 
father's  fame,  which,  enhanced  by  connexion  with  the  Grail- 
winner,  could  not  risk  eclipse  by  his  presence.     Here  the  Grail, 
the  chalice  of  the  Last  Supper,  is  at  the  same  time,  as  in  the 
Gawain  stories,  self-acting  and  food-supplying. 

The  last  three  romances  unite,  it  will  be  seen,  the  quest  and 
the  early  history.  Introductory  to  the  Galahad  quest,  and  deal- 
ing only  with  the  early  history,  is  the  Grand  Saint  Graal,  a  work 
of  interminable  length,  based  upon  the  Joseph  of  Arimathea, 
which  has  undergone  numerous  revisions  and  amplifications: 
its  precise  relation  to  the  Lancelot,  with  which  it  has  now  much 
matter  in  common,  is  not  easy  to  determine. 

To  be  classed  also  under  the  head  of  early  history  are  certain 
interpolations  in  the  MSS.  of  the  Perceval,  where  we  find  the 
Joseph  tradition,  but  in  a  somewhat  different  form,  e.g.  he  is 
said  to  have  caused  the  Grail  to  be  made  for  the  purpose  of  re- 
ceiving the  holy  blood.  With  this  account  is  also  connected  the 
legend  of  the  Volto  Santo  of  Lucca,  a  crucifix  said  to  have  been 
carved  by  Nicodemus.  In  the  conclusion  to  Chr6tien's  poem, 
composed  by  Manessier  some  fifty  years  later,  the  Grail  is  said 
to  have  followed  Joseph  to  Britain,  how,  is  not  explained. 


GRAIL,  THE  HOLY 


321 


Another  continuation  by  Gerbert,  interpolated  between  those  of 
Wauchier  and  Manessier,  relates  how  the  Grail  was  brought 
lo  Britain  by  Perceval's  mother  in  the  companionship  of  Joseph. 

It  will  be  seen  that  with  the  exception  of  the  Grand  Saint 
Graal,  which  has  now  been  practically  converted  into  an  introduc- 
tion to  the  Quite,  no  two  versions  agree  with  each  other;  indeed, 
with  the  exception  of  the  oldest  Gawain-Gra.il  visit,  that  due  to 
Bleheris,  they  do  not  agree  with  themselves,  but  all  show, 
more  or  less,  the  influence  of  different  and  discordant  versions. 
Why  should  the  vessel  of  the  Last  Supper,  jealously  guarded  at 
Castle  Corbenic,  visit  Arthur's  court  independently?  Why 
does  a  sacred  relic  provide  purely  material  food?  What  connexion 
can  there  be  between  a  precious  stone,  a  baetylus,  as  Dr  Hagen 
has  convincingly  shown,  and  Good  Friday?  These,  and  such 
questions  as  these,  suggest  themselves  at  every  turn. 

Numerous  attempts  have  been  made  to  solve  these  problems, 
and  to  construct  a  theory  of  the  origin  of  the  Grail  story,  but  so 
far  the  difficulty  has  been  to  find  an  hypothesis  which  would 
admit  of  the  practically  simultaneous  existence  of  apparently 
contradictory  features.  At  one  time  considered  as  an  introduc- 
tion from  the  East,  the  theory  of  the  Grail  as  an  Oriental  talisman 
has  now  been  discarded,  and  the  expert  opinion  of  the  day  may 
be  said  to  fall  into  two  groups:  (i)  those  who  hold  the  Grail 
to  have  been  from  the  first  a  purely  Christian  vessel  which  has 
accidentally,  and  in  a  manner  never  clearly  explained,  acquired 
certain  folk-lore  characteristics;  and  (2)  those  who  hold,  on  the 
contrary,  that  the  Grail  is  aborigine  folk-lore  and  Celtic,  and 
that  the  Christian  development  is  a  later  and  accidental  rather 
than  an  essential  feature  of  the  story.  The  first  view  is  set  forth 
in  the  work  of  Professor  Birch-Hirschfeld,  the  second  in  that  of 
Mr  Alfred  Nutt,  the  two  constituting  the  only  travaux  $  ensemble 
which  have  yet  appeared  on  the  subject.  It  now  seems  probable 
that  both  are  in  a  measure  correct,  and  that  the  ultimate  solution 
will  be  recognized  to  lie  in  a  blending  of  two  originally  inde- 
pendent streams  of  tradition.  The  researches  of  .  Professor 
Mannhardt  in  Germany  and  of  J.  G.  Frazer  in  England  have 
amply  demonstrated  the  enduring  influence  exercised  on  popular 
thought  and  custom  by  certain  primitive  forms  of  vegetation 
worship,  of  which  the  most  noteworthy  example  is  the  so-called 
mysteries  of  Adonis.  Here  the  ordinary  processes  of  nature 
and  progression  of  the  seasons  were  symbolized  under  the  figure 
of  the  death  and  resuscitation  of  the  god.  These  rites  are  found 
all  over  the  world,  and  in  his  monumental  work,  The  Golden 
Bough,  Dr  Frazer  has  traced  a  host  of  extant  beliefs  and  practices 
to  this  source.  The  earliest  form  of  the  Grail  story,  the  Gawain- 
Bleheris  version,  exhibits  a  marked  affinity  with  the  characteristic 
features  of  the  Adonis  or  Tammuz  worship;  we  have  a  castle 
on  the  sea-shore,  a  dead  body  on  a  bier,  the  identity  of  which  is 
never  revealed,  mourned  over  with  solemn  rites;  a  wasted 
country,  whose  desolation  is  mysteriously  connected  with  the 
dead  man,  and  which  is  restored  to  fruitfulness  when  the  quester 
asks  the  meaning  of  the  marvels  he  beholds  (the  two  features 
of  the  weeping  women  and  the  wasted  land  being  retained  in 
versions  where  they  have  no  significance) ;  finally  the  mysterious 
food-providing,  self-acting  talisman  of  a  common  feast — one 
and  all  of  these  features  may  be  explained  as  survivals  of  the 
Adonis  ritual.  Professor  Martin  long  since  suggested  that  a  key 
to  the  problems  of  the  Arthurian  cycle  was  to  be  found  in  a  nature 
myth:  Professor  Rhys  regards  Arthur  as  an  agricultural  hero; 
Dr  Lewis  Mott  has  pointed  out  the  correspondence  between  the 
so-called  Round  Table  sites  and  the  ritual  of  nature  worship;  but 
it  is  only  with  the  discovery  of  the  existence  of  Bleheris  as  reputed 
authority  for  Arthurian  tradition,  and  the  consequent  recogni- 
tion that  the  Grail  story  connected  with  his  name  is  the  earliest 
form  of  the  legend,  that  we  have  secured  a  solid  basis  for  such 
theories. 

With  regard  to  the  religious  form  of  the  story,  recent  research 
has  again  aided  us — we  know  now  that  a  legend  similar  in  all 
respects  to  the  Joseph  of  Arimathea  Grail  story  was  widely 
current  at  least  a  century  before  our  earliest  Grail  texts.  The 
story  with  Nicodemus  as  protagonist  is  told  of  the  Saint-Sang 
relic  at  Fecamp;  and,  as  stated  already,  a  similar  origin  is 

XII.  II 


ascribed  to  the  Vollo  Santo  at  Lucca.  In  this  latter  case  the 
legend  professes  to  date  from  the  8th  century,  and  scholars  who 
have  examined  the  texts  in  their  present  form  consider  that  there 
may  be  solid  ground  for  this  attribution.  It  is  thus  demonstrable 
that  the  material  for  our  Grail  legend,  in  its  present  form, 
existed  long  anterior  to  any  extant  text,  and  there  is  no  impro- 
bability in  holding  that  a  confused  tradition  of  pagan  mysteries 
which  had  assumed  the  form  of  a  popular  folk-tale,  became 
finally  Christianized  by  combination  with  an  equally  popular 
ecclesiastical  legend,  the  point  of  contact  being  the  vessel  of  the 
common  ritual  feast.  Nor  can  there  be  much  doubt  that  in  this 
process  of  combination  the  Fecamp  legend  played  an  important 
role.  The  best  and  fullest  of  the  Perceval  MSS.  refer  to  a  book 
written  at  Fecamp  as  source  for  certain  Perceval  adventures. 
What  this  book  was  we  do  not  know,  but  in  face  of  the  fact  that 
certain  special  Fecamp  relics,  silver  knives,  appear  in  the  Grail 
procession  of  the  Parzival,  it  seems  most  probable  that  it  was  a 
Perceval-GiaiL  story.  The  relations  between  the  famous  Bene- 
dictine abbey  and  the  English  court  both  before  and  after  the 
Conquest  were  of  an  intimate  character.  Legends  of  the  part 
played  by  Joseph  of  Arimathea  in  the  conversion  of  Britain  are 
closely  connected  with  Glastonbury,  the  monks  of  which  founda- 
tion showed,  in  the  1 2th  century,  considerable  literary  activity, 
and  it  seems  a  by  no  means  improbable  hypothesis  that  the 
present  form  of  the  Grail  legend  may  be  due  to  a  monk  of  Glaston- 
bury elaborating  ideas  borrowed  from  Fecamp.  This  much  is 
certain,  that  between  the  Saint-Sang  of  Fecamp,  the  Volto  Santo 
of  Lucca,  and  the  Grail  tradition,  there  exists  a  connecting  link, 
the  precise  nature  of  which  has  yet  to  be  determined.  The  two 
former  were  popular  objects  of  pilgrimage;  was  the  third 
originally  intended  to  serve  the  same  purpose  by  attracting 
attention  to  the  reputed  burial-place  of  the  apostle  of  the  Grail, 
Joseph  of  Arimathea? 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — For  the  Gawain  Grail  visits  see  the  Potvin 
edition  of  the  Perceval,  which,  however,  only  gives  the  Bleheris 
version;  the  second  visit  is  found  in  the  best  and  most  complete 
MSS.,  such  as  12,576  and  12,577  (Fondsfrangais)  of  the  Paris  library. 
Diu  Crdne,  edited  by  Scholl  (Stuttgart,  1852),  vol.  vi.  of  Arthurian 
Romances  (Nutt),  gives  a  translation  of  the  Bleheris,  Diu  Crone 
and  Prose  Lancelot  visits. 

The  Conte  del  Graal,  or  Perceval,  is  only  accessible  in  the  edition 
of  M.  Potvin  (6  vols.,  1866-1871).  The  Mons  MS.,  from  which  this 
has  been  printed,  has  proved  to  be  an  exceedingly  poor  and  un- 
trustworthy text.  Parzival,  by  Wolfram  von  Eschenbach,  has  been 
frequently  and  well  edited;  the  edition  by  Bartsch  (1875-1877), 
in  Deutsche  Classiker  des  Mittelalters,  contains  full  notes  and  a 

glossary.  Suitable  for  the  more  advanced  student  are  those  by  K. 
achmann  (1891),  Leitzmann  (1902-1903)  and  E.  Martin  (1903). 
There  are  modern  German  translations  by  Simrock  (very  close  to 
the  original)  and  Hertz  (excellent  notes).  English  translation  with 
notes  and  appendices  by  J.  L.  Weston.  "  Didot  "  Perceval,  ed. 
Hucher,  Le  Saint  Graal  (1875-1878),  vol.  i.  Perlesvaus  was  printed 
by  Potvin,  under  the  title  of  Perceval  le  Gallois,  in  vol.  i.  of  the 
edition  above  referred  to;  a  Welsh  version  from  the  Hengwert  MS. 
was  published  with  translation  by  Canon  R.  Williams  (2  vols., 
1876-1892).  Under  the  title  of  The  High  History  of  the  Holy  Grail 
a  fine  version  was  published  by  Dr  Sebastian  Evans  in  the  Temple 
Classics  (2  vols.,  1898).  The  Grand  Saint  Graal  was  published  by 
Hucher  as  given  above ;  this  edition  includes  the  Joseph  of  Arimathea. 
A  1 5th  century  metrical  English  adaptation  by  one  Henry  Lovelich, 
was  printed  by  Dr  Furnivall  for  the  Roxburghe  Club  1861-1863; 
a  new  edition  was  undertaken  for  the  Early  English  Text  Society. 
Quete  du  Saint  Graal  can  best  be  studied  in  Malory's  somewhat 
abridged  translation,  books  xiii.-xviii.  of  the  Morte  Arthur.  It 
has  also  been  printed  by  Dr  Furnivall  for  the  Roxburghe  Club, 
from  a  MS.  in  the  British  Museum.  Neither  of  these  texts  is, 
however,  very  good,  and  the  student  whp  can  decipher  old  Dutch 
would  do  well  to  read  it  in  the  metrical  translation  published  by 
Joenckbloet,  Roman  van  Lanceloet,  as  the  original  here  was  con- 
siderably fuller. 

For  general  treatment  of  the  subject  see  Legend  of  Sir  Perceval, 
by  J.  L.  Weston,  Grimm  Library,  vol.  xvii.  (1906);  Studies  on  the 
Legend  of  the  Holy  Grail,  by  A.  Nutt  (1888),  and  a  more  concise 
treatment  of  the  subject  by  the  same  writer  in  No.  14  of  Popular 
Studies  (1902) ;  Professor  Birch-Hirschfeld's  Die  Sage  vom  Gral 
(1877).  The  late  Professor  Heinzel's  Die  alt-franzb'sischen  Gral- 
Romane  contains  a  mass  of  valuable  matter,  but  is  very  confused 
and  ill-arranged.  For  the  Fecamp  legend  see  Leroux  de  Lincey's 
Essai  sur  I'abbaye  de  Fescamp  (1840);  for  the  Volto  Santo  and 
kindred  legends,  Ernest  von  Dobscnutz,  Christus-Bilder  (Leipzig, 
1899).  (J-  L-  W.)  . 


322 


GRAIN— GRAIN  TRADE 


GRAIN  (derived  through  the  French  from  Lat.  granum,  seed, 
from  an  Aryan  root  meaning  "  to  wear  down,"  which  also  appears 
in  the  common  Teutonic  word  "  corn  "),  a  word  particularly 
applied  to  the  seed,  in  botanical  language  the  "  fruit,"  of  cereals, 
and  hence  applied,  as  a  collective  term  to  cereal  plants  generally, 
to  which,  in  English,  the  term  "  corn  "  is  also  applied  (see 
GRAIN  TRADE).  Apart  from  this,  the  chief  meaning,  the  word 
is  used  of  the  malt  refuse  of  brewing  and  distilling,  and  of  many 
hard  rounded  small  particles,  resembling  the  seeds  of  plants, 
such  as  "  grains  "  of  sand,  salt,  gold,  gunpowder,  &c.  "  Grain  " 
is  also  the  name  of  the  smallest  unit  of  weight,  both  in  the 
.United  Kingdom  and  the  United  States  of  America.  Its  origin 
is  supposed  to  be  the  weight  of  a  grain  of  wheat,  dried  and 
gathered  from  the  middle  of  the  ear.  The  troy  grain=  1/5760 
of  a  ft,  the  avoirdupois  grain  =1/7000  of  a  ft.  In  diamond 
weighing  the  grain  =  j  of  the  carat,  =  -7925  of  the  troy 
grain.  The  word  "  grains  "  was  early  used,  as  also  in  French, 
of  the  small  seed-like  insects  supposed  formerly  to  be  the 
berries  of  trees,  from  which  a  scarlet  dye  was  extracted  (see 
COCHINEAL  and  KERMES).  From  the  Fr.  en  graine,  literally  in 
dye,  comes  the  French  verb  engrainer,  Eng.  "  engrain "  or 
"  ingrain,"  meaning  to  dye  in  any  fast  colour.  From  the  further 
use  of  "  grain  "  for  the  texture  of  substances,  such  as  wood, 
meat,  &c.,  "  engrained  "  or  "  ingrained  "  means  ineradicable, 
impregnated,  dyed  through  and  through.  The  "  grain "  of 
leather  is  the  side  of  a  skin  showing  the  fibre  after  the  hair  has 
been  removed.  The  imitating  in  paint  of  the  grain  of  different 
kinds  of  woods  is  known  as  "  graining  "  (see  PAINTER- WORK). 
"  Grain,"  or  more  commonly  in  the  plural  "  grains,"  construed 
as  a  singular,  is  the  name  of  an  instrument  with  two  or  more 
barbed  prongs,  used  for  spearing  fish.  This  word  is  Scandinavian 
in  origin,  and  is  connected  with  Dan.  green,  Swed.  gren,  branch, 
and  means  the  fork  of  a  tree,  of  the  body,  or  the  prongs  of  a  fork, 
&c.  It  is  not  connected  with  "  groin,"  the  inguinal  parts  of  the 
body,  which  in  its  earliest  forms  appears  as  grynde. 

GRAINS  OF  PARADISE,  GUINEA  GRAINS,  or  MELEGUETA 
PEPPER  (Ger.  Paradieskorner,  Fr.  graines  de  Paradis,  mani- 
guette),  the  seeds  of  Amomum  Melegueta,  a  reed-like  plant  of  the 
natural  order  Zingiberaceae.  It  is  a  native  of  tropical  western 
Africa,  and  of  Prince's  and  St  Thomas's  islands  in  the  Gulf  of 
Guinea,  is  cultivated  in  other  tropical  countries,  and  may  with 
ease  be  grown  in  hothouses  in  temperate  climates.  The  plant 
has  a  branched  horizontal  rhizome;  smooth,  nearly  sessile, 
narrowly  lanceolate-oblong  alternate  leaves;  large,  white,  pale 
pink  or  purplish  flowers;  and  an  ovate-oblong  fruit,  ensheathed 
in  bracts,  which  is  of  a  scarlet  colour  when  fresh,  and  reaches 
under  cultivation  a  length  of  5  in.  The  seeds  are  contained  in 
the  acid  pulp  of  the  fruit,  are  commonly  wedge-shaped  and 
bluntly  angular,  are  about  i  j  lines  in  diameter  and  have  a  glossy 
dark-brown  husk,  with  a  conical  light-coloured  membranous 
caruncle  at  the  base  and  a  white  kernel.  They  contain,  accord- 
ing to  Fliickiger  and  Hanbury,  0-3%  of  a  faintly  yellowish 
neutral  essential  oil,  having  an  aromatic,  not  acrid  taste,  and 
a  specific  gravity  at  15-5°  C.  of  0-825,  and  giving  on  analysis  the 
formula  C2oH32O,  or  CioHie+CioHieO;  also  5-83  %  of  an 
intensely  pungent,  viscid,  brown  resin. 

Grains  of  paradise  were  formerly  officinal  in  British  phar- 
macopoeias, and  in  the  I3th  and  succeeding  centuries  were  used 
as  a  drug  and  a  spice,  the  wine  known  as  hippocras  being 
flavoured  with  them  and  with  ginger  and  cinnamon.  In  1629 
they  were  employed  among  the  ingredients  of  the  twenty-four 
herring  pies  which  were  the  ancient  fee-favour  of  the  city  of 
Norwich,  ordained  to  be  carried  to  court  by  the  lord  of  the 
manor  of  Carleton  (Johnston  and  Church,  Chem.  of  Common 
Life,  p.  355,  1879).  Grains  of  paradise  were  anciently  brought 
overland  from  West  Africa  to  the  Mediterranean  ports  of  the 
Barbary  states,  to  be  shipped  for  Italy.  They  are  now  exported 
almost  exclusively  from  the  Gold  Coast.  Grains  of  paradise  are 
to  some  extent  used  illegally  to  give  a  fictitious  strength  to  malt 
liquors,  gin  and  cordials.  By  56  Geo.  III.  c.  58,  no  brewer  or 
dealer  in  beer  shall  have  in  his  possession  or  use  grains  of  paradise, 
under  a  penalty  of  £200  for  each  offence;  and  no  druggist  shall 


™"     e' 


sell  the  same  to  a  brewer  under  a  penalty  of  £500.  They  are, 
however,  devoid  of  any  injurious  physiological  action,  and  are 
much  esteemed  as  a  spice  by  the  natives  of  Guinea. 

See  Bentley  and  Trimen,  Medicinal  Plants,  tab.  268;  Lanessan, 
Hist,  des  Drogues,  pp.  456-460  (1878). 

GRAIN  TRADE.  The  complexity  of  the  conditions  of  life 
in  the  20th  century  may  be  well  illustrated  from  the  grain  trade 
of  the  world.  The  ordinary  bread  sold  in  Great  Britain  represents, 
for  example,  produce  of  nearly  every  country  in  the  world 
outside  the  tropics. 

Wheat  has  been  cultivated  from  remote  antiquity.  In  a 
wild  state  it  is  practically  unknown.  It  is  alleged  to  have  been 
found  growing  wild  between  the  Euphrates  and  the 
Tigris;  but  the  discovery  has  never  been  authenticated,  °enera' 
and,  unless  the  plant  be  sedulously  cared  for,  the  species 
dies  out  in  a  surprisingly  short  space  of  time.  Modern 
experiments  in  cross-fertilization  in  Lancashire  by  the  Carton 
Brothers  have  evolved  the  most  extraordinary  "  sports,"  showing, 
it  is  claimed,  that  the  plant  has  probably  passed  through  stages 
of  which  until  the  present  day  there  had  been  no  conception. 
The  tales  that  grains  of  wheat  found  in  the  cerements  of  Egyptian 
mummies  have  been  planted  and  come  to  maturity  are  no  longer 
credited,  for  the  vital  principle  in  the  wheat  berry  is  extremely 
evanescent;  indeed,  it  is  doubtful  whether  wheat  twenty  years 
old  is  capable  of  reproduction.  The  Carton  artificial  fertiliza- 
tion experiments  have  shown  endless  deviations  from  the  ordinary 
type,  ranging  from  minute  seeds  with  a  closely  adhering  husk 
to  big  berries  almost  as  large  as  sloes  and  about  as  worthless. 
It  is  conjectured  that  the  wheat  plant,  as  now  known,  is  a 
degenerate  form  of  something  much  finer  which  flourished 
thousands  of  years  ago,  and  that  possibly  it  may  be  restored 
to  its  pristine  excellence,  yielding  an  increase  twice  or  thrice 
as  large  as  it  now  does,  thus  postponing  to  a  distant  period  the 
famine  doom  prophesied  by  Sir  W.  Crookes  in  his  presidential 
address  to  the  British  Association  in  1898.  Wheat  well  repays 
careful  attention;  contrast  the  produce  of  a  carelessly  tilled 
Russian  or  Indian  field  and  the  bountiful  yield  on  a  good  Lincoln- 
shire farm,  the  former  with  its  average  yield  of  8  bushels,  the 
latter  with  its  50  bushels  per  acre;  or  compare  the  quality, 
as  regards  the  quantity  and  flavour  of  the  flour  from  a  fine 
sample  of  British  wheat,  such  as  is  on  sale  at  almost  every 
agricultural  show  in  Great  Britain,  with  the  produce  of  an 
Egyptian  or  Syrian  field;  the  difference  is  so  great  as  to  cause 
one  to  doubt  whether  the  berries  are  of  the  same  species. 

It  may  be  stated  roundly  that  an  average  quartern  loaf  in 
Great  Britain  is  made  from  wheat  grown  in  the  following  countries 
in  the  proportions  named:  —  • 


U.S.A. 

U.K. 

s 

1 

-S3 

1 

•-.S 

2 

4 

i 

M 

1 

~-a 

a 
CJ 

«a 

3 

°d 

Oz. 

Oz. 

Oz. 

Oz. 

Oz. 

Oz. 

Oz. 

Oz. 

Oz. 

26 

'Or 

9 
expres 

sea  in 

4 
percent 

3 
ages  as 

2 

follow 

i 

5  I  

i 

40 

20 

14 

8 

6 

5 

3 

2 

2 

For  details  connected  with  grain  and  its  handling  see  AGRI- 
CULTURE, CORN  LAWS,  GRANARIES,  FLOUR,  BAKING,  WHEAT,  &c. 

Wheat  occupies  of  all  cereals  the  widest  region  of  any  food- 
stuff. Rice,  which  shares  with  millet  the  distinction  of  being 
the  principal  food-stuff  of  the  greatest  number  of  human  beings, 
is  not  grown  nearly  as  widely  as  is  wheat,  the  staple  food  of  the 
white  races.  Wheat  grows  as  far  south  as  Patagonia,  and  as 
far  north  as  the  edge  of  the  Arctic  Circle;  it  flourishes  throughout 
Europe,  and  across  the  whole  of  northern  Asia  and  in  Japan; 
it  is  cultivated  in  Persia,  and  raised  largely  in  India,  as  far  south 
as  the  Nizam's  dominions.  It  is  grown  over  nearly  the  whole  of 
North  America.  In  Canada  a  very  fine  wheat  crop  was  raised 
in  the  autumn  of  1898  as  far  north  as  the  mission  at  Fort 
Providence,  on  the  Mackenzie  river,  in  a  latitude  above  62° — 
or  less  than  200  m.  south  of  the  latitude  of  Dawson  City — the 
period  between  seed-time  and  harvest  having  been  ninety-one 


GRAIN  TRADE 


323 


days.  In  Africa  it  was  an  article  of  commerce  in  the  days  of 
Jacob,  whose  son  Joseph  may  be  said  to  have  run  the  first  and 
only  successful  "  corner "  in  wheat.  For  many  centuries 
Egypt  was  famous  as  a  wheat  raiser;  it  was  a  cargo  of  wheat 
from  Alexandria  which  St  Paul  helped  to  jettison  on  one  of  his 
shipwrecks,  as  was  also,  in  all  probability,  that  of  the  "  ship  of 
Alexandria  whose  sign  was  Castor  and  Pollux,"  named  in  the 
same  narrative.  General  Gordon  is  quoted  as  having  stated 
that  the  Sudan  if  properly  settled  would  be  capable  of  feeding 
the  whole  of  Europe.  Along  the  north  coast  of  Africa  are  areas 
which,  if  properly  irrigated,  as  was  done  in  the  days  of  Carthage, 
could  produce  enough  wheat  to  feed  half  of  the  Caucasian  race. 
For  instance,  the  vilayet  of  Tripoli,  with  an  area  of  400,000  sq.  m., 
or  three  times  the  extent  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  according 
to  the  opinion  of  a  British  consul,  could  raise  millions  of  acres  of 
wheat.  The  cereal  flourishes  on  all  the  high  plateaus  of  South 
Africa,  from  Cape  Town  to  the  Zambezi.  Land  is  being  extens- 
ively put  under  wheat  in  the  pampas  of  South  America  and 
in  the  prairies  of  Siberia. 

In  the  raising  of  the  standard  of  farming  to  an  English  level 
the  volume  of  the  world's  crop  would  be  trebled,  another  fact 
which  Sir  William  Crookes  seems  to  have  overlooked.  The 
experiments  of  the  late  Sir  J.  B.  Lawes  in  Hertfordshire  have 
proved  that  the  natural  fruitfulness  of  the  wheat  plant  can  be 
increased  threefold  by  the  application  of  the  proper  fertilizer. 
The  results  of  these  experiments  will  be  found  in  a  compendium 
issued  from  the  Rothamsted  Agricultural  Experimental  Station. 

It  is  by  no  means,  however,  the  wheat  which  yields  the  greatest 
number  of  bushels  per  acre  which  is  the  most  valuable  from  a 
miller's  standpoint,  for  the  thinness  of  the  bran  and  the  fineness 
and  strength  of  the  flour  are  with  him  important  considerations, 
too  often  overlooked  by  the  farmer  when  buying  his  seed. 
Nevertheless  it  is  the  deficient  quantity  of  the  wheat  raised  in 
the  British  Islands,  and  not  the  quality  of  the  grain,  which  has 
been  the  cause  of  so  much  anxiety  to  economists  and  statesmen. 

Sir  J.  Caird,  writing  in  the  year  1880,  expressed  the  opinion 
that  arable  land  in  Great  Britain  would  always  command  a 
substantial  rent  of  at  least  305.  per  acre.  His  figures 
were  based  on  the  assumption  that  wheat  was  imported 
duty  free.  He  calculated  that  the  cost  of  carriage  from 
abroad  of  wheat,  or  the  equivalent  of  the  product  of  an  acre  of 
good  wheat  land  in  Great  Britain,  would  not  be  less  than  305. 
per  ton.  But  freights  had  come  down  by  1900  to  half  the  rates 
predicated  by  Caird;  indeed,  during  a  portion  of  the  interval  they 
ruled  very  close  to  zero,  as  far  as  steamer  freights  from  America 
were  concerned.  In  1900  an  all-round  freight  rate  for  wheat 
might  be  taken  at  155.  per  Ion  (a  ton  representing  approximately 
the  produce  of  an  acre  of  good  wheat  land  in  England),  say  from 
los.  for  Atlantic  American  and  Russian,  to  303.  for  Pacific 
American  and  Australian;  about  midway  between  these  two 
extremes  we  find  Indian  and  Argentine,  the  greatest  bulk 
coming  at  about  the  153.  rate.  Inferior  land  bearing  less  than 
45  quarters  per  acre  would  not  be  protected  to  the  same  extent, 
and  moreover,  seeing  that  a  portion  of  the  British  wheat  crop 
has  to  stand  a  charge  as  heavy  for  land  carriage  across  a  county 
as  that  borne  by  foreign  wheat  across  a  continent  or  an  ocean, 
the  protection  is  not  nearly  so  substantial  as  Caird  would  make 
but.  The  compilation  showing  the  changes  in  the  rates  of  charges 
for  the  railway  and  other  transportation  services  issued  by  the 
Division  of  Statistics,  Department  of  Agriculture,  U.S.A. 
(Miscellaneous  series,  Bulletin  No.  15,  1898),  is  a  valuable 
reference  book.  From  its  pages  are  culled  the  following  facts 
relating  to  the  changes  in  the  rates  of  freight  up  to  the  year 
1897.'  In  Table  3  the  average  rates  per  ton  per  mile  in  cents 
are  shown  since  1846.  For  the  Fitchburg  Railroad  the  rate  for 
that  year  was  4-523  cents  per  ton  per  mile,  since  when  a  great 
and  almost  continuous  fall  has  been  taking  place,  until  in  1897, 

1  Valuable  information  will  afso  be  found  In  Bulletin  No.  38 
(1905),  "  Crop  Export  Movement  and  Port  Facilities  ontheAtlantic 
and  Gulf  Coasts";  in  Bulletin  No.  49  (1907),  "Cost  of  Hauling 
Crops  from  Farms  to  Shipping  Points";  and  in  Bulletin  No.  69 
(1908),  "  European  Grain  Trade." 


the  latest  year  given,  the  rate  had  declined  to  -870  of  a  cent  per 
ton  per  mile.  The  railway  which  shows  the  greatest  fall  is  the 
Chesapeake  &  Ohio,  for  the  charge  has  fallen  from  over  7  cents 
in  1862  and  1863  to  -419  of  a  cent  in  1897,  whereas  the  Erie  rates 
have  fallen  only  from  1-948  in  1852  to  -609  in  1897.  Putting 
the  rates  of  the  twelve  returning  railways  together,  we  find  the 
average  freight  in  the  two  years  1859-1860  was  3-006  cents  per 
ton  per  mile,  and  that  in  1896-1897  the  average  rate  had  fallen 
to  -797  of  a  cent  per  ton  per  mile.  This  difference  is  very  large 
compared  with  the  smallness  of  the  unit.  Coming  to  the  rates 
on  grain,  we  find  (in  Table  23)  a  record  for  the  forty  years  1858- 
1897  of  the  charge  on  wheat  from  Chicago  to  New  York,  via 
all  rail  from  1858,  and  via  lake  and  rail  since  1868,  the  authority, 
being  the  secretary  of  the  Chicago  Board  of  Trade.  From  1858 
to  1862  the  rate  varied  between  42-37  and  34-80  cents  per  bushel 
for  the  whole  trip  of  roundly  1000  m.,  the  average  rate  in  the 
quinquennium  being  38-43.  In  the  five  years  immediately  prior 
to  the  time  at  which  Sir  J.  Caird  expressed  the  opinion  that  the 
cost  of  carriage  from  abroad  would  always  protect  the  British 
grower,  the  average  all-rail  freight  from  Chicago  to  New  York 
was  17-76  cents,  while  the  summer  rate  (partly  by  water)  was 
13-17  cents.  These  rates  in  1897,  the  last  year  shown  on  the 
table,  had  fallen  to  12-50  and  7-42  respectively.  The  rates  have 
been  as  follows  in  quinquennial  periods,  via  all  rail: — 
Chicago  to  New  York  in  Cents  per  Bushel. 


1858- 
1862. 

1863- 
1867. 

1868- 
1872. 

1873- 
1877. 

1878- 
1882. 

1883- 
1887. 

1888- 
1892. 

1893- 
1897. 

38-43 

31-42 

27-91 

21-29 

16-77 

14-67 

I4-52 

12-88 

Calculating  roundly  a  cent  as  equal  to  a  halfpenny,  and  eight 
bushels  to  the  quarter,  the  above  would  appear  in  English 
currency  as  follows: — 

Chicago  to  New  York  in  Shillings  and  Pence  per  Quarter. 


1858- 
1862. 

1863- 
1867. 

1868- 
1872. 

1873- 
1877- 

1878- 
1882. 

1883- 
1887. 

1888- 
1892. 

1893- 
1897. 

s.  d. 

12  8 

s.  d. 
10  6 

s.  d. 
9  3 

s.  d. 

7  I 

s.  d. 
5  7 

s.  d. 
4  ioj 

s.  d. 
4  10 

s.  d. 
4  3 

Another  table  (No.  38)  shows  the  average  rates  from  Chicago 
to  New  York  by  lakes,  canal  and  river.     These  in  their  quin- 
quennial periods  are  given  for  the  season  as  follows: — 
In  Cents  per  Bushel  of  60  Ib. 


1857-1861. 

1876-1880. 

1893-1897. 

22-15 

10-47 

4-92 

In  Shillings  and  Pence  per  Quarter  of  480  Ib. 


1857-1861. 

1876-1880. 

1893-1897. 

s.  d. 
7   4 

s.  d. 
3   6 

s.  d. 
i   7 

In  Shillings  and  Pence  per  Ton  of  2240  Ib. 


1857-1861. 

1876-1880. 

1893-1897. 

s.  d. 
34  6 

s.  d. 
16  6 

s.  d. 
7  6 

This  latter  mode  is  the  cheapest  by  which  grain  can  be  carried 
to  the  eastern  seaboard  from  the  American  prairies,  and  it  can 
now  be  done  at  a  cost  of  73.  6d.  per  ton.  •  The  ocean  freight  has 
to  be  added  before  the  grain  can  be  delivered  free  on  the  quay 
at  Liverpool.  A  rate  from  New  York  to  Liverpool  of  2jd. 
per  bushel,  or  73.  icd.  per  ton,  a  low  rate,  reached  in  Dec.  1900, 
is  yet  sufficiently  high,  it  is  claimed,  to  leave  a  profit;  indeed, 
there  have  frequently  been  times  when  the  rate  was  as  low  as  id. 
per  bushel,  or  33.  id.  per  ton;  and  in  periods  of  great  trade 
depression  wheat  is  carried  from  New  York  to  Liverpool  as 
ballast,  being  paid  for  by  the  ship-owner.  Another  route  worked 
more  cheaply  than  formerly  is  that  by  river,  from  the  centre  of 
the  winter  wheat  belt,  say  at  St  Louis,  to  New  Orleans,  and  thence 
by  steamer  to  Liverpool.  The  river  rate  has  fallen  below  five 


324 


GRAIN  TRADE 


cents  per  bushel,  or  ;s.  per  ton,  2240  Ib.     In  Table  No.  71  the 
cost  of  transportation  is  compared  year  by  year  with  the  export 
price  of  the  two  leading  cereals  in  the  States  as  follows: — 
Wheat  and  Corn — Export  Prices  and  Transportation  Rates  compared. 


Wheat. 

Corn. 

Year. 

Export 
Price  per 
Bushel. 

Rate,  Chi- 
cago to 
New  York 
by  Lake 
and  Canal, 
perBushel. 

Number 
of  Bushels 
carried 
for  Price 
of  One 
Bushel. 

Export 
Price  per 
Bushel. 

Rate,  Chi- 
cago to 
New  York 
by  Lake 
and  Canal, 
perBushel. 

Number 
of  Bushels 
carried 
for  Price 
of  One 
Bushel. 

Cents. 

Cents. 

1867 

$0-92 

15-95 

5-77 

$0-72 

14-58 

4-94 

1868 

•36 

16-23 

8-38 

•84-1 

13-57 

6-2O 

1869 

•°5 

17-20 

6-10 

-72-8 

14-98 

4-86 

1870 

•12 

14-85 

7-54 

•80-5 

13-78 

5-84 

1871 

•18 

17-75 

6-65 

•67-9 

16-53 

4-n 

1872 

•31 

21-55 

6-08 

•61-8 

19-62 

3-15 

1873 

•15 

16-89 

6-81 

•54-3 

15-39 

3-53 

1874 

•29 

12-75 

IO-I2 

•64-7 

11-29 

5-73 

1875 

•97 

9.90 

9-80 

•73-8 

8-93 

8-26 

1876 

•ii 

8-63 

12-86 

•60-3 

7-93 

7-60 

1877 

•12 

10-76 

10-41 

-56-0 

9-41 

5-95 

1878 

•33 

9-10 

14-62 

•55-8 

8-27 

6-75 

1879 

•07 

11-60 

9-22 

•47-1 

10-43 

4-52 

1880 

•25 

12-27 

IO-I9 

•54-3 

11-14 

4-87 

1881 

•II 

8-19 

13-55 

•55-2 

7-26 

7-60 

1882 

•19 

7-89 

I5-08 

•66-8 

7-23 

9-24 

1883 

•13 

8-37 

I3-50 

•68-4 

7-66 

8-93 

1884 

•07 

6-31 

16-96 

•61-1 

5-64 

10-83 

1885 

•86 

5-87 

I4-65 

•54-0 

5-38 

10-04 

1886 

•87 

8-71 

9-99 

•49-8 

7-98 

6-24 

1887 

•89 

8-51 

10-46 

•47-9 

7-88 

6-08 

1888 

•85 

5'93 

14-33 

•55-o 

5-41 

10-17 

1889 

•90 

6-89 

13-06 

•47-4 

6-19 

7-66 

1890 

•83 

5-86 

14-16 

•41-8 

5-io 

8-20 

1891 

•93 

5-96 

15-60 

•57-4 

5-36 

10-71 

1892 

1-03 

5-6i 

18-36 

•55 

5-03 

10-93 

1893 

•80 

6-31 

12-68 

•53 

5-7i 

9-28 

1894 

•67 

4.44 

15-09 

•46 

3-99 

"•53 

1895 

•58 

4-n 

14-11 

•53 

3-71 

14-29 

1896 

•65 

5-38 

12-08 

•38 

4-94 

7-69 

1897 

•75 

4-35 

17-24 

•31 

3-79 

8-18 

The  farmers  of  the  United  States  have  now  to  meet  a  greatly 
increased  output  from  Canada — the  cost  of  transport  from  that 
country  to  England  being  much  the  same  as  from  the  United 
States.  So  much  improved  is  the  position  of  the  farmer  in  North 
America  compared  with  what  it  was  about  1870,  that  the  trans- 
port companies  in  1901  carried  175  bushels  of  his  grain  to  the 
seaboard  in  exchange  for  the  value  of  one  bushel,  whereas  in 
1867  he  had  to  give  up  one  bushel  in  every  six  in  return  for  the 
service.  As  regards  the  British  farmer,  it  does  not  appear  as  if 
he  had  improved  his  position;  for  he  has  to  send  his  wheat  to 
greater  distances,  owing  to  the  collapse  of  many  country  millers 
or  their  removal  to  the  seaboard,  while  railway  rates  have  fallen 
only  to  a  very  small  extent;  again  the  farmer's  wheat  is  worth 
only  half  of  what  it  was  formerly;  it  may  be  said  that  the  British 
farmer  has  to  give  up  one  bushel  in  nine  to  the  railway  company 
for  the  purpose  of  transportation,  whereas  in  the  'seventies  he 
gave  up  one  in  eighteen  only.  Enough  has  been  said  to  prove 
that  the  advantage  of  position  claimed  for  the  British  farmer 
by  Caird  was  somewhat  illusory.  Speaking  broadly,  the  Kansas 
or  Minnesota  farmer's  wheat  does  not  have  to  pay  for  carriage 
to  Liverpool  more  than  23.  6d.  to  73.  6d.  per  ton  in  excess  of  the 
rate  paid  by  a  Yorkshire  farmer;  this,  it  will  be  admitted,  does 
not  go  very  far  towards  enabling  the  latter  to  pay  rent,  tithes 
and  rates  and  taxes.  • 

The  subject  of  the  rates  of  ocean  carriage  at  different  periods 
requires  consideration  if  a  proper  understanding  of  the  working 
of  the  foreign  grain  trade  is  to  be  obtained.  Only  a  very  small 
proportion  of  the  decline  in  the  price  of  wheat  since  1880  is  due 
to  cheapened  transport  rates;  for  while  the  mileage  rate  has 
been  falling,  the  length  of  haulage  has  been  extending,  until 
in  1900  the  principal  wheat  fields  of  America  were  2000  m. 
farther  from  the  eastern  seaboard  than  was  the  case  in  1870, 
and  consequently,  notwithstanding  the  fall  in  the  mileage  rate 
of  30  to  75%,  it  still  costs  the  United  Kingdom  nearly  as  much 
to  have  its  quota  of  foreign  wheat  fetched  from  abroad  as  it  did 


then.  The  difference  in  the  cost  of  the  operation  is  shown  in 
the  following  tabular  statement,  both  the  cost  in  the  aggregate 
on  a  year's  imports  and  the  cost  per  quarter: — 

Quantity  of  Wheat  and  Wheaten  Flour  (as  wheat)  imported  into  the 
United  Kingdom  from  various  sources  during  the  calendar  year 
1900,  together  with  the  average  rate  of  freight. 

1900. 


Countries  of  Origin. 

Buantities. 
rs.  480  Ib. 

Ocean  Freight 
to  United 
Kingdom. 
Per  480  Ib. 

Total  Cost 
of  Ocean 
Carriage. 

s.     d. 

£ 

Atlantic  America   . 

11,171,100 

2     3 

1,257,100 

South  Russia    . 

569,000 

2      2 

62,000 

Pacific  America 

2,389,900 

8       I 

966,000 

Canada  

1,877,100 

2      8 

250,000 

Rumania     .... 

176,400 

2      6 

22,000 

Argentina  and  Uruguay 

4,322,300 

4  10 

1,045,000 

France  

251,900 

I     3 

16,000 

Bulgaria  and  Rumelia 

30,600 

2      6 

4,000 

India           .... 

2,200 

4    o 

400 

Austria-Hungary   . 

389,300 

i     9 

34,000 

Chile      .           ... 

6OO 

North  Russia    . 

462,700 

i"6 

35,ooo 

Germany     .... 

438,700 

i     6 

33,000 

Australasia. 

883,900 

6     5 

284,000 

Minor  Countries    . 

225,100 

2      6 

28,000 

Total    .... 

23,190,800 

Average  33.  6d. 

£4,036,500 

Comparing  these  figures  with  a  similar  statement  for  the  year 
1872,  the  most  remote  year  for  which  similar  facts  are  available, 
it  will  be  found  that  the  actual  total  cost  per  quarter  for  ocean 
carriage  has  not  much  decreased. 

Quantity  of  Wheat  and  Wheaten  Flour  (as  wheat)  imported  into  the 
United  Kingdom  from  various  sources  during  the  calendar  year 
1872,  together  with  the  average  rate  of  freight. 

1872. 


Countries  of  Origin. 

Quantities. 
Qrs. 

Ocean  Freight 
to  United 
Kingdom. 
Per  qr. 

Total  Cost 
of  Carriage. 

South  Russia    . 
United  States  .      .      . 
Germany     .... 
France   
Egypt     
North  Russia    . 
Canada  

3,678,000 
2,030,000 
910,000 
660,000 
536,000 
490,000 
400,000 

s.     d. 
8     6 
6    6 

2      O 

3    o 
4    6 

2      O 

7     6 

£ 
1,563,000 
659,000 
91,000 
99,000 
120,000 
49,000 
150,000 

Chile      .... 

•?^o.ooo 

12      O 

198  ooo 

Turkey  
Spain      

195,000 

130,000 

7    6 
3     6 

72,000 
23,000 

Scandinavia 

160,000 

2      O 

16,000 

Total,  Chief  Countries 

9,519,000 

Average  6s.  5d. 

£3,040,000 

N.B. — A  trifling  quantity  of  Californian  and  Australian  wheat 
was  imported  in  the  period  in  question,  but  the  Board  of  Trade 
records  do  not  distinguish  the  quantities,  therefore  they  cannot 
be  given.  The  freight  in  that  year  from  those  countries  averaged 
about  133.  per  quarter. 

The  exact  difference  between  the  average  freight  for  the  years 
1872  and  1900  amounts  to  about  2s.  nd.  per  quarter  (480  Ib), 
a  trifle  in  comparison  with  the  actual  fall  in  the  price  of  wheat 
during  the  same  years. 

The  following  data  bearing  upon  the  subject,  for  selected 
periods,  are  partly  taken  from  the  Corn  Trade  Year-Book: — 


Year. 

United  Kingdom 
Annual  Imports. 
Wheat  and  Flour. 
Qrs. 

Ocean  Freight 
to  United 
Kingdom. 
Per  qr. 

Aggregate  Cost 
of  Carriage. 

1872 
1882 
1894 

1895 
1896 
1900 

9,469,000 
14,850,000 
16,229,000 
25,197,000 
23,431,000 
23,196,000 

s.     d. 
6     5 
7     4 
3    9 
3    o 
2     9 
3     6 

£ 
3,040,000 
5,420,000 
3,041,000 
3,825,000 
3,258,000 
4,036,000 

GRAM 


325 


In  passing,  it  may  be  pointed  out  that  for  a  period  of  four  years, 
from  1871  to  1874,  the  price  of  wheat  averaged  565.  per  quarter 
(or  73.  per  bushel),  with  the  charge  for  ocean  carriage  at  6s.  sd. 
per  quarter,  whereas  in  1901  wheat  was  sold  in.  England  at  285. 
(or  35.  6d.  per  bushel),  and  the  charge  for  ocean  carriage  was 
35.  6d.  per  quarter;  the  ocean  transport  companies  carried  eight 
bushels  of  wheat  across  the  seas  in  1901  for  the  value  of  one 
bushel,  or  exactly  at  the  same  ratio  as  in  1872. 

The  contrast  between  the  case  of  railway  freight  and  ocean 
freight  is  to  be  explained  by  the  greater  length  of  the  present 
ocean  voyage,  which  now  extends  to  10,000  miles  in  the  case  of 
Europe's  importation  of  white  wheat  from  the  Pacific  Coast  of 
the  United  States  and  Australia,  in  contrast  with  the  shoit 
voyage  from  the  Black  Sea  or  across  the  English  Channel  or 
German  Ocean.  It  is  largely  due  to  the  overlooking  of  this  phase 
of  the  question  that  an  American  statistician  has  fallen  into  the 
error  of  stating  that  about  i6s.  per  quarter  of  the  fall  in  the  price 
of  wheat,  which  happened  between  1880  and  1894,  is  attributable 
to  the  lessened  cost  of  transport. 

Thus,  whatever  the  cause  of  the  decline  in  the  price  of  wheat 
may  be,  it  cannot  be  attributed  solely  to  the  fall  in  the  rate  of 
WHEAT  PRICES 

The  following  figures  show  the  fluctuations  from  year  to  year 
of  English  wheat,  chiefly  according  to  a  record  published  by  Mr  T. 
Smith,  Melford,  the  period  covered  being  from  1656  to  1905: 

Price  per  Quarter 


s.  d. 

s.  d. 

s.  d. 

s.  d. 

s.  d. 

1656 

38  2 

1706 

23  i 

1756 

40  i 

1806 

79  i 

1856 

69   2 

1657 

4i  5 

1707 

25  4 

1757 

53  4 

1807 

75  4 

1857 

56  4 

1658 

57  9 

1708 

36  10 

1758 

44  5 

1808 

84  4 

1858 

44  2 

1659 

58  8 

1709 

69  9 

1759 

35  3 

1809 

97  4 

1859 

43  9 

1660 

50   2 

1710 

69  4 

1760 

32  5 

1810 

106  5 

1860 

53  3 

1661 

62   2 

1711 

48  o 

1761 

26  9 

1811 

95  3 

1861 

55  4 

1662 

65  9 

1712 

41   2 

1762 

34  8 

1812 

126  6 

1862 

55  5 

1663 

50  8 

1713 

45  4 

1763 

36  i 

1813 

109  9 

1863 

44  9 

1664 

36  o 

1714 

44  9 

1764 

41  5 

1814 

74  4 

1864 

40   2 

1665 

43  10 

1715 

38  2 

1765 

48  o 

1815 

65  7 

1865 

41  10 

1666 

32  o 

1716 

42  8 

1766 

43  i 

1816 

78  6 

1866 

49  " 

1667 

32  o 

1717 

40  7 

1767 

57  4 

1817 

96  ii 

1867 

64  5 

1668 

35  6 

1718 

34  6 

1768 

53  9 

1818 

86  3 

1868 

63  9 

1669 

39  5 

1719 

31  i 

1769 

40  7 

1819 

74  6 

1869 

48  2 

1670 

37  o 

1720 

32  10 

1770 

43  6 

1820 

67  10 

1870 

46  ii 

1671 

37  4 

1721 

33  4 

1771 

47  2 

1821 

56  i 

1871 

56  8 

1672 

36  5 

1722 

32   0 

1772 

50  8 

1822 

44  7 

1872 

57  o 

1673 

41  5 

1723 

30  10 

1773 

51  o 

1823 

53  4 

1873 

58  8 

1674 

61  o 

1724 

32  10 

1774 

52  8 

1824 

63  ii 

1874 

55  9 

1675 

57  5 

1725 

43  i 

1775 

48  4 

1825 

68  6 

1875 

45  2 

1676 

33  9 

1726 

40  10 

1776 

38  2 

1826 

58  8 

1876 

46   2 

1677 

37  4 

1727 

37  4 

1777 

45  6 

1827 

58  6 

1877 

56  9 

1678 

52  5 

1728 

48  5 

1778 

42  o 

1828 

60  5 

1878 

46  5 

1679 

53  4 

1729 

41  7 

1779 

33  8 

1829 

66  3 

1879 

43  10 

1680 

40  o 

1730 

32  5 

1780 

35  8 

1830 

64  3 

1880 

44  4 

1681 

4i  5 

1731 

29  2 

1781 

44  8 

1831 

66  4 

1881 

45  4 

1682 

39  i 

1732 

23  8 

1782 

47  10 

1832 

58  8 

1882 

45  i 

1683 

35  6 

1733 

25  2 

1783 

52  8 

1833 

52  ii 

1883 

4i  7 

1684 

39  i 

1734 

34  6 

1784 

48  10 

1834 

46   2 

1884 

35  8 

1685 

41  5 

1735 

38   2 

1785 

51  10 

1835 

39  4 

1885 

32  10 

1686 

30  2 

1736 

35  10 

1786 

38  10 

1836 

48  6 

1886 

31  o 

1687 

22  4 

1737 

33  9 

1787 

41   2 

1837 

55  o 

1887 

32  6 

1688 

40  10 

1738 

31  6 

1788 

45  o 

1838 

64  7 

1888 

31  10 

1689 

26  8 

1739 

34  2 

1789 

51   2 

1839 

70  8 

1889 

29  9 

1690 

3°  9 

1740 

45  i 

1790 

54  9 

1840 

66  4 

1890 

31  ii 

1691 

30  2 

1741 

41  5 

1791 

48  7 

1841 

64  4 

1891 

37  o 

1692 

41  5 

1742 

30  2 

1792 

43  o 

1842 

57  3 

1892 

30  3 

1693 

60  i 

1743 

22   I 

1793 

49  3 

1843 

50  i 

1893 

26  4 

1694 

56  10 

1744 

22   I 

1794 

52  3 

1844 

51  3 

1894 

22  IO 

1695 

47  i 

1745 

24   5 

1795 

75  2 

1845 

50  10 

1895 

23   I 

1696 

63  i 

1746 

34  8 

1796 

78  7 

1846 

54  8 

1896 

26   2 

1697 

53  4 

1747 

30  ii 

1797 

53  9 

1847 

69  9 

1897 

30   2 

1698 

60  9 

1748 

32  10 

1798 

51  10 

1848 

50  6 

1898 

34  o 

1699 

56  10 

'749 

32  10 

1799 

69  o 

1849 

44  3 

1899 

25  8 

1700 

35  6 

1750 

28  10 

1800 

113  10 

1850 

40  3 

1900 

26  II 

1701 

33  5 

1751 

34  2 

1801 

119  6 

1851 

38  6 

1901 

26  9 

1702 

26   2 

1752 

37  2 

1802 

69  10 

1852 

40  9 

1902 

28  I 

1703 

32  o 

'753 

39  8 

1803 

58  10 

1853 

53  3 

1903 

26  9 

1704 

41  4 

1754 

30  9 

1804 

62  3 

1854 

72  5 

1904 

28  4 

'70S 

26  8 

1755 

3°  i 

1805 

89  9 

1855 

74  8 

1905 

29  8 

oj  in 

§^142  10 
ls,J 

36  o 

51  9 

65  10 

'42  7 

1  Average  for  46  years  only.' 

rail  or  ocean  freights.  Incidental  charges  are  lower  than  they 
were  in  1870;  handling  charges,  brokers'  commissions  and 
insurance  premiums  have  been  in  many  instances  reduced,  but 
all  these  economies  when  combined  only  amount  to  about  2s. 
per  quarter.  Now  if  we  add  together  all  these  savings  in  the 
rate  of  rail  and  ocean  freights  and  incidental  expenses,  we  arrive 
at  an  aggregate  economy  of  8s.  per  quarter,  or  not  one-third 
of  the  actual  difference  between  the  average  price  of  wheat 
in  1872  and  1900.  To  what  the  remaining  difference  was  due 
it  is  difficult  to  say  with  certitude;  there  are  some  who  argue 
that  the  tendency  of  prices  to  fall  is  inherent,  and  that  the 
constant  whittling  away  of  intermediaries'  profits  is  sufficient 
explanation,  while  bi-metallists  have  maintained  that  the 
phenomenon  is  clearly  to  be  traced  to  the  action  of  the  German 
government  in  demonetizing  silver  in  1872. 

GRAM,  or  CHICK-PEA,  called  also  Egyptian  pea,  or  Bengal 
gram  (from  Port,  grao,  formerly  gram,  Lat.  granum,  Hindi 
Ghana,  Bengali  Chhola,  Ital.  cece,  Span,  garbanzo),  the 
Cicer  arielinum  of  Linnaeus,  so  named  from  the  resemblance 
of  its  seed  to  a  ram's  head.  It  is  a  member  of  the  natural  order 
Leguminosae,  largely  cultivated  as  a  pulse-food  in  the  south  of 
Europe,  Egypt  and  western  Asia  as  far  as  India,  but  is  not  known 
undoubtedly  wild.  The  plant  is  an  annual  herb  with  flexuose 
branches,  and  alternately  arranged  pinnately  compound  leaves, 
with  small,  oval,  serrated  leaflets  and  small  eared  stipules.  The 
flowers  are  borne  singly  in  the  leaf-axils  on  a  stalk  about  half 
the  length  of  the  leaf  and  jointed  and  bent  in  the  middle;  the 
corolla  is  blue-purple.  The  inflated  pod,  i  to  15  in.  long,  contains 
two  roundish  seeds.  It  was  cultivated  by  the  Greeks  in  Homer's 
time  under  the  name  erebinthos,  and  is  also  referred  to  by 
Dioscorides  as  krios  from  the  resemblance  of  the  pea  to  the  head 
of  a  ram.  The  Romans  called  it  deer,  from  which  is  derived 
the  modern  names  given  to  it  in  the  south  of  Europe.  Names, 
more  or  less  allied  to  one  another,  are  in  vogue  among  the  peoples 
of  the  Caucasus,  the  Caspian  Sea,  Armenia  and  Persia,  and  there 
is  a  Sanskrit  name  and  several  others  analogous  or  different  in 
modern  Indian  languages.  The  plant  has  been  cultivated  in 
Egypt  from  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era,  but  there  is  no 
proof  that  it  was  known  to  the  ancient  Egyptians.  Alphonse  de 
Candolle  (Origin  of  Cultivated  Plants,  p.  325)  suggests  that  the 
plant  originally  grew  wild  in  the  countries  to  the  south  of  the 
Caucasus  and  to  the  north  of  Persia.  "  The  western  Aryans 
(Pelasgians,  Hellenes)  perhaps  introduced  the  plant  into  southern 
Europe,  where,  however,  there  is  some  probability  that  it  was 
also  indigenous.  The  western  Aryans  carried  it  to  India."  Gram 
is  largely  cultivated  in  the  East,  where  the  seeds  are  eaten  raw 
or  cooked  in  various  ways,  both  in  their  ripe  and  unripe  condition, 
and  when  roasted  and  ground  subserve  the  same  purposes  as 
ordinary  flour.  In  Europe  the  seeds  are  used  as  an  ingredient 
in  soups.  They  contain,  in  100  parts  without  husks,  nitrogenous 
substances  22-7,  fat  3-76,  starch  63-18,  mineral  matters  2-6 
parts,  with  water  (Forbes  Watson,  quoted  in  Parkes's  Hygiene). 
The  liquid  which  exudes  from  the  glandular  hairs  clothing  the 
leaves  and  stems  of  the  plant,  more  especially  during  the  cold 
season  when  the  seeds  ripen,  contains  a  notable  proportion  of 
oxalic  acid.  In  Mysore  the  dew  containing  it  is  collected  by 
means  of  cloths  spread  on  the  plant  over  night,  and  is  used  in 
domestic  medicine.  The  steam  of  water  in  which  the  fresh  plant 
is  immersed  is  in  the  Deccan  resorted  to  by  the  Portuguese 
for  the  treatment  of  dysmenorrhoea.  The  seed  of  Phaseolus 
Mungo,  or  green  gram  (Hind,  and  Beng.  moong),  a  form  of  which 
plant  with  black  seeds  (P.  Max  of  Roxburgh)  is  termed  black 
gram,  is  an  important  article  of  diet  among  the  labouring  classes 
in  India.  The  meal  is  an  excellent  substitute  for  soap,  and  is 
stated  by  Elliot  to  be  an  invariable  concomitant  of  the  Hindu 
bath.  A  variety,  var.  radiatus  (P.  Roxburghii,  W.  and  Arn., 
or  P.  radiatus,  Roxb.)  (vern.  urid,  mashkalai),  also  known  as 
green  gram,  is  perhaps  the  most  esteemed  of  the  leguminous 
plants  of  India,  where  the  meal  of  its  seed  enters  into  the  com- 
position (of  the  more  delicate  cakes  and  dishes.  Horse  gram, 
Dolichos  biflorus  (vern.  ktdlhi),  which  supplies  in  Madras 
the  place  of  the  chick-pea,  affords  seed  which,  when  boiled,  is 


326 


GRAMMAR 


extensively  employed  as  a  food  for  horses  and  cattle  in  South 
India,  where  also  it  is  eaten  in  curries. 

See  W.  Elliot,  "  On  the  Farinaceous  Grains  and  the  various  kinds 
of  Pulses  used  in  Southern  India,"  Edin.  New  Phil.  Journ.   xvi. 


Scope  of 
grammar. 


GRAMMAR  (from  Lat.  grammatica,  sc.  ars;  Gr. 
letter,  from  yp6.<t>tiv,  to  write) .  By  the  grammar  of  a  language  is 
meant  either  the  relations  borne  by  the  words  of  a  sentence 
and  by  sentences  themselves  one  to  another,  or  the  systematized 
exposition  of  these.  The  exposition  may  be,  and  frequently  is, 
incorrect;  but  it  always  presupposes  the  existence  of  certain 
customary  uses  of  words  when  in  combination.  In  what  follows, 
therefore,  grammar  will  be  generally  employed  in  its  primary 
sense,  as  denoting  the  mode  in  which  words  are  connected  in 
order  to  express  a  complete  thought,  or,  as  it  is  termed  in  logic, 
a  proposition. 

The  object  of  language  is  to  convey  thought,  and  so  long 
as  this  object  is  attained  the  machinery  for  attaining  it 
is  of  comparatively  slight  importance.  The  way  in 
which  we  combine  our  words  and  sentences  matters 
little,  provided  that  our  meaning  is  clear  to  others. 
The  expressions  "  horseflesh "  and  "  flesh  of  a  horse " 
are  equally  intelligible  to  an  Englishman  and  therefore  are 
equally  recognized  by  English  grammar.  The  Chinese  manner 
of  denoting  a  genitive  is  by  placing  the  defining  word  before 
that  which  it  defines,  as  in  koue  jin,  "  man  of  the  kingdom," 
literally  "  kingdom  man,"  and  the  only  reason  why  it  would  be 
incorrect  in  French  or  Italian  is  that  such  a  combination  would 
be  unintelligible  to  a  Frenchman  or  an  Italian.  Hence  it  is 
evident  that  the  grammatical  correctness  or  incorrectness  of  an 
expression  depends  upon  its  intelligibility,  that  is  to  say,  upqn 
the  ordinary  use  and  custom  of  a  particular  language.  Whatever 
is  so  unfamiliar  as  not  to  be  generally  understood  is  also  un- 
grammatical.  In  other  words,  it  is  contrary  to  the  habit  of  a 
language,  as  determined  by  common  usage  and  consent. 

In  this  way  we  can  explain  how  it  happens  that  the  grammar 
of  a  cultivated  dialect  and  that  of  a  local  dialect  in  the  same 
country  so  frequently  disagree.  Thus,  in  the  dialect  of  West 
Somerset,  thee  is  the  nominative  of  the  second  personal  pronoun, 
while  in  cultivated  English  the  plural  accusative  you  (A.-S. 
eow)  has  come  to  represent  a  nominative  singular.  Both 
are  grammatically  correct  within  the  sphere  of  their  respective 
dialects,  but  no  further.  You  would  be  as  ungrammatical  in 
West  Somerset  as  thee  is  in  classical  English;  and  both  you  and 
thee,  as  nominatives  singular,  would  have  been  equally  ungram- 
matical in  Early  English.  Grammatical  propriety  is  nothing 
more  than  the  established  usage  of  a  particular  body  of  speakers 
at  a  particular  time  in  their  history. 

It  follows  from  this  that  the  grammar  of  a  people  changes, 
like  its  pronunciation,  from  age  to  age.  Anglo-Saxon  or  Early 
English  grammar  is  not  the  grammar  of  Modern  English,  any 
more  than  Latin  grammar  is  the  grammar  of  modern  Italian; 
and  to  defend  an  unusual  construction  or  inflexion  on  the  ground 
that  it  once  existed  in  literary  Anglo-Saxon  is  as  wrong  as  to 
import  a  peculiarity  of  some  local  dialect  into  the  grammar 
of  the  cultivated  speech.  It  further  follows  that  different 
languages  will  have  different  grammars,  and  that  the  differences 
will  be  more  or  less  according  to  the  nearer  or  remoter  relation- 
ship of  the  languages  themselves  and  the  modes  of  thought 
of  those  who  speak  them.  Consequently,  to  force  the  gram- 
matical framework  of  one  language  upon  another  is  to  miscon- 
ceive the  whole  nature  of  the  latter  and  seriously  to  mislead 
the  learner.  Chinese  grammar,  for  instance,  can  never  be  under- 
stood until  we  discard,  not  only  the  terminology  of  European 
grammar,  but  the  very  conceptions  which  underlie  it,  while 
the  polysynthetic  idioms  of  America  defy  all  attempts  to  discover 
in  them  "  the  parts  of  speech  "  and  the  various  grammatical 
ideas  which  occupy  so  large  a  place  in  our  school-grammars. 
The  endeavour  to  find  the  distinctions  of  Latin  grammar  in  that 
of  English  has  only  resulted  in  grotesque  errors,  and  a  total 
misapprehension  of  the  usage  of  the  English  language. 


It  is  to  the  Latin  grammarians  —  or,  more  correctly,  to  the 
Greek  grammarians,  upon  whose  labours  those  of  the  Latin 
writers  were  based  —  that  we  owe  the  classification  of 
the  subjects  with  which  grammar  is  commonly  sup-  Sub~ 
posed  to  deal.  The  grammar  of  Dionysius  Thrax, 
which  he  wrote  for  Roman  schoolboys  in  the  time 
of  Pompey,  has  formed  the  starting-point  for  the  innumer- 
able school-grammars  which  have  since  seen  the  light,  and 
suggested  that  division  of  the  matter  treated  of  which  they  have 
followed.  He  defines  grammar  as  a  practical  acquaintance  with 
the  language  of  literary  men,  and  as  divided  into  six  parts  — 
accentuation  and  phonology,  explanation  of  figurativeexpressions, 
definition,  etymology,  general  rules  of  flexion  and  critical 
canons.  Of  these,  phonology  and  accentuation,  or  prosody, 
can  properly  be  included  in  grammar  only  in  so  far  as  the 
construction  of  a  sentence  and  the  grammatical  meaning  of  a 
word  are  determined  by  accent  or  letter-change;  the  accentual 
difference  in  English,  for  example,  between  incense  and  incense 
belongs  to  the  province  of  grammar,  since  it  indicates  a  difference 
between  noun  and  verb;  and  the  changes  of  vowel  in  the  Semitic 
languages,  by  which  various  nominal  and  verbal  forms  are 
distinguished  from  one  another,  constitute  a  very  important 
part  of  their  grammatical  machinery.  But  where  accent  and 
pronunciation  do  not  serve  to  express  the  relations  of  words 
in  a  sentence,  they  fall  into  the  domain  of  phonology,  not  of 
grammar.  The  explanation  of  figurative  expressions,  again, 
must  be  left  to  the  rhetorician,  and  definition  to  the  lexicographer; 
the  grammarian  has  no  more  to  do  with  them  than  he  has  with 
the  canons  of  criticism. 

In  fact,  the  old  subdivision  of  grammar,  inherited  from  the 
grammarians  of  Rome  and  Alexandria,  must  be  given  up  and 
a  new  one  put  in  its  place.  What  grammar  really  deals  with 
are  all  those  contrivances  whereby  the  relations  of  words  and 
sentences  are  pointed  out.  Sometimes  it  is  position,  sometimes 
phonetic  symbolization,  sometimes  composition,  sometimes 
flexion,  sometimes  the  use  of  auxiliaries,  which  enables  the 
speaker  to  combine  his  words  in  such  a  way  that  they  shall  be 
intelligible  to  another.  Grammar  may  accordingly  be  divided 
into  the  three  departments  of  composition  or  "  word-building," 
syntax  and  accidence,  by  which  is  meant  an  exposition  of  the 
means  adopted  by  language  for  expressing  the  relations  of 
grammar  when  recourse  is  not  had  to  composition  or  simple 
position. 

A  systematized  exposition  of  grammar  may  be  intended  for 
the  purely  practical  purpose  of  teaching  the  mechanism  of  a 
foreign  language.     In  this  case  all  that  is  necessary 
is  a  correct  and  complete  statement  of  the  facts.     But    Moot*  •' 
a  correct  and  complete  statement  of  the  facts  is  by  no    mcnt. 
means  so  easy  a  matter  as  might  appear  at  first  sight. 
The  facts  will  be  distorted  by  a  false  theory  in  regard  to  them, 
while  they  will  certainly  not  be  presented  in  a  complete  form  if 
the  grammarian  is  ignorant  of  the  true  theory  they  presuppose. 
The  Semitic  verb,  for  example,  remains  unintelligible  so  long 
as  the  explanation  of  its  forms  is  sought  in  the  conjugation  of 
the  Aryan  verb,  since  it  has  no  tenses  in  the  Aryan  sense  of  the 
word,  but  denotes  relation  and  not  time. 

A  good  practical  grammar  of  a  language,  therefore,  should  be 
based  on  a  correct  appreciation  of  the  facts  which  it  expounds, 
and  a  correct  appreciation  of  the  facts  is  only  possible  where 
they  are  examined  and  co-ordinated  in  accordance  with  the 
scientific  method.  A  practical  grammar  ought,  wherever  it  is 
possible,  to  be  preceded  by  a  scientific  grammar. 

Comparison  is  the  instrument  with  which  science  works,  and 
a  scientific  grammar,  accordingly,  is  one  in  which  the  comparative 
method  has  been  applied  to  the  relations  of  speech.  If  we  would 
understand  the  origin  and  real  nature  of  grammatical  forms, 
and  of  the  relations  which  they  represent,  we  must  compare  them 
with  similar  forms  in  kindred  dialects  and  languages,  as  well 
as  with  the  forms  under  which  they  appeared  themselves  at  an 
earlier  period  of  their  history.  We  shall  thus  have  a  comparative 
grammar  and  an  historical  grammar,  the  latter  being  devoted 
to  tracing  the  history  of  grammatical  forms  and  usages  in  the 


GRAMMAR 


327 


same  language.  Of  course,  an  historical  grammar  is  only 
possible  where  a  succession  of  written  records  exists;  where 
a  language  possesses  no  older  literature  we  must  be  content 
with  a  comparative  grammar  only,  and  look  to  cognate  idioms 
to  throw  light  upon  its  grammatical  peculiarities.  In  this  case 
we  have  frequently  to  leave  whole  forms  unexplained,  or  at 
most  conjecturally  interpreted,  since  the  machinery  by  means  of 
which  the  relations  of  grammar  are  symbolized  is  often  changed 
so  completely  during  the  growth  of  a  language  as  to  cause  its 
earlier  shape  and  character  to  be  unrecognizable.  Moreover, 
our  area  of  comparison  must  be  as  wide  as  possible;  where  we 
have  but  two  or  three  languages  to  compare,  we  are  in  danger 
of  building  up  conclusions  on  insufficient  evidence.  The  gram- 
matical errors  of  the  classical  philologists  of  the  i8th  century 
were  in  great  measure  due  to  the  fact  that  their  area  of  comparison 
was  confined  to  Latin  and  Greek. 

The  historical  grammar  of  a  single  language  or  dialect,  which 
traces  the  grammatical  forms  and  usages  of  the  language  as  far 
back  as  documentary  evidence  allows,  affords  material  to  the 
comparative  grammarian,  whose  task  it  is  to  compare  the 
grammatical  forms  and  usages  of  an  allied  group  of  tongues 
and  thereby  reduce  them  to  their  earliest  forms  and  senses. 
The  work  thus  carried  out  by  the  comparative  grammarian 
within  a  particular  family  of  languages  is  made  use  of  by  universal 
grammar,  the  object  of  which  is  to  determine  the  ideas  that  under- 
lie all  grammar  whatsoever,  as  distinct  from  those  that  are 
peculiar  to  special  families  of  speech.  Universal  grammar  is 
sometimes  known  as  "  the  metaphysics  of  language,"  and  it 
has  to  decide  such  questions  as  the  nature  of  gender  or  of  the 
verb,  the  true  purport  of  the  genitive  relation,  or  the  origin  of 
grammar  itself.  Such  questions,  it  is  clear,  can  only  be  answered 
by  comparing  the  results  gained  by  the  comparative  treatment 
of  the  grammars  of  various  groups  of  language.  What  historical 
grammar  is  to  comparative  grammar,  comparative  grammar  is 
to  universal  grammar. 

Universal  grammar,  as  founded  on  the  results  of  the  scientific 
study  of  speech,  is  thus  essentially  different  from  that  "  universal 
grammar  "  so  much  in  vogue  at  the  beginning  of  the 
ipth  century,  which  consisted  of  a  series  of  a  priori 
assumptions  based  on  the  peculiarities  of  European 
grammar  and  illustrated  from  the  same  source.  But  universal 
grammar,  as  conceived  by  modern  science,  is  as  yet  in  its  infancy; 
its  materials  are  still  in  the  process  of  being  collected.  The 
comparative  grammar  of  the  Indo-European  languages  is  alone 
in  an  advanced  state,  those  of  the  Semitic  idioms,  of  the  Finno- 
Ugrian  tongues  and  of  the  Bantu  dialects  of  southern  Africa 
are  still  in  a  backward  condition;  and  the  other  families  of 
speech  existing  in  the  world,  with  the  exception  of  the  Malayo- 
Polynesian  and  the  Sonorian  of  North  America,  have  not  as  yet 
been  treated  scientifically.  Chinese,  it  is  true,  possesses  an 
historical  grammar,  and  Van  Eys,  in  his  comparative  grammar 
of  Basque,  endeavoured  to  solve  the  problems  of  that  interesting 
language  by  a  comparison  of  its  various  dialects;  but  in  both 
cases  the  area  of  comparison  is  too  small  for  more  than  a  limited 
success  to  be  attainable.  Instead  of  attempting  the  questions 
of  universal  grammar,  therefore,  it  will  be  better  to  confine  our 
attention  to  three  points — the  fundamental  differences  in  the 
grammatical  conceptions  of  different  groups  of  languages,  the 
main  results  of  a  scientific  investigation  of  Indo-European 
grammar,  and  the  light  thrown  by  comparative  philology  upon 
the  grammar  of  our  own  tongue. 

The  proposition  or  sentence  is  the  unit  and  starting-point  of 
speech,  and  grammar,  as  we  have  seen,  consists  in  the  relations 
Differ-  °^  **s  severa'  parts  one  to  another,  together  with  the 
eaces  la  expression  of  them.  These  relations  may  be  regarded 
grammar  from  various  points  of  view.  In  the  polysynthetic 
rf  languages  of  America  the  sentence  is  conceived  as  a 
whole,  not  composed  of  independent  words,  but,  like 
the  thought  which  it  expresses,  one  and  indivisible.  What  we 
should  denote  by  a  series  of  words  is  consequently  denoted  by  a 
single  long  compound — kuligalchis  in  Delaware,  for  instance, 
signifying  "  give  me  your  pretty  little  paw,"  and  aglekkigiartor- 


Ualversal 
grammar. 


asuarnipok  in  Eskimo,  "  he  goes  away  hastily  and  exerts  himself 
to  write."  Individual  words  can  be,  and  often  are,  extracted 
from  the  sentence;  but  in  this  case  they  stand,  as  it  were, 
outside  it,  being  represented  by  a  pronoun  within  the  sentence 
itself.  Thus,  in  Mexican,  we  can  say  not  only  ni-sotsi-temoa,  "  I 
look  for  flowers,"  but  also  ni-k-temoa  sotsitl,  where  the  inter- 
polated guttural  is  the  objective  pronoun.  As  a  necessary  result 
of  this  conception  of  the  sentence  the  American  languages 
possess  no  true  verb,  each  act  being  expressed  as  a  whole  by  a 
single  word.  In  Cherokee,  for  example,  while  there  is  no  verb 
signifying  "  to  wash  "  in  the  abstract,  no  less  than  thirteen 
words  are  used  to  signify  every  conceivable  mode  and  object  of 
washing.  In  the  incorporating  languages,  again,  of  which 
Basque  may  be  taken  as  a  type,  the  object  cannot  be  conceived 
except  as  contained  in  the  verbal  action.  Hence  every  verbal 
form  embodies  an  objective  pronoun,  even  though  the  object 
may  be  separately  expressed.  If  we  pass  to  an  isolating  language 
like  Chinese,  we  find  the  exact  converse  of  that  which  meets  us 
in  the  polysynthetic  tongues.  Here  each  proposition  or  thought 
is  analysed  into  its  several  elements,  and  these  are  set  over 
against  one  another  as  so  many  independent  words.  The 
relations  of  grammar  are  consequently  denoted  by  position,  the 
particular  position  of  two  or  more  words  determining  the  relation 
they  bear  to  each  other.  The  analysis  of  the  sentence  has  not 
been  carried  so  far  in  agglutinative  languages  like  Turkish. 
In  these  the  relations  of  grammar  are  represented  by  individual 
words,  which,  however,  are  subordinated  to  the  words  expressing 
the  main  ideas  intended  to  be  in  relation  to  one  another.  The 
defining  words,  or  indices  of  grammatical  relations,  are,  in  a 
large  number  of  instances,  placed  after  the  words  which  they 
define;  in  some  cases,  however,  as,  for  example,  in  the  Bantu 
languages  of  southern  Africa,  the  relation  is  conceived  from 
the  opposite  point  of  view,  the  defining  words  being  prefixed. 
The  inflexional  languages  call  in  the  aid  of  a  new  principle. 
The  relations  of  grammar  are  denoted  symbolically  either 
by  a  change  of  vowel  or  by  a  change  of  termination,  more 
rarely  by  a  change  at  the  beginning  of  a  word.  Each 
idea,  together  with  the  relation  which  it  bears  to  the  other 
ideas  of  a  proposition,  is  thus  represented  by  a  single  word; 
that  is  to  say,  the  ideas  which  make  up  the  elements  of  a 
sentence  are  not  conceived  severally  and  independently,  as  in 
Chinese,  but  as  always  having  a  certain  connexion  with  one 
another.  Inflexional  languages,  however,  tend  to  become 
analytical  by  the  logical  separation  of  the  flexion  from  the  idea 
to  which  it  is  attached,  though  the  primitive  point  of  view  is 
never  altogether  discarded,  and  traces  of  flexion  remain  even  in 
English  and  Persian.  In  fact,  there  is  no  example  of  a  language 
which  has  wholly  forsaken  the  conception  of  the  sentence  and 
the  relation  of  its  elements  with  which  it  started,  although  each 
class  of  languages  occasionally  trespasses  on  the  grammatical 
usages  of  the  others.  In  language,  as  elsewhere  in  nature,  there 
are  no  sharp  lines  of  division,  no  sudden  leaps;  species  passes 
insensibly  into  species,  class  into  class.  At  the  same  time  the 
several  types  of  speech — polysynthetic,  isolating,  agglutinative 
and  inflexional — remain  clear  and  fixed;  and  even  where  two 
languages  belong  to  the  same  general  type,  as,  for  instance,  an 
Indo-European  and  a  Semitic  language  in  the  inflexional  group, 
or  a  Bantu  and  a  Turkish  language  in  the  agglutinative  group, 
we  find  no  certain  example  of  grammatical  interchange.  A  mixed 
grammar,  in  which  the  grammatical  procedure  of  two  distinct 
families  of  speech  is  intermingled,  is  almost,  if  not  altogether, 
unknown. 

It  is  obvious,  therefore,  that  grammar  constitutes  the  surest 
and  most  important  basis  for  a  classification  of  languages. 
Words  may  be  borrowed  freely  by  one  dialect  from  another,  or, 
though  originally  unrelated,  may,  by  the  action  of  phonetic 
decay,  come  to  assume  the  same  forms,  while  the  limited  number 
of  articulate  sounds  and  conceptions  out  of  which  language  was 
first  developed,  and  the  similarity  of  the  circumstances  by  which 
the  first  speakers  were  everywhere  surrounded,  naturally  produce 
a  resemblance  between  the  roots  of  many  unconnected  tongues. 
Where,  however,  the  fundamental  conceptions  of  grammar  and 


328 


GRAMMAR 


the  machinery  by  which  they  are  expressed  are  the  same,  we 
may  have  no  hesitation  in  inferring  a  common  origin. 

The  main  results  of  scientific  inquiry  into  the  origin  and 
primitive  meaning  of  the  forms  of  Indo-European  grammar 
Forms  ot  mav  De  summed  up  as  follows.  We  start  with  stems 
lado-  or  themes,  by  which  are  meant  words  of  two  or 
European  more  syllables  which  terminate  in  a  limited  number 
of  sounds.  These  stems  can  be  classed  in  groups  of 
two  kinds,  one  in  which  the  groups  consist  of  stems  of  similar 
meanings  and  similar  initial  syllables,  and  another  in  which 
the  final  syllables  alone  coincide.  In  the  first  case  we  have 
what  are  termed  roots,  the  simplest  elements  into  which 
words  can  be  decomposed;  in  the  second  case  stems  proper, 
which  may  be  described  as  consisting  of  suffixes  attached  to 
roots.  Roots,  therefore,  are  merely  the  materials  out  of  which 
speech  can  be  made,  the  embodiments  of  isolated  conceptions 
with  which  the  lexicographer  alone  has  to  deal,  whereas  stems 
present  us  with  words  already  combined  in  a  sentence  and 
embodying  the  relations  of  grammar.  If  we  would  rightly 
understand  primitive  Indo-European  grammar,  we  must  conceive 
it  as  having  been  expressed  or  implied  in  the  suffixes  of  the  stems, 
and. in  the  order  according  to  which  the  stems  were  arranged  in 
a  sentence.  In  other  words,  the  relations  of  grammar  were 
denoted  partly  by  juxtaposition  or  syntax,  partly  by  the  suffixes 
of  stems. 

These  suffixes  were  probably  at  first  unmeaning,  or  rather 
clothed  with  vague  significations,  which  changed  according  to 
the  place  occupied  in  the  sentence  by  the  stem  to  which  they 
were  joined.  Gradually  this  vagueness  of  signification  dis- 
appeared, and  particular  suffixes  came  to  be  set  apart  to  represent 
particular  relations  of  grammar.  What  had  hitherto  been 
expressed  by  mere  position  now  attached  itself  to  the  terminations 
or  suffixes  of  stems,  which  accordingly  became  full-grown  words. 
Some  of  the  suffixes  denoted  purely  grammatical  ideas,  that  is 
to  say,  were  flexions;  others  were  classificatory,  serving  to 
distinguish  nouns  from  verbs,  presents  from  aorists,  objects 
from  agents  and  the  like;  while  others,  again,  remained  un- 
meaning adj  uncts  of  the  root.  This  origin  of  the  flexions  explains 
the  otherwise  strange  fact  that  the  same  suffix  may  symbolize 
wholly  different  grammatical  relations.  In  Latin,  for  instance, 
the  context  and  dictionary  will  alone  tell  us  that  mus-as  is  the 
accusative  plural  of  a  noun,  and  am-as  the  second  person  singular 
of  a  verb,  or  that  mus-a  is  the  nominative  singular  of  a  feminine 
substantive,  bon-a  the  accusative  plural  of  a  neuter  adjective. 
In  short,  the  flexions  were  originally  merely  the  terminations  of 
stems  which  were  adapted  to  express  the  various  relations  of 
words  to  each  other  in  a  sentence,  as  these  gradually  presented 
themselves  to  the  consciousness  and  were  extracted  from  what 
had  been  previously  implied  by  position.  Necessarily,  the  same 
suffix  might.be  used  sometimes  in  a  classificatory,  sometimes  in  a 
flexional  sense,  and  sometimes  without  any  definite  sense  at  all. 
In  the  Greek  dative-locative  ir68-ta-ai,  for  example,  the  suffix 
-«s  is  classificatory;  in  the  nominative  ir65-es  it  is  flexional. 

When  a  particular  termination  or  suffix  once  acquired  a 
special  sense,  it  would  be  separated  in  thought  from  the  stem  to 
which  it  belonged,  and  attached  in  the  same  sense  to  other  stems 
and  other  terminations.  Thus  in  modern  English  we  can  attach 
the  suffix  -ize  to  almost  any  word  whatsoever,  in  order  to  give 
the  latter  a  transitive  meaning,  and  the  Gr.  TrbStavi,  quoted 
above,  really  contains  no  less  than  three  suffixes,  -cs,  -ffv  and 
-t,  the  last  two  both  denoting  the  locative,  and  coalescing, 
through  af  i,  into  a  single  syllable  -ai.  The  latter  instance  shows 
us  how  two  or  more  suffixes  denoting  exactly  the  same  idea  may 
be  tacked  on  one  to  another,  if  the  original  force  and  signification 
of  the  first  of  them  comes  to  be  forgotten.  Thus,  in  O.  Eng. 
sang-estre  was  the  feminine  of  sang-ere,  "  singer,"  but  the  meaning 
of  the  termination  has  so  entirely  died  out  of  the  memory  that 
we  have  to  add  the  Romanic  -ess  to  it  if  we  would  still  distinguish 
it  from  the  masculine  singer.  A  familiar  example  of  the  way 
in  which  the  full  sense  of  the  exponent  of  a  grammatical  idea 
fades  from  the  mind  and  has  to  be  supplied  by  a  new  exponent 
is  afforded  by  the  use  of  expletives  in  conversational  English 


to  denote  the  superlative.  "  Very  warm  "  expresses  little  more 
than  the  positive,  and  to  represent  the  intensity  of  his  feelings 
the  Englishman  has  recourse  to  such  expressions  as  "  awfully 
warm  "  like  the  Ger.  "  schrecklich  warm." 

Such  words  as  "  very,"  "  awfully,"  "  schrecklich,"  illustrate 
a  second  mode  in  which  Indo-European  grammar  has  found 
means  of  expression.  Words  may  lose  their  true  signification 
and  become  the  mere  exponents  of  grammatical  ideas.  Professor 
Earle  divides  all  words  into  presentive  and  symbolic,  the  former 
denoting  objects  and  conceptions,  the  latter  the  relations  which 
exist  between  these.  Symbolic  words,  therefore,  are  what  the 
Chinese  grammarians  call "  empty  words  " — words,  that  is,  which 
have  been  divested  of  their  proper  signification  and  serve  a  gram- 
matical purpose  only.  Many  of  the  classificatory  and  some  of 
the  flexional  suffixes  of  Indo-European  speech  can  be  shown 
to  have  had  this  origin.  Thus  the  suffix  tar,  which  denotes 
names  of  kinship  and  agency,  seems  to  come  from  the  same  root 
as  the  Lat.  terminus  and  trans,  our  through,  the  Sans,  tar-ami, 
"  I  pass  over,"  and  to  have  primarily  signified  "  one  that  goes 
through  "  a  thing.  Thus,  too,  the  Eng.  head  or  hood,  in  words 
like  godhead  and  brotherhood,  is  the  A.-S.  hdd,  "  character  " 
or  "rank";  dom,  in  kingdom,  the  A.-S.  d6m,  "judgment"; 
and  lock  or  ledge,  in  wedlock  and  knowledge,  the  A.-S.  lac,  "  sport  " 
or  "  gift."  In  all  these  cases  the  "  empty  words,"  after  first 
losing  every  trace  of  their  original  significance,  have  followed 
the  general  analogy  of  the  language  and  assumed  the  form  and 
functions  of  the  suffixes  with  which  they  had  been  confused. 

A  third  mode  of  representing  the  relations  of  grammar  is 
by  the  symbolic  use  of  vowels  and  diphthongs.  In  Greek,  for 
instance,  the  distinction  between  the  reduplicated  present  8t5co/u 
and  the  reduplicated  perfect  diduKa  is  indicated  by  a  distinction 
of  vowel,  and  in  primitive  Aryan  grammar  the  vowel  a  seems 
to  have  been  set  apart  to  denote  the  subjunctive  mood  just  as 
ya  or  i  was  set  apart  to  denote  the  potential.  So,  too,  according 
to  M.  Hovelacque,  the  change  of  a  into  i  or  u  in  the  parent  Indo- 
European  symbolized  a  change  of  meaning  from  passive  to  active. 
This  symbolic  use  of  the  vowels,  which  is  the  purest  application 
of  the  principle  of  flexion,  is  far  less  extensively  carried  out  in 
the  Indo-European  than  in  the  Semitic  languages.  The  Semitic 
family  of  speech  is  therefore  a  much  more  characteristic  type  of 
the  inflexional  languages  than  is  the  Indo-European. 

The  primitive  Indo-European  noun  possessed  at  least  eight 
cases — nominative,  accusative,  vocative,  instrumental,  dative, 
genitive,  ablative  and  locative.  M.  Bergaigne  has  attempted 
to  show  that  the  first  three  of  these,  the  "  strong  cases  "  as 
they  are  termed,  are  really  abstracts  formed  by  the  suffixes 
-as  (-s),  -an,  -m,  -t,  -i,  -a  and  -ya  (-i),  the  plural  being  nothing 
more  than  an  abstract  singular,  as  may  be  readily  seen  by 
comparing  words  like  the  Gr.  erro-s,  and  oire-s,  which  mean 
precisely  the  same.  The  remaining  "  weak  "  cases,  formed  by 
the  suffixes  -sma,  -sya,  -sya,  -yd,  -i,  -an,  -t,  -bhi,  -su,  -i,  -a  and  -a, 
are  really  adjectives  and  adverbs.  No  distinction,  for  example, 
can  be  drawn  between  "  a  cup  of  gold  "  and  "  a  golden  cup," 
and  the  instrumental,  the  dative,  the  ablative  and  the  locative 
are,  when  closely  examined,  merely  adverbs  attached  to  a  verb. 
The  terminations  of  the  strong  cases  do  not  displace  the  accent 
of  the  stem  to  which  they  are  suffixed;  the  suffixes  of  the  weak 
cases,  on  the  other  hand,  generally  draw  the  accent  upon 
themselves. 

According  to  Hubschmann,  the  nominative,  accusative  and 
genitive  cases  are  purely  grammatical,  distinguished  from  one 
another  through  the  exigencies  of  the  sentence  only,  whereas 
the  locative,  ablative  and  instrumental  have  a  logical  origin  and 
determine  the  logical  relation  which  the  three  other  cases  bear 
to  each  other  and  the  verb.  The  nature  of  the  dative  is  left 
undecided.  The  locative  primarily  denotes  rest  in  a  place,  the 
ablative  motion  from  a  place,  and  the  instrumental  the  means  or 
concomitance  of  an  action.  The  dative  Hubschmann  regards 
as  "  the  case  of  the  participant  object."  Like  Hubschmann, 
Holzweissig  divides  the  cases  into  two  classes — the  one  gram- 
matical and  the  other  logical;  and  his  analysis  of  their  primitive 
meaning  is  the  same  as  that  of  Hubschmann,  except  as  regards 


GRAMMAR 


329 


the  dative,  the  primary  sense  of  which  he  thinks  to  have  been 
motion  towards  a  place.  This  is  also  the  view  of  Delbriick,  who 
makes  it  denote  tendency  towards  an  object.  Delbriick,  how- 
ever, holds  that  the  primary  sense  of  the  ablative  was  that  of 
separation,  the  instrumental  originally  indicating  concomitance, 
while  there  was  a  double  locative,  one  used  like  the  ablative 
absolute  in  Latin,  the  other  being  a  locative  of  the  object. 

The  dual  was  older  than  the  plural,  and  after  the  development 
of  the  latter  survived  as  a  merely  useless  encumbrance,  of  which 
most  of  the  Indo-European  languages  contrived  in  time  to  get 
rid.  There  are  still  many  savage  idioms  in  which  the  conception 
of  plurality  has  not  advanced  beyond  that  of  duality.  In  the 
Bushman  dialects,  for  instance,  the  plural,  or  rather  that  which 
is  more  than  one,  is  expressed  by  repeating  the  word;  thus  tu 
is  "  mouth,"  tutu  "  mouths."  It  may  be  shown  that  most  of 
the  suffixes  of  the  Indo-European  dual  are  the  longer  and  more 
primitive  forms  of  those  of  the  plural  which  have  grown  out  of 
them  by  the  help  of  phonetic  decay.  The  plural  of  the  weak  cases, 
on  the  other  hand  (the  accusative  alone  excepted),  was  identical 
with  the  singular  of  abstract  nouns;  so  far  as  both  form  and 
meaning  are  concerned,  no  distinction  can  be  drawn  between 
cwrfs  and  tiros.  Similarly,  humanity  and  men  signify  one  and 
the  same  thing,  and  the  use  of  English  words  like  sheep  or  fish 
for  both  singular  and  plural  shows  to  what  an  extent  our  apprecia- 
tion of  number  is  determined  by  the  context  rather  than  by  the 
form  of  the  noun.  The  so-called  "  broken  plurals  "  of  Arabic 
and  Ethiopic  are  really  singular  collectives  employed  to  denote 
the  plural. 

Gender  is  the  product  partly  of  analogy,  partly  of  phonetic 
decay.  In  many  languages,  such  as  Eskimo  and  Choctaw,-  its 
place  is  taken  by  a  division  of  objects  into  animate  and  inanimate, 
while  in  other  languages  they  are  separated  into  rational  and 
irrational.  There  are  many  indications  that  the  parent  Indo- 
European  in  an  early  stage  of  its  existence  had  no  signs  of  gender 
at  all.  The  terminations  of  the  names  of  father  and  mother, 
pater  and  mater,  for  example,  are  exactly  the  same,  and  in  Latin 
and  Greek  many  diphthongal  stems,  as  well  as  stems  in  i  or  ya 
and  u  (like  vavs  and  i/e/cus,  iroXts  and  Xis),  may  be  indifferently 
masculine  and  feminine.  Even  stems  in  o  and  a  (of  the  second 
and  first  declensions),  though  the  first  are  generally  masculine 
and  the  second  generally  feminine,  by  no  means  invariably 
maintain  the  rule;  and  feminines  like  humus  and  666s,  or 
masculines  like  advena  and  TroXn-ijs,  show  that  there  was  a  time 
when  these  stems  also  indicated  no  particular  gender,  but  owed 
their  subsequent  adaptation,  the  one  to  mark  the  masculine 
and  the  other  to  mark  the  feminine,  to  the  influence  of  analogy. 
The  idea  of  gender  was  first  suggested  by  the  difference  between 
man  and  woman,  male  and  female,  and,  as  in  so  many  languages 
at  the  present  day,  .was  represented  not  by  any  outward  sign 
but  by  the  meaning  of  the  words  themselves.  When  once  arrived 
at,  the  conception  of  gender  was  extended  to  other  objects  besides 
those  to  which  it  properly  belonged.  The  primitive  Indo- 
European  did  not  distinguish  between  subject  and  object,  but 
personified  objects  by  ascribing  to  them  the  motives  and  powers 
of  living  beings.  Accordingly  they  were  referred  to  by  different 
pronouns,  one  class  denoting  the  masculine  and  another  class 
the  feminine,  and  the  distinction  that  existed  between  these  two 
classes  of  pronouns  was  after  a  time  transferred  to  the  nouns. 
As  soon  as  the  preponderant  number  of  stems  in  o  in  daily  use 
had  come  to  be  regarded  as  masculine  on  account  of  their  mean- 
ing, other  stems  in  o,  whatever  might  be  their  signification, 
were  made  to  follow  the  general  analogy  and  were  similarly 
classed  as  masculines.  In  the  same  way,  the  suffix  i  or  ya 
acquired  a  feminine  sense,  and  was  set  apart  to  represent  the 
feminine  gender.  Unlike  the  Semites,  the  Indo-Europeans  were 
not  satisfied  with  these  two  genders,  masculine  and  feminine. 
As  soon  as  object  and  subject,  patient  and  agent,  were  clearly 
distinguished  from  each  other,  there  arose  a  need  for  a  third 
gender,  which  should  be  neither  masculine  nor  feminine,  but 
denote  things  without  life.  This  third  gender  was  fittingly 
expressed  either  by  the  objective  case  used  as  a  nominative  (e.g. 
regnum),  or  by  a  stem  without  any  case  ending  at  all  (e.g.  virus). 


The  adverbial  meaning  of  so  many  of  the  cases  explains  the 
readiness  with  which  they  became  crystallized  into  adverbs  and 
prepositions.  An  adverb  is  the  attribute  of  an  attribute — "  the 
rose  smells  sweetly,"  for  example,  being  resolvable  into  "the 
rose  has  the  attribute  of  scent  with  the  further  attribute  of 
sweetness."  In  our  own  language  once,  twice,  needs,  are  all 
genitives;  seldom  is  a  dative.  The  Latin  and  Greek  humi  and 
Xdjutu  are  locatives,  facillime  (facillumed)  and  tvrvx&s  ablatives, 
Tram;  and  o/ia  instrumental,  irdpos,  «$)$  and  T?jXoD  genitives. 
The  frequency  with  which  particular  cases  of  particular  nouns 
were  used  in  a  specifically  attributive  sense  caused  them  to 
become,  as  it  were,  petrified,  the  other  cases  of  the  nouns  in 
question  passing  out  of  use,  and  the  original  force  of  those  that 
were  retained  being  gradually  forgotten.  Prepositions  are 
adverbs  employed  to  define  nouns  instead  of  verbs  and  adjectives. 
Their  appearance  in  the  Indo-European  languages  is  compara- 
tively late,  and  the  Homeric  poems  allow  us  to  trace  their  growth 
in  Greek.  The  adverb,  originally  intended  to  define  the  verb, 
came  to  be  construed  with  the  noun,  and  the  government  of 
the  case  with  which  it  was  construed  was  accordingly  transferred 
from  the  verb  to  the  noun.  Thus  when  we  read  in  the  Odyssey 
(iv.  43),  avrovs  5'  eiffrjyov  Otlov  Sonov,  we  see  that  eis  is  still  an 
adverb,  and  that  the  accusative  is  governed  by  the  verb;  it  is 
quite  otherwise,  however,  with  a  line  like  'Arpeldw  51  ytpovras 
doXXeas  fjyev  'Kxauav  ts  K\urir)v  (II.  i.  89)  where  the  adverb  has 
passed  into  a  preposition.  The  same  process  of  transformation 
is  still  going  on  in  English,  where  we  can  say  indifferently, 
"  What  are  you  looking  at  ?  "  using  "  at "  as  an  adverb,  and 
governing  the  pronoun  by  the  verb,  and  "  At  what  are  you 
looking?"  where  "at"  has  become  a  preposition.  With  the 
growth  and  increase  of  prepositions  the  need  of  the  case-endings 
diminished,  and  in  some  languages  the  latter  disappeared 
altogether. 

Like  prepositions,  conjunctions  also  are  primarily  adverbs 
used  in  a  demonstrative  and  relative  sense.  Hence  most  of  the 
conjunctions  are  petrified  cases  of  pronouns.  The  relation 
between  two  sentences  was  originally  expressed  by  simply  setting 
them  side  by  side,  afterwards  by  employing  a  demonstrative 
at  the  beginning  of  the  second  clause  to  refer  to  the  whole  pre- 
ceding one.  The  relative  pronoun  can  be  shown  to  have  been 
in  the  first  instance  a  demonstrative;  indeed,  we  can  still  use 
that  in  English  in  a  relative  sense.  Since  the  demonstrative 
at  the  beginning  of  the  second  clause  represented  the  first  clause, 
and  was  consequently  an  attribute  of  the  second,  it  had  to  stand 
in  some  case,  and  this  case  became  a  conjunction.  How  closely 
allied  the  adverb  and  the  conjunction  are  may  be  seen  from 
Greek  and  Latin,  where  cos  or  quum  can  be  used  as  either  the  one 
or  the  other.  Our  own  and,  it  may  be  observed,  has  probably 
the  same  root  as  the  Greek  locative  adverb  ?ri,  and  originally 
signified  "  going  further." 

Another  form  of  adverb  is  the  infinitive,  the  adverbial  force 
of  which  appears  clearly  in  such  a  phrase  as  "  A  wonderful  thing 
to  see."  Various  cases,  such  as  the  locative,  the  dative  or  the 
instrumental,  are  employed  in  Vedic  Sanskrit  in  the  sense  of 
the  infinitive,  besides  the  bare  stem  or  neuter  formed  by  the 
suffixes  man  and  van.  In  Greek  the  neuter  stem  and  the  dative 
case  were  alone  retained  for  the  purpose.  The  first  is  found  in 
infinitives  like  86fi*v  and  <fxpft.v  (for  an  earlier  <txpt-Fa>)t  the 
second  in  the  infinitives  in  -at.  Thus  the  Gr.  dovvai  answers 
letter  for  letter  to  the  Vedic  dative  ddvdne,  "  to  give,"  and  the 
form  \l/ti'8eadat.  is  explained  by  the  Vedic  vayodhai,  for  vayas-dhai, 
literally  "  to  do  living,"  dhai  being  the  dative  of  a  noun  from 
the  root  dha,  "  to  place  "  or  "  do."  When  the  form  ftiidtaOai 
had  once  come  into  existence,  analogy  was  ready  to  create  such 
false  imitations  as  7 pa.\f/ 0060.1  or  ypa<j>6ria(ff6ai.  The  Latin 
infinitive  in  -re  for  -se  has  the  same  origin,  amare,  for  instance, 
being  the  dative  of  an  old  stem  amas.  In  fieri  for  fierei  or  fiesei, ' 
from  the  same  root  as  our  English  be,  the  original  length  of  the 
final  syllable  is  preserved.  The  suffix  in  -urn  is  an  accusative,  like 
the  corresponding  infinitive  of  classical  Sanskrit.  This  origin 
of  the  infinitive  explains  the  Latin  construction  of  the  accusative 
and  infinitive.  When  the  Roman  said,  "  Miror  te  ad  me  nihil 


330 


GRAMMAR 


scribere,"  all  that  he  meant  at  first  was,  "  I  wonder  at  you  for 
writing  nothing  to  me,"  where  the  infinitive  was  merely  a  dative 
case  used  adverbially. 

The  history  of  the  infinitive  makes  it  clear  how  little  distinction 
must  have  been  felt  at  the  outset  between  the  noun  and  the  verb. 
Indeed,  the  growth  of  the  verb  was  a  slow  process.  There  was  a 
time  in  the  history  of  Indo-European  speech  when  it  had  not  as 
yet  risen  to  the  consciousness  of  the  speaker,  and  in  the  period 
when  the  noun  did  not  possess  a  plural  there  was  as  yet  also  no 
verb.  The  attachment  of  the  first  and  second  personal  pronouns, 
or  of  suffixes  resembling  them,  to  certain  stems,  was  the  first 
stage  in  the  development  of  the  latter.  Like  the  Semitic  verb, 
the  Indo-European  verb  seems  primarily  to  have  denoted  relation 
only,  and  to  have  been  attached  as  an  attribute  to  the  subject. 
The  idea  of  time,  however,  was  soon  put  into  it,  and  two  tenses 
were  created,  the  one  expressinga  present  or  continuous  action,  the 
other  an  aoristic  or  momentary  one.  The  distinction  of  sense  was 
symbolized  by  a  distinction  of  pronunciation,  the  root-syllable 
of  the  aorist  being  an  abbreviated  form  of  that  of  the  present. 
This  abbreviation  was  due  to  a  change  in  the  position  of  the  accent 
(which  was  shifted  from  the  stem-syllable  to  the  termination), 
and  this  change  again  was  probably  occasioned  by  the  prefixing 
of  the  so-called  augment  to  the  aorist,  which  survived  into  his- 
torical times  only  in  Sanskrit,  Zend  and  Greek,  and  the  origin  of 
which  is  still  a  mystery.  The  weight  of  the  first  syllable  in  the 
aorist  further  caused  the  person-endings  to  be  shortened,  and  so 
two  sets  of  person-endings,  usually  termed  primary  and  secondary, 
sprang  into  existence.  By  reduplicating  the  root-syllable  of 
the  present  tense  a  perfect  was  formed;  but  originally  no  dis- 
tinction was  made  between  present  and  perfect,  and  Greek  verbs 
like  8i6(o/ji  and  ^/oo  are  memorials  of  a  time  when  the  difference 
between  "  I  am  come  "  and  "  I  have  come  "  was  not  yet  felt. 
Reduplication  was  further  adapted  to  the  expression  of  intensity 
and  desire  (in  the  so-called  intensive  and  desiderative  forms) . 
By  the  side  of  the  aorist  stood  the  imperfect,  which  differed 
from  the  aorist,  so  far  as  outward  form  was  concerned,  only 
in  possessing  the  longer  and  more  original  stem  of  the  present. 
Indeed,  as  Benfey  first  saw,  the  aorist  itself  was  primitively 
an  imperfect,  and  the  distinction  between  aorist  and  im- 
perfect is  not  older  than  the  period  when  the  stem-syllables  of 
certain  imperfects  were  shortened  through  the  influence  of  the 
accent,  and  this  differentiation  of  forms  appropriated  to  denote 
a  difference  between  the  sense  of  the  aorist  and  the  imperfect 
which  was  beginning  to  be  felt.  After  the  analogy  of  the  im- 
perfect, a  pluperfect  was  created  out  of  the  perfect  by  prefixing 
the  augment  (of  which  the  Greek  e/wp/Koc  is  an  illustration); 
though  the  pluperfect,  too,  was  originally  an  imperfect  formed 
from  the  reduplicated  present. 

Besides  time,  mood  was  also  expressed  by  the  primitive 
Indo-European  verb,  recourse  being  had  to  symbolization  for 
the  purpose.  The  imperative  was  represented  by  the  bare  stem, 
like  the  vocative,  the  accent  being  drawn  back  to  the  first 
syllable,  though  other  modes  of  denoting  it  soon  came  into 
vogue.  Possibility  was  symbolized  by  the  attachment  of 
the  suffix  -ya  to  the  stem,  probability  by  the  attachment  of 
-a  and  -a,  and  in  this  way  the  optative  and  conjunctive  moods 
first  arose.  The  creation  of  a  future  by  the  help  of  the  suffix 
-sya  seems  to  belong  to  the  same  period  in  the  history  of  the 
verb.  This  suffix  is  probably  identical  with  that  used  to  form 
a  large  class  of  adjectives  and  genitives  (like  the  Greek  Zmroto 
for  iTnroffto);  in  this  case  future  time  will  have  been  regarded 
as  an  attribute  of  the  subject,  no  distinction  being  drawn,  for 
instance,  between  "  rising  sun  "  and  "  the  sun  will  rise."  It 
is  possible,  however,  that  the  auxiliary  verb  as,  "  to  be,"  enters 
into  the  composition  of  the  future;  if  so,  the  future  will  be 
the  product  of  the  second  stage  in  the  development  of  the  Indo- 
European  verb  when  new  forms  were  created  by  means  of 
composition.  The  sigmatic  or  first  aorist  is  in  favour  of  this 
view,  as  it  certainly  belongs  to  the  age  of  Indo-European  unity, 
and  may  be  a  compound  of  the  verbal  stem  with  the  auxiliary  as. 

After  the  separation  of  the  Indo-European  languages,  com- 
position was  largely  employed  in  the  formation  of  new  tenses. 


Thus  in  Latin  we  have  perfects  like  scrip-si  and  ama-vi,  formed 
by  the  help  of  the  auxiliaries  as  (sum)  and  fuo,  while  such  forms 
as  amaveram  (amavi-erani)  or  amarem  (ama-sem)  bear  their 
origin  on  their  face.  So,  too,  the  future  in  Latin  and  Old  Celtic 
(amabo,  Irish  carub)  is  based  upon  the  substantive  verb  fuo, 
"  to  be,"  and  the  English  preterite  in  -ed  goes  back  to  a  suffixed 
did,  the  reduplicated  perfect  of  do.  New  tenses  and  moods, 
however,  were  created  by  the  aid  of  suffixes  as  well  as  by  the 
aid  of  composition,  or  rather  were  formed  from  nouns  whose 
stems  terminated  in  the  suffixes  in  question.  Thus  in  Greek 
we  have  aorists  and  perfects  in  -/ca,  and  the  characteristics  of 
the  two  passive  aorists,  ye  and  the,  are  more  probably  the  suffixes 
of  nominal  stems  than  the  roots  of  the  two  verbs  ya,  "  to  go," 
and  dhd,  "  to  place,"  as  Bopp  supposed.  How  late  some  of  these 
new  formations  were  may  be  seen  in  Greek,  where  the  Homeric 
poems  are  still  ignorant  of  the  weak  future  passive,  the  optative 
future,  and  the  aspirated  perfect,  and  where  the  strong  future 
passive  occurs  but  once  and  the  desiderative  but  twice.  On 
the  other  hand,  many  of  the  older  tenses  were  disused  and  lost. 
In  classical  Sanskrit,  for  instance,  of  the  modal  aorist  forms 
the  precative  and  benedictive  almost  alone  remain,  while  the 
pluperfect,  of  which  Delbriick  has  found  traces  in  the  Veda, 
has  wholly  disappeared. 

The  passive  voice  did  not  exist  in  the  parent  Indo-European 
speech.  No  need  for  it  had  arisen,  since  such  a  sentence  as  "  I 
am  pleased  "  could  be  as  well  represented  by  "  This  pleases  me," 
or  "  I  please  myself."  It  was  long  before  the  speaker  was  able 
to  imagine  an  action  without  an  object,  and  when  he  did  so, 
it  was  a  neuter  or  substantival  rather  than  a  passive  verb  that 
he  formed.  The  passive,  in  fact,  grew  out  of  the  middle  or 
reflexive,  and,  except  in  the  two  aorists,  continued  to  be  repre- 
sented by  the  middle  in  Greek.  So,  too,  in  Latin  the  second 
person  plural  is  really  the  middle  participle  with  estis  understood, 
and  the  whole  class  of  deponent  or  reflexive  verbs  proves  that 
the  characteristic  r  which  Latin  shares  with  Celtic  could  have 
had  at  the  outset  no  passive  force. 

Much  light  has  been  thrown  on  the  character  and  construction 
of  the  primitive  Indo-European  sentence  by  comparative  syntax. 
In  contradistinction  to  Semitic,  where  the  defining  word  follows 
that  which  is  defined,  the  Indo-European  languages  place  that 
which  is  defined  after  that  which  defines  it;  and  Bergaigne 
has  made  it  clear  that  the  original  order  of  the  sentence  was 
(i)  object,  (2)  verb,  and  (3)  subject.  Greater  complication  of 
thought  and  its  expression,  the  connexion  of  sentences  by  the 
aid  of  conjunctions,  and  rhetorical  inversion  caused  that  dis- 
location of  the  original  order  of  the  sentence  which  reaches  its 
culminating  point  in  the  involved  periods  of  Latin  literature. 
Our  own  language  still  remains  true,  however,  to  the  syntax 
of  the  parent  Indo-European  when  it  sets  both  adjective  and 
genitive  before  the  nouns  which  they  define.  In  course  of  time 
a  distinction  came  to  be  made  between  an  attribute  used  as  a 
mere  qualificative  and  an  attribute  used  predicatively,  and 
this  distinction  was  expressed  by  placing  the  predicate  in  op- 
position to  the  subject  and  accordingly  after  it.  The  opposition 
was  of  itself  sufficient  to  indicate  the  logical  copula  or  sub- 
stantive verb;  indeed,  the  word  which  afterwards  commonly 
stood  for  the  latter  at  first  signified  "  existence,"  and  it  was  only 
through  the  wear  and  tear  of  time  that  a  phrase  like  Deus  bonus 
esl,  "  God  exists  as  good,"  came  to  mean  simply  "  God  is  good." 
It  is  needless  to  observe  that  neither  of  the  two  articles  was 
known  to  the  parent  Indo-European;  indeed,  the  definite  article, 
which  is  merely  a  decayed  demonstrative  pronoun,  has  not  yet 
been  developed  in  several  of  the  languages  of  the  Indo-European 
family. 

We  must  now  glance  briefly  at  the  results  of  a  scientific  in- 
vestigation of  English  grammar  and  the  modifications  they 
necessitate  in  our  conception  of  it.  The  idea  that    iavestiga- 
the  free  use  of  speech  is  tied  down  by  the  rules  of    tloa  of 
the  grammarian  must  first  be  given  up;  all  that  the    English 
grammarian  can  do  is  to  formulate  the  current  uses   frammar- 
of  his  time,  which  are    determined    by    habit    and    custom, 
and  are  accordingly  in  a  perpetual  state  of  flux.     We  must  next 


GRAMMAR 


get  rid  of  the  notion  that  English  grammar  should  be  modelled 
after  that  of  ancient  Rome;  until  we  do  so  we  shall  never 
understand  even  the  elementary  principles  upon  which  it  is 
based.  We  cannot  speak  of  declensions,  since  English  has  no 
genders  except  in  the  pronouns  of  the  third  person,  and  no 
cases  except  the  genitive  and  a  few  faint  traces  of  an  old  dative. 
Its  verbal  conjugation  is  essentially  different  from  that  of  an 
inflexional  language  like  Latin,  and  cannot  be  compressed  into 
the  same  categories.  In  English  the  syntax  has  been  enlarged 
at  the  expense  of  the  accidence;  position  has  taken  the  place 
of  forms.  To  speak  of  an  adjective  "  agreeing  "  with  its  sub- 
stantive is  as  misleading  as  to  speak  of  a  verb  "  governing  " 
a  case.  In  fact,  the  distinction  between  noun  and  adjective 
is  inapplicable  to  English  grammar,  and  should  be  replaced 
by  a  distinction  between  objective  and  attributive  words.  In 
a  phrase  like  "  this  is  a  cannon,"  cannon  is  objective;  in  a  phrase 
like  "  a  cannon-ball,"  it  is  attributive;  and  to  call  it  a  sub- 
stantive in  the  one  case  and  an  adjective  in  the  other  is  only 
to  introduce  confusion.  With  the  exception  of  the  nominative, 
the  various  forms  of  the  noun  are  all  attributive;  there  is  no 
difference,  for  example,  between  "  doing  a  thing  "  and  "  doing 
badly."  Apart  from  the  personal  pronouns,  the  accusative 
of  the  classical  languages  can  be  represented  only  by  position; 
but  if  we  were  to  say  that  a  noun  which  follows  a  verb  is  in  the 
accusative  case  we  should  have  to  define  "  king  "  as  an  accusative 
in  such  sentences  as  "  he  became  king  "  or  "  he  is  king."  In 
conversational  English  "  it  is  me  "  is  as  correct  as  "  c'est  moi  " 
in  French,  or  "  det  er  mig  "  in  Danish;  the  literary  "  it  is  I  " 
is  due  to  the  influence  of  classical  grammar.  The  combination 
of  noun  or  pronoun  and  preposition  results  in  a  compound 
attribute.  As  for  the  verb,  Sweet  has  well  said  that  "  the  really 
characteristic  feature  of  the  English  finite  verb  is  its  inability 
to  stand  alone  without  a  pronominal  prefix."  Thus  "  dream  " 
by  itself  is  a  noun;  "  I  dream  "  is  a  verb.  The  place  of  the 
pronominal  prefix  may  be  taken  by  a  noun,  though  both  poetry 
and  vulgar  English  frequently  insert  the  pronoun  even  when 
the  noun  precedes.  The  number  of  inflected  verbal  forms  is 
but  small,  being  confined  to  the  third  person  singular  and  the 
special  forms  of  the  preterite  and  past  participle,  though  the 
latter  may  with  more  justice  be  regarded  as  belonging  to  the 
province  of  the  lexicographer  rather  than  to  that  of  the  gram- 
marian. The  inflected  subjunctive  (be,  were,  save  in  "  God  save 
the  King,"  &c.)  is  rapidly  disappearing.  New  inflected  forms, 
however,  are  coming  into  existence;  at  all  events,  we  have 
as  good  a  right  to  consider  wont,  shant,  cant  new  inflected  forms 
as  the  French  aimerai  (amare  habeo),  aimer ais  (amare  habebam). 
If  the  ordinary  grammars  are  correct  in  treating  forms  like 
"  I  am  loving,"  "  I  was  loving,"  "  I  did  love,"  as  separate 
tenses,  they  are  strangely  inconsistent  in  omitting  to  notice 
the  equally  important  emphatic  form  ''  I  do  love  "  or  the  negative 
form  "  I  do  not  love  "  ("I  don't  love  "),  as  well  as  the  semi- 
inflexional  "  I'll  love,"  "  he's  loving."  It  is  true  that  these 
latter  contracted  forms  are  heard  only  in  conversation  and  not 
seen  in  books;  but  the  grammar  of  a  language,  it  must  be 
remembered,  is  made  by  those  who  speak  it  and  not  by  the 
printers. 

Our  school  grammars  are  the  inheritance  we  have  received 
from  Greece  and  Rome.     The  necessities  of  rhetoric  obliged  the 

Sophists  to  investigate  the  structure  of  the  Greek 
History  of  language,  and  to  them  was  accordingly  due  the  first 
grammar,  analysis  of  Greek  grammar.  Protagoras  distinguished 

the  three  genders  and  the  verbal  moods,  while  Pro- 
dicus  busied  himself  with  the  definition  of  synonyms.  Aristotle, 
taking  the  side  of  Democritus,  who  had  held  that  the  meaning 
of  words  is  put  into  them  by  the  speaker,  and  that  there  is  no 
necessary  connexion  between  sound  and  sense,  laid  down  that 
words  "  symbolize  "  objects  according  to  the  will  of  those  who 
use  them,  and  added  to  the  ovopa  or  "  noun,"  and  the  pijjua  or 
"  verb,"  the  ovvSeafjas  or  "  particle."  He  also  introduced  the 
term  nrcocrts,  "  case,"  to  denote  any  flexion  whatsoever.  He 
further  divided  nouns  into  simple  and  compound,  invented  for 
the  neuter  another  name  than  that  given  by  Protagoras,  and 


starting  from  the  termination  of  the  nominative  singular,  en- 
deavoured to  ascertain  the  rules  for  indicating  a  difference  of 
gender.  Aristotle  was  followed  by  the  Stoics,  who  separated  the 
apdpov  or  "  article  "  from  the  particles,  determined  a  fifth  part 
of  speech,  the  iravStKTTis  or  "  adverb,"  confined  the  term  "  case  " 
to  the  flexions  of  the  nouns,  distinguishing  the  four  principal 
cases  by  names,  and  divided  the  verb  into  its  tenses,  moods 
and  classes.  Meanwhile  the  Alexandrian  critics  were  studying 
the  language  of  Homer  and  the  Attic  writers,  and  comparing 
it  with  the  language  of  their  own  day,  the  result  being  a  minute 
examination  of  the  facts  and  rules  of  grammar.  Two  schools  of 
grammarians  sprang  up) — the  Analogists,  headed  by  Aristarchus, 
who  held  that  a  strict  law  of  analogy  existed  between  idea 
and  word,  and  refused  to  admit  exceptions  to  the  grammatical 
rules  they  laid  down,  and  the  Anomalists,  who  denied  general 
rules  of  any  kind,  except  in  so  far  as  they  were  consecrated  by 
custom.  Foremost  among  the  Anomalists  was  Crates  of  Mallos, 
the  leader  of  the  Pergamenian  school,  to  whom  we  owe  the  first 
formal  Greek  grammar  and  collection  of  the  grammatical  facts 
obtained  by  the  labours  of  the  Alexandrian  critics,  as  well  as  an 
attempt  to  reform  Greek  orthography.  The  immediate  cause 
of  this  grammar  seems  to  have  been  a  comparison  of  Latin  with 
Greek,  Crates  having  lectured  on  the  subject  while  ambassador 
of  Attalus  at  Rome  in  159  B.C.  The  zeal  with  which  the  Romans 
threw  themselves  into  the  study  of  Greek  resulted  in  the  school 
grammar  of  Dionysius  Thrax,  a  pupil  of  Aristarchus,  which  he 
published  at  Rome  in  the  time  of  Pompey  and  which  is  still 
in  existence.  Latin  grammars  were  soon  modelled  upon  it, 
and  the  attempt  to  translate  the  technical  terms  of  the  Greek 
grammarians  into  Latin  was  productive  of  numerous  blunders 
which  have  been  perpetuated  to  our  own  day.  Thus  tenues 
is  a  mistranslation  of  the  Greek  ^tXci,  "  unaspirated  ";  genetivus 
of  ytviKri,  the  case  "  of  the  genus  ";  accusativus  of  amem/oj, 
the  case  "  of  the  object  ";  infinitivus  of  a.Traptfj.(t>a.TOS,  "without 
a  secondary  meaning  "  of  tense  or  person.  New  names  were 
coined  to  denote  forms  possessed  by  Latin  and  not  by  Greek; 
ablative,  for  instance,  was  invented  by  Julius  Caesar,  who  also 
wrote  a  treatise  De  analogia.  By  the  2nd  century  of  the  Christian 
era  the  dispute  between  the  Anomalists  and  the  Analogists  was 
finally  settled,  analogy  being  recognized  as  the  principle  that 
underlies  language,  though  every  rule  admits  of  exceptions. 
Two  eminent  grammarians  of  Alexandria,  Apollonius  Dyscolus 
and  his  son  Herodian,  summed  up  the  labours  and  controversies 
of  their  predecessors,  and  upon  their  works  were  based  the  Latin 
grammar  composed  by  Aelius  Donatus  in  the  4th  century,  and 
the  eighteen  books  on  grammar  compiled  by  Priscian  in  the  age 
of  Justinian.  The  grammar  of  Donatus  dominated  the  schools 
of  the  middle  ages,  and,  along  with  the  productions  of  Priscian, 
formed  the  type  and  source  of  the  Latin  and  Greek  school- 
grammars  of  modern  Europe. 

A  few  words  remain  to  be  said,  in  conclusion,  on  the  bearing 
of  a  scientific  study  of  grammar  upon  the  practical  task  of 
teaching  and  learning  foreign  languages.  The  grammar  Learatag 
of  a  language  is  not  to  be  confined  within  the  rules  Of 
laid  down  by  grammarians,  much  less  is  it  the  creation  grammar 
of  grammarians,  and  consequently  the  usual  mode  ".' lore^g"s 
of  making  the  pupil  learn  by  heart  certain  fixed  rules  aogaages 
and  paradigms  not  only  gives  a  false  idea  of  what  grammar 
really  is,  but  also  throws  obstacles  in  the  way  of  acquiring  it. 
The  unit  of  speech  is  the  sentence;  and  it  is  with  the  sentence 
therefore,  and  not  with  lists  of  words  and  forms,  that  the  pupil 
should  begin.  When  once  a  sufficient  number  of  sentences  has 
been,  so  to  speak,  assimilated,  it  will  be  easy  to  analyse  them 
into  their  component  parts,  to  show  the  relations  that  these 
bear  to  one  another,  and  to  indicate  the  nature  and  varieties  of 
the  latter.  In  this  way  the  learn.er  will  be  prevented  from 
regarding  grammar  as  a  piece  of  dead  mechanism  or  a  Chinese 
puzzle^  of  which  the  parts  must  be  fitted  together  in  accordance 
with  certain  artificial  rules,  and  will  realize  that  it  is  a  living 
organism  which  has  a  history  and  a  reason  of  its  own.  The 
method  of  nature  and  science  alike  is  analytic;  and  if  we  would 
learn  a  foreign  language  properly  we  must  learn  it  as  we  did 


332 


GRAMMICHELE— GRAMONT,  COMTE  DE 


our  mother-tongue,  by  first  mastering  the  expression  of  a  com- 
plete thought  and  then  breaking  up  this  expression  into  its 
several  elements.  (A.  H.  S.) 

See  PHILOLOGY,  and  articles  on  the  various  languages.  Also 
Steinthal,  Charakteristik  der  hauptsachlichsten  Typen  des  Sprach- 
baues  (Berlin,  1860);  Schleicher,  Compendium  of  the  Comparative 
Grammar  of  the  Indo-European  Languages,  translated  by  H.  Bendall 
(London,  1874);  Pezzi,  Aryan  Philology  according  to  the  most  recent 
Researches,  translated  by  E.  S.  Roberts  (London,  1879);  Sayce, 
Introduction  to  the  Science  of  Language  (London,  1879) ;  Lersch,  Die 
Sprachphilosophie  der  Allen  (Bonn,  1838-1841);  Steinthal,  Geschichte 
der  Sprachwiisenschaft  bei  den  Griechen  und  Romern  mil  besonderer 
Riicksicht  auf  die  Logik  (Berlin,  1863,  2nd  ed.  1890);  Delbruck, 
Ablativ  localis  instrumental  im  Altindischen,  Lateinischen,  Grie- 
chischen,  und  Deutschen  (Berlin,  1864);  Jolly,  Bin  Kapitel  ver- 
gleichender  Syntax  (Munich,  1873);  Hubschmann,  Zur  Casuslehre 
(Munich,  1875) ;  Holzweissig,  Wahrheit  und  Irrthum  der  localistischen 
Casustheorie  (Leipzig,  1877);  Draeger,  Historische  Syntax  der 
lateinischen  Sprache  (Leipzig,  1874-1876);  Sweet,  Words,  Logic, 
and  Grammar  (London,  1876) ;  P.  Giles,  Manual  of  Comp.  Philology 
(1901);  C.  Abel,  Agypt.-indo-eur.  Sprachverwandschaft  (1903); 
Brugmann  and  Delbruck,  Grundriss  d.  vergl.  Gram.  d.  indogerm.  Spr. 
(1886-1900);  Fritz  Mauthner,  Beitrage  zur  einer  Kritik  der  Sprache 
vol.  iii.  (1902) ;  T.  G.  Tucker,  Introd.  to  a  Nat.  Hist,  of  Language 
(1908). 

GRAMMICHELE,  a  town  of  Sicily,  in  the  province  of  Catania, 
55  m.  S.W.  of  it  by  rail  and  31  m.  direct.  Pop.  (1901)  iS,°75- 
It  was  built  in  1693,  after  the  destruction  by  an  earthquake 
of  the  old  town  of  Occhiala  to  the  north;  the  latter,  on  account  of 
the  similarity  of  name,  is  generally  identified  with  Echetla,  a 
frontier  city  between  Syracusan  and  Carthaginian  territory 
in  the  time  of  Hiero  II.,  which  appears  to  have  been  originally 
a  Sicel  city  in  which  Greek  civilization  prevailed  from  the  5th 
century  onwards.  To  the  east  of  Grammichele  a  cave  shrine 
of  Demeter,  with  fine  votive  terra-cottas,  has  been  discovered. 
See  Man.  Lincei,  vii.  (1897),  201 ;  Not.  degli  scam  (1902),  223. 
GRAMMONT  (the  Flemish  name  Gheeraardsbergen  more 
clearly  reveals  its  etymology  Gerardi-mons) ,  a  town  in  East 
Flanders,  Belgium,  near  the  meeting  point  with  the  provinces  of 
Brabant  and  Hainaut.  It  is  on  the  Bender  almost  due  south 
of  Alost,  and  is  chiefly  famous  because  the  charter  of  Grammont 
given  by  Baldwin  VI.,  count  of  Flanders,  in  A.D.  1068  was  the  first 
of  its  kind.  This  charter  has  been  styled  "  the  most  ancient 
written  monument  of  civil  and  criminal  laws  in  Flanders."  The 
modern  town  is  a  busy  industrial  centre.  Pop.  (1904)  12,835. 

GRAMONT,  ANTOINE  AGENOR  ALFRED,  Due  DE,  Due  DE 
GUICHE,  PRINCE  DE  BIDACHE  (1819-1880),  French  diplomatist 
and  statesman,  was  born  at  Paris  on  the  I4th  of  August  1819,  of 
one  of  the  most  illustrious  families  of  the  old  noblesse,  a  cadet 
branch  of  the  viscounts  of  Aure,  which  took  its  name  from 
the  seigniory  of  Gramont  in  Navarre.  His  grandfather,  Antoine 
Louis  Marie,  due  de  Gramont  (1755-1836),  had  emigrated  during 
the  Revolution,  and  his  father,  Antoine  Heraclius  Genevieve 
Agenor  (1789-1855),  due  de  Gramont  and  de  Guiche,  fought  under 
the  British  flag  in  the  Peninsular  War,  became  a  lieutenant- 
general  in  the  French  army  in  1823,  and  in  1830  accompanied 
Charles  X.  to  Scotland.  The  younger  generation,  however, 
were  Bonapartist  in  sympathy;  Gramont's  cousin  Antoine 
Louis  Raymond,  comte  de  Gramont  (1787-1825),  though  also 
the  son  of  an  emigre,  served  with  distinction  in  Napoleon's 
armies,  while  Antoine  Agenor,  due  de  Gramont,  owed  his  career 
to  his  early  friendship  for  Louis  Napoleon. 

Educated  at  the  Ecole  Polytechnique,  Gramont  early  gave 
up  the  army  for  diplomacy.  It  was  not,  however,  till  after  the 
coup  d'etat  of  the  2nd  of  December  1851,  which  made  Louis 
Napoleon  supreme  in  France,  that  he  became  conspicuous  as 
a  diplomat.  He  was  successively  minister  plenipotentiary  at 
Cassel  and  Stuttgart  (1852),  at  Turin  (1853),  ambassador  at 
Rome  (1857)  and  at  Vienna  (1861).  On  the  isth  of  May  1870 
he  was  appointed  minister  of  foreign  affairs  in  the  Ollivier 
cabinet,  and  was  thus  largely,  though  not  entirely,  responsible 
for  the  bungling  of  the  negotiations  between  France  and  Prussia 
arising  out  of  the  candidature  of  Prince  Leopold  of  Hohenzollern 
for  the  throne  of  Spain,  which  led  to  the  disastrous  war  of 
1870-71.  The  exact  share  of  Gramont  in  this  responsibility  has 
been  the  subject  of  much  controversy.  The  last  word  may  be 


said  to  have  been  uttered  by  M.  Emile  Ollivier  himself  in  his 
L' Empire  liberal  (tome  xii.,  1909,  passim).  The  famous  declara- 
tion read  by  Gramont  in  the  Chamber  on  the  6th  of  July,  the 
"  threat  with  the  hand  on  the  sword-hilt,"  as  Bismarck  called 
it,  was  the  joint  work  of  the  whole  cabinet;  the  original  draft 
presented  by  Gramont  was  judged  to  be  too  "elliptical"  in  its 
conclusion  and  not  sufficiently  vigorous;  the  reference  to  a 
revival  of  the  empire  of  Charles  V.  was  suggested  by  Ollivier; 
the  paragraph  asserting  that  France  would  not  allow  a  foreign 
power  to  disturb  to  her  own  detriment  the  actual  equilibrium 
of  Europe  was  inserted  by  the  emperor.  So  far,  then,  as  this 
declaration  is  concerned,  it  is  clear  that  Gramont's  responsiblity 
must  be  shared  with  his  sovereign  and  his  colleagues  (Ollivier 
op.  cit.  xii.  107;  see  also  the  two  projets  de  declaration  given 
on  p.  570).  It  is  clear,  however  that  he  did  not  share  the 
passion"  of  his  colleagues  for  "peace  with  honour,"  clear 
also  that  he  wholly  misread  the  intentions  of  the  European 
powers  in  the  event  of  war.  That  he  reckoned  upon  the  active 
alliance  of  Austria  was  due,  according  to  M.  Ollivier,  to  the  fact 
that  for  nine  years  he  had  been  a  persona  grata  in  the  aristocratic 
society  of  Vienna,  where  the  necessity  for  revenging  the  humilia- 
tion of  1866  was  an  article  of  faith.  This  confidence  made  him 
less  disposed  than  many  of  his  colleagues  to  make  the  best  of  the 
renunciation  of  the  candidature  made,  on  behalf  of  his  son, 
by  the  prince  of  Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen.  It  was  Gramont 
who  pointed  out  to  the  emperor,  on  the  evening  of  the  i2th, 
the  dubious  circumstances  of  the  act  of  renunciation,  and  on 
the  same  night,  without  informing  M.  Ollivier,  despatched  to 
Benedetti  at  Ems  the  fatal  telegram  demanding  the  king  of 
Prussia's  guarantee  that  the  candidature  would  not  be  revived. 
The  supreme  responsibility  for  this  act  must  rest  with  the 
emperor,  "  who  imposed  it  by  an  exercise  of  personal  power  on 
the  only  one  cf  his  ministers  who  could  have  lent  himself  to  such 
a  forgetfulness  of  the  safeguards  of  a  parliamentary  regime." 
As  for  Gramont,  he  had  "  no  conception  of  the  exigencies  of 
this  regime;  he  remained  an  ambassador  accustomed  to  obey 
the  orders  of  his  sovereign ;  in  all  good  faith  he  had  no  idea  that 
this  was  not  correct,  and  that,  himself  a  parliamentary  minister, 
he  had  associated  himself  with  an  act  destructive  of  the  authority 
of  parliament." '  "  On  his  part,"  adds  M.  Ollivier,  "  it  was  the 
result  only  of  obedience,  not  of  warlike,  premeditation  "  (op.  cit. 
p.  262).  The  apology  may  be  taken  for  what  it  is  worth.  To 
France  and  to  the  world  Gramont  was  responsible  for  the  policy 
which  put  his  country  definitely  into  the  wrong  in  the  eyes  of 
Europe,  and  enabled  Bismarck  to  administer  to  her  the  "  slap 
in  the  face  "  (soufflet) — as  Gramont  called  it  in  the  Chamber — 
by  means  of  the  mutilated  "  Ems  telegram,"  which  was  the 
immediate  cause  of  the  French  declaration  of  war  on  the  isth. 

After  the  defeat  of  Weissenburg  (August  4)  Gramont  resigned 
office  with  the  rest  of  the  Ollivier  ministry  (August  9),  and  after 
the  revolution  of  September  he  went  to  England,  returning  after 
the  war  to  Paris,  where  he  died  on  the  i8th  of  January  1880. 
His  marriage  in  1848  with  Miss  Mackinnon,  a  Scottish  lady, 
remained  without  issue.  During  his  retirement  he  published 
various  apologies  for  his  policy  in  1870,  notably  La  France  el 
la  Prusse  avant  la  guerre  (Paris,  1872). 

Besides  M.  Ollivier's  work  quoted  in  the  text,  see  L.  Thouvenel, 
Le  Secret  de  I'empereur,  correspondance  .  .  .  echangee  entre  M. 
Thouvenel,  le  due  de  Gramont,  et  le  general  comte  de  Flahaut  1860^- 
1863  (2nd  ed.,  2  vols.,  1889).  A  small  pamphlet  containing  his 
Souvenirs  1848-1850  was  published  in  1901  by  his  brother  Antoine 
L6on  Philibert  Auguste  de  Gramont,  due  de  Lesparre. 

GRAMONT,  PHILIBERT,  COMTE  DE  (1621-1707),  the  subject 
of  the  famous  Memoirs,  came  of  a  noble  Gascon  family,  said 
to  have  been  of  Basque  origin.  His  grandmother,  Diane 
d'Andouins,  comtesse  de  Gramont,  was  "  la  belle  Corisande," 
one  of  the  mistresses  of  Henry  IV.  The  grandson  assumed  that 

1  Compare  with  this  Bismarck's  remarks  to  Hohenlohe  (Hohenlohe, 
Denkwurdigkeiten,  ii.  71):  "When  Gramont  was  made  minister, 
Bismarck  said  to  Benedetti  that  this  indicated  that  the  emperor 
was  meditating  something  evil,  otherwise  he  would  not  have  made 
so  stupid  a  person  minister.  Benedetti  replied  that  the  emperor 
knew  too  little  of  him,  whereupon  Bismarck  said  that  the  emperor 
had  once  described  Gramont  to  him  as  '  un  ancien  bellStre.'  " 


GRAMOPHONE— GRAMPOUND 


333 


his  father  Antoine  II.  de  Gramont,  viceroy  of  Navarre,  was  the 
son  of  Henry  IV.,  and  regretted  that  he  had  not  claimed  the 
privileges  of  royal  birth.  Philibert  de  Gramont  was  the  son  of 
Antoine  II.  by  his  second  marriage  with  Claude  de  Montmorency, 
and  was  born  in  1621,  probably  at  the  family  seat  of  Bidache. 
He  was  destined  for  the  church,  and  was  educated  at  the  college 
of  Pau,  in  Beam.  He  refused  the  ecclesiastical  life,  however, 
and  joined  the  army  of  Prince  Thomas  of  Savoy,  then  besieging 
Trino  in  Piedmont.  He  afterwards  served  under  his  elder 
half-brother,  Antoine,  marshal  de  Gramont,  and  the  prince 
of  Conde.  He  was  present  at  Fribourg  and  Nordlingen,  and 
also  served  with  distinction  in  Spain  and  Flanders  in  1647  and 
1648.  He  favoured  Conde's  party  at  the  beginning  of  the 
Fronde,  but  changed  sides  before  he  was  too  severely  com- 
promised. In  spite  of  his  record  in  the  army  he  never  received 
any  important  commission  either  military  or  diplomatic,  perhaps 
because  of  an  incurable  levity  in  his  outlook.  He  was,  however, 
made  a  governor  of  the  Pays  d'Aunis  and  lieutenant  of  Beam. 
During  the  Commonwealth  he  visited  England,  and  in  1662 
he  was  exiled  from  Paris  for  paying  court  to  Mademoiselle  de  la 
Motte  Houdancourt,  one  of  the  king's  mistresses.  He  went  to 
London,  where  he  found  at  the  court  of  Charles  II.  an  atmosphere 
congenial  to  his  talents  for  intrigue,  gallantry  and  pleasure. 
He  married  in  London,  under  pressure  from  her  two  brothers. 
Elizabeth  Hamilton,  the  sister  of  his  future  biographer.  She 
was  one  of  the  great  beauties  of  the  English  court,  and  was, 
according  to  her  brother's  optimistic  account,  able  to  fix  the 
count's  affections.  She  was  a  woman  of  considerable  wit,  and 
held  her  own  at  the  court  of  Louis  XIV.,  but  her  husband  pursued 
his  gallant  exploits  to  the  close  of  a  long  life,  being,  said  Ninon 
de  1'Enclos,  the  only  old  man  who  could  affect  the  follies  of 
youth  without  being  ridiculous.  In  1664  he  was  allowed  to 
return  to  France.  He  revisited  England  in  1670  in  connexion 
with  the  sale  of  Dunkirk,  and  again  in  1671  and  1676.  In  1688 
he  was  sent  by  Louis  XIV.  to  congratulate  James  II.  on  the 
birth  of  an  heir.  From  all  these  small  diplomatic  missions  he 
succeeded  in  obtaining  considerable  profits,  being  destitute 
of  scruples  whenever  money  was  in  question.  At  the  age  of 
seventy-five  he  had  a  dangerous  illness,  during  which  he  became 
reconciled  to  the  church.  His  penitence  does  not  seem  to  have 
survived  his  recovery.  He  was  eighty  years  old  when  he  supplied 
his  brother-in-law,  Anthony  Hamilton  (?.».),  with  the  materials 
for  his  Memoires.  Hamilton  said  that  they  had  been  dictated 
to  him,  but  there  is  no  doubt  that  he  was  the  real  author.  The 
account  of  Gramont's  early  career  was  doubtless  provided  by 
himself,  but  Hamilton  was  probably  more  familiar  with  the 
history  of  the  court  of  Charles  II.,  which  forms  the  most  interest- 
ing section  of  the  book.  Moreover  Gramont,  though  he  had  a 
reputation  for  wit,  was  no  writer,  and  there  is  no  reason  to 
suppose  that  he  was  capable  of  producing  a  work  which  remains 
a  masterpiece  of  style  and  of  witty  portraiture.  When  the 
MSmoires  were  finished  it  is  said  that  Gramont  sold  the  MS. 
for  1 500  francs,  and  kept  most  of  the  money  himself.  Fontenelle, 
then  censor  of  the  press,  refused  to  license  the  book  from  con- 
siderations of  respect  to  the  strange  old  man,  whose  gambling, 
cheating  and  meannesses  were  so  ruthlessly  exposed.  But 
Gramont  himself  appealed  to  the  chancellor  and  the  prohibition 
was  removed.  He  died  on  the  loth  of  January  1707,  and  the 
Memoires  appeared  six  years  later. 

Hamilton  was  far  superior  to  the  comte  de  Gramont,  but  he 
relates  the  story  of  his  hero  without  comment,  and  no  condemna- 
tion of  the  prevalent  code  of  morals  is  allowed  to  appear,  unless 
in  an  occasional  touch  of  irony.  The  portrait  is  drawn  with 
such  skill  that  the  count,  in  spite  of  his  biographer's  candour, 
imposes  by  his  grand  air  on  the  reader  much  as  he  appears  to 
have  done  on  his  contemporaries.  The  book  is  the  most  entertain- 
ing of  contemporary  memoirs,  and  in  no  other  book  is  there  a 
description  so  vivid,  truthful,  and  graceful  of  the  licentious  court 
of  Charles  II.  There  are  other  and  less  flattering  accounts  of 
the  count.  His  scandalous  tongue  knew  no  restraint,  and  he 
was  a  privileged  person  who  was  allowed  to  state  even  the  most 
unpleasing  truths  to  Louis  XIV.  Saint-Simon  in  his  memoirs 


describes  the  relief  that  was  felt  at  court  when  the  old  man's 
death  was  announced. 

Mtmoires  de  la  vie  du  comte  de  Grammont  contenant  particulierement 
I'histoire  amoureuse  de  la  cour  d'Angleterre  sous  le  regne de  Charles  II 
was  printed  in  Holland  with  the  inscription  Cologne,  1713.  Other 
editions  followed  in  1715  and  1716.  Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  Count  de 
Grammont .  .  .  translated  out  of  the  French  by  Mr  [Abel]  Boyer 
(17^14),  was  supplemented  by  a  "  com  pleat  key"  in  1719.  The 
Memoires  "  augmente'es  de  notes  et  d'eclaircissemens  "  was  edited 
by  Horace  Walpole  in  1772.  In  1793  appeared  in  London  an  edition 
adorned  with  portraits  engraved  after  originals  in  the  royal  collec- 
tion. An  English  edition  by  Sir  Walter  Scott  was  published  by 
H.  G.  Bohn  (1846),  and  this  with  additions  was  reprinted  in  1889, 
1890,  1896,  &c.  Among  other  modern  editions  are  an  excellent  one 
in  the  Bibliotheque  Charpentier  edited  by  M.  Gustave  Brunei  (1859) ; 
Mtmoires  .  .  .  (Paris,  1888)  with  etchings  by  L.  Boisson  after  C. 
Delort  and  an  introduction  by  H.  Gausseron;  Memoirs  .  .  . 
(1889),  edited  by  Mr  H.  Vizetelly;  and  Memoirs  .  .  .  (1903), 
edited  by  Mr  Gordon  Goodwin. 

GRAMOPHONE  (an  invented  word,  formed  on  an  inversion 
of  "phonogram";  favri,  sound,  ypanna.,  letter),  an  instrument 
for  recording  and  reproducing  sounds.  It  depends  on  the  same 
general  principles  as  the  phonograph  (q.v.),  but  it  differs  in 
certain  details  of  construction,  especially  in  having  the  sound- 
record  cut  spirally  on  a  flat  disk  instead  of  round  a  cylinder. 

GRAMPIANS,  THE,  a  mass  of  mountains  in  central  Scotland. 
Owing  to  the  number  of  ramifications  and  ridges  it  is  difficult 
to  assign  their  precise  limits,  but  they  may  be  described  as 
occupying  the  area  between  a  line  drawn  from  Dumbartonshire 
to  the  North  Sea  at  Stonehaven,  and  the  valley  of  the  Spey  or 
even  Glenmore  (the  Caledonian  Canal).  Their  trend  is  from 
south-west  to  north-east,  the  southern  face  forming  the  natural 
division  between  the  Lowlands  and  Highlands.  They  lie  in  the 
shires  of  Argyll,  Dumbarton,  Stirling,  Perth,  Forfar,  Kincardine, 
Aberdeen,  Banff  and  Inverness.  Among  the  highest  summits 
are  Ben  Nevis,  Ben  Macdhui,  and  Cairngorms,  Ben  Lawers,  Ben 
More,  Ben  Alder,  Ben  Cruachan  and  Ben  Lomond.  The  principal 
rivers  flowing  from  the  watershed  northward  are  the  Findhorn, 
Spey,  Don,  Dee  and  their  tributaries,  and  southward  the  South 
Esk,  Tay  and  Forth  with  their  affluents.  On  the  north  the  mass 
is  wild  and  rugged;  on  the  south  the  slope  is  often  gentle,  afford- 
ing excellent  pasture  in  many  places,  but  both  sections  contain 
some  of  the  finest  deer-forests  in  Scotland.  They  are  crossed 
by  the  Highland,  West  Highland  and  Callander  toOban  railways, 
and  present  some  of  the  finest  scenery  in  the  kingdom.  The 
rocks  consist  chiefly  of  granite,  gneiss,  schists,  quartzite,  porphyry 
and  diorite.  Their  fastnesses  were  originally  inhabited  by  the 
northern  Picts,  the  Caledonians  who,  under  Galgacus,  were 
defeated  by  Agricola  in  A.D.  84  at  Mons  Graupius — the  false 
reading  of  which,  Grampius,  has  been  perpetuated  in  the  name 
of  the  mountains — the  site  of  which  has  not  been  ascertained. 
Some  authorities  place  it  at  Ardoch;  others  near  the  junction 
of  the  Tay  and  Isla,  or  at  Dalginross  near  Comrie;  while  some, 
contending  for  a  position  nearer  the  east  coast,  refer  it  to  a  site 
in  west  Forfarshire  or  to  Raedykes  near  Stonehaven. 

GRAMPOUND,  a  small  market  town  in  the  mid-parliamentary 
division  of  Cornwall,  England,  9  m.  E.N.E.  of  Truro,  and  2  m. 
from  its  station  (Grampound  Road)  on  the  Great  Western 
railway.  It  is  situated  on  the  river  Fal,  and  has  some  industry 
in  tanning.  It  retains  an  ancient  town  hall;  there  is  a  good 
market  cross;  and  in  the  neighbourhood,  along  the  Fal,  are 
several  early  earthworks. 

Grampound  (Ponsmure,  Graundpont,  Grauntpount,  Graund- 
pond)  and  the  hundred,  manor  and  vill  of  Tibeste  were  formerly 
so  closely  associated  that  in  1400  the  former  is  found  styled  the 
vill  of  Grauntpond  called  Tibeste.  At  the  time  of  the  Domesday 
Survey  Tibeste  was  amongst  the  most  valuable  of  the  manors 
granted  to  the  count  of  Mortain.  The  burgensic  character  of 
Ponsmure  first  appears  in  1299.  Thirty-five  years  later  John 
of  Eltham  granted  to  the  burgesses  the  whole  town  of  Graunt- 
pount. This  grant  was  confirmed  in  1378  when  its  extent  and 
jurisdiction  were  defined.  It  was  provided  that  the  hundred 
court  of  Powdershire  should  always  be  held  there  and  two  fairs  at 
the  feasts  of  St  Peter  in  Cathedra  and  St  Barnabas,  both  of 
which  are  still  held,  and  a  Tuesday  market  (now  held  on  Friday) 


334 


GRAMPUS— GRANADA 


and  that  it  should  be  a  free  borough  rendering  a  yearly  rent  to 
the  earl  of  Cornwall.  Two  members  were  summoned  to  parlia- 
ment by  Edward  VI.  in  1553.  The  electors  consisted  of  an 
indefinite  number  of  freemen,  about  50  in  all,  indirectly  nomin- 
ated by  the  mayor  and  corporation,  which  existed  by  prescription. 
The  venality  of  the  electors  became  notorious.  In  1780  £3000 
was  paid  for  a  seat:  in  1812  each  supporter  of  one  of  the 
candidates  received  £100.  The  defeat  of  this  candidate  in  1818 
led  to  a  parliamentary  inquiry  which  disclosed  a  system  of 
wholesale  corruption,  and  in  1821  the  borough  was  disfranchised. 
A  former  woollen  trade  is  extinct. 

GRAMPUS  (Oreo  gladiator,  or  Orca  area),  a  cetacean  belonging 
to  the  Delphinidae  or  dolphin  family,  characterized  by  its  rounded 
head  without  distinct  beak,  high  dorsal  fin  and  large  conical 
teeth.  The  upper  parts  are  nearly  uniform  glossy  black,  and 
the  under  parts  white,  with  a  strip  of  the  same  colour  over 
each  eye.  The  0.  Fr.  word  was  grapois,  graspeis  or  craspeis, 
from  Med.  Lat.  crassus  piscis,  fat  fish.  This  was  adapted  into 
English  as  grapeys,  graspeys,  &c.,  and  in  the  i6th  century  becomes 
graunde  pose  as  if  from  grand  poisson.  The  final  corruption  to 
"  grampus  "  appears  in  the  i8th  century  and  was  probably 
nautical  in  origin.  The  animal  is  also  known  as  the  "  killer," 
in  allusion  to  its  ferocity  in  attacking  its  prey,  which  consists 
largely  of  seals,  porpoises  and  the  smaller  dolphins.  Its  fierce- 
ness is  only  equalled  by  its  voracity,  which  is  such  that  in  a 
specimen  measuring  21  ft.  in  length,  the  remains  of  thirteen 
seals  and  thirteen  porpoises  were  found,  in  a  more  or  less  digested 
state,  while  the  animal  appeared  to  have  been  choked  in  the 
endeavour  to  swallow  another  seal,  the  skin  of  which  was  found 
entangled  in  its  teeth.  These  cetaceans  sometimes  hunt  in  packs 
or  schools,  and  commit  great  havoc  among  the  belugas  or  white 
whales,  which  occasionally  throw  themselves  ashore  to  escape 
their  persecutors.  The  grampus  is  an  inhabitant  of  northern 
seas,  occurring  on  the  shores  of  Greenland,  and  having  been 
caught,  although  rarely,  as  far  south  as  the  Mediterranean. 
There  are  numerous  instances  of  its  capture  on  the  British  coasts. 
(See  CETACEA.) 

GRANADA,  LUIS  DE  (1504-1588),  Spanish  preacher  and 
ascetic  writer,  born  of  poor  parents  named  Sarria  at  Granada. 
He  lost  his  father  at  an  early  age  and  his  widowed  mother  was 
supported  by  the  charity  of  the  Dominicans.  A  child  of  the 
Alhambra,  he  entered  the  service  of  the  alcalde  as  page,  and, 
his  ability  being  discovered,  received  his  education  with  the 
sons  of  the  house.  When  nineteen  he  entered  the  Dominican 
convent  and  in  1525  took  the  vows;  and,  with  the  leave  of  his 
prior,  shared  his  daily  allowance  of  food  with  his  mother.  He 
was  sent  to  Valladolid  to  continue  his  studies  and  then  was 
appointed  procurator  at  Granada.  Seven  years  after  he  was 
elected  prior  of  the  convent  of  Scala  Caeli  in  the  mountains  of 
Cordova,  which  after  eight  years  he  succeeded  in  restoring  from 
its  ruinous  state,  and  there  he  began  his  work  as  a  zealous 
reformer.  His  preaching  gifts  were  developed  by  the  orator 
Juan  de  Avila,  and  he  became  one  of  the  most  famous  of  Spanish 
preachers.  He  was  invited  to  Portugal  in  1555  and  became 
provincial  of  his  order,  declining  the  offer,  of  the  archbishopric 
of  Braga  but  accepting  the  position  of  confessor  and  counsellor 
to  Catherine,  the  queen  regent.  At  the  expiration  of  his  tenure 
of  the  provincialship,  he  retired  to  the  Dominican  convent  at 
Lisbon,  where  he  lived  till  his  death  on  the  last  day  of  1588. 
Aiming,  both  in  his  sermons  and  ascetical  writings,  at  develop- 
ment of  the  religious  view,  the  danger  of  the  times  as  he  saw  it 
was  not  so  much  in  the  Protestant  reformation,  which  was  an 
outside  influence,  but  in  the  direction  that  religion  had  taken 
among  the  masses.  He  held  that  in  Spain  the  Catholic  faith 
was  not  understood  by  the  people,  and  that  their  ignorance  was 
the  pressing  danger.  He  fell  under  the  suspicion  of  the  In- 
quisition; his  mystical  teaching  was  said  to  be  heretical,  and 
his  most  famous  book,  the  Guia  de  Peccadores,  still  a  favourite 
treatise  and  one  that  has  been  translated  into  nearly  every 
European  tongue,  was  put  on  the  Index  of  the  Spanish  Inquisi- 
tion, together  with  his  book  on  prayer,  in  1559.  His  great 
opponent  was  the  restless  and  ambitious  Melchior  Cano,  who 


stigmatized  the  second  book  as  containing  grave  errors  smacking 
of  the  heresy  of  the  Alumbrados  and  manifestly  contradicting 
Catholic  faith  and  teaching.  But  in  1576  the  prohibition  was 
removed  and  the  works  of  Luis  de  Granada,  so  prized  by  St 
Francis  de  Sales,  have  never  lost  their  value.  The  friend  of  St 
Teresa,  St  Peter  of  Alcantara,  and  of  all  the  noble  minds  of  Spain 
of  his  day,  no  one  among  the  three  hundred  Spanish  mystics 
excels  Luis  de  Granada  in  the  beauty  of  a  didactic  style,  variety 
of  illustration  and  soberness  of  statement. 

The  last  collected  edition  of  his  works  is  that  published  in  9  vols. 
at  Antwerp  in  1578.  A  biography  by  L.  Monoz,  La  Vida  y  virtudes 
de  Luis  de  Granada  (Madrid,  1639);  a  study  of  his  system  by  P. 
Rousselot  in  Mystiques  espa^noles  (Paris,  1867);  Ticknor,  History 
of  Spanish  Literature  (vol.  iii.),  and  Fitzmaurice  Kelly,  History 
of  Spamsn  Literature,  pp.  200-202  (London,  1898),  may  also  be 
consulted. 

GRANADA,  the  capital  of  the  department  of  Granada, 
Nicaragua;  32  m.  by  rail  S.E.  of  Managua,  the  capital  of  the 
republic.  Pop.  (1900)  about  25,000.  Granada  is  built  on  the 
north-western  shore  of  Lake  Nicaragua,  of  which  it  is  the  principal 
port.  Its  houses  are  of  the  usual  central  American  type,  con- 
structed of  adobe,  rarely  more  than  one  storey  high,  and  sur- 
rounded by  courtyards  with  ornamental  gateways.  The  suburbs, 
scattered  over  a  large  area,  consist  chiefly  of  cane  huts  occupied 
by  Indians  and  half-castes.  There  are  several  ancient  churches 
and  convents,  in  one  of  which  the  interior  of  the  chancel  roof 
is  inlaid  with  mother-of-pearl.  An  electric  tramway  connects  the 
railway  station  and  the  adjacent  wharves  with  the  market, 
about  i  m.  distant.  Ice,  cigars,  hats,  boots  and  shoes  are 
manufactured,  but  the  characteristic  local  industry  is  the  pro- 
duction of  "  Panama  chains,"  ornaments  made  of  thin  gold  wire. 
In  the  neighbourhood  there  are  large  cocoa  plantations;  and  the 
city  has  a  thriving  trade  in  cocoa,  coffee,  hides,  cotton,  native 
tobacco  and  indigo. 

Granada  was  founded  in  1523  by  Francisco  Fernandez  de 
Cordoba.  It  became  one  of  the  wealthiest  of  central  American 
cities,  although  it  had  always  a  keen  commercial  rival  in  Leon, 
which  now  surpasses  it  in  size  and  importance.  In  the  i7th 
century  it  was  often  raided  by  buccaneers,  notably  in  1606, 
when  it  was  completely  sacked.  In  1855  it  was  captured  and 
partly  burned  by  the  adventurer  William  Walker  (see  CENTRAL 
AMERICA:  History). 

GRANADA,  a  maritime  province  of  southern  Spain,  formed 
in  1833  of  districts  belonging  to  Andalusia,  and  coinciding  with 
the  central  parts  of  the  ancient  kingdom  of  Granada.  Pop. 
(1900)  492,460;  area,  4928  sq.  m.  Granada  is  bounded  on  the 
N.  by  Cordova,  Jaen  and  Albacete,  E.  by  Murcia  and  Almeria, 
S.  by  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  and  W.  by  Malaga.  It  includes  the 
western  and  loftier  portion  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  (?.».),  a  vast 
ridge  rising  parallel  to  the  sea  and  attaining  its  greatest  altitudes 
in  the  Cerro  de  Mulhacen  (11,421  ft.)  and  Picacho  de  la  Veleta 
(11,148),  which  overlook  the  city  of  Granada.  Lesser  ranges, 
such  as  the  Sierras  of  Parapanda,  Alhama,  Almijara  or  Harana, 
adjoin  the  main  ridge.  From  this  central  watershed  the  three 
principal  rivers  of  the  province  take  their  rise,  viz. :  the  Guadiana 
Menor,  which,  flowing  past  Guadix  in  a  northerly  direction,  falls 
into  the  Guadalquivir  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Ubeda;  the 
Genii  which,  after  traversing  the  Vega,  or  Plain  of  Granada,  leaves 
the  province  a  little  to  the  westward  of  Loja  and  joins  the  Guadal- 
quivir between  Cordova  and  Seville;  and  the  Rio  Grande  or 
Guadalfeo,  which  falls  into  the  Mediterranean  at  Motril.  The 
coast  is  little  indented  and  none  of  its  three  harbours,  Almufiecar, 
Albunol  and  Motril,  ranks  high  in  commercial  importance. 
The  climate  in  the  lower  valleys  and  the  narrow  fringe  along  the 
coast  is  warm,  but  on  the  higher  grounds  of  the  interior  is 
somewhat  severe;  and  the  vegetation  varies  accordingly  from 
the  subtropical  to  the  alpine.  The  soil  of  the  plains  is  very 
productive,  and  that  of  the  Vega  of  Granada  is  considered  the 
richest  in  the  whole  peninsula;  from  the  days  of  the  Moors  it 
has  been  systematically  irrigated,  and  it  continues  to  yield  in 
great  abundance  and  in  good  quality  wheat,  barley,  maize,  wine, 
oil,  sugar,  flax,  cotton,  silk  and  almost  every  variety  of  fruit. 
In  the  mountains  immediately  surrounding  the  city  of  Granada 


GRANADA 


335 


occur  many  kinds  of  alabaster,  some  very  fine;  there  are  also 
quantities  of  jasper  and  other  precious  stones.  Mineral  waters 
chiefly  chalybeate  and  sulphurous,  are  abundant,  the  most 
important  springs  being  those  of  Alhama,  which  have  a  tempera- 
ture of  112°  F.  There  are  valuable  iron  mines,  and  small 
quantities  of  zinc,  lead  and  mercury  are  obtained.  The  cane 
and  beet  sugar  industries,  for  which  there  are  factories  at  Loja, 
at  Motril,  and  in  the  Vega,  developed  rapidly  after  the  loss  of 
the  Spanish  West  Indies  and  the  Philippine  Islands  in  1898, 
with  the  consequent  decrease  in  competition.  There  are  also 
tanneries,  foundries  and  manufactories  of  woollen,  linen,  cotton, 
and  rough  frieze  stuffs,  cards,  soap,  spirits,  gunpowder  and 
machinery.  Apart  from  the  great  highways  traversing  the  pro- 
vince, which  are  excellent,  the  roads  are  few  and  ill-kept.  The 
railway  from  Madrid  enters  the  province  on  the  north  and 
bifurcates  north-west  of  Guadix;  one  branch  going  eastward 
to  Almen'a,  the  other  westward  to  Loja,  Malaga  and  Algeciras. 
Baza  is  the  terminus  of  a  railway  from  Lorca.  The  chief  towns 
include  Granada,  the  capital  (pop.  1900,  75,900)  with  Alhama 
de  Granada  (7697),  Baza  (12,770),  Guadix  (12,652),  Loja  (19,143), 
Montefrio  (10,725),  and  Motril  (18,528).  These  are  described  in 
separate  articles.  Other  towns  with  upwards  of  7000  inhabitants 
are  Albunol  (8646),  Almunecar  (8022),  Cullar  de  Baza  (8007), 
Huescar  (7763),  Illora  (9496)  and  Puebla  de  Don  Fadrique 
(7420).  The  history  of  the  ancient  kingdom  is  inseparable  from 
that  of  the  city  of  Granada  (?.i>.). 

GRANADA,  the  capital  of  the  province,  and  formerly  of  the 
kingdom  of  Granada,  in  southern  Spain ;  on  the  Madrid-Granada- 
Algeciras  railway.  Pop.  (1900)  75,900.  Granada  is  magnifi- 
cently situated,  2195  ft.  above 'the  sea,  on  the  north-western 
slope  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  overlooking  the  fertile  lowlands 
known  as  the  Vega  de  Granada  on  the  west  and  overshadowed 
by  the  peaks  of  Veleta  (11,148  ft.)  and  Mulhacen  (11,421  ft.)  on 
the  south-east.  The  southern  limit  of  the  city  is  the  river  Genii, 
the  Roman  Singilis  and  Moorish  Shenil,  a  swift  stream  flowing 
westward  from  the  Sierra  Nevada,  with  a  considerable  volume 
of  water  in  summer,  when  the  snows  have  thawed.  Its  tributary 
the  Darro,  the  Roman  Salon  and  Moorish  Hadarro,  enters 
Granada  on  the  east,  flows  for  upwards  of  a  mile  from  east  to 
west,  and  then  turns  sharply  southward  to  join  the  main  river, 
which  is  spanned  by  a  bridge  just  above  the  point  of  confluence. 
The  waters  of  the  Darro  are  much  reduced  by  irrigation  works 
along  its  lower  course,  and  within  the  city  it  has  been  canalized 
and  partly  covered  with  a  roof. 

Granada  comprises  three  main  divisions,  the  Antequeruela, 
the  Albaicin  (or  Albaycin),  and  Granada  properly  so-called. 
The  first  division,  founded  by  refugees  from  Antequera  in  1410, 
consists  of  the  districts  enclosed  by  the  Darro,  besides  a  small 
area  on  its  right,  or  western  bank.  It  is  bounded  on  the  east 
by  the  gardens  and  hill  of  the  Alhambra  (q.v.) ,  the  most  celebrated 
of  all  the  monuments  left  by  the  Moors.  The  Albaicin  (Moorish 
Rabad  al  Bayazin,  "  Falconers'  Quarter  ")  lies  north-west  of 
the  Antequeruela.  Its  name  is  sometimes  associated  with  that 
of  Baeza,  since,  according  to  one  tradition,  it  was  colonized  by 
citizens  of  Baeza,  who  fled  hither  in  1246,  after  the  capture 
of  their  town  by  the  Christians.  It  was  long  the  favourite 
abode  of  the  Moorish  nobles,  but  is  now  mainly  inhabited  by 
gipsies  and  artisans.  Granada,  properly  so-called,  is  north 
of  the  Antequeruela,  and  west  of  the  Albaicin.  The  origin  of 
its  name  is  obscure;  it  has  been  sometimes,  though  with  little 
probability,  derived  from  granada,  a  pomegranate,  in  allusion 
to  the  abundance  of  pomegranate  trees  in  the  neighbourhood. 
A  pomegranate  appears  on  the  city  arms.  The  Moors,  however, 
called  Granada  Karnatlah  or  Karnatlah-al-  Yahud,  and  possibly 
the  name  is  composed  of  the  Arabic  words  kurn,  "  a  hill,"  and 
naltah,  "  stranger," — the  "  city  "  or  "  hill  of  strangers." 

Although  the  city  has  been  to  some  extent  modernized,  the 
architecture  of  its  more  ancient  quarters  has  many  Moorish 
characteristics.  The  streets  are,  as  a  rule,  ill-lighted,  ill-paved 
and  irregular;  but  there  are  several  fine  squares  and  avenues, 
such  as  the  Bibarrambla,  where  tournaments  were  held  by  the 
Moors;  the  spacious  Plaza  del  Trionfo,  adjoining  the  bull-ring, 


on  the  north;  the  Alameda,  planted  with  plane  trees,  and  the 
Paseo  del  Salon.  The  business  centre  of  the  city  is  the  Puerta 
Real,  a  square  named  after  a  gate  now  demolished. 

Granada  is  the  see  of  an  archbishop.  Its  cathedral,  which 
commemorates  the  reconquest  of  southern  Spain  from  the  Moors, 
is  a  somewhat  heavy  classical  building,  begun  in  1529  by  Diego 
de  Siloe,  and  only  finished  in  1703.  It  is  profusely  ornamented 
with  jasper  and  coloured  marbles,  and  surmounted  by  a  dome. 
The  interior  contains  many  paintings  and  sculptures  by  Alonso 
Cano  (1601-1667),  the  architect  of  the  fine  west  facade,  and  other 
artists.  In  one  of  the  numerous  chapels,  known  as  the  Chapel 
Royal  (Capilla  Real),  is  the  monument  of  Philip  I.  of  Castile 
(1478-1506),  and  his  queen  Joanna;  with  the  tomb  of  Ferdinand 
and  Isabella,  the  first  rulers  of  united  Spain  (1452-1516).  The 
church  of  Santa  Maria  (1705-1759),  which  may  be  regarded  as 
an  annexe  of  the  cathedral,  occupies  the  site  of  the  chief 
mosque  of  Granada.  This  was  used  as  a  church  until  1661. 
Santa  Ana  (1541)  also  replaced  a  mosque;  Nuestra  Senora  de 
las  Angustias  (1664-1671)  is  noteworthy  for  its  fine  towers,  and 
the  rich  decoration  of  its  high  altar.  The  convent  of  San 
Geronimo  (or  Jeronimo),  founded  in  1492  by  Ferdinand  and 
Isabella,  was  converted  into  barracks  in  1810;  its  church  contains 
the  tomb  of  the  famous  captain  Gonsalvo  or  Gonzalo  de  Cordova 
(1453-1515).  The  Cartuja,  or  Carthusian  monastery  north  of 
the  city,  was  built  in  1516  on  Gonzalo's  estate,  and  in  his  memory. 
It  contains  several  fine  paintings,  and  an  interesting  church  of 
the  1 7th  and  i8th  centuries. 

After  the  Alhambra,  and  such  adjacent  buildings  as  the 
Generalife  and  Torres  Bermejas,  which  are  more  fitly  described 
in  connexion  with  it,  the  principal  Moorish  antiquities  of  Granada 
are  the  13th-century  villa  known  as  the  Cuarto  Real  de  San 
Domingo,  admirably  preserved,  and  surrounded  by  beautiful 
gardens;  the  Alcazar  de  Genii,  built  in  the  middle  of  the  i4th 
century  as  a  palace  for  the  Moorish  queens;  and  the  Casa  del 
Cabildo,  a  university  of  the  same  period,  converted  into  a  ware- 
house in  the  igth  century.  Few  Spanish  cities  possess  a  greater 
number  of  educational  and  charitable  establishments.  The 
university  was  founded  by  Charles  V.  in  1531,  and  transferred 
to  its  present  buildings  in  1769.  It  is  attended  by  about  600 
students.  In  1900,  the  primary  schools  of  Granada  numbered 
22,  in  addition  to  an  ecclesiastical  seminary,  a  training-school 
for  teachers,  schools  of  art  and  jurisprudence,  and  museums  of 
art  and  archaeology.  There  were  twelve  hospitals  and  orphanages 
for  both  sexes,  including  a  leper  hospital  in  one  of  the  convents. 
Granada  has  an  active  trade  in  the  agricultural  produce  of  the 
Vega,  and  manufactures  liqueurs,  soap,  paper  and  coarse  linen 
and  woollen  fabrics.  Silk-weaving  was  once  extensively 
carried  on,  and  large  quantities  of  silk  were  exported  to  Italy, 
France,  Germany  and  even  America,  but  this  industry  died 
during  the  igth  century. 

History. — The  identity  of  Granada  with  the  Iberian  city  of 
Iliberris  or  Iliberri,  which  afterwards  became  a  flourishing 
Roman  colony,  has  never  been  fully  established;  but  Roman 
tombs,  coins,  inscriptions,  &c.,  have  been  discovered  in  the 
neighbourhood.  With  the  rest  of  Andalusia,  as  a  result  of  the 
great  invasion  from  the  north  in  the  5th  century,  Granada  fell 
to  the  lot  of  the  Vandals.  Under  the  caliphs  of  Cordova,  onwards 
from  the  8th  century,  it  rapidly  gained  in  importance,  and 
ultimately  became  the  seat  of  a  provincial  government,  which, 
after  the  fall  of  the  Omayyad  dynasty  in  1031,  or,  according  to 
some  authorities,  1038,  ranked  with  Seville,  Jaen  and  others 
as  an  independent  principality.  The  family  of  the  Zeri,  Ziri 
or  Zeiri  maintained  itself  as  the  ruling  dynasty  until  1090; 
it  was  then  displaced  by  the  Almohades,  who  were  in  turn 
overthrown  by  the  Almoravides,  in  1154.  The  dominion  of 
the  Almoravides  continued  unbroken,  save  for  an  interval  of 
one  year  (1160-1161),  until  1229.  From  1229  to  1238  Granada 
formed  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Murcia;  but  in  the  last-named 
year  it  passed  into  the  hands  of  Abu  Abdullah  Mahommed  Ibn 
Al  Ahmar,  prince  of  Jaen  and  founder  of  the  dynasty  of  the 
Nasrides.  Al  Ahmar  was  deprived  of  Jaen  in  1246,  but  united 
Granada,  Almeria  and  Malaga  under  his  sceptre,  and,  as  the 


336 


GRANADILLA— GRANARIES 


fervour  of  the  Christian  crusade  against  the  Moors  had  temporarily 
abated,  he  made  peace  with  Castile,  and  even  aided  the  Christians 
to  vanquish  the  Moslem  princes  of  Seville.  At  the  same  time 
he  offered  asylum  to  refugees  from  Valencia,  Murcia  and  other 
territories  in  which  the  Moors  had  been  overcome.  Al  Ahmar 
and  his  successors  ruled  over  Granada  until  1492,  in  an  unbroken 
line  of  twenty-five  sovereigns  who  maintained  their  independence 
partly  by  force,  and  partly  by  payment  of  tribute  to  their  stronger 
neighbours.  Their  encouragement  of  commerce — notably  the 
silk  trade  with  Italy — rendered  Granada  the  wealthiest  of 
Spanish  cities;  their  patronage  of  art,  literature  and  science 
attracted  many  learned  Moslems,  such  as  the  historian  Ibn 
Khaldun  and  the  geographer  Ibn  Batuta,  to  their  court,  and 
resulted  in  a  brilliant  civilization,  of  which  the  Alhambra  is 
the  supreme  monument. 

The  kingdom  of  Granada,  which  outlasted  all  the  other 
Moorish  states  in  Spain,  fell  at  last  through  dynastic  rivalries 
and  a  harem  intrigue.  The  two  noble  families  of  the  Zegri  and 
the  Beni  Serraj  (better  known  in  history  and  legend  as  the 
Abencerrages)  encroached  greatly  upon  the  royal  prerogatives 
during  the  middle  years  of  the  isth  century.  A  crisis  arose 
in  1462,  when  an  endeavour  to  control  the  Abencerrages  resulted 
in  the  dethronement  of  Abu  Nasr  Saad,  and  the  accession  of  his 
son,  Muley  Abu'l  Hassan,  whose  name  is  preserved  in  that  of 
Mulhacen,  the  loftiest  peak  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  and  in  a  score 
of  legends.  Muley  Hassan  weakened  his  position  by  resigning 
Malaga  to  his  brother  Ez  Zagal,  and  incurred  the  enmity  of 
his  first  wife  Aisha  by  marrying  a  beautiful  Spanish  slave, 
Isabella  de  Solis,  who  had  adopted  the  creed  of  Islam  and  taken 
the  name  of  Zorayah,  "  morning  star."  Aisha  or  Ayesha,  who 
thus  saw  her  sons  Abu  Abdullah  Mahommed  (Boabdil)  and  Yusuf 
in  danger  of  being  supplanted,  appealed  to  the  Abencerrages, 
whose  leaders,  according  to  tradition,  paid  for  their  sympathy 
with  their  lives  (see  ALHAMBRA).  In  1482  Boabdil  succeeded 
in  deposing  his  father,  who  fled  to  Malaga,  but  the  gradual 
advance  of  the  Christians  under  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  forced 
him  to  resign  the  task  of  defence  into  the  more  warlike  hands 
of  Muley  Hassan  and  Ez  Zagal  (1483-1486).  In  1491  after  the 
loss  of  these  leaders,  the  Moors  were  decisively  beaten;  Boabdil, 
who  had  already  been  twice  captured  and  liberated  by  the 
Spaniards,  was  compelled  to  sign  away  his  kingdom;  and  on 
the  2nd  of  January  1492  the  Spanish  army  entered  Granada, 
and  the  Moorish  power  in  Spain  was  ended.  The  campaign 
had  aroused  intense  interest  throughout  Christendom;  when 
the  news  reached  London  a  special  thanksgiving  service  was  held 
in  St  Paul's  Cathedral  by  order  of  Henry  VII. 

GRANADILLA,  the  name  applied  to  Passiflora  quadrangularis, 
Linn.,  a  plant  of  the  natural  order  Passifloreae,  a  native  of 
tropical  America,  having  smooth,  cordate,  ovate  or  acuminate 
leaves;  petioles  bearing  from  4  to  6  glands;  an  emetic  and 
narcotic  root;  scented  flowers;  and  a  large,  oblong  fruit, 
containing  numerous  seeds,  imbedded  in  a  subacid  edible  pulp. 
The  granadilla  is  sometimes  grown  in  British  hothouses.  The 
fruits  of  several  other  species  of  Passiflora  are  eaten.  P. 
laurifolia  is  the  "  water  lemon,"  and  P.  maliformis  the  "  sweet 
calabash  "  of  the  West  Indies. 

GRANARIES,  From  ancient  times  grain  has  been  stored  in 
greater  or  lesser  bulk.  The  ancient  Egyptians  made  a  practice 
of  preserving  grain  in  years  of  plenty  against  years  of  scarcity, 
and  probably  Joseph  only  carried  out  on  a  large  scale  an  habitual 
practice.  The  climate  of  Egypt  being  very  dry,  grain  could  be 
stored  in  pits  for  a  long  time  without  sensible  loss  of  quality. 
The  silo  pit,  as  it  has  been  termed,  has  been  a  favourite  way  of 
storing  grain  from  time  immemorial  in  all  oriental  lands.  In 
Turkey  and  Persia  usurers  used  to  buy  up  wheat  or  barley  when 
comparatively  cheap,  and  store  it  in  hidden  pits  against  seasons 
of  dearth.  Probably  that  custom  is  not  yet  dead.  In  Malta 
a  relatively  large  stock  of  wheat  is  always  preserved  in  some 
hundreds  of  pits  (silos)  cut  in  the  rock.  A  single  silo  will  store 
from  60  to  80  tons  of  wheat,  which,  with  proper  precautions, 
will  keep  in  good  condition  for  four  years  or  more.  The  silos 
are  shaped  like  a  cylinder  resting  on  a  truncated  cone,  and 


surmounted  by  the  same  figure.  The  mouth  of  the  pit  is  round 
and  small  and  covered  by  a  stone  slab,  and  the  inside  is  lined 
with  barley  straw  and  kept  very  dry.  Samples  are  occasionally 
taken  from  the  wheat  as  from  the  hold  of  a  ship,  and  at  any 
signs  of  fermentation  the  granary  is  cleared  and  the  wheat 
turned  over,  but  such  is  the  dryness  of  these  silos  that  little 
trouble  of  this  kind  is  experienced. 

Towards  the  close  of  the  igth  century  warehouses  specially 
intended  for  holding  grain  began  to  multiply  in  Great  Britain, 
but  America  is  the  home  of  great  granaries,  known  there  as 
elevators.  There  are  climatic  difficulties  in  the  way  of  storing 
grain  in  Great  Britain  on  a  large  scale,  but  these  difficulties 
have  been  largely  overcome.  To  preserve  grain  in  good  condition 
it  must  be  kept  as  much  as  possible  from  moisture  and  heat. 
New  grain  when  brought  into  a  warehouse  has  a  tendency  to 
sweat,  and  in  this  condition  will  easily  heat.  If  the  heating  is 
allowed  to  continue  the  quality  of  the  grain  suffers.  An  effectual 
remedy  is  to  turn  out  the  grain  in  layers,  not  too  thick,  on  a 
floor,  and  to  keep  turning  it  over  so  as  to  aerate  it  thoroughly. 
Grain  can  thus  be  conditioned  for  storage  in  silos.  There  is 
reason  to  think  that  grain  in  a  sound  and  dry  condition  can  be 
better  stored  in  bins  or  dry  pits  than  in  the  open  air;  from  a 
series  of  experiments  carried  out  on  behalf  of  the  French  govern- 
ment it  would  seem  that  grain  exposed  to  the  air  is  decomposed 
at  35  times  the  rate  of  grain  stored  in  silo  or  other  bins. 

In  comparing  the  grain-storage  system  of  Great  Britain  with 
that  of  North  America  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  whereas 
Great  Britain  raises  a  comparatively  small  amount  of  grain, 
which  is  more  or  less  rapidly  consumed,  grain-growing  is  one  of 
the  greatest  industries  of  the  United  States  and  of  Canada. 
The  enormous  surplus  of  wheat  and  maize  produced  in  America 
can  only  be  profitably  dealt  with  by  such  a  system  of  storage 
as  has  grown  up  there  since  the  middle  of  the  igth  century. 
The  American  farmer  can  store  his  wheat  or  maize  at  a  moderate 
rate,  and  can  get  an  advance  on  his  warrant  if  he  is  in  need  of 
money.  A  holder  of  wheat  in  Chicago  can  withdraw  a  similar 
grade  of  wheat  from  a  New  York  elevator. 

Modern  granaries  are  all  built  on  much  the  same  plan.  The 
mechanical  equipment  for  receiving  and  discharging  grain  is 
very  similar  in  all  modern  warehouses.  A  granary  is  usually 
erected  on  a  quay  at  which  large  vessels  can  lie  and  discharge. 
On  the  land  side  railway  sidings  connect  the  warehouse  with 
the  chief  lines  in  its  district;  accessibility  to  a  canal  is  an  ad- 
vantage. Ships  are  usually  cleared  by  bucket  elevators  which  are 
dipped  into  the  cargo,  though  in  some  cases  pneumatic  elevators 
are  substituted  (see  CONVEYORS).  A  travelling  band  with  throw- 
off  carriage  will  speedily  distribute  a  heavy  load  of  grain. 
Band  conveyors  serve  equally  well  for  charging  or  discharging 
the  bins.  Bins  are  invariably  provided  with  hopper  bottoms, 
and  any  bin  can  be  effectively  cleared  by  the  band,  which  runs 
underneath,  either  in  a  cellar  or  in  a  specially  constructed 
tunnel.  All  granaries  should  be  provided  with  a  sufficient 
plant  of  cleaning  machinery  to  take  from  the  grain  impurities 
as  would  be  likely  to  be  detrimental  to  its  storing  qualities. 
Chief  among  such  machines  are  the  warehouse  separators 
which  work  by  sieves  and  air  currents  (see  FLOUR  AND  FLOUR 
MANUFACTURE). 

The  typical  grain  warehouse  is  furnished  with  a  number  of 
chambers  for  grain  storage  which  are  known  as  silos,  and  may 
be  built  of  wood,  brick,  iron  or  ferro-concrete.  Wood  silos 
are  usually  square,  made  of  flat  strips  of  wood  nailed  one  on  top 
of  the  other,  and  so  overlapping  each  other  at  the  corners  that 
alternately  a  longitudinal  and  a  transverse  batten  extends 
past  the  corner.  The  gaps  are  filled  by  short  pieces  of  timber 
securely  nailed,  and  the  whole  silo  wall  is  thus  solid.  This  type 
of  bin  was  formerly  in  great  favour,  but  it  has  certain  draw- 
backs, such  as  the  possibility  of  dry  rot,  while  weevils  are  apt 
to  harbour  in  the  interstices  unless  lime  washing  is  practised. 
Bricks  and  cement  are  good  materials  for'  constructing  silos 
of  hexagonal  form,  but  necessitate  deep  foundations  and  sub- 
stantial walls.  Iron  silos  of  circular  form  are  used  to  some 
extent  in  Great  Britain,  but  are  more  common  in  North  and 


GRANARIES 


337 


South  America.  In  their  case  the  walls  are  much  thinner  than 
with  any  other  material,  but  the  condensation  against  the  inner 
wall  in  wet  weather  is  a  drawback  in  damp  climates.  Cylindrical 
tank  silos  have  also  been  made  of  fire-proof  tiles.  Ferro-concrete 
silos  have  been  built  on  both  the  Monier  and  the  Hennebique 
systems.  In  the  earlier  type  the  bin  was  made  of  an  iron  or 
steel  framework  filled  in  with  concrete,  but  more  recent  struc- 
tures are  composed  entirely  of  steel  rods  embedded  in  cement. 
Granaries  built  of  this  material  have  the  great  advantage,  if 
properly  constructed,  of  being  free  from  any  risk  of  failure  even 
in  case  of  uneven  expansion  of  the  material.  With  brick  silos 
collapses  through  pressure  of  the  stored  material  are  not  unknown. 

One  of  the  largest  and  most  complete  grain  elevators  or  ware- 
houses in  the  world  belongs  to  the  Canadian  Northern  Railway 
_  Company,  and  was  erected  at  Port  Arthur,  Canada,  in 

Arth  r  1901-1904.  It  has  a  total  storage  capacity  of  7,000,000 
Canada  bushels,  or  875,000  qrs.  of  480  Ib.  The  range  of  buildings 
and  bins  forms  an  oblong,  and  consists  of  two  storage 
houses,  B  and  C,  placed  between  two  working  or  receiving  houses 
A  and  D  (fig.  i).  The  receiving  houses  are  fed  by  railway  sidings. 
House  A,  for  example,  has  two  sidings,  one  running  through  it  and 


repaired  since  they  can  be  removed  and  replaced  without  affecting 
the  main  bin  walls.  It  is  claimed  that  these  facers  constitute  the 
best  possible  protection  against  fire.  A  steel  framework,  covered 
with  tiles,  crowns  these  circular  bins  and  contains  the  conveyors 
and  spouts  which  are  used  to  fill  the  bins.  Five  tunnels  in  the 
concrete  bedding  that  supports  the  bins  carry  the  belt  conveyors 
which  bring  back  the  grain  to  the  working  house  for  cleaning  or 
shipment.  There  are  altogether  in  each  of  the  storage  houses  80 
circular  bins,  each  21  ft.  in  diameter,  and  so  grouped  as  to  form 
63  smaller  interspace  bins,  or  143  bins  in  all.  Each  bin  will  store 
grain  in  a  column  85  ft.  deep,  and  the  whole  group  has  a  capacity 
of  2,500,000  bushels.  These  bins  were  all  constructed  by  the  Barnett 
&  Record  Company  of  Minneapolis,  Minnesota,  U.S.A.,  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  Johnson  &  Record  patent  system  of  fire-proof 
tile  grain  storage  construction.  In  case  one  of  the  working  houses 
is  attacked  by  fire  the  fire-proof  storage  houses  protect  not  only 
their  own  contents  but  also  the  other  working  house,  and  in  the 
event  of  its  disablement  or  destruction  the  remaining  one  can  be 
easily  connected  with  both  the  storage  houses  and  handle  their 
contents. 

Circular  tank  silos  have  not  been  extensively  adopted  in  Great 
Britain,  but  a  typical  silo  tank  installation  exists  at  the  Walmsley 
&  Smith  flour  mills  which  stand  beside  the  Devonshire  dock  at 
Barrow-in-Furness.  There  four  circular  bins,  built  of  riveted  steel 


FIG.  i. 


the  other  beside  it.  Each  siding  serves  five  receiving  pits,  and  a 
receiving  elevator  of  10,000  Ib  capacity  per  minute,  or  60,000 
bushels  per  hour,  can  draw  grain  from  either  of  two  pits.  Five 
elevators  of  12,000  bushels  per  hour  on  the  other  side  of  the  house 
serve  five  warehouse  separators,  and  all  the  grain  received  or  dis- 
charged is  weighed,  there  being  ten  sets  of  automatic  scales  in  the 
upper  part  of  the  house,  known  as  the  cupola.  The  hopper  of  each 
weigher  can  take  a  charge  of  1400  bushels  (84,000  Ib).  Grain  can 
be  conveyed  either  vertically  or  horizontally  to  any  part  of  the 
house,  into  any  of  the  bins  in  the  annex  B,  or  into  any  truck  or  lake 
steamer.  This  house  is  constructed  of  timber  and  roofed  with 
corrugated  iron.  The  conveyor  belts  are  36  in.  wide;  those  at  the 
top  of  the  house  are  provided  with  throw-off  carriages.  The  dust 
from  the  cleaning  machinery  is  carefully  collected  and  spouted  to 
the  furnace  under  the  boiler  house,  where  it  is  consumed.  The 
cylindrical  silo  bins  in  the  storage  houses  consist  of  hollow  tiles  of 
burned  clay  which,  it  is  claimed,  are  fire-proof.  The  tiles  are  laid 
on  end  and  are  about  12  in.  by  12  in.  and  from  4  in.  to  6  in.  in  thick- 
ness according  to  the  size  of  the  bin.  Each  alternate  course  consists 
of  grooved  blocks  of  channel  tile  forming  a  continuous  groove  or 
belt  round  the  bin.  This  groove  receives  a  steel  band  acting  as  a 
tension  member  and  resisting  the  lateral  pressure  of  the  grain. 
The  steel  bands  once  in  position,  the  groove  is  completely  filled  with 
cement  grout  by  which  the  steel  is  encased  and  protected.  Usually 
the  bottoms  of  the  bins  are  furnished  with  self-discharging  hoppers 
of  weak  cinder  or  gravel  concrete  finished  with  cement  mortar. 
For  the  foundation  or  supporting  floor  reinforced  concrete  is  fre- 
quently used.  The  tiles  already  described  are  faced  with  tiles  J  to 
I  in.  thick,  which  are  laid  solid  in  cement  mortar  covering  the  whole 
exterior  of  the  bin.  Any  damage  to  the  facing  tiles  can  easily  be 


Clates,  stand  in  a  group  on  a  quadrangle  close  to  the  mill  ware- 
ouse.  A  covered  gantry,  through  which  passes  a  band  conveyor, 
runs  from  the  mill  warehouse  to  the  working  silo  house  _ 
which  stands  in  the  central  space  amid  the  four  steel  . 
tanks.  The  tanks  are  70  ft.  high,  with  a  diameter  of  45  ft.,  Furaet* 
and  rest  on  foundations  of  concrete  and  steel.  Each  has  a 
separate  conical  roof  and  they  are  flat-bottomed,  the  grain  resting 
directly  on  the  steel  and  concrete  foundation  bed.  As  the  load  of 
the  full  tank  is  very  heavy  its  even  distribution  on  the  bed  is  con- 
sidered a  point  of  importance.  Each  tank  can  hold  about  2500  tons 
of  wheat,  which  gives  a  total  storage  capacity  for  the  four  bins  of 
over  45,000  qrs.  of  480  Ib.  Attached  to  the  mill  warehouse  is  a  skip 
elevator  with  a  discharging  capacity  of  75  tons  an  hour.  The  grain 
is  cleared  by  this  elevator  from  the  hold  or  holds  of  the  vessel  to  be 
unloaded,  and  is  delivered  to  the  basement  of  the  warehouse.  Thence 
it  is  elevated  to  an  upper  storey  and  passed  through  an  automatic 
weigher  capable  of  taking  a  charge  of  I  ton.  From  the  weighing 
machine  it  can  be  taken,  with  or  without  a  preliminary  cleaning, 
to  any  floor  of  the  warehouse,  which  has  a  total  storing  capacity 
of  8000  tons,  or  it  can  be  carried  by  the  band  conveyor  through  the 
gantry  to  the  working  house  of  the  silo  installation  and  distributed 
to  any  one  of  the  four  tank  silos.  There  is  also  a  connexion  by  a 
band  conveyor  running  through  a  covered  gantry  into  the  mill, 
which  stands  immediately  in  the  rear.  It  is  perfectly  easy  to  turn 
over  the  contents  of  any  tank  into  any  other  tank.  The  whole 
intake  and  wheat  handling  plant  is  moved  by  two  electro-motors  of 
35  H.P.  each,  one  installed  in  the  warehouse  and  the  other  in  the 
silo  working  house.  Steel  silo  tanks  have  the  advantage  of  storing 
a  heavy  stock  of  wheat  at  comparatively  small  capital  outlay. 
On  an  average  an  ordinary  silo  bin  will  not  hold  more  than  500  to 


GRANARIES 


1000  qrs.,  but  each  of  the  bins  at  Barrow  will  contain  2500  tons  or 
over  uoo  qrs.  The  steel  construction  also  reduces  the  risk  of  fire 
and  consequently  lessens  the  fire  premium. 

The  important  granaries  at  the  Liverpool  docks  date  from  1868, 
but  have  since  been  brought  up  to  modern  requirements.  The 
Liverpool.  wareh°uses  on  the  Waterloo  docks  have  an  aggregate 

storage  area  of  11}  acres,  while  the  sister  warehouses  on 
the  Birkenhead  side,  which  stand  on  the  margin  of  the  great  float, 
have  an  area  of  1 1  acres.  The  total  capacity  of  these  warehouses 
is  about  200,000  qrs. 

The  grain  warehouse  of  the  Manchester  docks  at  Trafford  wharf 
is  locally  known  as  the  grain  elevator,  because  it  was  built  to  a 

great  extent  on  the  model  of  an  American  elevator. 

Some  of  the  mechanical  equipment  was  supplied  by  a 

Chicago  firm.  The  total  capacity  is  1,500,000  bushels  or 
40,000  tons  of  grain,  which  is  stored  in  226  separate  bins.  The 
granary  proper  stands  about  340  ft.  from  the  side  of  the  dock,  but 
is  directly  connected  with  the  receiving  tower,  which  rises  at  the 


Man- 
chester. 


per  hour;  weighing  in  the  tower;  conveying  grain  into  the  ware- 
house and  distributing  it  into  any  of  the  226  bins;  moving  grain 
from  bin  to  bin  either  for  aerating  or  delivery,  and  simultaneously 
weighing  in  bulk  at  the  rate  of  500  tons  per  hour;  sacking  grain, 
weighing  and  loading  the  sacks  into  40  railway  trucks  and  10  carts 
simultaneously;  loading  grain  from  the  warehouse  into  barges  or 
coasting  craft  at  the  rate  of  150  tons  per  hour  in  bulk  or  of  250  sacks 
per  hour.  This  warehouse  is  equipped  with  a  dryer  of  American 
construction,  which  can  deal  with  50  tons  of  damp  grain  at  one  time, 
and  is  connected  with  the  whole  bin  system  so  that  grain  can  be 
readily  moved  from  any  bin  to  the  dryer  or  conversely. 

A  grain  warehouse  at  the  Victoria  docks,  London,  belonging  to  the 
London  and  India  Docks  Company  (fig.  2)  has  a  storing  capacity 
of  about  25,000  qrs.  or  200,000  bushels.  It  is  over  London. 
ipo  ft.  high,  and  is  built  on  the  American  plan  of  interlaced 
timbers  resting  on  iron  columns.  The  walls  are  externally  cased 
with  steel  plates.  The  grain  is  stored  in  56  silos,  most  of  which  are 
about  10  ft.  square  by  50  ft.  deep.  The  intake  plant  has  a  capacity 


Dock  Companu'3 


FIG.  2. 

water's  edge,  by  a  band  conveyor  protected  by  a  gantry.  The 
main  building  is  448  ft.  long  by  80  ft.  wide;  the  whole  of  the  super- 
structure was  constructed  of  wood  with  an  external  casing  of  brick- 
work and  tiles.  The  receiving  tower  is  fitted  with  a  bucket  elevator 
capable,  within  fairly  wide  limits,  of  adjustment  to  the  level  of  the 
hold  to  be  unloaded.  The  elevator  has  the  large  unloading  capacity 
of  350  tons  per  hour,  assuming  it  to  be  working  in  a  full  hold.  It 
is  supplemented  by  a  pneumatic  elevator  (Duckham  system)  which 
can  raise  200  tons  per  hour  and  is  used  chiefly  in  dealing  with  parcels 
of  grain  or  in  clearing  grain  out  of  holds  which  the  ordinary  elevator 
cannot  reach.  The  power  required  to  work  the  large  elevator  as 
well  as  the  various  band  conveyors  is  supplied  by  two  sets  of  hori- 
zontal Corliss  compound  engines  of  500  H.P.  jointly,  which  are  fed 
by  two  Galloway  boilers  working  at  100  Ib  pressure.  The  pneumatic 
elevator  is  driven  by  two  sets  of  triple  expansion  vertical  engines 
of  600  H.P.  fed  by  three  boilers  working  at  a  pressure  of  160  Ib. 
The  grain  received  in  the  tower  is  automatically  weighed.  From 
the  receiving  tower  the  grain  is  conveyed  into  the  warehouse  where 
it  is  at  once  elevated  to  the  top  of  a  central  tower,  and  is  thence 
distributed  to  any  of  the  bins  by  band  conveyors  in  the  usual  way. 
The  mechanical  equipment  of  this  warehouse  is  very  complete, 
and  the  following  several  operations  can  be  simultaneously  effected : 
discharging  grain  from  vessels  in  the  dock  at  the  rate  of  350  tons 


of  100  tons  of  wheat  an  hour,  and  in- 
cludes six  automatic  grain  scales,  each 
of  which  can  weigh  off  one  sack  at  a 
time.  The  main  delivery  floor  of  the 
warehouse  is  at  a  convenient  height 
above  the  ground  level.  Portable 
automatic  weighing  machines  can  be 
placed  under  any  bin.  The  whole  of 
the  plant  is  driven  by  electric  motors, 
one  being  allotted  to  each  machine. 

The  transit  silos  of  the  London  Grain 
Elevator  Company,  also  at  the  Victoria 
docks,  consist  of  four  complete  and  in- 
dependent installations  standing  on 
three  tongues  of  land  which  project 
into  the  water  (figs.  2  and  3).  Each 
silo  house  is  furnished  with  eight  bins, 
each  of  which,  12  ft.  square  by  80  ft. 
deep,  has  a  capacity  of  1000  qrs. 
of  grain.  A  kind  of  well  in  the  middle 
of  each  silo  house  contains  the  neces- 
sary elevators,  staircases,  &c.  The  silo 
bins  in  each  granary  are  erected  on  a 
massive  cast  iron  tank  forming  a  sort 
of  cellar,  which  rests  on  a  concrete 
foundation  6  ft.  thick.  The  base  of 
the  tank  is  30  ft.  below  the  water  level. 
The  silos  are  formed  of  wooden  battens 
nailed  one  on  top  of  the  other,  the 
pieces  interlacing.  Rolled  steel  girders 
resting  on  cast  iron  columns  support 
the  silos.  To  ensure  a  clean  discharge 
the  hopper  bottoms  were  designed  so 
as  to  avoid  joints  and  thus  to  be 
free  from  rivets  or  similar  protuber- 
ances. The  exterior  of  each  silo  house  is  covered  with  corru- 
gated iron,  and  the  same  material  is  used  for  the  roofing.  No 
conveyors  serve  the  silo  bins,  as  the  elevators  which  rise  above  the 
tops  of  the  silos  can  feed  any  one  of  them  by  gravity.  There  are 
three  delivery  elevators  to  each  granary,  one  with  a  capacity  of 
120  tons  and  the  other  two  of  100  tons  each  an  hour.  Each  silo 
house  is  served  by  a  large  elevator  with  a  capacity  of  120  tons  per 
hour,  which  discharges  into  the  elevator  well  inside  the  house. 
The  delivery  elevators  discharge  into  a  receiving  shed  in  which 
there  is  a  large  hopper  feeding  six  automatic  weighing  machines. 
Each  charge  as  it  is  weighed  empties  itself  automatically  into  sacks, 
which  are  then  ready  for  loading.  Each  pair  of  warehouses  is  pro- 
vided with  a  conveyor  band  308  ft.  long,  used  either  for  carrying 
sacks  from  the  weighing  sheds  to  railway  trucks  or  for  carrying 
grain  in  bulk  to  barges  or  trucks.  Each  silo  house  has  an  identical 
mechanical  equipment  apart  from  the  delivery  band  it  shares  with 
its  fellow  warehouse.  All  operations  in  connexion  with  the  silo 
houses  are  effected  under  cover.  The  silos  are  normally  fed  by  a 
fleet  of  twenty-six  of  Philip's  patent  self-discharging  lighters.  These 
craft  are  hopper-bottomed  and  fitted  with  band  conveyors  of  the 
ordinary  type,  running  between  the  double  keelson  of  the  lighter  and 
delivering  into  an  elevator  erected  at  the  stern  of  the  lighter.  By 
this  means  little  trimming  is  required  after  the  barge,  which  holds 


General  Plan  of  Storage  &  Transit  Silos, 
Victoria  Docks,  London. 

Scale,  140  feet  =  I  inch. 


GRANARIES 


339 


about  200  tons  of  grain,  has  been  cleared.  Ocean  steamers  of  such 
draft  as  to  preclude  their  entry  into  any  of  the  up  river  docks  are 
cleared  at  Tilbury  by  these  lighters.  It  is  said  that  grain  loaded 
at  Tilbury  into  these  lighters  can  be  delivered  from  the  transit  silos 
to  railway  trucks  or  barges  in  about  six  hours.  The  total  storage 
capacity  of  the  silos  amounts  to  32,000  qrs.  The  motive  power  is 
furnished  by  14  gas  engines  of  a  total  capacity  of  366  H.P. 

Two  of  the  largest  granaries  on  the  continent  of  Europe  are 
situated  at  the  mouth  of  the  Danube,  at  Braila  and  Galatz,  in 
Rumania  RumaPa>  and  serve  for  both  the  reception  and  discharge 
of  grain.  At  the  edge  of  the  quay  on  which  these  ware- 
houses are  built  there  are  rails  with  a  gauge  of  nj  ft.,  upon  which 
run  two  mechanical  loading  and  unloading  appliances.  The  first 
consists  of  a  telescopic  elevator  which  raises  the  grain  and  delivers 
it  to  one  of  the  two  band  conveyors  at  the  head  of  the  apparatus. 
Each  of  these  bands  feeds  automatic  weighing  machines  with  an 
hourly  capacity  of  75  tons.  From  these  weighers  the  grain  is  either 
discharged  through  a  manhole  in  the  ground  to  a  band  conveyor 
running  in  a  tunnel  parallel  to  the  quay  wall,  or  it  is  raised  by  a 
second  elevator  (part  of  the  same  unloading  apparatus),  set  at  an 
inclined  angle,  which  delivers  at  a  sufficient  height  to  load  railway 
trucks  on  the  siding  running  parallel  to  the  quay.  A  turning  gear 
is  provided  so  as  to  reverse,  if  required,  the  operation  of  the  whole 
apparatus,  that  the  portion  overhanging  the  water  can  be  turned 
to  the  land  side.  The  unloading  capacity  is  150  tons  of  grain  per 
hour.  If  it  be  desired  to  load  a  ship  the  telescopic  elevator  has 
only  to  be  turned  round  and  dipped  into  any  one  of  15  wells,  which 


A.  Barge  Elevator? 

B.  Receiving  Elevators 

C.  S//o  Bins 

D.  Delivery  Elevators 

B.  Weiah  Haute* 

P.  Automatic  Scales 

C.  Sack  Sard  Oaatrf 


capacity  of  the  elevators  and  conveyors  is  100  tons  of  grain  per  hour. 
The  mechanical  equipment  is  so  complete  that  four  distinct  opera- 
tions are  claimed  as  possible.  A  ship  may  be  unloaded  into  silos 
or  into  the  granary  floors,  and  may  simultaneously  be  loaded  either 
from  silos  or  floors  with  different  kinds  of  grain.  Again,  a  cargo  may 
be  discharged  either  into  silos  or  upon  the  floors,  and  simultaneously 
the  grain  may  be  cleaned.  Grain  may  also  be  cleared  from  a  vessel, 
mixed  with  other  grain  already  received,  and  then  distributed  to 
any  desired  point.  With  equal  facility  grain  may  be  cleaned,  blended 
with  other  varieties,  re-stored  in  any  section  of  the  granary,  and 
transferred  from  one  ship  to  another. 

A  granary  with  special  features  of  interest,  erected  on  the  quay 
at  Dortmund,  Germany,  by  a  co-operative  society,  is  built  of  brick 
on  a  base  of  hewn  stone,  with  beams  and  supports  of  _ 
timber.  It  is  78  ft.  high  and  consists  of  seven  floors,  Dortn"""1- 
including  basement  and  attic.  Here  again  there  are  two  sections, 
the  larger  being  devoted  to  the  storage  of  grain  in  low  bins,  while 
the  smaller  section  consists  of  an  ordinary  silo  house.  Grain  in 
sacks  may  be  stored  in  the  basement  of  the  larger  section  which  has 
a  capacity  of  1675  tons  as  compared  with  825  tons  in  the  silo  depart- 
ment. Thus  the  total  storage  capacity  is  2500  tons.  In  the  silo 
house  the  bins,  constructed  of  planks  nailed  one  over  the  other,  are 
of  varying  size  and  are  capable  of  storing  grain  to  a  depth  of  42  to 
47  ft.  Some  of  the  bins  nave  been  specially  adapted  lor  receiving 
damp  grain  by  being  provided  internally  with  transverse  wooden 
arms  which  form  square  or  lozenge-shaped  sections.  The  object  of 
this  arrangement  is  to  break  up  and  aerate  the  stored  grain.  The 


Transit  Silos  of  the 

London  Grain  Elevator  Co.  Ltd., 

Victoria  Docks,  London. 


Longitudinal  Elevation  looking  towards  Barge  Elevators. 

FIG.  3- 


Cross  Section  through  Transit  Silos. 


can  be  filled  up  with  grain  from  the  land  side.  The  capacity  of 
each  granary  is  233,333  qrs. 

Many  large  granaries  have  been  built,  in  which  grain  is  stored 
on  open  floors,  in  bulk  or  in  sacks.  A  notable  instance  is  the  ware- 
house  of  the  city  of  Stuttgart.  This  is  a  structure  of 
Stuttgart.  ggyen  floors,  including  a  basement  and  entresol.  An 
engine  house  accommodates  two  gas  engines  as  well  as  an 
hydraulic  installation  for  the  lifts.  The  grain  is  received  by  an 
elevator  from  the  railway  trucks,  and  is  delivered  to  a  weighing 
machine  from  which  it  is  carried  by  a  second  elevator  to  the  top 
storey,  where  it  is  fed  to  a  band  running  the  length  of  the  building. 
A  system  of  pipes  runs  from  floor  to  floor,  and  by  means  of  the 
band  conveyor  with  its  movable  throw-off  carriage  grain  can  be 
shot  to  any  floor.  A  second  band  conveyor  is  installed  in  the 
entresol  floor,  and  serves  to  convey  grain  either  to  the  elevator, 
if  it  is  desired  to  elevate  it  to  the  top  floor,  or  to  the  loading  shed. 
A  second  elevator  runs  through  the  centre  of  the  building,  and  is 
provided  with  a  spout  by  means  of  which  grain  can  be  delivered 
into  the  hopper  feeding  the  cleaning  machine,  whence  the  grain 
passes  into  a  second  hopper  under  which  is  an  automatic  weigher; 
directly  under  this  weigher  the  grain  is  sacked. 

A  good  example  of  a  grain  warehouse  on  the  combined  silo  bin 
and  floor  storage  system  is  afforded  by  the  granary  at  Mannheim 
„  ..on  the  Rhine,  which  has  the  storage  capacity  of  2100 
'  tons.  The  building  is  370  ft.  in  length,  78  ft.  wide  and 
78  ft.  high,  and  by  means  of  transverse  walls  it  is  divided  into  three 
sections;  of  these  one  contains  silos,  in  another  section  grain  is 
stored  on  open  floors,  while  the  third,  which  is  situated  between 
the  other  two,  is  the  grain-cleaning  department.  This  granary 
stands  by  the  quay  side,  and  a  ship  elevator  of  great  capacity, 
which  serves  the  cleaning  department,  can  rapidly  clear  any  ship 
or  barge  beneath.  The  central  or  screening  house  section  contains 
machinery  specially  designed  for  cleaning  barley  as  well  as  wheat. 
The  barley  plant  has  a  capacity  of  5  tons  per  hour.  There  are  four 
main  elevators  in  this  warehouse,  while  two  more  serve  the  screen 
house.  The  usual  band  conveyors  fitted  with  throw-off  carriages 
are  provided,  and  are  supplemented  by  an  elaborate  system  of  pipes 
which  receive  grain  from  the  elevators  and  bands  and  distribute 
it  at  any  required  point.  The  plant  is  operated  by_ electric  motors. 
If  desirea  the  floors  of  the  non-silo  section  can  be  utilized  for  storing 
other  goods  than  grain,  and  to  this  end  a  lift  with  a  capacity  of  I 
ton  runs  from  the  basement  to  the  top  storey.  The  combined 


arms  are  of  triangular  section  and  are  slightly  hollowed  at  the  base 
so  as  to  bring  a -current  of  air  into  direct  contact  with  the  grain. 
The  air  can  be  warmed  if  necessary.  The  other  and  larger  section  of 
the  granary  is  provided  with  105  bins  of  moderate  height  arranged 
in  groups  of  21  on  the  five  floors  between  the  basement  and  attic. 
On  the  intermediate  floors  and  the  bottom  floor  each  bin  lies  exactly 
under  the  bin  above.  Grain  is  not  stored  in  these  bins  to  a  greater 
depth  than  5  ft.  The  bins  are  fitted  with  removable  side  walls, 
and  damp  grain  is  only  stored  in  certain  bins  aerated  for  half  the 
area  of  their  side  walls  through  a  wire  mesh.  The  arrangements 
for  distributing  grain  in  this  warehouse  are  very  complete.  The 
uncleaned  grain  is  taken  by  the  receiving  elevator,  with  a  lifting 
capacity  of  20  tons  per  hour,  to  a  warehouse  separator,  whence  it  is 
passed  through  an  automatic  weigher  and  is  then  either  sacked  or 
spouted  to  the  main  elevator  (capacity  25  tons  per  hour)  and  ele- 
vated to  the  attic.  From  the  head  of  this  main  elevator  the  grain 
can  either  be  fed  to  a  bin  in  one  or  other  of  the  main  granary  floors, 
or  shot  to  one  of  the  bins  in  the  silo  house.  In  the  attic  the  grain  is 
carried  by  a  spout  and  belt  conveyor  to  one  or  other  of  the  turn- 
tables, as  the  appliances  may  be  termed,  which  serve  to  distribute 
through  spouts  the  grain  to  any  one  of  the  floor  or  silo  bins.  Alter- 
natively, the  grain  may  be  shot  into  the  basement  and  there  fed 
back  into  the  main  elevator  by  a  band  conveyor.  In  this  way  the 
grain  may  be  turned  over  as  often  as  it  is  deemed  necessary.  At 
the  bottom  of  each  bin  are  four  apertures  connected  by  spouts, 
both  with  the  bin  below  and  with  the  central  vertical  pipe  which 
passes  down  through  the  centre  of  each  group  of  bins.  To  regulate 
the  course  of  the  grain  from  bin  to  bin  or  from  bin  to  central  pipe, 
the  connecting  spouts  are  fitted  with  valves  of  ingenious  yet  simple 
construction  which  deflect  the  grain  in  any  desired  direction,  so 
that  the  contents  of  two  or  more  bins  may  be  blended,  or  grain 
may  be  transferred  from  a  bin  on  one  floor  to  a  bin  on  a  lower 
floor,  missing  the  bin  on  the  floor  between.  The  valves  are  con- 
trolled by  chains  from  the  basement. 

With  reference  to  the  floor  bins  used  at  Dortmund,  it  may  be 
observed  that  there  are  granariej  built  on  a  similar  principle  in  the 
United  Kingdom.  It  is  probable  that  bins  of  moderate  height  are 
more  suitable  for  storing  grain  containing  a  considerable  amount  of 
moisture  than  deep  silos,  whether  made  of  wood,  ferro-concrete  or 
other  material.  For  one  thing  floor  bins  of  the  Dortmund  pattern 
can  be  more  effectually  aerated  than  deep  silos.  German  wheat 
has  many  characteristics  in  common  with  British,  and,  especially 


340 


GRANARIES 


""'  " 


in  north  Germany,  is  not  infrequently  harvested  in  a  more  or  less 
damp  condition.  In  the  United  Kingdom,  Messrs  Spencer  &  Co.,  of 
Melksham,  have  erected  several  granaries  on  the  floor-bin  principle, 
and  have  adopted  an  ingenious  system  of  "  telescopic  "  spouting, 
by  means  of  which  grain  may  be  discharged  from  one  bin  to  another 
or  at  any  desired  point.  This  spouting  can  be  applied  to  bins 
either  with  level  floors  or  with  hoppered  bottoms,  if  they  are  arranged 
one  above  the  other  on  the  different  floors,  and  is  so  constructed  that 
an  opening  can  be  effected  at  certain  points  by  simply  sliding 
upwards  a  section  of  the  spout. 

National  Granaries.  —  Wheat  forms  the  staple  food  of  a  large 
proportion  of  the  population  of  the  British  Isles,  and  of  the  total 
amount  consumed  about  four-fifths  is  sea-borne.  The  stocks 
normally  held  in  the  country  being  limited,  serious  consequences 
might  result  from  any  interruption  of  the  supply,  such  as  might 
occur  were  Great  Britain  involved  in  war  with  a  power  or  powers 
commanding  a  strong  fleet.  To  meet  this  contingency  it  has 
been  suggested  that  the  State  should  establish  granaries  contain- 
ing a  national  reserve  of  wheat  for  use  in  emergency,  or  should 
adopt  measures  calculated  to  induce  merchants,  millers,  &c.,  to 
hold  larger  stocks  than  at  present  and  to  stimulate  the  production 
of  home-grown  wheat. 

Stocks  of  wheat  (and  of  flour  expressed  in  its  equivalent  weight 
of  wheat)  are  held  by  merchants,  millers  and  farmers.  Merchants' 
stocks  are  kept  in  granaries  at  ports  of  importation 
are  known  as  first-hand  stocks.  Stocks  of  wheat 
and  flour  in  the  hands  of  millers  and  of  flour  held  by 
bakers  are  termed  second-hand  stocks,  while  farmers'  stocks  only 
consist  of  native  wheat.  Periodical  returns  are  generally  made 
of  first-hand  or  port  stocks,  nor  should  a  wide  margin  of  error  be 
possible  in  the  case  of  farmers'  stocks,  but  second-hand  stocks  are 
more  difficult  to  gauge.  Since  the  last  decade  of  the  igth  century 
the  storage  capacity  of  British  mills  has  considerably  increased. 
As  the  number  of  small  mills  has  diminished  the  capacity  of  the 
bigger  ones  has  increased,  and  proportionately  their  warehousing 
accommodation  has  been  enlarged.  At  the  present  time  first-hand 
stocks  tend  to  diminish  because  a  larger  proportion  of  millers' 
holdings  are  in  mill  granaries  and  silo  houses.  The  immense 
preponderance  of  steamers  over  sailing  vessels  in  the  grain  trade 
has  also  had  the  effect  of  greatly  diminishing  stocks.  With  his 
cargo  or  parcel  on  a  steamer  a  corn  merchant  can  tell  almost  to  a 
day  when  it  will  be  due.  In  fact  foreign  wheat  owned  by  British 
merchants  is  to  a  great  extent  stored  in  foreign  granaries  in 
preference  to  British  warehouses.  The  merchant's  risk  is  thereby 
lessened  to  a  certain  extent.  When  his  wheat  has  been  brought 
into  a  British  port,  to  send  it  farther  afield  means  extra  expense. 
But  wheat  in  an  American  or  Argentine  elevator  may  be  ordered 
wherever  the  best  price  can  be  obtained  for  it.  Options  or 
"  futures,"  too,  have  helped  to  restrict  the  size  of  wheat  stocks 
in  the  United  Kingdom.  A  merchant  buys  a  cargo  of  wheat  on 
passage  for  arrival  at  a  definite  time,  and,  lest  the  market  value 
of  grain  should  have  depreciated  by  the  time  it  arrives,  he  sells 
an  option  against  it.  In  this  way  he  hedges  his  deal,  the  option 
serving  as  insurance  against  loss.  This  is  why  the  British  corn 
trade  finds  it  less  risky  to  limit  purchases  to  bare  needs,  protecting 
itself  by  option  deals,  than  to  store  large  quantities  which  may 
depreciate  and  involve  their  owners  in  loss. 

Varying  estimates  have  been  made  of  the  number  of  weeks' 
supply  of  breadstuffs  (wheat  and  flour)  held  by  millers  at  various 
seasons  of  the  year.  A  table  compiled  by  the  secretary  of  the 
National  Association  of  British  and  Irish  Millers  from  returns 
for  1902  made  by  170  milling  firms  showed  4-7,  4-9,  4-9  and 
5  weeks'  supply  at  the  end  of  March,  June,  September  and 
December  respectively.  These  170  mills  were  said  to  represent 
46%  of  the  milling  capacity  of  the  United  Kingdom,  and  claimed 
to  have  ground  12,000,000  qrs.  out  of  25,349,000  qrs.  milled  in 
1902.  These  were  obviously  large  mills;  it  is  probable  that  the 
other  mills  would  not  have  shown  anything  like  such  a  proportion 
of  stock  of  either  raw  or  finished  material.  A  fair  estimate  of  the 
stocks  normally  held  by  millers  and  bakers  throughout  the 
United  Kingdom  would  be  about  four  weeks'  supply.  First-hand 
stocks  vary  considerably,  but  the  limits  are  definite,  ranging  from 
1,000,000  to  3,500,000  qrs.,  the  latter  being  a  high  figure.  The 


tendency  is  for  first-hand  stocks  to  decline,  but  two  weeks'  supply 
must  be  a  minimum.  Farmers'  stocks  necessarily  vary  with  the 
size  of  the  crop  and  the  period  of  the  year;  they  will  range  from 
9  or  10  weeks  on  the  ist  of  September  to  a  half  week  on  the  ist  of 
August.  Taking  all  the  stocks  together,  it  is  very  exceptional 
for  the  stock  of  breadstuffs  to  fall  below  7  weeks'  supply.  Be- 
tween the  cereal  years  1893-1894  and  1903-1904,  a  period  of 
570  weeks,  the  stocks  of  all  kinds  fell  below  7  weeks'  supply  in 
only  9  weeks;  of  these  9  weeks  7  were  between  the  beginning  of 
June  and  the  end  of  August  1898.  This  was  immediately  after 
the  Leiter  collapse.  In  seven  of  these  eleven  years  there  is  no 
instance  of  stocks  falling  below  8  weeks'  supply.  In  21  out  of 
these  570  weeks  and  in  39  weeks  during  the  same  period  stocks 
dropped  below  75  and  8  weeks'  supply  respectively.  Roughly 
speaking  the  stock  of  wheat  available  for  bread-making  varies 
from  a  two  to  four  months'  supply  and  is  at  times  well  above 
the  latter  figure. 

The  formation  of  a  national  reserve  of  wheat,  to  be  held  at 
the  disposal  of  the  state  in  case  of  urgent  need  during  war,  is 
beset  by  many  practical  difficulties.  The  father  of 
the  scheme  was  probably  The  Miller,  a  well-known  reserve. 
trade  journal.  In  March  and  April  1886  two  articles 
appeared  in  that  paper  under  the  heading  "  Years  of  Plenty 
and  State  Granaries,"  in  which  it  was  urged  that  to  meet  the 
risk  of  hostile  cruisers  interrupting  the  supplies  it  would  be 
desirable  to  lay  up  in  granaries  on  British  soil  and  under  govern- 
ment control  a  stock  of  wheat  sufficient  for  12  or  alternatively 
6  months'  consumption.  This  was  to  be  national  property,  not 
to  be  touched  except  when  the  fortune  of  war  sent  up  the  price 
of  wheat  to  a  famine  level  or  caused  severe  distress.  The  State 
holding  this  large  stock — a  year's  supply  of  foreign  grain  would 
have  meant  at  least  15,000,000  qrs.,  and  have  cost  about 
£25,000,000  exclusive  of  warehousing — was  in  peace  time  to  sell 
no  wheat  except  when  it  became  necessary  to  part  with  stock 
as  a  precautionary  measure.  In  that  case  the  wheat  sold  was  to 
be  replaced  by  the  same  amount  of  new  grain.  The  idea  was 
to  provide  the  country  with  a  supply  of  wheat  until  sufficient 
wheat-growing  soil  could  be  broken  up  to  make  it  practically 
self-sufficing  in  respect  of  wheat.  The  original  suggestion  fell 
quite  flat.  Two  years  later  Captain  Warren,  R.N.,  read  a  paper 
on  "  Great  Britain's  Corn  Supplies  in  War,"  before  the  London 
Chamber  of  Commerce,  and  accepted  national  granaries  as  the 
only  practicable  safeguard  against  what  appeared  to  him  a  great 
peril.  The  representatives  of  the  shipping  interest  opposed  the 
scheme,  probably  because  it  appeared  to  them  likely  to  divert 
the  public  from  insisting  on  an  all-powerful  navy.  The  corn 
trade  opposed  the  project  on  account  of  its  great  practical 
difficulties.  But  constant  contraction  of  the  British  wheat 
acreage  kept  the  question  alive,  and  during  the  earlier  half  of  the 
'nineties  it  was  a  favourite  theme  with  agriculturists.  Some 
influential  members  of  parliament  pressed  the  matter  on  the 
government,  who,  acting,  no  doubt,  on  the  advice  of  their  military 
and  naval  experts,  refused  either  a  royal  commission  or  a  depart- 
mental committee.  While  the  then  technical  advisers  of  the 
government  were  divided  on  the  advisability  of  establishing 
national  granaries  as  a  defensive  measure,  the  balance  of  expert 
opinion  was  adverse  to  the  scheme.  Lord  Wolseley,  then 
commander-in-chief,  publicly  stigmatized  the  theory  that  Great 
Britain  might  in  war  be  starved  into  submission  as  "  unmitigated 
humbug." 

In  spite  of  official  discouragement  the  agitation  continued, 
and  early  in  1897  the  council  of  the  Central  and  Associated 
Chambers  of   Agriculture,   at   the   suggestion   to   a 
great  extent  of  Mr  R.  A.  Yerburgh,  M.P.,  nominated 
a  committee  to  examine   the   question  of  national     mlttee. 
wheat  stores.     This  committee  held  thirteen  sittings 
and    examined    fifty-four    witnesses.     Its    report,    which    was 
published  (L.  G.  Newman  &  Co.,  12  Finsbury  Square,  London, 
E.G.)  with  minutes  of  the  evidence  taken,  practically  recom- 
mended that  a  national  reserve  of  wheat  on  the  lines  already 
sketched  should  be  formed  and  administered  by  the  State,  and 
that  the  government  should  be  strongly  urged  to  obtain  the 


GRANBY 


appointment  of  a  royal  commission,  comprising  representatives 
of  agriculture,  the  corn  trade,  shipping,  and  the  army  and  navy, 
to  conduct  an  exhaustive  inquiry  into  the  whole  subject  of  the 
national  food-supply  in  case  of  war.  This  recommendation  was 
ultimately  carried  into  effect,  but  not  till  nearly  five  years  had 
elapsed.  Of  two  schemes  for  national  granaries  put  before  the 
Yerburgh  committee,  one  was  formulated  by  Mr  Seth  Taylor, 
a  London  miller  and  corn  merchant,  who  reckoned  that  a  store 
of  10,000,000  qrs.  of  wheat  might  be  accumulated  at  an  average 
cost  of  403.  per  qr. — this  was  in  the  Leiter  year  of  high  prices — 
and  distributed  in  six  specially  constructed  granaries  to  be 
erected  at  London,  Liverpool,  Hull,  Bristol,  Glasgow  and 
Dublin.  The  cost  of  the  granaries  was  put  at  £7,500,000.  Mr 
Taylor's  scheme,  all  charges  included,  such  as  a|%  interest  on 
capital,  cost  of  storage  (at  6d.  per  qr.),  and  23.  per  qr.  for  cost 
of  replacing  wheat,  involved  an  annual  expenditure  of  £1,250,000. 
The  Yerburgh  committee  also  considered  a  proposal  to  stimulate 
the  home  supply  of  wheat  by  offering  a  bounty  to  farmers  for 
every  quarter  of  wheat  grown.  This  proposal  has  taken  different 
shapes;  some  have  suggested  that  a  bounty  should  be  given 
on  every  acre  of  land  covered  with  wheat,  while  others  would 
only  allow  the  bounty  on  wheat  raised  and  kept  in  good  condition 
up  to  a  certain  date,  say  the  beginning  of  the  following  harvest. 
It  is  obvious  that  a  bounty  on  the  area  of  land  covered  by 
wheat,  irrespective  of  yield,  would  be  a  premium  on  poor  farming, 
and  might  divert  to  wheat-growing  land  unsuitable  for  that 
purpose.  The  suggestion  to  pay  a  bounty  of  say  35.  to  55.  per  qr. 
for  all  wheat  grown  and  stacked  for  a  certain  time  stands  on  a 
different  basis;  it  is  conceivable  that  a  bounty  of  55.  might 
expand  the  British  production  of  wheat  from  say  7,000,000  to 
9,000,000  qrs.,  which  would  mean  that  a  bounty  of  £2,250,000 
per  annum,  plus  costs  of  administration,  had  secured  an  extra 
home  production  of  2,000,000  qrs.  Whether  such  a  price  would 
be  worth  paying  is  another  matter;  the  Yerburgh  committee's 
conclusion  was  decidedly  in  the  negative.  It  has  also  been 
suggested  that  the  State  might  subsidize  millers  to  the  extent 
of  2s.  6d.  per  sack  of  280  ft.  per  annum  on  condition  that  each 
maintained  a  minimum  supply  of  two  months'  flour.  This  may 
be  taken  to  mean  that  for  keeping  a  special  stock  of  flour  over 
and  above  his  usual  output  a  miller  would  be  entitled  to  an 
annual  subsidy  of  25.  6d.  per  sack.  An  extra  stock  of  10,000,000 
sacks  might  be  thus  kept  up  at  an  annual  cost  of  £1,250,000, 
plus  the  expenditure  of  administration,  which  would  probably 
be  heavy.  With  regard  to  this  suggestion,  it  is  very  probable 
that  a  few  large  mills  which  have  plenty  of  warehouse  accom- 
modation and  depots  all  over  the  country  would  be  ready  to 
keep  up  a  permanent  extra  stock  of  100,000  sacks.  Thus  a  mill 
of  10,000  sacks'  capacity  per  week,  which  habitually  maintains 
a  total  stock  of  50,000  sacks,  might  bring  up  its  stock  to  150,000 
sacks.  Such  a  mill,  being  a  good  customer  to  railways,  could 
get  from  them  the  storage  it  required  for  little  or  nothing.  But 
the  bulk  of  the  mills  have  no  such  advantages.  They  have  little 
or  no  spare  warehousing  room,  and  are  not  accustomed  to  keep 
any  stock,  sending  their  flour  out  almost  as  fast  as  it  is  milled. 
It  is  doubtful  therefore  if  a  bounty  of  23.  6d.  per  sack  would 
have  the  desired  effect  of  keeping  up  a  stock  of  10,000,000  sacks, 
sufficient  for  two  to  three  months'  bread  consumption. 

The  controversy  reached  a  climax  in  the  royal  commission 
appointed  in  1903,  to  which  was  also  referred  the  importation 
of  raw  material  in  war  time.  Its  report  appeared  in 
missi^a,"1'  I9°S-  To  the  question  whether  the  unquestioned 
I903-I90S.  dependence  of  the  United  Kingdom  on  an  uninterrupted 
supply  of  sea-borne  breadstuffs  renders  it  advisable  or 
not  to  maintain  at  all  times  a  six  months'  stock  of  wheat  and 
flour,  it  returned  no  decided  answer,  or  perhaps  it  would  be 
more  correct  to  say  that  the  commission  was  hopelessly  divided. 
The  main  report  was  distinctly  optimistic  so  far  as  the  liability 
of  the  country  to  harass  and  distress  at  the  hands  of  a  hostile 
naval  power  or  combination  of  powers  was  concerned.  But 
there  were  several  dissentients,  and  there  was  hardly  any 
portion  of  the  report  in  chief  which  did  not  provoke  some 
reservation  or  another.  That  a  maritime  war  would  cause 


freights  and  insurance  to  rise  in  a  high  degree  was  freely  admitted, 
and  it  was  also  admitted  that  the  price  of  bread  must  also  rise 
very  appreciably.  But,  provided  the  navy  did  not  break  down, 
the  risk  of  starvation  was  dismissed.  Therefore  all  the  proposals 
for  providing  national  granaries  or  inducing  merchants  and 
millers  to  carry  bigger  stocks  were  put  aside  as  unpractical  and 
unnecessary.  The  commission  was,  however,  inclined  to  consider 
more  favourably  a  suggestion  for  providing  free  storage  for 
wheat  at  the  expense  of  the  State.  The  idea  was  that  if  the  State 
would  subsidize  any  large  granary  company  to  the  extent  of  6d. 
or  5d.  per  qr.,  grain  now  warehoused  in  foreign  lands  would  be 
attracted  to  the  British  Isles.  But  on  the  whole  the  commission 
held  that  the  main  effect  of  the  scheme  would  be  to  saddle  the 
government  with  the  rent  of  all  grain  stored  in  public  warehouses 
in  the  United  Kingdom  without  materially  increasing  stocks. 
The  proposal  to  offer  bounties  to  farmers  to  hold  stocks  for  a 
longer  period  and  to  grow  more  wheat  met  with  equally  little 
favour. 

To  sum  up  the  advantages  of  national  granaries,  assuming 
any  sort  of  disaster  to  the  navy,  the  possession  of  a  reserve 
of  even  six  months'  wheat-supply  in  addition  to  ordinary  stocks 
would  prevent  panic  prices.  On  the  other  hand,  the  difficulties 
in  the  way  of  forming  and  administering  such  a  reserve  are  very 
great.  The  world  grows  no  great  surplus  of  wheat,  and  to  form 
a  six  months',  much  more  a  twelve  months',  stock  would  be 
the  work  of  years.  The  government  in  buying  up  the  wheat 
would  have  to  go  carefully  if  they  would  avoid  sending  up 
prices  with  a  rush.  They  would  have  to  buy  dearly,  and  when 
they  let  go  a  certain  amount  of  stock  they  would  be  bound  to 
sell  cheaply.  A  stock  once  formed  might  be  held  by  the  State 
with  little  or  no  disturbance  of  the  corn  market,  although  the 
existence  of  such  an  emergency  stock  would  hardly  encourage 
British  farmers  to  grow  more  wheat.  The  cost  of  erecting, 
equipping  and  keeping  in  good  order  the  necessary  warehouses 
would  be,  probably,  much  heavier  than  the  most  liberal  estimate 
hitherto  made  by  advocates  of  national  granaries.  (G.  F.  Z.) 

GRANBY,  JOHN  MANNERS,  MARQUESS  OF  (1721-1770), 
British  soldier,  was  the  eldest  son  of  the  third  duke  of  Rutland. 
He  was  born  in  1721  and  educated  at  Eton  and  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  and  was  returned  as  member  of  parliament  for 
Grantham  in  1741.  Four  years  later  he  received  a  commission 
as  colonel  of  a  regiment  raised  by  the  Rutland  interest  in  and 
about  Leicester  to  assist  in  quelling  the  Highland  revolt  of  1745. 
This  corps  never  got  beyond  Newcastle,  but  young  Granby 
went  to  the  front  as  a  volunteer  on  the  duke  of  Cumberland's 
staff,  and  saw  active  service  in  the  last  stages  of  the  insurrection. 
Very  soon  his  regiment  was  disbanded.  He  continued  in  parlia- 
ment, combining  with  it  military  duties,  making  the  campaign 
of  Flanders  (1747).  Promoted  major-general  in  1755,  three 
years  later  he  was  appointed  colonel  of  the  Royal  Horse  Guards 
(Blues).  Meanwhile  he  had  married  the  daughter  of  the  duke 
of  Somerset,  and  in  17  54  had  begun  his  parliamentary  connexion 
with  Cambridgeshire,  for  which  county  he  sat  until  his  death. 
The  same  year  that  saw  Granby  made  colonel  of  the  Blues, 
saw  also  the  despatch  of  a  considerable  British  contingent  to 
Germany.  Minden  was  Granby's  first  great  battle.  At  the  head 
of  the  Blues  he  was  one  of  the  cavalry  leaders  halted  at  the 
critical  moment  by  Sackville,  and  when  in  consequence  that 
officer  was  sent  home  in  disgrace,  Lieut.-General  Lord 
Granby  succeeded  to  the  command  of  the  British  contingent 
in  Ferdinand's  army,  having  32,000  men  under  his  orders  at 
the  beginning  of  1760.  In  the  remaining  campaigns  of  the  Seven 
Years'  War  the  English  contingent  was  more  conspicuous  by  its 
conduct  than  the  Prussians  themselves.  On  the  3ist  of  July 
1760  Granby  brilliantly  stormed  Warburg  at  the  head  of  the 
British  cavalry,  capturing  1500  men  and  ten  pieces  of  artillery. 
A  year  later  (isth  of  July  1761)  the  British  defended  the  heights 
of  Vellinghausen  with  what  Ferdinand  himself  styled  "  indescrib- 
able bravery."  In  the  last  campaign,  at  Gravenstein  und 
Wilhelmsthal,  Homburg  and  Cassel,  Granby's  men  bore  the  brunt 
of  the  fighting  and  earned  the  greatest  share  of  the  glory. 

Returning  to  England  in  1763  the  marquess  found  himself 


342 


GRAN  CHACO— GRAND  ALLIANCE 


the  popular  hero  of  the  war.  It  is  said  that  couriers  awaited 
his  arrival  at  all  the  home  ports  to  offer  him  the  choice  of  the 
Ordnance  or  the  Horse  Guards.  His  appointment  to  the  Ordnance 
bore  the  date  of  the  ist  of  July  1763,  and  three  years  later  he 
became  commander-in-chief.  In  this  position  he  was  attacked 
by  "  Junius,"  and  a  heated  discussion  arose,  as  the  writer  had 
taken  the  greatest  pains  in  assailing  the  most  popular  member 
of  the  Graf  ton  ministry.  In  1770  Granby,  worn  out  by  political 
and  financial  trouble,  resigned  all  his  offices,  except  the  colonelcy 
of  the  Blues.  He  died  at  Scarborough  on  the  i8th  of  October 
1770.  He  had  been  made  a  privy  councillor  in  1760,  lord 
lieutenant  of  Derbyshire  in  1762,  and  LL.D.  of  Cambridge  in 
1769. 

Two  portraits  of  Granby  were  painted  by  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds, 
one  of  which  is  now  in  the  National  Gallery.  His  contemporary 
popularity  is  indicated  by  the  number  of  inns  and  public-houses 
which  took  his  name  and  had  his  portrait  as  sign-board. 

GRAN  CHACO,  an  extensive  region  in  the  heart  of  South 
America  belonging  to  the  La  Plata  basin,  stretching  from  20° 
to  29°  S.  lat.,  and  divided  between  the  republics  of  Argentine, 
Bolivia  and  Paraguay,  with  a  small  district  of  south-western 
Matto  Grosso  (Brazil).  Its  area  is  estimated  at  from  250,000 
to  425,000  sq.  m.,  but  the  true  Chaco  region  probably  does  not 
exceed  300,000  sq.  m.  The  greater  part  is  covered  with  marshes, 
lagoons  and  dense  tropical  jungle  and  forest,  and  is  still  un- 
explored. On  its  southern  and  western  borders  there  are  ex- 
tensive tracts  of  open  woodland,  intermingled  with  grassy  plains, 
while  on  the  northern  side  in  Bolivia  are  large  areas  of  open 
country  subject  to  inundations  in  the  rainy  season.  In  general 
terms  the  Gran  Chaco  may  be  described  as  a  great  plain  sloping 
gently  to  the  S.E.,  traversed  in  the  same  direction  by  two  great 
rivers,  the  Pilcomayo  and  Bermejo,  whose  sluggish  courses  are 
not  navigable  because  of  sand-banks,  barriers  of  overturned  trees 
and  floating  vegetation,  and  confusing  channels.  This  excludes 
that  part  of  eastern  Bolivia  belonging  to  the  Amazon  basin, 
which  is  sometimes  described  as  part  of  the  Chaco.  The  greater 
part  of  its  territory  is  occupied  by  nomadic  tribes  of  Indians, 
some  of  whom  are  still  unsubdued,  while  others,  like  the  Matacos, 
are  sometimes  to  be  found  on  neighbouring  sugar  estates  and 
estancias  as  labourers  during  the  busy  season.  The  forest  wealth 
of  the  Chaco  region  is  incalculable  and  apparently  inexhaustible, 
consisting  of  a  great  variety  of  palms  and  valuable  cabinet 
woods,  building  timber,  &c.  Its  extensive  tracts  of  "  quebracho 
Colorado  "  (Loxopterygium  Lorentzii)  are  of  very  great  value 
because  of  its  use  in  tanning  leather.  Both  the  wood  and  its 
extract  are  largely  exported.  Civilization  is  slowly  gaining 
footholds  in  this  region  along  the  southern  and  eastern  borders. 

GRAND  ALLIANCE,  WAR  OF  THE  (alternatively  called  the 
War  of  the  League  of  Augsburg),  the  third1  of  the  great  aggressive 
wars  waged  by  Louis  XIV.  of  France  against  Spain,  the  Empire, 
Great  Britain,  Holland  and  other  states.  The  two  earlier  wars, 
which  are  redeemed  from  oblivion  by  the  fact  that  in  them 
three  great  captains,  Turenne,  Conde  and  Montecucculi,  played 
leading  parts,  are  described  in  the  article  DUTCH  WARS.  In 
the  third  war  the  leading  figures  are :  Henri  de  Montmorency- 
Boutteville,  duke  of  Luxemburg,  the  former  aide-de-camp  of 
Conde  and  heir  to  his  daring  method  of  warfare;  William  of 
Orange,  who  had  fought  against  both  Conde  and  Luxemburg 
in  the  earlier  wars,  and  was  now  king  of  England;  Vauban, 
the  founder  of  the  sciences  of  fortification  and  siegecraft,  and 
Catinat,  the  follower  of  Turenne's  cautious  and  systematic 
strategy,  who  was  the  first  commoner  to  receive  high  command 
in  the  army  of  Louis  XIV.  But  as  soldiers,  these  men — except 
Vauban — are  overshadowed  by  the  great  figures  of  the  preceding 
generation,  and  except  for  a  half-dozen  outstanding  episodes, 
the  war  of  1689-97  was  an  affair  of  positions  and  manoeuvres. 

It  was  within  these  years  that  the  art  and  practice  of  war 
began  to  crystallize  into  the  form  called  "  linear  "  in  its  strategic 

1  The  name  "  Grand  Alliance  "  is  applied  to  the  coalition  against 
Louis  XIV.  begun  by  the  League  of  Augsburg.  This  coalition  not 
only  waged  the  war  dealt  with  in  the  present  article,  but  (with  only 
slight  modifications  and  with  practically  unbroken  continuity)  the 
war  of  the  SPANISH  SUCCESSION  (g.».)  that  followed. 


and  tactical  aspect,  and  "  cabinet-war  "  in  its  political  and  moral 
aspect.  In  the  Dutch  wars,  and  in  the  minor  wars  that  pre- 
ceded the  formation  of  the  League  of  Augsburg,  there  were 
still  survivals  of  the  loose  organization,  violence  and  wasteful 
barbarity  typical  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War;  and  even  in  the 
War  of  the  Grand  Alliance  (in  its  earlier  years)  occasional 
brutalities  and  devastations  showed  that  the  old  spirit  died  hard. 
But  outrages  that  would  have  been  borne  in  dumb  misery  in 
the  old  days  now  provoked  loud  indignation,  and  when  the 
fierce  Louvois  disappeared  from  the  scene  it  became  generally 
understood  that  barbarity  was  impolitic,  not  only  as  alienating 
popular  sympathies,  but  also  as  rendering  operations  a  physical 
impossibility  for  want  of  supplies. 

Thus  in  1700,  so  far  from  terrorizing  the  country  people 
into  submission,  armies  systematically  conciliated  them  by 
paying  cash  and  bringing  trade  into  the  country. 
Formerly,  wars  had  been  fought  to  compel  a  people 
to  abjure  their  faith  or  to  change  sides  in  some 
personal  or  dynastic  quarrel.  But  since  1648  this  had  no 
longer  been  the  case.  The  Peace  of  Westphalia  established 
the  general  relationship  of  kings,  priests  and  peoples  on  a  basis 
that  was  not  really  shaken  until  the  French  Revolution,  and 
in  the  intervening  hundred  and  forty  years  the  peoples  at  large, 
except  at  the  highest  and  gravest  moments  (as  in  Germany  in 
1689,  France  in  1709  and  Prussia  in  1757)  held  aloof  from  active 
participation  in  politics  and  war.  This  was  the  beginning  of 
the  theory  that  war  was  an  affair  of  the  regular  forces  only, 
and  that  intervention  in  it  by  the  civil  population  was  a  punish- 
able offence.  Thus  wars  became  the  business  of  the  professional 
soldiers  in  the  king's  own  service,  and  the  scarcity  and  costliness 
of  these  soldiers  combined  with  the  purely  political  character 
of  the  quarrels  that  arose  to  reduce  a  campaign  from  an  "  intense 
and  passionate  drama  "  to  a  humdrum  affair,  to  which  only 
rarely  a  few  men  of  genius  imparted  some  degree  of  vigour,  and 
which  in  the  main  was  an  attempt  to  gain  small  ends  by  a  small 
expenditure  of  force  and  with  the  minimum  of  risk.  As  between 
a  prince  and  his  subjects  there  were  still  quarrels  that  stirred 
the  average  man — the  Dragonnades,  for  instance,  or  the  English 
Revolution — but  foreign  wars  were  "  a  stronger  form  of  diplo- 
matic notes,"  as  Clausewitz  called  them,  and  were  waged  with 
the  object  of  adding  a  codicil  to  the  treaty  of  peace  that  had 
closed  the  last  incident. 

Other  causes  contributed  to  stifle  the  former  ardour  of  war. 
Campaigns  were  no  longer  conducted  by  armies  of  ten  to  thirty 
thousand  men.  Large  regular  armies  had  come  into  fashion, 
and,  as  Guibert  points  out,  instead  of  small  armies  charged  with 
grand  operations  we  find  grand  armies  charged  with  small 
operations.  The  average  general,  under  the  prevailing  conditions 
of  supply  and  armament,  was  not  equal  to  the  task  of  commanding 
such  armies.  Any  real  concentration  of  the  great  forces  that 
Louis  XIV.  had  created  was  therefore  out  of  the  question,  and 
the  field  armies  split  into  six  or  eight  independent  fractions, 
each  charged  with  operations  on  a  particular  theatre  of  war. 
From  such  a  policy  nothing  remotely  resembling  the  crushing 
of  a  great  power  could  be  expected  to  be  gained.  The  one 
tangible  asset,  in  view  of  future  peace  negotiations,  was  therefore 
a  fortress,  and  it  was  on  the  preservation  or  capture  of  fortresses 
that  operations  in  all  these  wars  chiefly  turned.  The  idea  of 
the  decisive  battle  for  its  own  sake,  as  a  settlement  of  the  quarrel, 
was  far  distant;  for,  strictly  speaking,  there  was  no  quarrel, 
and  to  use  up  highly  trained  and  exceedingly  expensive  soldiers 
in  gaining  by  brute  force  an  advantage  that  might  equally  well 
be  obtained  by  chicanery  was  regarded  as  foolish. 

The  fortress  was,  moreover,  of  immediate  as  well  as  contingent 
value  to  a  state  at  war.  A  century  of  constant  warfare  had 
impoverished  middle  Europe,  and  armies  had  to  spread  over  a 
large  area  if  they  desired  to  "  live  on  the  country."  This  was 
dangerous  in  the  face  of  the  enemy  (cf.  the  Peninsular  War), 
and  it  was  also  uneconomical.  The  only  way  to  prevent  the 
country  people  from  sending  their  produce  into  the  fortresses 
for  safety  was  to  announce  beforehand  that  cash  would  be  paid, 
at  a  high  rate,  for  whatever  the  army  needed.  But  even  promises 


GRAND  ALLIANCE 


343 


rarely  brought  this  about,  and  to  live  at  all,  whether  on  supplies 
brought  up  from  the  home  country  and  stored  in  magazines 
(which  had  to  be  guarded)  or  on  local  resources,  an  army  had 
as  a  rule  to  maintain  or  to  capture  a  large  fortress.  Sieges, 
therefore,  and  manoeuvres  are  the  features  of  this  form  of  war, 
wherein  armies  progressed  not  with  the  giant  strides  of  modern 
war,  but  in  a  succession  of  short  hops  from  one  foothold  to  the 
next.  This  was  the  procedure  of  the  average  commander,  and 
even  when  a  more  intense  spirit  of  conflict  was  evoked  by  the 
Luxemburgs  and  Marlboroughs  it  was  but  momentary  and 
spasmodic. 

The  general  character  of  the  war  being  borne  in  mind,  nine- 
tenths  of  its  marches  and  manoeuvres  can  be  almost  "  taken  as 
read  " ;  the  remaining  tenth,  the  exceptional  and  abnormal 
part  of  it,  alone  possesses  an  interest  for  modern  readers. 

In  pursuance  of  a  new  aggressive  policy  in  Germany  Louis  XIV. 
sentjiis  troops,  as  a  diplomatic  menace  rather  than  for  conquest, 
into  that  country  in  the  autumn  of  1688.  Some  of  their  raiding 
parties  plundered  the  country  as  far  south  as  Augsburg,  for  the 
political  intent  of  their  advance  suggested  terrorism  rather  than 
conciliation  as  the  best  method.  The  league  of  Augsburg  at 
once  took  up  the  challenge,  and  the  addition  of  new  members 
(Treaty  of  Vienna,  May  1689)  converted  it  into  the  "  Grand 
Alliance  "  of  Spain,  Holland,  Sweden,  Savoy  and  certain  Italian 
states,  Great  Britain,  the  emperor,  the  elector  of  Branden- 
burg, &c. 

"  Those  who  condemned  the  king  for  raising  up  so  many 
enemies,  admired  him  for  having  so  fully  prepared  to  defend 
himself  and  even  to  forestall  them,"  says  Voltaire.  Louvois 
had  in  fa'ct  completed  the  work  of  organizing  the  French  army 
on  a  regular  and  permanent  basis,  and  had  made  it  not  merely 
the  best,  but  also  by  far  the  most  numerous  in  Europe,  for  Louis 
disposed  in  1688  of  no  fewer  than  375,000  soldiers  and  60,000 
sailors.  The  infantry  was  uniformed  and  drilled,  and  the  socket 
bayonet  and  the  flint-lock  musket  had  been  introduced.  The 
only  relic  of  the  old  armament  was  the  pike,  which  was  retained 
for  one-quarter  of  the  foot,  though  it  had  been  discarded  by  the 
Imperialists  in  the  course  of  the  Turkish  wars  described  below. 
The  first  artillery  regiment  was  created  in  1684,  to  replace  the 
former  semi-civilian  organization  by  a  body  of  artillerymen 
susceptible  of  uniform  training  and  amenable  to  discipline 
and  orders. 

In  1689  Louis  had  six  armies  on  foot.  That  in  Germany, 
which  had  executed  the  raid  of  the  previous  autumn,  was  not 
Devasta-  in  a  position  to  resist  the  principal  army  of  the  coalition 
tionofthe  so  far  from  support.  Louvois  therefore  ordered  it 
Palatinate,  to  iav  waste  the  Palatinate,  and  the  devastation  of 
the  country  around  Heidelberg,  Mannheim,  Spires, 
Oppenheim  and  Worms  was  pitilessly  and  methodically  carried 
into  effect  in  January  and  February.  There  had  been  devasta- 
tions in  previous  wars,  even  the  high-minded  Turenne  had 
used  the  argument  of  fire  and  sword  to  terrify  a  population 
or  a  prince,  while  the  whole  story  of  the  last  ten  years  of  the 
great  war  had  been  one  of  incendiary  armies  leaving  traces 
of  their  passage  that  it  took  a  century  to  remove.  But  here  the 
devastation  was  a  purely  military  measure,  executed  systemati- 
cally over  a  given  strategic  front  for  no  other  purpose  than  to 
delay  the  advance  of  the  enemy's  army.  It  differed  from  the 
method  of  Turenne  or  Cromwell  in  that  the  sufferers  were  not 
those  people  whom  it  was  the  purpose  of  the  war  to  reduce  to 
submission,  but  others  who  had  no  interest  in  the  quarrel.  It 
differed  from  Wellington's  laying  waste  of  Portugal  in  1810  in 
that  it  was  riot  done  for  the  defence  of  the  Palatinate  against 
a  national  enemy,  but  because  the  Palatinate  was  where  it  was. 
The  feudal  theory  that  every  subject  of  a  prince  at  war  was  an 
armed  vassal,  and  therefore  an  enemy  of  the  prince's  enemy, 
had  in  practice  been  obsolete  for  two  centuries  past;  by  1690 
the  organization  of  war,  its  causes,  its  methods  and  its  instru- 
ments had  passed  out  of  touch  with  the  people  at  large,  and  it 
had  become  thoroughly  understood  that  the  army  alone  was 
concerned  with  the  army's  business.  Thus  it  was  that  this 
devastation  excited  universal  reprobation,  and  that,  in  the  words 


of  a  modern  French  writer,  the  "  idea  of  Germany  came  to 
birth  in  the  flames  of  the  Palatinate." 

As  a  military  measure  this  crime  was,  moreover,  quite  unprofit- 
able; for  it  became  impossible  for  Marshal  Duras,  the  French 
commander,  to  hold  out  on  the  east  side  of  the  middle  Rhine, 
and  he  could  think  of  nothing  better  to  do  than  to  go  farther 
south  and  to  ravage  Baden  and  the  Breisgau,  which  was  not 
even  a  military  necessity.  The  grand  army  of  the  Allies,  coming 
farther  north,  was  practically  unopposed.  Charles  of  Lorraine 
and  the  elector  of  Bavaria — lately  comrades  in  the  Turkish  war 
(see  below) — invested  Mainz,  the  elector  of  Brandenburg  Bonn. 
The  latter,  following  the  evil  precedent  of  his  enemies,  shelled 
the  town  uselessly  instead  of  making  a  breach  in  its  walls  and 
overpowering  its  French  garrison,  an  incident  not  calculated 
to  advance  the  nascent  idea  of  German  unity.  Mainz,  valiantly 
defended  by  Nicolas  du  Ble,  marquis  d'Uxelles,  had  to  surrender 
on  the  8th  of  September.  The  governor  of  Bonn,  baron  d'Asfeld, 
not  in  the  least  intimidated  by  the  bombardment,  held  out  till 
the  army  that  had  taken  Mainz  reinforced  the  elector  of  Branden- 
burg, and  then,  rejecting  the  hard  terms  of  surrender  offered 
him  by  the  latter,  he  fell  in  resisting  a  last  assault  on  the  I2th 
of  October.  Only  850  men  out  of  his  6000  were  left  to  surrender 
on  the  i6th,  and  the  duke  of  Lorraine,  less  truculent  than  the 
elector,  escorted  them  safely  to  Thionville.  Boufflers;  with 
another  of  Louis's  armies,  operated  from  Luxemburg  (captured 
by  the  French  in  1684  and  since  held)  and  Trarbach  towards  the 
Rhine,  but  in  spite  of  a  minor  victory  at  Kochheim  on  the  2ist 
of  August,  he  was  unable  to  relieve  either  Mainz  or  Bonn. 

In  the  Low  Countries  the  French  marshal  d'Humieres,  being 
in  superior  force,  had  obtained  special  permission  to  offer  battle 
to  the  Allies.  Leaving  the  garrison  of  Lille  and  Tournay  to 
amuse  the  Spaniards,  he  hurried  from  Maubeuge  to  oppose  the 
Dutch,  who  from  Namur  had  advanced  slowly  on  Philippeville. 
Coming  upon  their  army  (which  was  commanded  by  the  prince 
of  Waldeck)  in  position  behind  the  river  Heure,  with  an  advanced 
post  in  the  little  walled  town  of  Walcourt,  he  flung  his  advanced 
guard  against  the  bridge  and  fortifications  of  this  place  to  clear 
the  way  for  his  deployment  beyond  the  river  Heure  (27th 
August).  After  wasting  a  thousand  brave  men  in  this  attempt, 
he  drew  back.  For  a  few  days  the  two  armies  remained  face 
to  face,  cannonading  one  another  at  intervals,  but  no  further 
righting  occurred.  Humieres  returned  to  the  region  of  the 
Scheldt  fortresses,  and  Waldeck  to  Brussels.  For  the  others 
of  Louis'  six  armies  the  year's  campaign  passed  off  quite 
uneventfully. 

Simultaneously  with  these  operations,  the  Jacobite  cause  was 
being  fought  to  an  issue  in  Ireland.  War  began  early  in  1689  with 
desultory  engagements  between  the  Orangemen  of  the 
north  and  the  Irish  regular  army,  most  of  which  the  earl 
of  Tyrconnel  had  induced  to  declare  for  King  James. 
The  northern  struggle  after  a  time  condensed  itself  into 
the  defence  of  Deny  and  Enniskillen.  The  siege  of  the  former 
place,  begun  by  James  himself  and  carried  on  by  the  French 
general  Rosen,  lasted  105  days.  In  marked  contrast  to  the  sieges 
of  the  continent,  this  was  resisted  by  the  townsmen  themselves, 
under  the  leadership  of  the  clergyman  George  Walker.  But  the 
relieving  force  (consisting  of  two  frigates,  a  supply  ship  and  a  force 
under  Major-general  Percy  Kirke)  was  dilatory,  and  it  was  not 
until  the  defenders  were  in  the  last  extremity  that  Kirke  actually 
broke  through  the  blockade  (July  31st}.  Enniskillen  was  less 
closely  invested,  and  its  inhabitants,  organized  by  Colonel  Wolseley 
and  other  officers  sent  by  Kirke,  actually  kept  the  open  field  and 
defeated  the  Jacobites  at  Newtown  Butler  (July  3ist).  A  few  days 
later  the  Jacobite  army  withdrew  from  the  north.  But  it  was  long 
before  an  adequate  army  could  be  sent  over  from  England  to  deal 
with  it.  Marshal  Schomberg  (q.v.),  one  of  the  most  distinguished 
soldiers  of  the  time,  who  had  been  expelled  from  the  French  service 
as  a  Huguenot,  was  indeed  sent  over  in  August,  but  the  army  he 
brought,  some  10,000  strong,  was  composed  of  raw  recruits,  and 
when  it  was  assembled  in  camp  at  Dundalk  to  be  trained  for  its 
work,  it  was  quickly  ruined  by  an  epidemic  of  fever.  But  James 
failed  to  take  advantage  of  his  opportunity  to  renew  the  war  in  the 
north,  and  the  relics  of  Schomberg's  army  wintered  in  security, 
covered  by  the  Enniskillen  troops.  In  the  spring  of  1690,  however, 
more  troops,  this  time  experienced  regiments  from  Holland,  Denmark 
and  Brandenburg,  were  sent,  and  in  June,  Schomberg  in  Ireland  and 
Major-general  Scravemore  in  Chester  having  thoroughly  organized 
and  equipped  the  field  army,  King  William  assumed  the  command 


344 


GRAND  ALLIANCE 


himself.  Five  days  after  his  arrival  he  began  his  advance  from 
Loughbrickland  near  Newry,  and  on  the  1st  of  July  he  engaged 
James's  main  army  on  the  river  Boyne,  close  to  Drogheda.  Schom- 
berg  was  killed  and  William  himself  wounded,  but  the  Irish  army 
was  routed. 

No  stand  was  made  by  the  defeated  party  either  in  the  Dublin 
or  in  the  Waterford  district.  Lauzun,  the  commander  of  the  French 
auxiliary  corps  in  James's  army,  and  Tyrconnel  both  discounten- 
anced any  attempt  to  defend  Limerick,  where  the  Jacobite  forces 
had  reassembled;  but  Patrick  Sarsfield  (earl  of  Lucan),  as  the 
spokesman  of  the  younger  and  more  ardent  of  the  Irish  officers, 
pleaded  for  its  retention.  He  was  left,  therefore,  to  hold  Limerick, 
while  Tyrconnel  and  Lauzun  moved  northward  into  Galway.  Here, 
as  in  the  north,  the  quarrel  enlisted  the  active  sympathies  of  the 
people  against  the  invader,  and  Sarsfield  not  only  surprised  and 
destroyed  the  artillery  train  of  William's  army,  but  repulsed  every 
assault  made  on  the  walls  that  Lauzun  had  said  "  could  be  battered 
down  by  rotten  apples."  William  gave  up  the  siege  on  the  3Oth 
of  August.  The  failure  was,  however,  compensated  in  a  measure  by 
the  arrival  in  Ireland  of  an  expedition  under  Lord  Marlborough, 
which  captured  Cork  and  Kinsale,  and  next  year  (1691)  the  Jacobite 
cause  was  finally  crushed  by  William's  general  Ginckell  (afterwards 
earl  of  Athlone)  in  the  battle  of  Aughrim  in  Galway  (July  I2th), 
in  which  St  Ruth,  the  French  commander,  was  killed  and  the 
Jacobite  army  dissipated.  Ginckell,  following  up  his  victory,  be- 
sieged Limerick  afresh.  Tyrconnel  died  of  apoplexy  while  organizing 
the  defence,  and  this  time  the  town  was  invested  by  sea  as  well  as 
by  land.  After  six  weeks'  resistance  the  defenders  offered  to 
capitulate,  and  with  the  signing  of  the  treaty  of  Limerick  on  the 
1st  of  October  the  Irish  war  came  to  an  end.  Sarsfield  and  the 
most  energetic  of  King  James's  supporters  retired  to  France  and 
were  there  formed  into  the  famous  "  Irish  brigade."  Sarsfield  was 
killed  at  the  battle  of  Neerwinden  two  years  later. 

The  campaign  of  1690  on  the  continent  of  Europe  is  marked 
by  two  battles,  one  of  which,  Luxemburg's  victory  of  Fleurus, 
belongs  to  the  category  of  the  world's  great  battles.  It  is 
described  under  FLEURUS,  and  the  present  article  only  deals 
summarily  with  the  conditions  in  which  it  was  fought.  These, 
though  they  in  fact  led  to  an  encounter  that  could,  in  itself, 
fairly  be  called  decisive,  were  in  closer  accord  with  the  general 
spirit  of  the  war  than  was  the  decision  that  arose  out  of  them. 

Luxemburg  had  a  powerful  enemy  in  Louvois,  and  he  had 
consequently  been  allotted  only  an  insignificant  part  in  the  first 
campaign.  But  after  the  disasters  of  1680  Louis  re-arranged 
the  commands  on  the  north-east  frontier  so  as  to  allow  Humieres, 
Luxemburg  and  Boufflers  to  combine  for  united  action.  "  I 
will  take  care  that  Louvois  plays  fair,"  Louis  said  to  the  duke 
when  he  gave  him  his  letters  of  service.  Though  apparently 
Luxemburg  was  not  authorized  to  order  such  a  combination 
himself,  as  senior  officer  he  would  automatically  take  command 
if  it  came  about.  The  whole  force  available  was  probably  close 
on  100,000,  but  not  half  of  these  were  present  at  the  decisive 
battle,  though  Luxemburg  certainly  practised  the  utmost 
"  economy  of  force  "  as  this  was  understood  in  those  days  (see 
also  NEERWINDEN).  On  the  remaining  theatres  of  war,  the 
dauphin,  assisted  by  the  due  de  Lorge,  held  the  middle  Rhine, 
and  Catinat  the  Alps,  while  other  forces  wereinRoussillon,&c., 
as  before.  Catinat's  operations  are  briefly  described  below. 
Those  of  the  others  need  no  description,  for  though  the  Allies 
formed  a  plan  for  a  grand  concentric  advance  on  Paris,  the 
preliminaries  to  this  advance  were  so  numerous  and  so  closely 
interdependent  that  on  the  most  favourable  estimate  the  winter 
would  necessarily  find  the  Allied  armies  many  leagues  short  of 
Paris.  In  fact,  the  Rhine  offensive  collapsed  when  Charles  of 
Lorraine  died  (lyth  April),  and  the  reconquest  of  his  lost  duchy 
ceased  to  be  a  direct  object  of  the  war. 

Luxemburg  began  operations  by  drawing  in  from  the  Sambre 
country,  where  he  had  hitherto  been  stationed,  to  the  Scheldt 
and  "  eatinS  UP  "  tne  country  between  Oudenarde 
and  Ghent  in  the  face  of  a  Spanish  army  concentrated 
at  the  latter  place  (isth  May-i2th  June).  He  then 
left  Humieres  with  a  containing  force  in  the  Scheldt  region  and 
hurried  back  to  the  Sambre  to  interpose  between  the  Allied 
army  under  Waldeck  and  the  fortress  of  Dinant  which  Waldeck 
was  credited  with  the  intention  of  besieging.  His  march  from 
Tournay  to  'Gerpinnes  was  counted  a  model  of  skill  —  the  locus 
classicus  for  the  maxim  that  ruled  till  the  advent  of  Napoleon  — 
"  march  always  in  the  order  in  which  you  encamp,  or  purpose 


Fleams 


to  encamp,  or  fight."  For  four  days  the  army  marched  across 
country  in  close  order,  covered  in  all  directions  by  reconnoitring 
cavalry  and  advanced,  flank  and  rear  guards.  Under  these 
conditions  eleven  miles  a  day  was  practically  forced  marching, 
and  on  arriving  at  Jeumont-sur-Sambre  the  army  was  given 
three  days'  rest.  Then  followed  a  few  leisurely  marches  in  the 
direction  of  Charleroi,  during  which  a  detachment  of  Boufflers's 
army  came  in,  and  the  cavalry  explored  the  country  to  the  north. 
On  news  of  the  enemy's  army  being  at  Trazegnies,  Luxemburg 
hurried  across  a  ford  of  the  Sambre  above  Charleroi,  but  this 
proved  to  be  a  detachment  only,  and  soon  information  came 
in  that  Waldeck  was  encamped  near  Fleurus.  Thereupon 
Luxemburg,  without  consulting  his  subordinate  generals,  took 
his  army  to  Velaine.  He  knew  that  the  enemy  was  marking 
time  till  the  troops  of  Liege  and  the  Brandenburgers  from  the 
Rhine  were  near  enough  to  co-operate  in  the  Dinant  enterprise, 
and  he  was  determined  to  fight  a  battle  at  once.  From  Velaine, 
therefore,  on  the  morning  of  the  ist  of  July,  the  army  moved 
forward  to  Fleurus  and  there  won  one  of  the  most  brilliant 
victories  in  the  history  of  the  Royal  army.  But  Luxemburg 
was  not  allowed  to  pursue  his  advantage.  He  was  ordered  to 
hold  his  army  in  readiness  to  besiege  either  Namur,  Mons, 
Charleroi  or  Ath,  according  as  later  orders  dictated;  and  to 
send  back  the  borrowed  regiments  to  Boufflers,  who  was  being 
pressed  back  by  the  Brandenburg  and  Liege  troops.  Thus 
Waldeck  reformed  his  army  in  peace  at  Brussels,  where  William 
III.  of  England  soon  afterwards  assumed  command  of  the 
Allied  forces  in  the  Netherlands,  and  Luxemburg  and  the  other 
marshals  stood  fast  for  the  rest  of  the  campaign,  being  forbidden 
to  advance  until  Catinat — in  Italy — should  have  won  a  battle. 

In  this  quarter  the  armed  neutrality  of  the  duke  of  Savoy 
had  long  disquieted  the  French  court.  His  personal  connexions 
with  the  imperial  family  and  his  resentment  against  staffarda 
Louvois,  who  had  on  some  occasion  treated  him  with 
his  usual  patronizing  arrogance,  inclined  him  to  join  the 
Allies,  while  on  the  othe*  hand  he  could  hope  for  extensions 
of  his  scanty  territory  only  by  siding  with  Louis.  In  view  of 
this  doubtful  condition  of  affairs  the  French  army  under  Catinat 
had  for  some  time  been  maintained  on  the  Alpine  frontier,  and 
in  the  summer  of  1690  Louis  XIV.  sent  an  ultimatum  to  Victor 
Amadeus  to  compel  him  to  take  one  side  or  the  other  actively 
and  openly.  The  result  was  that  Victor  Emmanuel  threw  in 
his  lot  with  the  Allies  and  obtained  help  from  the  Spaniards 
and  Austrians  in  the  Milanese.  Catinat  thereupon  advanced 
into  Piedmont,  and  won,  principally  by  virtue  of  his  own  watchful- 
ness and  the  high  efficiency  of  his  troops,  the  important  victory 
of  Staffarda  (August  i8th,  1690).  This  did  not,  however,  enable 
him  to  overrun  Piedmont,  and  as  the  duke  was  soon  reinforced, 
he  had  to  be  content  with  the  methodical  conquest  of  a  few 
frontier  districts.  On  the  side  of  Spain,  a  small  French  army 
under  the  due  de  Noailles  passed  into  Catalonia  and  there  lived 
at  the  enemy's  expense  for  the  duration  of  the  campaign. 

In  these  theatres  of  war,  and  on  the  Rhine,  where  the  disunion 
of  the  German  princes  prevented  vigorous  action,  the  following 
year,  1691,  was  uneventful.  But  in  the  Netherlands  there 
were  a  siege,  a  war  of  manoeuvres  and  a  cavalry  combat,  each 
in  its  way  somewhat  remarkable.  The  siege  was  that  of  Mons, 
which  was,  like  many  sieges  in  the  former  wars,  conducted  with 
much  pomp  by  Louis  XIV.  himself,  with  Boufflers  and  Vauban 
under  him.  On  the  surrender  of  the  place,  which  was  hastened 
by  red-hot  shot  (April  8th),  Louis  returned  to  Versailles  and 
divided  his  army  between  Boufflers  and  Luxemburg,  the  former 
of  whom  departed  to  the  Meuse.  There  he  attempted  by  bom- 
bardment to  enforce  the  surrender  of  Liege,  but  had  to  desist  when 
the  elector  of  Brandenburg  threatened  Dinant.  The  principal 
armies  on  either  side  faced  one  another  under  the  command 
respectively  of  William  III.  and  of  Luxemburg.  The  Allies 
were  first  concentrated  to  the  south  of  Namur,  and  Luxemburg 
hurried  thither,  but  neither  party  found  any  tempting  opportunity 
for  battle,  and  when  the  cavalry  had  consumed  all  the  forage 
available  in  the  district,  the  two  armies  edged  away  gradually 
towards  Flanders.  The  war  of  manoeuvre  continued,  with  a 


GRAND  ALLIANCE 


345 


slight  balance  of  advantage  on  Luxemburg's  side,  until  September, 
when  William  returned  to  England,  leaving  Waldeck  in  command 
of  the  Allied  army,  with  orders  to  distribute  it  in  winter  quarters 
amongst  the  garrison  towns.  This  gave  the  momentary  oppor- 
tunity for  which  Luxemburg  had  been  watching,  and  at  Leuze 
(aoth  Sept.)  he  fell  upon  the  cavalry  of  Waldeck's  rearguard 
and  drove  it  back  in  disorder  with  heavy  losses  until  the  pursuit 
was  checked  by  the  Allied  infantry. 

In  1692  *  the  Rhine  campaign  was  no  more  decisive  than 
before,  although  Lorge  made  a  successful  raid  into  Wiirttemberg 
in  September  and  foraged  his  cavalry  in  German  territory  till 
the  approach  of  winter.  The  Spanish  campaign  was  unimportant, 
but  on  the  Alpine  side  the  Allies  under  the  duke  of  Savoy  drove 
back  Catinat  into  Dauphine,  which  they  ravaged  with  fire  and 
sword.  But  the  French  peasantry  were  quicker  to  take  arms 
than  the  Germans,  and,  inspired  by  the  local  gentry — amongst 
whom  figured  the  heroine,  Philis  de  la  Tour  du  Pin  (1645-1708), 
daughter  of  the  marquis  de  la  Charce — they  beset  every  road 
with  such  success  that  the  small  regular  army  of  the  invaders 
was  powerless.  Brought  practically  to  a  standstill,  the  Allies 
soon  consumed  the  provisions  that  could  be  gathered  in,  and 
then,  fearing  lest  the  snow  should  close  the  passes  behind  them, 
they  retreated. 

In  the  Low  Countries  the  campaign  as  before  began  with  a 
great  siege.  Louis  and  Vauban  invested  Namur  on  the  26th 

of  May.      The  place  was  defended  by  the  prince  de 

Barbancon  (who  had  been  governor  of  Luxemburg 
1692.  when  that  place  was  besieged  in  1684)  and  Coehoorn 

(q.v.),  Vauban's  rival  in  the  science  of  fortification. 
Luxemburg,  with  a  small  army,  manoeuvred  to  cover  the  siege 
against  William  III.'s  army  at  Louvain.  The  place  fell  on  the 
5th  of  June,2  after  a  very  few  days  of  Vauban's  "  regular  " 
attack,  but  the  citadel  held  out  until  the  23rd.  Then,  as  before, 
Louis  returned  to  Versailles,  giving  injunctions  to  Luxemburg 
to  "  preserve  the  strong  places  and  the  country,  while  opposing 
the  enemy's  enterprises  and  subsisting  the  army  at  his  expense." 
This  negative  policy,  contrary  to  expectation,  led  to  a  hard- 
fought  battle.  William,  employing  a  common  device,  announced 
his  intention  of  retaking  Namur,  but  set  his  army  in  motion 
for  Flanders  and  the  sea-coast  fortresses  held  by  the  French. 
Luxemburg,  warned  in  time,  hurried  towards  the  Scheldt,  and 
the  two  armies  were  soon  face  to  face  again,  Luxemburg  about 
steenkirk  Steenkirk,  William  in  front  of  Hal.  William  then 

formed  the  plan  of  surprising  Luxemburg's  right 
wing  before  it  could  be  supported  by  the  rest  of  his  army, 
relying  chiefly  on  false  information  that  a  detected  spy 
at  his  headquarters  was  forced  to  send,  to  mislead  the  duke. 
But  Luxemburg  had  the  material  protection  of  a  widespread 
net  of  outposts  as  well  as  a  secret  service,  and  although  ill  in 
bed  when  William's  advance  was  reported,  he  shook  off  his 
apathy,  mounted  his  horse  and,  enabled  by  his  outpost  reports 
to  divine  his  opponent's  plan,  he  met  it  (3rd  August)  by  a  swift 
concentration  of  his  army,  against  which  the  Allies,  whose 
advance  and  deployment  had  been  mismanaged,  were  powerless 
(see  STEENKIRK).  In  this  almost  accidental  battle  both  sides 
suffered  enormous  losses,  and  neither  attempted  to  bring  about, 
or  even  to  risk,  a  second  resultless  trial  of*  strength.  Boufflers's 
army  returned  to  the  Sambre  and  Luxemburg  and  William 
established  themselves  for  the  rest  of  the  season  at  Lessines 
and  Ninove  respectively,  13  m.  apart.  After  both  armies 
had  broken  up  into  their  winter  quarters,  Louis  ordered 
Boufflers  to  attempt  the  capture  of  Charleroi.  But  a  bombard- 
ment failed  to  intimidate  the  garrison,  and  when  the  Allies 
began  to  re-assemble,  the  attempt  was  given  up  (igth-2ist  Oct.). 
This  failure  was,  however,  compensated  by  the  siege  and  capture 
of  Fumes  (28th  Dec.  1692-7111  Jan.  1693). 

In  1693,  the  culminating  point  of  the  war  was  reached.  It 
began,  as  mentioned  above,  with  a  winter  enterprise  that  at 

1  Louvois  died  in  July  1691. 

1  A  few  days  before  this  the  great  naval  reverse  of  La  Hogue  put 
an  end  to  the  projects  of  invading  England  hitherto  entertained  at 
Versailles. 


least  indicated  the  aggressive  spirit  of  the  French  generals. 
The  king  promoted  his  admiral,  Tourville,  and  Catinat,  the 
rolurier,  to  the  marshalship,  and  founded  the  military  order  of 
St  Louis  on  the  i  oth  of  April.  The  grand  army  in  the  Netherlands 
this  year  numbered  120,000,  to  oppose  whom  William  III.  had 
only  some  40,000  at  hand.  But  at  the  very  beginning  of  opera- 
tions Louis,  after  reviewing  this  large  force  at  Gembloux,  broke 
it  up,  in  order  to  send  30,000  under  the  dauphin  to  Germany, 
where  Lorge  had  captured  Heidelberg  and  seemed  able,  if  re- 
inforced, to  overrun  south  Germany.  But  the  imperial  general 
Prince  Louis  of  Baden  took  up  a  position  near  Heilbronn  so 
strong  that  the  dauphin  and  Lorge  did  not  venture  to  attack 
him.  Thus  King  Louis  sacrificed  a  reality  to  a  dream,  and  for 
the  third  time  lost  the  opportunity,  for  which  he  always  longed, 
of  commanding  in  chief  in  a  great  battle.  He  himself,  to  judge 
by  his  letter  to  Monsieur  on  the  8th  of  June,  regarded  his  action 
as  a  sacrifice  of  personal  dreams  to  tangible  realities.  And, 
before  the  event  falsified  predictions,  there  was  much  to  be  said 
for  the  course  he  took,  which  accorded  better  with  the  prevailing 
system  of  war  than  a  Fleurus  or  a  Neerwinden.  In  this  system 
of  war  the  rival  armies,  as  armies,  were  almost  in  a  state  of 
equilibrium,  and  more  was  to  be  expected  from  an  army  dealing 
with  something  dissimilar  to  itself  —  a  fortress  or  a  patch  of  land 
or  a  convoy  —  than  from  its  collision  with  another  army  of  equal 
force. 

Thus  Luxemburg  obtained  his  last  and  greatest  opportunity. 
He  was  still  superior  in  numbers,  but  William  at  Louvain  had 
the  advantage  of  position.  The  former,  authorized 
by  his  master  this  year  "  non  settlement  d'emptcher  les 
ennemis  de  rien  entreprendre,  mais  d'emporter  quelques 
ava.nta.ges  sur  eux,"  threatened  Liege,  drew  William  over  to  its 
defence  and  then  advanced  to  attack  him.  The  Allies,  however, 
retired  to  another  position,  between  the  Great  and  Little  Geete 
rivers,  and  there,  in  a  strongly  entrenched  position  around 
Neerwinden,  they  were  attacked  by  Luxemburg  on  the  29th  of 
July.  The  long  and  doubtful  battle,  one  of  the  greatest  victories 
ever  won  by  the  French  army,  is  briefly  described  under  NEER- 
WINDEN. It  ended  in  a  brilliant  victory  for  the  assailant,  but 
Luxemburg's  exhausted  army  did  not  pursue;  William  was  as 
unshaken  and  determined  as  ever;  and  the  campaign  closed, 
not  with  a  treaty  of  peace,  but  with  a  few  manceuvres  which, 
by  inducing  William  to  believe  in  an  attack  on  Ath,  enabled 
Luxemburg  to  besiege  and  capture  Charleroi  (October). 

Neerwinden  was  not  the  only  French  victory  of  the  year. 
Catinat,  advancing  from  Fenestrelle  and  Susa  to  the  relief  of 
Pinerolo  (Pignerol),  which  the  duke  of  Savoy  was 
besieging,  took  up  a  position  in  formal  order  of  battle 
north  of  the  village  of  Marsaglia.  Here  on  the  4th  of 
October  the  duke  of  Savoy  attacked  him  with  his  whole  army, 
front  to  front.  But  the  greatly  superior  regimental  efficiency 
of  the  French,  and  Catinat's  minute  attention  to  details  3  in 
arraying  them,  gave  the  new  marshal  a  victory  that  was  a  not 
unworthy  pendant  to  Neerwinden.  The  Piedmontese  and  their 
allies  lost,  it  is  said,  10,000  killed,  wounded  and  prisoners,  as 
against  Catinat's  1800.  But  here,  too,  the  results  were  trifling, 
and  this  year  of  victory  is  remembered  chiefly  as  the  year  in 
which  "  people  perished  of  want  to  the  accompaniment  of 
Te  Deums." 

In  1694  (late  in  the  season  owing  to  the  prevailing  distress  and 
famine)  Louis  opened  a  fresh  campaign  in  the  Netherlands.  The 
armies  were  larger  and  more  ineffective  than  ever,  and  William 
offered  no  further  opportunities  to  his  formidable  opponent.  In 
September,  after  inducing  William  to  desist  from  his  intention  of 
besieging  Dunkirk  by  appearing  on  his  flank  with  a  mass  of  cavalry,4 
which  had  ridden  from  the  Meuse,  100  m.,  in  4  days,  Luxemburg 
gave  up  his  command.  He  died  on  the  4th  of  January  following, 
and  with  him  the  tradition  of  the  Cond6  school  of  warfare  dis- 
appeared from  Europe.  In  Catalonia  the  marshal  de  Noailles  won 
a  victory  (27th  May)  over  the  Spaniards  at  the  ford  of  the  Ter 

3  Marsaglia  is,  if  not  the  first,  at  any  rate,  one  of  the  first,  instances 
of  a  bayonet  charge  by  a  long  deployed  line  of  infantry. 

4  Hussars  figured  here  for  the  first  time  in  western  Europe:     A 
regiment  of  them  had  been  raised  in  1692  from  deserters  from  the 
Austrian  service. 


34-6 


GRAND  ALLIANCE 


Later 
campaigns 
of  the  war. 


(Torroella,  5  m.  above  the  mouth  of  the  river),  and  in  consequence 
captured  a  number  of  walled  towns. 

In  1695  William  found  Marshal  Villeroi  a  far  less  formidable 
opponent  than  Luxemburg  had  been,  and  easily  succeeded  in 
keeping  him  in  Flanders  while  a  corps  of  the  Allies  in- 
vested Namur.  Coehoorn  directed  the  siege-works,  and 
Boufflers  the  defence.  Gradually,  as  in  1692,  the  de- 
fenders were  dislodged  from  the  town,  the  citadel 
outworks  and  the  citadel  itself,  the  last  being  assaulted  with 
success  by  the  "  British  grenadiers,"  as  the  song  commemorates, 
on  the  3Oth  of  August.  Boufflers  was  rewarded  for  his  sixty-seven 
days'  defence  by  the  grade  of  marshal. 

By  1696  necessity  had  compelled  Louis  to  renounce  his  vague 
and  indefinite  offensive  policy,  and  he  now  frankly  restricted  his 
efforts  to  the  maintenance  of  what  he  had  won  in  the  preceding 
campaigns.  In  this  new  policy  he  met  with  much  success. 
Boufflers,  Lorge,  Noailles  and  even  the  incompetent  Villeroi  held 
the  field  in  their  various  spheres  of  operations  without  allowing  the 
Allies  to  inflict  any  material  injury,  and  also  (by  having  recourse 
again  to  the  policy  of  living  by  plunder)  preserving  French  soil 
from  the  burden  of  their  own  maintenance.  In  this,  as  before,  they 
were  powerfully  assisted  by  the  disunion  and  divided  counsels  of 
their  heterogeneous  enemies.  In  Piedmont,  Catinat  crowned  his 
work  by  making  peace  and  alliance  with  the  duke  of  Savoy,  and 
the  two  late  enemies  having  joined  forces  captured  one  of  the 
fortresses  of  the  Milanese.  The  last  campaign  was  in  1697.  Catinat 
and  Vauban  besieged  Ath.  This  siege  was  perhaps  the  most  regular 
and  methodical  of  the  great  engineer's  career.  It  lasted  23  days 
and  cost  the  assailants  only  50  men.  King  William  did  not  stir 
from  his  entrenched  position  at  Brussels,  nor  did  Villeroi  dare  to 
attack  him  there.  Lastly,  in  August  1697  Vendome,  Noailles' 
successor,  captured  Barcelona.  The  peace  of  Ryswijk,  signed  on 
the  3Oth  of  October,  closed  this  war  by  practically  restoring  the 
status  quo  ante;  but  neither  the  ambitions  of  Louis  nor  the  Grand 
Alliance  that  opposed  them  ceased  to  have  force,  and  three  years 
later  the  struggle  began  anew  (seeSPANisn  SUCCESSION,  WAR  OFTHE). 
Concurrently  with  these  campaigns,  the  emperor  had  been  en- 
gaged in  a  much  more  serious  war  on  his  eastern  marches  against 
Austm-  t^e  °ld  enemy,  the  Turks.  This  war  arose  in  1682  out 
Turkish  °^  interna!  disturbances  in  Hungary.  The  campaign  of 
wars,  the  following  year  is  memorable  for  all  time  as  the  last 

1682-1699.  great  wave  of  Turkish  invasion.  Mahommed  IV.  ad- 
vanced from  Belgrade  in  May,  with  200,000  men,  drove 
back  the  small  imperial  army  of  Prince  Charles  of  Lorraine, 
and  early  in  July  invested  Vienna  itself.  The  two  months'  defence 
of  Vienna  by  Count  Rudiger  Starhemberg  (1635-1701)  and  the 
brilliant  victory  of  the  relieving  army  led  by  John  Sobieski,  king  of 
Poland,  and  Prince  Charles  on  the  I2th  of  September  1683,  were 
events  which,  besides  their  intrinsic  importance,  possess  the  romantic 
interest  of  an  old  knightly  crusade  against  the  heathen. 

But  the  course  of  the  war,  after  the  tide  of  invasion  had  ebbed, 
differed  little  from  the  wars  of  contemporary  western  Europe. 
Turkey  figured  rather  as  a  factor  in  the  balance  of  power  than  as 
**•"  "  infidel,"  and  although  the  battles  and  sieges  in  Hungary  were 


the 


characterized  by  the  bitter  personal  hostility  of  Christian  to  Turk 
which  had  no  counterpart  in  the  West,  the  war  as  a  whole  was  as 
methodical  and  tedious  as  any  Rhine  or  Low  Countries  campaign. 
In  1684  Charles  of  Lorraine  gained  a  victory  at  Waitzen  on  the  27th 
of  June  and  another  at  Eperies  on  the  i8th  of  September,  and 
unsuccessfully  besieged  Budapest. 

In  1685  the  Germans  were  uniformly  successful,  though  a  victory 
at  Gran  (August  l6th)  and  the  storming  of  Neuhausel  (August  igth) 
were  the  only  outstanding  incidents.  In  1686  Charles,  assisted  by 
the  elector  Max  Emanuel  of  Bavaria,  besieged  and  stormed  Buda- 
pest (Sept.  2nd).  In  1687  they  followed  up  their  success  by  a  great 
victory  at  Mohacz  (Aug.  I2th).  In  1688  the  Austrians  advanced 
still  further,  took  Belgrade,  threatened  Widin  and  entered  Bosnia. 
The  margrave  Louis  of  Baden,  who  afterward  became  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  of  the  methodical  generals  of  the  day,  won  a  victory 
at  Derbent  on  the  5th  of  September  1688,  and  next  year,  in  spite  of 
the  outbreak  of  a  general  European  war,  he  managed  to  win  another 
battle  at  Nisch  (Sept.  24th),  to  capture  Widin  (Oct.  I4th)  and  to 
advance  to  the  Balkans,  but  in  1690,  more  troops  having  to  be 
withdrawn  for  the  European  war,  the  imperialist  generals  lost 
Nisch,  Widin  and  Belgrade  one  after  the  other.  There  was,  however, 
no  repetition  of  the  scenes  of  1683,  for  in  1691  Louis  won  the  battle 
of  Szlankamen  (Aug.  igth).  After  two  more  desultory  if  successful 
campaigns  he  was  called  to  serve  in  western  Europe,  and  for  three 
years  more  the  war  dragged  on  without  result,  until  in  1697  the 
young  Prince  Eugene  was  appointed  to  command  the  imperialists 
and  won  a  great  and  decisive  victory  at  Zenta  on  the  Theiss  (Sept. 
nth).  This  induced  a  last  general  advance  of  the  Germans  east- 
ward, which  was  definitively  successful  and  brought  about  the 
peace  of  Carlowitz  (January  1699).  (C.  F.  A.) 

NAVAL  OPERATIONS 

The  naval  side  of  the  war  waged  by  the  powers  of  western 
Europe  from  1689  to  1697,  to  reduce  the  predominance  of  King 


Louis  XIV.,  was  not  marked  by  any  very  conspicuous  exhibition 
of  energy  or  capacity,  but  it  was  singularly  decisive  in  its  results. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  struggle  the  French  fleet  kept  the  sea 
in  face  of  the  united  fleets  of  Great  Britain  and  Holland.  It 
displayed  even  in  1690  a  marked  superiority  over  them.  Before 
the  struggle  ended  it  had  been  fairly  driven  into  port,  and  though 
its  failure  was  to  a  great  extent  due  to  the  exhaustion  of  the 
French  finances,  yet  the  inability  of  the  French  admirals  to 
make  a  proper  use  of  their  fleets,  and  the  incapacity  of  the  king's 
ministers  to  direct  the  efforts  of  his  naval  officers  to  the  most 
effective  aims,  were  largely  responsible  for  the  result. 

When  the  war  began  in  1689,  the  British  Admiralty  was  still 
suffering  from  the  disorders  of  the  reign  of  King  Charles  II., 
which  had  been  only  in  part  corrected  during  the  short  reign  of 
James  II.  The  first  squadrons  were  sent  out  late  and  in  in- 
sufficient strength.  The  Dutch,  crushed  by  the  obligation  to 
maintain  a  great  army,  found  an  increasing  difficulty  in  preparing 
their  fleet  for  action  early.  Louis  XIV.,  a  despotic  monarch, 
with  as  yet  unexhausted  resources,  had  it  within  his  power  to 
strike  first.  The  opportunity  offered  him  was  a  very  tempting 
one.  Ireland  was  still  loyal  to  King  James  II.,  and  would  there- 
fore have  afforded  an  admirable  basis  of  operations  to  a  French 
fleet.  No  serious  attempt  was  made  to  profit  by  the  advantage 
thus  presented.  In  March  1689  King  James  was  landed  and 
reinforcements  were  prepared  for  him  at  Brest.  A  British 
squadron  under  the  command  of  Arthur  Herbert  (afterwards 
Lord  Torrington),  sent  to  intercept  them,  reached  the  French 
port  too  late,  and  on  returning  to  the  coast  of  Ireland  sighted 
the  convoy  off  the  Old  Head  of  Kinsale  on  the  loth  of  May. 
The  French  admiral  Chateaurenault  held  on  to  Bantry  Bay, 
and  an  indecisive  encounter  took  place  on  the  nth  of  May. 
The  troops  and  stores  for  King  James  were  successfully  landed. 
Then  both  admirals,  the  British  and  the  French,  returned  home, 
and  neither  in  that  nor  in  the  following  year  was  any  serious 
effort  made  by  the  French  to  gain  command  of  the  sea  between 
Ireland  and  England.  On  the  contrary,  a  great  French  fleet 
entered  the  Channel,  and  gained  a  success  over  the  combined 
British  and  Dutch  fleets  on  the  loth  of  July  1690  (see  BEACHY 
HEAD,  BATTLE  or),  which  was  not  followed  up  by  vigorous 
action.  In  the  meantime  King  William  III.  passed  over  to 
Ireland  and  won  the  battle  of  the  Boyne.  During  the  following 
year,  while  the  cause  of  King  James  was  being  finally  ruined 
in  Ireland,  the  main  French  fleet  was  cruising  in  the  Bay  of 
Biscay,  principally  for  the  purpose  of  avoiding  battle.  During 
the  whole  of  1689,  1690  and  1691,  British  squadrons  were  active 
on  the  Irish  coast.  One  raised  the  siege  of  Londonderry  in  July 
1689,  and  another  convoyed  the  first  British  forces  sent  over 
under  the  duke  of  Schomberg.  Immediately  after  Beachy 
Head  in  1690,  a  part  of  the  Channel  fleet  carried  out  an  expedition 
under  the  earl  (afterwards  duke)  of  Marlborough,  which  took 
Cork  and  reduced  a  large  part  of  the  south  of  the  island.  In 
1691  the  French  did  little  more  than  help  to  carry  away  the 
wreckage  of  their  allies  and  their  own  detachments.  In  1692 
a  vigorous  but  tardy  attempt  was  made  to  employ  their  fleet 
to  cover  an  invasion  of  England  (see  LA  HOGUE,  BATTLE  OF). 
It  ended  in  defeat,  and  the  allies  remained  masters  of  the  Channel. 
The  defeat  of  La  Hogue  did  not  do  so  much  harm  to  the  naval 
power  of  King  Louis  as  has  sometimes  been  supposed.  In  the 
next  year,  1693,  he  was  able  to  strike  a  severe  blow  at  the  Allies. 
The  important  Mediterranean  trade  of  Great  Britain  and 
Holland,  called  for  convenience  the  Smyrna  convoy,  having 
been  delayed  during  the  previous  year,  anxious  measures  were 
taken  to  see  it  safe  on  its  road  in  1693.  But  the  arrangements 
of  the  allied  governments  and  admirals  were  not  good.  They 
made  no  effort  to  blockade  Brest,  nor  did  they  take  effective  steps 
to  discover  whether  or  not  the  French  fleet  had  left  the  port. 
The  convoy  was  seen  beyond  the  Scilly  Isles  by  the  main  fleet. 
But  as  the  French  admiral  Tourville  had  left  Brest  for  the  Straits 
of  Gibraltar  with  a  powerful  force  and  had  been  joined  by  a 
squadron  from  Toulon,  the  whole  convoy  was  scattered  or  taken 
by  him,  in  the  latter  days  of  June,  near  Lagos.  But  though 
this  success  was  a  very  fair  equivalent  for  the  defeat  at  La 


GRAND  CANARY— GRAND  CANYON 


347 


Hogue,  it  was  the  last  serious  effort  made  by  the  navy  of  Louis 
XIV.  in  this  war.  Want  of  money  compelled  him  to  lay  his 
fleet  up.  The  allies  were  now  free  to  make  full  use  of  their  own, 
to  harass  the  French  coast,  to  intercept  French  commerce,  and 
to  co-operate  with  the  armies  acting  against  France.  Some  of 
the  operations  undertaken  by  them  were  more  remarkable  for 
the  violence  of  the  effort  than  for  the  magnitude  of  the  results. 
The  numerous  bombardments  of  French  Channel  ports,  and  the 
attempts  to  destroy  St  Malo,  the  great  nursery  of  the  active 
French  privateers,  by  infernal  machines,  did  little  harm.  A 
British  attack  on  Brest  in  June  1694  was  beaten  off  with  heavy 
loss.  The  scheme  had  been  betrayed  by  Jacobite  correspondents. 
Yet  the  inability  of  the  French  king  to  avert  these  enterprises 
showed  the  weakness  of  his  navy  and  the  limitations  of  his  power. 
The  protection  of  British  and  Dutch  commerce  was  never  com- 
plete, for  the  French  privateers  were  active  to  the  end.  But 
French  commerce  was  wholly  ruined. 

It  was  the  misfortune  of  the  allies  that  their  co-operation 
with  armies  was  largely  with  the  forces  of  a  power  so  languid 
and  so  bankrupt  as  Spain.  Yet  the  series  of  operations  directed 
by  Russel  in  the  Mediterranean  throughout  1694  and  1695 
demonstrated  the  superiority  of  the  allied  fleet,  and  checked 
the  advance  of  the  French  in  Catalonia.  Contemporary  with 
the  campaigns  in  Europe  was  a  long  series  of  cruises  against  the 
French  in  the  West  Indies,  undertaken  by  the  British  navy, 
with  more  or  less  help  from  the  Dutch  and  a  little  feeble  assistance 
from  the  Spaniards.  They  began  with  the  cruise  of  Captain 
Lawrence  Wright  in  1690-1691,  and  ended  with  that  of  Admiral 
Nevil  in  1696-1697.  It  cannot  be  said  that  they  attained  to  any 
very  honourable  achievement,  or  even  did  much  to  weaken  the 
French  hold  on  their  possessions  in  the  West  Indies  and  North 
America.  Some,  and  notably  the  attack  made  on  Quebec  by 
Sir  William  Phips  in  1690,  with  a  force  raised  in  the  British 
colonies,  ended  in  defeat.  None  of  them  was  so  triumphant 
as  the  plunder  of  Cartagena  in  South  America  by  the  Frenchman 
Pointis,  in  1697,  at  the  head  of  a  semi-piratical  force.  Too  often 
there  was  absolute  misconduct.  In  the  buccaneering  and  piratical 
atmosphere  of  the  West  Indies,  the  naval  officers  of  the  day, 
who  were  still  infected  with  the  corruption  of  the  reign  of  Charles 
II.,  and  who  calculated  on  distance  from  home  to  secure  them 
immunity,  sank  nearly  to  the  level  of  pirates  and  buccaneers. 
The  indifference  of  the  age  to  the  laws  of  health,  and  its  ignorance 
of  them,  caused  the  ravages  of  disease  to  be  frightful.  In  the 
case  of  Admiral  NeviPs  squadron,  the  admiral  himself  and  all 
his  captains  except  one,  died  during  the  cruise,  and  the  ships 
were  unmanned.  Yet  it  was  their  own  vices  which  caused 
these  expeditions  to  fail,  and  not  the  strength  of  the  French 
defence.  When  the  war  ended,  the  navy  of  King  Louis  XIV. 
had  disappeared  from  the  sea. 

See  Burchett,  Memoirs  of  Transactions  at  Sea  during  the  War 
with  France,  1688-1697  (London,  1703);  Lediard,  Naval  History 
(London,  1735),  particularly  valuable  for  the  quotations  in  his 
notes.  For  the  West  Indian  voyages,  Tronde,  Batailles  navales  de 
la  France  (Paris,  1867);  De  Yonghe,  Geschiedenis  van  het  Neder- 
landsche  Zeewezen  (Haarlem,  1860).  (D.  H.) 

GRAND  CANARY  (Gran  Canaria),  an  island  in  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  forming  part  of  the  Spanish  archipelago  of  the  Canary 
Islands  (?.».).  Pop.  (1900)  127,471;  area  523  sq.  m.  Grand 
Canary,  the  most  fertile  island  of  the  group,  is  nearly  circular 
in  shape,  with  a  diameter  of  24  m.  and  a  circumference  of  75  m. 
The  interior  is  a  mass  of  mountain  with  ravines  radiating  to 
the  shore.  Its  highest  peak,  Los  Pexos,  is  6400  ft.  Large 
tracts  are  covered  with  native  pine  (P.  canariensis) .  There  are 
several  mineral  springs  on  the  island.  Las  Palmas  (pop.  44,51 7), 
the  capital,  is  described  in  a  separate  article.  Telde  (8978), 
the  second  place  in  the  island,  stands  on  a  plain,  surrounded 
by  palm  trees.  At  Atalaya,  a  short  distance  from  Las  Palmas, 
the  making  of  earthenware  vessels  employs  some  hundreds 
of  people,  who  inhabit  holes  made  in  the  tufa. 

GRAND  CANYON,  a  profound  gorge  in  the  north-west  corner 
of  Arizona,  in  the  south-western  part  of  the  United  States  of 
America,  carved  in  the  plateau  region  by  the  Colorado  river. 
Of  it  Captain  Dutton  says:  "  Those  who  have  long  and  carefully 


studied  the  Grand  Canyon  of  the  Colorado  do  not  hesitate  for 
a  moment  to  pronounce  it  by  far  the  most  sublime  of  all 
earthly  spectacles  ";  and  this  is  also  the  verdict  of  many  who 
have  only  viewed  it  in  one  or  two  of  its  parts. 

The  Colorado  river  is  made  by  the  junction  of  two  large  streams, 
the  Green  and  Grand,  fed  by  the  rains  and  snows  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  It  has  a  length  of  about  2000  m.  and  a  drainage 
area  of  255,000  sq.  m.,  emptying  into  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of 
California.  In  its  course  the  Colorado  passes  through  a  mountain 
section;  then  a  plateau  section;  and  finally  a  desert  lowland 
section  which  extends  to  its  mouth.  It  is  in  the  plateau  section 
that  the  Grand  Canyon  is  situated.  Here  the  surface  of  the 
country  lies  from  5000  to  9000  ft.  above  sea-level,  being  a  table- 
land region  of  buttes  and  mesas  diversified  by  lava  intrusions, 
flows  and  cinder  cones.  The  region  consists  in  the  main  of 
stratified  rocks  bodily  uplifted  in  a  nearly  horizontal  position, 
though  profoundly  faulted  here  and  there,  and  with  some 
moderate  folding.  For  a  thousand  miles  the  river  has  cut  a 
series  of  canyons,  bearing  different  names,  which  reach  their 
culmination  in  the  Marble  Canyon,  66  m.  long,  and  the  contiguous 
Grand  Canyon  which  extends  for  a  distance  of  217  m.  farther 
down  stream,  making  a  total  length  of  continuous  canyon  from 
2000  to  6000  ft.  in  depth,  for  a  distance  of  283  m.,  the  longest 
and  deepest  canyon  in  the  world.  This  huge  gash  in  the  earth 
is  the  work  of  the  Colorado  river,  with  accompanying  weathering, 
through  long  ages;  and  the  river  is  still  engaged  in  deepening 
it  as  it  rushes  along  the  canyon  bottom. 

The  higher  parts  of  the  enclosing  plateau  have  sufficient 
rainfall  for  forests,  whose  growth  is  also  made  possible  in  part 
by  the  cool  climate  and  consequently  retarded  evaporation; 
but  the  less  elevated  portions  have  an  arid  climate,  while  the 
climate  in  the  canyon  bottom  is  that  of  the  true  desert.  Thus 
the  canyon  is  really  in  a  desert  region,  as  is  shown  by  the  fact 
that  only  two  living  streams  enter  the  river  for  a  distance  of 
500  m.  from  the  Green  river  to  the  lower  end  of  the  Grand 
Canyon;  and  only  one,  the  Kanab  Creek,  enters  the  Grand 
Canyon  itself.  This,  moreover,  is  dry  during  most  of  the  year. 
In  spite  of  this  lack  of  tributaries,  a  large  volume  of  water  flows 
through  the  canyon  at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  some  coming 
from  the  scattered  tributaries,  some  from  springs,  but  most 
from  the  rains  and  snows  of  the  distant  mountains  about  the 
headwaters.  Owing  to  enclosure  between  steeply  rising  canyon 
walls,  evaporation  is  retarded,  thus  increasing  the  possibility 
of  the  long  journey  of  the  water  from  the  mountains  to  the  sea 
across  a  vast  stretch  of  arid  land. 

The  river  in  the  canyon  varies  from  a  few  feet  to  an  unknown 
depth,  and  at  times  of  flood  has  a  greatly  increased  volume. 
The  river  varies  in  width  from  50  ft.  in  some  of  the  narrow 
Granite  Gorges,  where  it  bathes  both  rock  walls,  to  500  or  600 
ft.  in  more  open  places.  In  the  283  m.  of  the  Marble  and  Grand 
Canyons,  the  river  falls  2330  ft.,  and  at  one  point  has  a  fall  of 
210  ft.  in  10  m.  The  current  velocity  varies  from  3  to  20  or 
more  miles  per  hour,  being  increased  in  places  by  low  falls  and 
rapids;  but  there  are  no  high  falls  below  the  junction  of  the 
Green  and  Grand. 

Besides  the  canyons  of  the  main  river,  there  are  a  multitude 
of  lateral  canyons  occupied  by  streams  at  intervals  of  heavy 
rain.  As  Powell  says,  the  region  "  is  a  composite  of  thousands, 
and  tens  of  thousands  of  gorges."  There  are  "  thousands  of 
gorges  like  that  below  Niagara  Falls,  and  there  are  a  thousand 
Yosemites."  The  largest  of  all,  the  Grand  Canyon,  has  an 
average  depth  of  4000  ft.  and  a  width  of  45  to  12  m.  For  a 
long  distance,  where  crossing  the  Kaibab  plateau,  the  depth 
is  6000  ft.  For  much  of  the  distance  there  is  an  inner  narrower 
gorge  sunk  in  the  bottom  of  a  broad  outer  canyon.  The  narrow 
gorge  is  in  some  places  no  more  than  3500  ft.  wide  at  the  top. 
To  illustrate  the  depth  of  the  Grand  Canyon,  Powell  writes: 
"  Pluck  up  Mount  Washington  (6293  ft.  high)  by  the  roots  to 
the  level  of  the  sea,  and  drop  it  head  first  into  the  Grand  Canyon, 
and  the  dam  will  not  force  its  waters  over  the  wall." 

While  there  are  notable  differences  in  the  Grand  Canyon 
from  point  to  point,  the  main  elements  are  much  alike  throughout 


348 


GRAND-DUKE 


its  length,  and  are  due  to  the  succession  of  rock  strata  revealed 
in  the  canyon  walls.  At  the  base,  for  some  800  ft.,  there  is  a 
complex  of  crystalline  rocks  of  early  geological  age,  consisting 
of  gneiss,  schist,  slate  and  other  rocks,  greatly  plicated  and 
traversed  by  dikes  and  granite  intrusions.  This  is  an  ancient 
mountain  mass,  which  has  been  greatly  denuded.  On  it  rest 
a  series  of  durable  quartzite  beds  inclined  to  the  horizontal, 
forming  about  800  ft.  more  of  the  lower  canyon  wall.  On  this 
come  first  500  ft.  of  greenish  sandstones  and  then  700  ft.  of 
bedded  sandstone  and  limestone  strata,  some  massive  and  some 
thin,  which  on  weathering  form  a  series  of  alcoves.  These  beds, 
like  those  above,  are  in  nearly  horizontal  position.  Above  this 
comes  1600  ft.  of  limestone — often  a  beautiful  marble,  as  in  the 
Marble  Canyon,  but  in  the  Grand  Canyon  stained  a  brilliant 
red  by  iron  oxide  washed  from  overlying  beds.  Above  this 
"  red  wall  "  are  800  ft.  of  grey  and  bright  red  sandstone  beds 
looking  "  like  vast  ribbons  of  landscape."  At  the  top  of  the 
canyon  is  1000  ft.  of  limestone  with  gypsum  and  chert,  noted 
for  the  pinnacles  and  towers  which  denudation  has  developed. 
It  is  these  different  rock  beds,  with  their  various  colours,  and 
the  differences  in  the  effect  of  weathering  upon  them,  that  give 
the  great  variety  and  grandeur  to  the  canyon  scenery.  There 
are  towers  and  turrets,  pinnacles  and  alcoves,  cliffs,  ledges, 
crags  and  moderate  talus  slopes,  each  with  its  characteristic 
colour  and  form  according  to  the  set  of  strata  in  which  it  lies. 
The  main  river  has  cleft  the  plateau  in  a  huge  gash ;  innumerable 
side  gorges  have  cut  it  to  right  and  left;  and  weathering  has 
etched  out  the  cliffs  and  crags  and  helped  to  paint  it  in  the  gaudy 
colour  bands  that  stretch  before  the  eye.  There  is  grandeur 
here  and  weirdness  in  abundance,  but  beauty  is  lacking.  Powell 
puts  the  case  graphically  when  he  writes:  "  A  wall  of  homo- 
geneous granite  like  that  in  the  Yosemite  is  but  a  naked  wall, 
whether  it  be  1000  or  5000  ft.  high.  Hundreds  and  thousands  of 
feet  mean  nothing  to  the  eye  when  they  stand  in  a  meaningless 
front.  A  mountain  covered  by  pure  snow  10,000  ft.  high  has 
but  little  more  effect  on  the  imagination  than  a  mountain  of 
snow  1000  ft.  high — it  is  but  more  of  the  same  thing;  but  a 
facade  of  seven  systems  of  rock  has  its  sublimity  multiplied 
sevenfold." 

To  the  ordinary  person  most  of  the  Grand  Canyon  is  at 
present  inaccessible,  for,  as  Powell  states,  "  a  year  scarcely 
suffices  to  see  it  all";  and  "it  is  a  region  more  difficult  to 
traverse  than  the  Alps  or  the  Himalayas."  But  a  part  of  the 
canyon  is  now  easily  accessible  to  tourists.  A  trail  leads  from 
the  Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe  railway  at  Flagstaff,  Arizona; 
and  a  branch  line  of  the  railway  extends  from  Williams,  Arizona, 
to  a  hotel  on  the  very  brink  of  the  canyon.  The  plateau,  which 
in  places  bears  an  open  forest,  mainly  of  pine,  varies  in  elevation, 
but  is  for  the  most  part  a  series  of  fairly  level  terrace  tops  with 
steep  faces,  with  mesas  and  buttes  here  and  there,  and,  especially 
near  the  huge  extinct  volcano  of  San  Francisco  mountain, 
with  much  evidence  of  former  volcanic  activity,  including 
numerous  cinder  cones.  The  traveller  comes  abruptly  to  the 
edge  of  the  canyon,  at  whose  bottom,  over  a  mile  below,  is  seen 
the  silvery  thread  of  water  where  the  muddy  torrent  rushes 
along  on  its  never-ceasing  task  of  sawing  its  way  into  the  depths 
of  the  earth.  Opposite  rise  the  highly  coloured  and  terraced 
slopes  of  the  other  canyon  wall,  whose  crest  is  fully  12  m.  distant. 

Down  by  the  river  are  the  folded  rocks  of  an  ancient  mountain 
system,  formed  before  vertebrate  life  appeared  on  the  earth, 
then  worn  to  an  almost  level  condition  through  untold  ages  of 
slow  denudation.  Slowly,  then,  the  mountains  sank  beneath  the 
level  of  the  sea,  and  in  the  Carboniferous  Period — about  the 
time  of  the  formation  of  the  coal-beds— sediments  began  to 
bury  the  ancient  mountains.  This  lasted  through  other  untold 
ages  until  the  Tertiary  Period — through  much  of  the  Palaeozoic 
and  all  of  the  Mesozoic  time — and  a  total  of  from  1 2,000  to  16,000 
ft.  of  sediments  were  deposited.  Since  then  erosion  has  been 
dominant,  and  the  river  has  eaten  its  way  down  to,  and  into, 
the  deeply  buried  mountains,  opening  the  strata  for  us  to  read, 
like  the  pages  of  a  book.  In  some  parts  of  the  plateau  region  as 
much  as  30,000  ft.  of  rock  have  been  stripped  away,  and  over 


an  area  of  200,000  sq.  m.  an  average  of  over  6000  ft.  has  been 
removed. 

The  Grand  Canyon  was  probably  discovered  by  G.L.  de  Cardenas 
in  1540,  but  for  329  years  the  inaccessibility  of  the  region 
prevented  its  .exploration.  Various  people  visited  parts  of  it 
or  made  reports  regarding  it;  and  the  Ives  Expedition  of  1858 
contains  a  report  upon  the  canyon  written  by  Prof.  J.  S.  New- 
berry.  But  it  was  not  until  1869  that  the  first  real  exploration 
of  the  Grand  Canyon  was  made.  In  that  year  Major  J.  W. 
Powell,  with  five  associates  (three  left  the  party  in  the  Grand 
Canyon),  made  the  complete  journey  by  boat  from  the  junction 
of  the  Green  and  Grand  rivers  to  the  lower  end  of  the  Grand 
Canyon.  This  hazardous  journey  ranks  as  one  of  the  most 
daring  and  remarkable  explorations  ever  undertaken  in  North 
America;  and  Powell's  descriptions  of  the  expedition  are 
among  the  most  fascinating  accounts  of  travel  relating  to  the 
continent.  Powell  made  another  expedition  in  1871,  but  did 
not  go  the  whole  length  of  the  canyon.  The  government  survey 
conducted  by  Lieut.  George  M.  Wheeler  also  explored  parts 
of  the  canyon,  and  C.  E.  Button  carried  on  extensive 
studies  of  the  canyon  and  the  contiguous  plateau  region. 
In  1800  Robert  B.  Stanton,  with  six  associates,  went  through 
the  canyon  in  boats,  making  a  survey  to  determine  the 
feasibility  of  building  a  railway  along  its  base.  Two  other 
parties,  one  in  1896  (Nat.  Galloway  and  William  Richmond) 
the  other  in  1897  (George  F.  Flavell  and  companion),  have 
made  the  journey  through  the  canyon.  So  far  as  there  is 
record  these  are  the  only  four  parties  that  have  ever  made 
the  complete  journey  through  the  Grand  Canyon.  It  has 
sometimes  been  said  that  James  White  made  the  passage  of 
the  canyon  before  Powell  did;  but  this  story  rests  upon  no 
real  basis. 

For  accounts  of  the  Grand  Canyon  of  the  Colorado  see  J.  W. 
Powell,  Explorations  of  the  Colorado  River  of  the  West  and  its  Tribu- 
taries (Washington,  1875) ;  J.  W.  Powell,  Canyons  of  the  Colorado 
(Meadville,  Pa.,  1895);  F.  S.  Dellenbaugh,  The  Romance  of  the 
Colorado  River  (New  York,  1902) ;  Capt.  C.  E.  Dutton,  Tertiary 
History  of  the  Grand  Canyon  District,  with  Atlas  (Washington,  1882), 
being  Monograph  No.2,  U.S.  Geological  Survey.  See  also  the  excellent 
topographic  map  of  the  Grand  Canyon  prepared  by  F.  E.  Matthes 
and  published  by  the  U.S.  Geological  Survey.  (R.  S.  T.) 

GRAND-DUKE  (Fr.  grand-due,  Ital.  granduca,  Ger.  Gross- 
hcrzog) ,  a  title  borne  by  princes  ranking  between  king  and  duke. 
The  dignity  was  first  bestowed  in  1567  by  Pope  Pius  V.  on  Duke 
Cosimo  I.  of  Florence,  his  son  Francis  obtaining  the  emperor's 
confirmation  in  1576;  and  the  predicate  "Royal  Highness" 
was  added  in  1699.  In  1806  Napoleon  created  his  brother-in-law 
Joachim  Murat,  grand-duke  of  Berg,  and  in  the  same  year  the 
title  was  assumed  by  the  landgrave  of  Hesse-Darmstadt,  the 
elector  of  Baden,  and  the  new  ruler  of  the  secularized  bishopric 
of  Wiirzburg  (formerly  Ferdinand  III.,  grand-duke  of  Tuscany) 
on  joining  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine.  At  the  present  time, 
according  to  the  decision  of  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  the  title  is 
borne  by  the  sovereigns  of  Luxemburg,  Saxe-Weimar  (grand- 
duke  of  Saxony),  Mecklenburg-Schwerin,  Mecklenburg-Strelitz, 
and  Oldenburg  (since  1829),  as  well  as  by  those  of  Hesse-Darm- 
stadt and  Baden.  The  emperor  of  Austria  includes  among  his 
titles  those  of  grand-duke  of  Cracow  and  Tuscany,  and  the  king 
of  Prussia  those  of  grand-duke  of  the  Lower  Rhine  and  Posen. 
The  title  is  also  retained  by  the  dispossessed  Habsburg-Lorraine 
dynasty  of  Tuscany. 

Grand-duke  is  also  the  conventional  English  equivalent  of 
the  Russian  velikiy  knyaz,  more  properly  "  grand-prince  "  (Ger. 
Grossfurst),  at  one  time  the  title  of  the  rulers  of  Russia,  who, 
as  the  eldest  born  of  the  house  of  Rurik,  exercised  overlordship 
over  the  udyelniye  knyazi  or  local  princes.  On  the  partition  of 
the  inheritance  of  Rurik,  the  eldest  of  each  branch  assumed 
the  title  of  grand-prince.  Under  the  domination  of  the  Golden 
Horde  the  right  to  bestow  the  title  velikiy  knyaz  was  reserved  by 
the  Tatar  Khan,  who  gave  it  to  the  prince  of  Moskow.  In 
Lithuania  this  title  also  symbolized  a  similar  overlordship,  and 
it  passed  to  the  kings  of  Poland  on  the  union  of  Lithuania  with 
the  Polish  republic.  The  style  of  the  emperor  of  Russia  now 


GRANDEE— GRANDMONTINES 


349 


includes  the  titles  of  grand-duke  (oellkiy  knyaz)  of  Smolensk, 
Lithuania,  Volhynia,  Podolia  and  Finland.  Until  1886  this 
title  grand-duke  or  grand-duchess,  with  the  style  "  Imperial 
Highness,"  was  borne  by  all  descendants  of  the  imperial  house. 
It  is  now  confined  to  the  sons  and  daughters,  brothers  and  sisters, 
and  male  grandchildren  of  the  emperor.  The  other  members  of 
the  imperial  house  bear  the  title  of  prince  (knyaz)  and  princess 
(knyaginya,  if  married,  knyazhna,  if  unmarried)  with  the  style  of 
"  Highness."  The  emperor  of  Austria,  as  king  of  Hungary, 
also  bears  this  title  as  "  grand-duke  "  of  Transylvania,  which 
was  erected  into  a  "  grand-princedom  "  (Grossftirstentum)  in 
1765  by  Maria  Theresa. 

GRANDEE  (Span.  Grande),  a  title  of  honour  borne  by  the 
highest  class  of  the  Spanish  nobility.  It  would  appear  to  have 
been  originally  assumed  by  the  most  important  nobles  to  dis- 
tinguish them  from  the  mass  of  the  ricos  hombres,  or  great  barons 
of  the  realm.  It  was  thus,  as  Selden  points  out,  not  a  general 
term  denoting  a  class,  but  "  an  additional  dignity  not  only  to 
all  dukes,  but  to  some  marquesses  and  condes  also  "  (Titles  of 
Honor,  ed.  1672,  p.  478).  It  formerly  implied  certain  privileges; 
notably  that  of  sitting  covered  in  the  royal  presence.  Until 
the  time  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  when  the  power  of  the 
territorial  nobles  was  broken,  the  grandees  had  also  certain  more 
important  rights,  e.g.  freedom  from  taxation,  immunity  from 
arrest  save  at  the  king's  express  command,  and  even — in  certain 
cases— the  right  to  renounce  their  allegiance  and  make  war  on 
the  king.  Their  number  and  privileges  were  further  restricted 
by  Charles  I.  (the  emperor  Charles  V.),  who  reserved  to  the 
crown  the  right  to  bestow  the  title.  The  grandees  of  Spain  were 
further  divided  into  three  classes:  (i)  those  who  spoke  to  the 
king  and  received  his  reply  with  their  heads  covered;  (2)  those 
who  addressed  him  uncovered,  but  put  on  their  hats  to  hear  his 
answer;  (3)  those  who  awaited  the  permission  of  the  king  before 
covering  themselves.  All  grandees  were  addressed  by  the  king 
as  "  my  cousin  "  (mi  primo),  whereas  ordinary  nobles  were 
only  qualified  as  "  my  kinsman  "  (mi  parienle).  The  title  of 
"  grandee,"  abolished  under  King  Joseph  Bonaparte,  was  revived 
in  1834,  when  by  the  Estatudo  real  grandees  were  given  precedence 
in  the  Chamber  of  Peers.  The  designation  is  now,  however, 
purely  titular,  and  implies  neither  privilege  nor  power. 

GRAND  FORKS,  a  city  in  the  Boundary  district  of  British 
Columbia;  situated  at  the  junction  of  the  north  and  south  forks 
of  the  Kettle  river,  2  m.  N.  of  the  international  boundary.  Pop. 
(1908)  about  2500.  It  is  in  a  good  agricultural  district,  but 
owes  its  importance  largely  to  the  erection  here  of  the  extensive 
smelting  plant  of  the  Granby  Consolidated  Company,  which 
smelts  the  ores  obtained  from  the  various  parts  of  the  Boundary 
country,  but  chiefly  those  from  the  Knob  Hill  and  Old  Ironsides 
mines.  The  Canadian  Pacific  railway,  as  well  as  the  Great 
Northern  railway,  runs  to  Grand  Forks,  which  thus  has  excellent 
railway  communication  with  the  south  and  east. 

GRAND  FORKS,  a  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Grand  Forks 
county,  North  Dakota,  U.S.A.,  at  the  junction  of  the  Red  river 
(of  the  North)  and  Red  Lake  river  (whence  its  name),  about 
80  m.  N.  of  Fargo.  Pop.  (1900)  7652,  of  whom  2781  were 
foreign-born;  (1005)  10,127;  (1010)  27,888.  i  It  is  served  by  the 
Northern  Pacific  and  the  Great  Northern  railways,  and  has  a 
considerable  river  traffic,  the  Red  river  (when  dredged)  having  a 
channel  60  ft.  wide  and  4  ft.  deep  at  low  water  below  Grand 
Forks.  At  University,  a  small  suburb,  is  the  University  of 
North  Dakota  (co-educational;  opened  1884).  Affiliated  with 
it  is  Wesley  College  (Methodist  Episcopal),  now  at  Grand  Forks 
(with  a  campus  adjoining  that  of  the  University),  but  formerly 
the  Red  River  Valley  University  at  Wahpeton,  North  Dakota. 
In  1907-1908  the  University  had  57  instructors  and  861  students; 
its  library  had  25,000  bound  volumes  and  5000  pamphlets.  At 
Grand  Forks,  also,  are  St  Bernard's  Ursuline  Academy  (Roman 
Catholic)  and  Grand  Forks  College  (Lutheran).  Among  the 
city's  principal  buildings  are  the  public  library,  the  Federal 
building  and  a  Y.M.C.A.  building.  As  the  centre  of  the  great 
wheat  valley  of  the  Red  river,  it  has  a  busy  trade  in  wheat,  flour 
and  agricultural  machinery  and  implements,  as  well  as  large 


jobbing  interests.  There  are  railway  car-shops  here,  and  among 
the  manufactures  are  crackers,  brooms,  bricks  and  tiles  and 
cement.  The  municipality  owns  its  water-works  and  an  electric 
lighting  plant  for  street  lighting.  In  1801  John  Cameron  (d.  1804) 
erected  a  temporary  trading  post  for  the  North-West  Fur 
Company  on  the  site  of  the  present  city;  it  afterwards  became 
a  trading  post  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company.  The  first  per- 
manent settlement  was  made  in  1871,  and  Grand  Forks  was 
reached  by  the  Northern  Pacific  and  chartered  as  a  city  in  1881. 

GRAND  HAVEN,  a  city,  port  of  entry,  and  the  county-seat  of 
Ottawa  county,  Michigan,  U.S.A.,  on  Lake  Michigan,  at  the 
mouth  of  Grand  river,  30  m.  W.  by  N.  of  Grand  Rapids  and 
78  m.  E.  of  Milwaukee.  Pop.  (1900)  4743,  of  whom  1277  were 
foreign-born;  (1904)  5239;  (1910)  5856.  It  is  served  by  the 
Grand  Trunk  and  the  Pere  Marquette  railways,  and  by  steamboat 
lines  to  Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  other  lake  ports,  and  is  connected 
with  Grand  Rapids  and  Muskegon  by  an  electric  line.  The 
city  manufactures  pianos,  refrigerators,  printing  presses  and 
leather;  is  a  centre  for  the  shipment  of  fruit  and  celery;  and 
has  valuable  fisheries  near — fresh,  salt  and  smoked  fish,  especially 
whitefish,  are  shipped  in  considerable  quantities.  Grand  Haven 
is  the  port  of  entry  for  the  Customs  District  of  Michigan,  and  has 
a  small  export  and  import  trade.  The  municipality  owns  and 
operates  its  water-works  and  electric-lighting  plant.  A  trading 
post  was  established  here  about  1821  by  an  agent  of  the  American 
Fur  Company,  but  the  permanent  settlement  of  the  city  did  not 
begin  until  1834.  Grand  Haven  was  laid  out  as  a  town  in  1836, 
and  was  chartered  as  a  city  in  1867. 

GRANDIER,  URBAN  (1590-1634),  priest  of  the  church  of 
Sainte  Croix  at  Loudun  in  the  department  of  Vienne,  France,  was 
accused  of  witchcraft  in  1632  by  some  hysterical  novices  of 
the  Carmelite  Convent,  where  the  trial,  protracted  for  two 
years,  was  held.  Grandier  was  found  guilty  and  burnt  alive 
at  Loudun  on  the  i8th  of  August  1634. 

GRAND  ISLAND,-  a  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Hall  county, 
Nebraska,  U.S.A.,  on  the-Platte  river,  about  154  m.  W.  by  S. 
of  Omaha.  Pop.  (1900)  7554  (1339  foreign-born) ;  (1910)  10,326. 
It  is  served  by  the  Union  Pacific,  the  Chicago,  Burlington  & 
Quincy,  and  the  St  Joseph  &  Grand  Island  railways,  being  the 
western  terminus  of  the  last-named  line  and  a  southern  terminus 
of  a  branch  of  the  Union  Pacific.  The  city  is  situated  on  a  slope 
skirting  the  broad,  level  bottom-lands  of  the  Platte  river,  in  the 
midst  of  a  fertile  farming  region.  Grand  Island  College  (Baptist ; 
co-educational)  was  established  in  1892  and  the  Grand  Island 
Business  and  Normal  College  in  1890;  and  the  city  is  the  seat 
of  a  state  Sailors'  and  Soldiers'  Home,  established  in  1888. 
Grand  Island  has  a  large  wholesale  trade  in  groceries,  fruits,  &c. ; 
is  an  important  horse-market,  and  has  large  stock-yards.  There 
are  shops  of  the  Union  Pacific  in  the  city,  and  among  its  manu- 
factures are  beet-sugar — Grand  Island  is  in  one  of  the  principal 
beet-sugar-growing  districts  of  the  state — brooms,  wire  fences, 
confectionery  and  canned  corn.  The  most  important  industry 
of  the  county  is  the  raising  and  feeding  of  sheep  and  neat  cattle. 
A  "  Grand  Island  "  was  founded  in  1857,  and  was  named  from 
a  large  island  (nearly  50  m.  long)  in  the  Platte  opposite  its  site; 
but  the  present  city  was  laid  out  by  the  Union  Pacific  in  1866. 
It  was  chartered  as  a  city  in  1873. 

GRANDMONTINES,  a  religious  order  founded  by  St  Stephen 
of  Thiers  in  Auvergne  towards  the  end  of  the  nth  century. 
St  Stephen  was  so  impressed  by  the  lives  of  the  hermits  whom  he 
saw  in  Calabria  that  he  desired  to  introduce  the  same  manner 
of  life  into  his  native  country.  He  was  ordained,  and  in  1073 
obtained  the  pope's  permission  to  establish  an  order.  He 
betook  himself  to  Auvergne,  and  in  the  desert  of  Muret,  near 
Limoges,  he  made  himself  a  hut  of  branches  of  trees  and  lived 
there  for  some  time  in  complete  solitude.  A  few  disciples 
gathered  round  him,  and  a  community  was  formed.  The  rule 
was  not  reduced  to  writing  until  after  Stephen's  death,  1124. 
The  life  was  eremitical  and  very  severe  in  regard  to  silence, 
diet  and  bodily  austerities;  it  was  modelled  after  the  rule  of 
the  Camaldolese,  but  various  regulations  were  adopted  from 
the  Augustinian  canons.  The  superior  was  called  the  "Corrector." 


350 


GRAND  RAPIDS— GRANET 


About  1150  the  hermits,  being  compelled  to  leave  Muret,  settled 
in  the  neighbouring  desert  of  Grandmont,  whence  the  order 
derived  its  name.  Louis  VII.  founded  a  house  at  Vincennes 
near  Paris,  and  the  order  had  a  great  vogue  in  France,  as  many 
as  sixty  houses  being  established  by  1170,  but  it  seems  never  to 
have  found  favour  out  of  France;  it  had,  however,  a  couple  of 
cells  in  England  up  to  the  middle  of  the  isth  century.  The 
system  of  lay  brothers  was  introduced  on  a  large  scale,  and  the 
management  of  the  temporals  was  in  great  measure  left  in  their 
hands;  the  arrangement  did  not  work  well,  and  the  quarrels 
between  the  lay  brothers  and  the  choir  monks  were  a  constant 
source  of  weakness.  Later  centuries  witnessed  mitigations  and 
reforms  in  the  life,  and  at  last  the  order  came  to  an  end  just 
before  the  French  Revolution.  There  were  two  or  three  convents  of 
Grandmontine  nuns.  The  order  played  n<3  great  part  in  history. 

See  Helyot,  Hist,  des  ordres  religieux  (1714),  vii.  cc.  54,  55;  Max 
Heimbucher,  Orden  und  Kongregationen  (1896),  i.  §  31;  and  the 
art.  in  Wetzer  and  Welte,  Kirchenlexicon  (ed.  2),  and  in  Herzog, 
Realencyklopadie  (ed.  3).  (E.  C.  B.) 

GRAND  RAPIDS,  a  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Kent  county, 
Michigan,  U.S.A.,  at  the  head  of  navigation  on  the  Grand  river, 
about  30  m.  from  Lake  Michigan  and  145  m.  W.N.W.  of  Detroit. 
Pop.  (1890)  60,278;  (1900)  87,565,  of  whom  23,896  were 
foreign-born  and  604  were  negroes;  (1910  census)  112,571. 
Of  the  foreign-born  population  in  1900,  11,137  were  Hollanders; 
3318  English-Canadians;  3253  Germans;  1137  Irish;  1060  from 
German  Poland;  and  1026  from  England.  Grand  Rapids  is 
served  by  the  Michigan  Central,  the  Lake  Shore  &  Michigan 
Southern,  the  Grand  Trunk,  the  Pere  Marquette  and  the  Grand 
Rapids  &  Indiana  railways,  and  by  electric  interurban  railways. 
The  valley  here  is  about  2  m.  wide,  with  a  range  of  hills  on 
either  side,  and  about  midway  between  these  hills  the  river  flows 
over  a  limestone  bed,  falling  about  18  ft.  in  i  m.  Factories  and 
mills  line  both  banks,  but  the  business  blocks  are  nearly  all 
along  the  foot  of  the  E.  range  of  hills;  the  finest  residences 
command  picturesque  views  from  the  hills  farther  back,  the 
residences  on  the  W.  side  being  less  pretentious  and  standing 
on  bottom-lands.  The  principal  business  thoroughfares  are 
Canal,  Monroe  and  Division  streets.  Among  the  important 
buildings  are  the  United  States  Government  building  (Grand 
Rapids  is  the  seat  of  the  southern  division  of  the  Federal  judicial 
district  of  western  Michigan),  the  County  Court  house,  the  city 
hall,  the  public  library  (presented  by  Martin  A.  Ryerson  of 
Chicago),  the  Manufacturer's  building,  the  Evening  Press 
building,  the  Michigan  Trust  building  and  several  handsome 
churches.  The  principal  charitable  institutions  are  the  municipal 
Tuberculosis  Sanatorium;  the  city  hospital;  the  Union  Benevo- 
lent Association,  which  maintains  a  home  and  hospital  for  the 
indigent,  together  with  a  training  school  for  nurses;  Saint 
John's  orphan  asylum  (under  the  superintendence  of  the 
Dominican  Sisters);  Saint  Mary's  hospital  (in  charge  of  the 
Sisters  of  Mercy) ;  Butterworth  hospital  (with  a  training  school 
for  nurses);  the  Woman's  Home  and  Hospital,  maintained 
largely  by  the  Woman's  Christian  Temperance  Union;  the 
Aldrich  Memorial  Deaconess'  Home;  the  D.  A.  Blodgett 
Memorial  Children's  Home,  and  the  Michigan  Masonic  Home. 
About  i  m.  N.  of  the  city,  overlooking  the  river,  is  the  Michigan 
Soldiers'  Home,  with  accommodation  for  500.  On  the  E. 
limits  of  the  city  is  Reed's  Lake,  a  popular  resort  during  the 
summer  season.  The  city  is  the  see  of  Roman  Catholic  and 
Protestant  Episcopal  bishops.  In  1907-1908,  through  the 
efforts  of  a  committee  of  the  Board  of  Trade,  interest  was  aroused 
in  the  improvement  of  the  city,  appropriations  were  made  for 
a  "  city  plan,"  and  flood  walls  were  completed  for  the  protection 
of  the  lower  parts  of  the  city  from  inundation.  The  large 
quantities  of  fruit,  cereals  and  vegetables  from  the  surrounding 
country,  and  ample  facilities  for  transportation  by  rail  and  by 
the  river,  which  is  navigable  from  below  the  rapids  to  its  mouth, 
make  the  commerce  and  trade  of  Grand  Rapids  very  important. 
The  manufacturing  interests  are  greatly  promoted  by  the  fine 
water-power,  and  as  a  furniture  centre  the  city  has  a  world-wide 
reputation — the  value  of  the  furniture  manufactured  within  its 


limits  in  1904  amounted  to  $9,409,097,  about  5-5%  of  the  value 
of  all  furniture  manufactured  in  the  United  States.  Grand 
Rapids  manufactures  carpet  sweepers — a  large  proportion  of 
the  whole  world's  product, — flour  and  grist  mill  products, 
foundry  and  machine-shop  products,  planing-mill  products, 
school  seats,  wood-working  tools,  fly  paper,  calcined  plaster, 
barrels,  kegs,  carriages,  wagons,  agricultural  implements  and 
bricks  and  tile.  The  total  factory  product  in  1904  was  valued 
at  $31,032,589,  an  increase  of  39-6%  in  four  years. 

On  the  site  of  Grand  Rapids  there  was  for  a  long  time  a  large 
Ottawa  Indian  village,  and  for  the  conversion  of  the  Indians  a 
Baptist  mission  was  established  in  1824.  Two  years  later  a  trad- 
ing post  joined  the  mission,  in  1833  a  saw  mill  was  built,  and  for 
the  next  few  years  the  growth  was  rapid.  The  settlement  was 
organized  as  a  town  in  1834,  was  incorporated  as  a  village  in  1838, 
and  was  chartered  as  a  city  in  1850,  the  city  charter  being  revised 
in  1857,  1871,  1877  and  1905. 

GRAND  RAPIDS,  a  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Wood  county, 
Wisconsin,  U.S.A.,  on  both  sides  of  the  Wisconsin  river,  about 
137  m.  N.W.  of  Milwaukee.  Pop.  (1900)  4493,  of  whom  1073 
were  foreign-born;  (1905)  6157;  (1910)  6521.  It  is  served 
by  the  Minneapolis,  St  Paul  &  Sault  Ste  Marie,  the  Green  Bay  & 
Western,  the  Chicago  &  North-Western,  and  the  Chicago,  Mil- 
waukee &  St  Paul  railways.  It  is  a  railway  and  distributing 
centre,  and  has  manufactories  of  lumber,  sash,  doors  and  blinds, 
hubs  and  spokes,  woodenware,  paper,  wood-pulp,  furniture  and 
flour.  The  public  buildings  include  a  post  office,  court  house,  city 
hall,  city  hospital  and  the  T.  B.  Scott  Free  Public  Library  (1892). 
The  city  owns  and  operates  its  water-works;  the  electric-lighting 
and  telephone  companies  are  co-operative.  Grand  Rapids  was 
first  chartered  as  a  city  in  1869.  That  part  of  Grand  Rapids  on 
the  west  bank  of  the  Wisconsin  river  was  formerly  the  city  of 
Centralia  (pop.  in  1890,  1435);  it  was  annexed  in  1900. 

GRANDSON  (Ger.  Grandsee),  a  town  in  the  Swiss  canton  of 
Vaud,  near  the  south-western  end  of  the,  Lake  of  Neuchatel, 
and  by  rail  20  m.  S.W.  of  Neuchatel  and  3  m.  N.  of  Yverdon. 
Its  population  in  1900  was  1771,  mainly  French-speaking  and 
Protestant.  Its  ancient  castle  was  long  the  home  of  a  noted  race 
of  barons,  while  in  the  very  old  church  (once  belonging  to  a 
Benedictine  monastery)  there  are  a  number  of  Roman  columns, 
&c.,  from  Avenches  and  Yverdon.  It  has  now  a  tobacco  factory. 
Its  lords  were  vassals  of  the  house  of  Savoy,  till  in  1475  the  castle 
was  taken  by  the  Swiss  at  the  beginning  of  their  war  with  Charles 
the  Bold,  duke  of  Burgundy,  whose  ally  was  the  duchess  of  Savoy. 
It  was  retaken  by  Charles  in  February  1476,  and  the  garrison 
put  to  death.  The  Swiss  hastened  to  revenge  this  deed,  and  in 
a  famous  battle  (2nd  March  1476)  defeated  Charles  with  great 
loss,  capturing  much  booty.  The  scene  of  the  battle  was  between 
Concise  and  Corcelles,  north-east  of  the  town,  and  is  marked  by 
several  columns,  perhaps  ancient  menhirs.  Grandson  was  thence- 
forward till  1798  ruled  in  common  by  Berne  and  Fribourg,  and 
then  was  given  to  the  canton  du  Leman,  which  in  1803  became 
that  of  Vaud. 

See  F.  Chabloz,  La  Bataille  de  Grandson  (Lausanne,  1897). 

GRANET,  FRANCOIS  MARIUS  (1777-1849),  French  painter, 
was  born  at  Aix  in  Provence,  on  the  I7th  of  December  1777;  his 
father  was  a  small  builder.  The  boy's  strong  desires  led  his 
parents  to  place  him — after  some  preliminary  teaching  from 
a  passing  Italian  artist — in  a  free  school  of  art  directed  by 
M.  Constantin,  a  landscape  painter  of  some  reputation.  In  1793 
Granet  followed  the  volunteers  of  Aix  to  the  siege  of  Toulon, 
at  the  close  of  which  he  obtained  employment  as  a  decorator  in 
the  arsenal.  Whilst  a  lad  he  had,  at  Aix,  made  the  acquaintance 
of  the  young  comte  de  Forbin,  and  upon  his  invitation  Granet, 
in  the  year  1797,  went  to  Paris.  De  Forbin  was  one  of  the 
pupils  of  David,  and  Granet  entered  the  same  studio.  Later  he 
got  possession  of  a  cell  in  the  convent  of  Capuchins,  which, 
having  served  for  a  manufactory  of  assignats  during  the  Revolu- 
tion, was  afterwards  inhabited  almost  exclusively  by  artists. 
In  the  changing  lights  and  shadows  of  the  corridors  of  the 
Capuchins,  Granet  found  the  materials  for  that  one  picture  to 
the  painting  of  which,  with  varying  success,  he  devoted  his  life. 


GRANGE— GRANITE 


In  1802  he  left  Paris  for  Rome,  where  he  remained  until  1819, 
when  he  returned  to  Paris,  bringing  with  him  besides  various 
other  works  one  of  fourteen  repetitions  of  his  celebrated  Choeur 
des  Capucins,  executed  in  1811.  The  figures  of  the  monks 
celebrating  mass  are  taken  in  this  subject  as  a  substantive  part 
of  the  architectural  effect,  and  this  is  the  case  with  all  Granet's 
works,  even  with  those  in  which  the  figure  subject  would  seem 
to  assert  its  importance,  and  its  historical  or  romantic  interest. 
"  Stella  painting  a  Madonna  on  his  Prison  Wall,"  1810  (Leuchten- 
berg  collection);  "  Sodoma  a  I'h&pital,"  1815  (Louvre); 
"  Basilique  basse  de  St  Francois  d'Assise,"  1823  (Louvre); 
"  Rachat  de  prisonniers,"  1831  (Louvre);  "  Mort  de  Poussin," 
1834  (Villa  Demidoff,  Florence),  are  among  his  principal  works; 
all  are  marked  by  the  same  peculiarities,  everything  is  sacrificed 
to  tone.  In  1819  Louis  Philippe  decorated  Granet,  and  after- 
wards named  him  Chevalier  de  1'Ordre  St  Michel,  and  Conser- 
vateur  des  tableaux  de  Versailles  (1826).  He  became  member  of 
the  institute  in  1830;  but  in  spite  of  these  honours,  and  the 
ties  which  bound  him  to  M.  de  Forbin,  then  director  of  the  Louvre, 
Granet  constantly  returned  to  Rome.  After  1848  he  retired  to 
Aix,  immediately  lost  his  wife,  and  died  himself  on  the  2ist  of 
November  1849.  He  bequeathed  to  his  native  town  the  greater 
part  of  his  fortune  and  all  his  collections,  now  exhibited  in  the 
Musee,  together  with  a  very  fine  portrait  of  the  donor  painted 
by  Ingres  in  1811. 

GRANGE  (through  the  A.-Fr.  graunge,  from  the  Med.  Lat. 
granea,  a  place  for  storing  grain,  granum),  properly  a  granary 
or  barn.  In  the  middle  ages  a  "  grange  "  was  a  detached  portion 
of  a  manor  with  farm-houses  and  barns  belonging  to  a  lord  or  to 
a  religious  house;  in  it  the  crops  could  be  conveniently  stored  for 
the  purpose  of  collecting  rent  or  tithe.  Thus,  such  barns  are  often 
known  as  "  tithe-barns."  In  many  cases  a  chapel  was  included 
among  the  buildings  or  stood  apart  as  a  separate  edifice.  The 
word  is  still  used  as  a  name  for  a  superior  kind  of  farm-house, 
or  for  a  country-house  which  has  farm-buildings  and  agricultural 
land  attached  to  it. 

Architecturally  considered,  the  "  grange  "  was  usually  a  long 
building  with  high  wooden  roof,  sometimes  divided  by  posts  or 
columns  into  a  sort  of  nave  and  aisles,  and  with  walls  strongly 
buttressed.  Sometimes  these  granges  were  of  very  great  extent; 
one  at  St  Leonards,  Hampshire,  was  originally  225  ft.  long  by 
75  ft.  wide,  and  a  still  larger  one  (303  ft.  long)  existed  at  Chertsey. 
Ancient  granges,  or  tithe-barns,  still  exist  at  Glastonbury, 
Bradford-on-Avon,  St  Mary's  Abbey,  York,  and  at  Coxwold. 
A  fine  example  at  Peterborough  was  pulled  down  at  the  end  of 
the  ipth  century.  In  France  there  are  many  examples  in  stone  of 
the  1 2th,  i3th  and  i4th  centuries;  some  divided  into  a  central 
and  two  side  aisles  by  arcades  in  stone.  Externally  granges  are 
noticeable  on  account  of  their  great  roofs  and  the  slight  elevation 
of  the  eaves,  from  8  to  10  ft.  only  in  height.  In  the  I5th  century 
they  were  sometimes  protected  by  moats  and  towers.  At 
Ardennes  in  Normandy,  where  the  grange  was  154  ft.  long; 
Vauclerc  near  Laon,  Picardy,  246  ft.  long  and  in  two  storeys; 
at  Perrieres,  St  Vigor,  near  Bayeux,  and  Ouilly  near  Falaise,  all 
in  Normandy;  and  at  St  Martin-au-Bois  (Oise)  are  a  series  of 
fine  examples.  Attached  to  the  abbey  of  Longchamps,  near 
Paris,  is  one  of  the  best-preserved  granges  in  France,  with  walls 
in  stone  and  internally  divided  into  three  aisles  in  oak  timber 
of  extremely  fine  construction. 

In  the  social  economic  movement  in  the  United  States  of 
America,  which  began  in  1867  and  was  known  as  the  "  Farmers' 
Movement,"  "  grange  "  was  adopted  as  the  name  for  a  local 
chapter  of  the  Order  of  the  Patrons  of  Husbandry,  and  the  move- 
ment is  thus  often  known  as  the  "  Grangers'  Movement  "(see 
FARMERS'  MOVEMENT).  There  are  a  National  Grange  at  Wash- 
ington, supervising  the  local  divisions,  and  state  granges  in 
most  states. 

GRANGEMOUTH,  a  police  burgh  and  seaport  of  Stirlingshire, 
Scotland.  Pop.  (1901)  8386.  It  is  situated  on  the  south  shore 
of  the  estuary  of  the  Forth,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Carron  and  also 
of  Grange  Burn,  a  right-hand  tributary  of  the  Carron,  3  m.  N.E. 
of  Falkirk  by  the  North  British  and  Caledonian  railways.  It 


is  the  terminus  of  the  Forth  and  Clyde  Canal,  from  the  opening 
of  which  (1789)  its  history  may  be  dated.  The  principal  buildings 
are  the  town  hall  (in  the  Greek  style),  public  hall,  public  institute 
and  free  library,  and  there  is  a  public  park  presented  by  the 
marquess  of  Zetland.  Since  1810,  when  it  became  a  head  port,  it 
has  gradually  attained  the  position  of  the  chief  port  of  the  Forth 
west  of  Leith.  The  first  dock  (opened  in  1846),  the  second 
(1859)  and  the  third  (1882)  cover  an  area  of  28  acres,  with  timber 
ponds  of  44  acres  and  a  total  quayage  of  2500  yards.  New 
docks,  93  acres  in  extent,  with  an  entrance  from  the  firth,  were 
opened  in  1905  at  a  cost  of  more  than  £1,000,000.  The  works 
rendered  it  necessary  to  divert  the  influx  of  the  Grange  from  the 
Carron  to  the  Forth.  Timber,  pig-iron  and  iron  ore  are  the  lead- 
ing imports,  and  coal,  produce  and  iron  the  chief  exports.  The 
industries  include  shipbuilding,  rope  and  sail  making  and  iron 
founding.  There  is  regular  steamer  communication  with  London, 
Christiania,  Hamburg,  Rotterdam  and  Amsterdam.  Experi- 
ments in  steam  navigation  were  carried  out  in  1802  with  the 
"  Charlotte  Dundas  "  on  the  Forth  and  Clyde  Canal  at  Grange- 
mouth.  Kersa  House  adjoining  the  town  on  the  S.W.  is  a  seat 
of  the  marquess  of  Zetland. 

GRANGER,  JAMES  (1723-1776),  English  clergyman  and  print- 
collector,  was  born  in  Dorset  in  1723.  He  went  to  Oxford, 
and  then  entered  holy  orders,  becoming  vicar  of  Shiplake;  but 
apart  from  his  hobby  of  portrait-collecting,  which  resulted  in 
the  principal  work  associated  with  his  name,  and  the  publication 
of  some  sermons,  his  life  was  uneventful.  Yet  a  new  word  was 
added  to  the  language — "  to  grangerize  " — on  account  of  him. 
In  1769  he  published  in  two  quarto  volumes  a  Biographical 
History  of  England  "  consisting  of  characters  dispersed  in  different 
clashes,  and  adapted  to  a  methodical  catalogue  of  engraved 
British  heads";  this  was  "intended  as  an  essay  towards  re- 
ducing our  biography  to  a  system,  and  a  help  to  the  knowledge 
of  portraits."  The  work  was  supplemented  in  later  editions  by 
Granger,  and  still  further  editions  were  brought  out  by  the  Rev. 
Mark  Noble,  with  additions  from  Granger's  materials.  Blank 
leaves  were  left  for  the  filling  in  of  engraved  portraits  for  extra 
illustration  of  the  text,  and  it  became  a  favourite  pursuit  to 
discover  such  illustrations  and  insert  them  in  a  Granger,  so  that 
"  grangerizing  "  became  a  term  for  such  an  extra-illustration 
of  any  work,  especially  with  cuts  taken  from  other  books.  The 
immediate  result  of  the  appearance  of  Granger's  own  work  was 
the  rise  in  value  of  books  containing  portraits,  which  were  cut  out 
and  inserted  in  collector's  copies. 

GRANITE  (adapted  from  the  Ital.  granito,  grained;  Lat. 
granum,  grain),  the  group  designation  for  a  family  of  igneous 
rocks  whose  essential  characteristics  are  that  they  are  of  acid 
composition  (containing  high  percentages  of  silica),  consist 
principally  of  quartz  and  felspar,  with  some  mica,  hornblende 
or  augite,  and  are  of  holocrystalline  or  "  granitoid  "  structure. 
In  popular  usage  the  term  is  given  to  almost  any  crystalline  rock 
which  resembles  granite  in  appearance  or  properties.  Thus 
syenites,  diorites,  gabbros,  diabases,  porphyries,  gneiss,  and  even 
limestones  and  dolomites,  are  bought  and  sold  daily  as  "granites." 
True  granites  are  common  rocks,  especially  among  the  older 
strata  of  the  earth's  crust.  They  have  great  variety  in  colour 
and  general  appearance,  some  being  white  or  grey,  while  others 
are  pink,  greenish  or  yellow:  this  depends  mainly  on  the  state 
of  preservation  of  their  felspars,  which  are  their  most  abundant 
minerals,  and  partly  also  on  the  relative  proportion  in  which 
they  contain  biotite  and  other  dark  coloured  silicates.  Many 
granites  have  large  rounded  or  angular  crystals  of  felspar  (Shap 
granite,  many  Cornish  granites),  well  seen  on  polished  faces. 
Others  show  an  elementary  foliation  or  banding  (e.g.  Aberdeen 
granite).  Rounded  or  oval  dark  patches  frequently  appear  in 
the  granitic  matrix  of  many  Cornish  rocks  of  this  group. 

In  the  field  granite  usually  occurs  in  great  masses,  covering 
wide  areas.  These  are  generally  elliptical  or  nearly  circular 
and  may  be  20  m.  in  diameter  or  more.  In  the  same  district 
separate  areas  or  "  bosses  "  of  granite  may  be  found,  all  having 
much  in  common  in  their  mineralogical  and  structural  features, 
and  such  groups  have  probably  all  proceeded  from  the  same 


352 


GRANITE 


focus  or  deep-seated  source.  Towards  their  margins  these 
granite  outcrops  often  show  modifications  by  which  they  pass  into 
diorite  or  syenite,  &c.;  they  may  also  be  finer  grained  (like 
porphyries)  or  rich  in  tourmaline,  or  intersected  by  many  veins  of 
pegmatite.  From  the  main  granite  dikes  or  veins  often  run  out 
into  the  surrounding  rocks,  thus  proving  that  the  granite  is 
intrusive  and  has  forced  its  way  upwards  by  splitting  apart  the 
strata  among  which  it  lies.  Further  evidence  of  this  is  afforded 
by  the  alteration  which  the  granite  has  produced  through  a  zone 
which  varies  from  a  few  yards  to  a  mile  or  more  in  breadth 
around  it.  In  the  vicinity  of  intrusive  granites  slates  become 
converted  into  hornfelses  containing  biotite,  chiastolite  or 
andalusite,  sillimanite  and  a  variety  of  other  minerals;  lime- 
stones recrystallize  as  marbles,  and  all  rocks,  according  to  their 
composition,  are  more  or  less  profoundly  modified  in  such  a  way 
as  to  prove  that  they  have  been  raised  to  a  high  temperature  by 
proximity  to  the  molten  intrusive  mass.  Where  exposed  in 
cliffs  and  other  natural  sections  many  granites  have  a  rudely 
columnar  appearance.  Others  weather  into  large  cuboidal 
blocks  which  may  produce  structures  resembling  cyclopean 
masonry.  The  tors  of  the  west  of  England  are  of  this  nature. 
These  differences  depend  on  the  disposition  of  the  joint  cracks 
which  traverse  the  rock  and  are  opened  up  by  the  action  of 
frost  and  weathering. 

The  majority  of  granites  are  so  coarse  in  grain  that  their 
principal  component  minerals  may  be  identified  in  the  hand 
specimens  by  the  unaided  eye.  The  felspar  is  pearly,  white 
or  pink,  with  smooth  cleaved  surfaces;  the  quartz  is  usually 
transparent,  glassy  with  rough  irregular  fractures;  the  micas 
appear  as  shining  black  or  white  flakes.  Very  coarse  granites 
are  called  pegmatite  or  giant  granite,  while  very  fine  granites 
are  known  as  microgranites  (though  the  latter  term  has  also  been 
applied  to  certain  porphyries).  Many  granites  show  pearly 
scales  of  white  mica;  others  contain  dark  green  or  black  horn- 
blende in  small  prisms.  Reddish  grains  of  sphene  or  of  garnet 
are  occasionally  visible.  In  the  tourmaline  granites  prisms  of 
black  schorl  occur  either  singly  or  in  stellate  groups.  The 
parallel  banded  structures  of  many  granites,  which  may  be 
original  or  due  to  crushing,  connect  these  rocks  with  the  granite 
gneisses  or  orthogneisses. 

Under  the  microscope  the  felspar  is  mainly  orthoclase  with 
perthite  or  microcline,  while  a  small  amount  of  plagioclase 
(ranging  from  oligoclase  to  albite)  is  practically  never  absent. 
These  minerals  are  often  clouded  by  a  deposit  of  fine  mica  and 
kaolin,  due  to  weathering.  The  quartz  is  transparent,  irregular 
in  form,  destitute  of  cleavage,  and  is  filled  with  very  small 
cavities  which  contain  a  fluid,  a  mobile  bubble  and  sometimes 
a  minute  crystal.  The  micas,  brown  and  white,  are  often  in 
parallel  growth.  The  hornblende  of  granites  is  usually  pale 
green  in  section,  the  augite  and  enstatite  nearly  colourless. 
Tourmaline  may  be  brown,  yellow  or  blue,  and  often  the  same 
crystal  shows  zones  of  different  colours.  Apatite,  zircon  and 
iron  oxides,  in  small  crystals,  are  always  present.  Among  the 
less  common  accessories  may  be  mentioned  pinkish  garnets; 
andalusite  in  small  pleochroic  crystals ;  colourless  grains  of 
topaz;  six-sided  compound  crystals  of  cordierite,  which  weather 
to  dark  green  pinite;  blue-black  hornblende  (riebeckite),  beryl, 
tinstone,  orthite  and  pyrites. 

The  sequence  of  crystallization  in  the  granites  is  of  .a  normal 
type,  and  may  be  ascertained  by  observing  the  perfection  with 
which  the  different  minerals  have  crystallized  and  the  order  in 
which  they  enclose  one  another.  Zircon,  apatite  and  iron  oxides 
are  the  first;  their  crystals  are  small,  very  perfect  and  nearly 
free  from  enclosures;  they  are  followed  by  hornblende  and 
biotite;  if  muscovite  is  present  it  succeeds  the  brown  mica. 
Of  the  felspars -the  plagioclase  separates  first  and  forms  well- 
shaped  crystals  of  which  the  central  parts  may  be  more  basic 
than  the  outer  zones.  Last  come  orthoclase,  quartz,  microcline 
and  micropegmatite,  which  fill  up  the  irregular  spaces  left 
between  the  earlier  minerals.  Exceptions  to  this  sequence  are 
unusual;  sometimes  the  first  of  the  felspars  have  preceded  the 
hornblende  or  biotite  which  may  envelop  them  in  ophitic  manner. 


An  earlier  generation  of  felspar,  and  occasionally  also  of  quartz, 
may  be  represented  by  large  and  perfect  crystals  of  these  minerals 
giving  the  rock  a  porphyritic  character. 

Many  granites  have  suffered  modification  by  the  action  of 
vapours  emitted  during  cooling.  Hydrofluoric  and  boric 
emanations  exert  a  profound  influence  on  granitic  rocks;  their 
felspar  is  resolved  into  aggregates  of  kaolin,  muscovite  and 
quartz;  tourmaline  appears,  largely  replacing  the  brown  mica; 
topaz  also  is  not  uncommon.  In  this  way  the  rotten  granite  or 
china  stone,  used  in  pottery,  originates;  and  over  considerable 
areas  kaolin  replaces  the  felspar  and  forms  valuable  sources  of 
china  clay.  Veins  of  quartz,  tourmaline  and  chlorite  may 
traverse  the  granite,  containing  tinstone  often  in  workable 
quantities.  These  veins  are  the  principal  sources  of  tin  in  Corn- 
wall, but  the  same  changes  may  appear  in  the  body  of  the 
granite  without  being  restricted  to  veins,  and  tinstone  occurs 
also  as  an  original  constituent  of  some  granite  pegmatites. 

Granites  may  also  be  modified  by  crushing.  Their  crystals 
tend  to  lose  their  original  forms  and  to  break  into  mosaics  of 
interlocking  grains.  The  latter  structure  is  very  well  seen  in  the 
quartz,  which  is  a  brittle  mineral  under  stress.  White  mica 
develops  in  the  felspars.  The  larger  crystals  are  converted  into 
lenticular  or  elliptical "  augen,"  which  may  be  shattered  through- 
out or  may  have  a  peripheral  seam  of  small  detached  granules 
surrounding  a  still  undisintegrated  core.  Streaks  of  "  granu- 
litic  "  or  pulverized  material  wind  irregularly  through  the  rock, 
giving  it  a  roughly  foliated  character. 

The  interesting  structural  variation  of  granite  in  which  there 
are  spheroidal  masses  surrounded  by  a  granitic  matrix  is  known 
as  "  orbicular  granite."  The  spheroids  range  from  a  fraction 
of  an  inch  to  a  foot  in  diameter,  and  may  have  a  felspar  crystal 
at  the  centre.  Around  this  there  may  be  several  zones,  alternately 
lighter  and  darker  in  colour,  consisting  of  the  essential  minerals 
of  the  rock  in  different  proportions.  Radiate  arrangement  is 
sometimes  visible  in  the  crystals  of  the  whole  or  part  of  the 
spheroid.  Spheroidal  granites  of  this  sort  are  found  in  Sweden, 
Finland,  Ireland,  &c.  In  other  cases  the  spheroids  are  simply 
dark  rounded  lumps  of  biotite,  in  fine  scales.  These  are  probably 
due  to  the  adhesion  of  the  biotite  crystals  to  one  another  as 
they  separated  from  the  rock  magma  at  an  early  stage  in  its 
crystallization.  The  Rapakiwi  granites  of  Finland  have  many 
round  or  ovoidal  felspar  crystals  scattered  through  a  granitic 
matrix.  These  larger  felspars  have  no  crystalline  outlines  and 
consist  of  orthoclase  or  microcline  surrounded  by  borders  of 
white  oligoclase.  Often  they  enclose  dark  crystals  of  biotite 
and  hornblende,  arranged  zonally.  Many  of  these  granites 
contain  tourmaline,  fluorite  and  monazite.  In  most  granite 
masses,  especially  near  their  contacts  with  the  surrounding  rocks, 
it  is  common  to  find  enclosures  of  altered  sedimentary  or  igneous 
materials  which  are  more  or  less  dissolved  and  permeated  by 
the  granitic  magma. 

The  chemical  composition  of  a  few  granites  from  different  parts 
of  the  world  is  given  below : — 


SiO,. 

A12O3. 

Fe2O3. 

FeO. 

MgO. 

CaO. 

Na2O. 

K2O. 

I. 
II. 
III. 

IV. 
V. 
VI. 

74-69 
71-33 
72-93 
76-12 
73-90 
68-87 

16-21 
11-18 

13-87 
12-18 
13-65 
16-62 

3-96 
1-94 

I-2I 

0-28 
o-43 

1-16 

1-45 
0-79 
0-72 
0-42 
2-72 

0-48 
0-88 
0-51 

I-I2 
0-14 
I  -6O 

0-28 

2-IO 

0-74 

i-54 
0-23 
0-71 

1-18 

3-5i 
3-68 

2-55 
2-53 
i  -80 

3-64 
3-49 
3-74 
3-21 

7-99 
6-48 

I.  Carn  Brea,  Cornwall  (Phillips);  II.  Mazaruni,  Brit.  Guiana 
(Harrison);  III.  Rodo,  near  Alno,  Vesternorrland,  Sweden  (Holm- 
quist) ;  IV.  Abruzzen,  a  group  of  hills  in  the  Riesengebirge  (Milch) ; 
V.  Pikes  Peak,  Colorado  (Matthews);  VI.  Wilson's  Creek,  near 
Omeo,  Victoria  (Hpwitt). 

Only  the  most  important  components  are  shown  in  the  table, 
but  all  granites  contain  also  small  amounts  of  zirconia,  titanium 
oxide,  phosphoric  acid,  sulphur,  oxides  of  barium,  strontium, 
manganese  and  water.  These  are  in  all  cases  less  than  I  %,  and 
usually  much  less  than  this,  except  the  water,  which  may  be  2  or 
3  %  in  weathered  rocks.  From  the  chemical  composition  it  may  be 
computed  that  granites  contain,  on  an  average,  35  to  55  %  of  quartz, 
20  to  30%  of  orthoclase,  20  to  30%  of  plagioclase  felspar  (including 
the  albite  of  microperthite)  and  5  to  10%  of  ferromagnesian 


GRAN  SASSO  D'lTALIA— GRANT,  SIR  F. 


353 


silicates  and  minor  accessories  such  as  apatite,  zircon,  sphene  and 
iron  oxides.  The  aplites,  pegmatites,  graphic  granites  and  musco- 
vite  granites  are  usually  richest  in  silica,  while  with  increase  of  biotite 
and  hornblende,  augite  and  enstatite  the  analyses  show  the  presence 
of  more  magnesia,  iron  and  lime. 

In  the  weathering  of  granite  the  quartz  suffers  little  change; 
the  felspar  passes  into  dull  cloudy,  soft  aggregates  of  kaolin,  mus- 
covite  and  secondary  quartz,  while  chlorite,  quartz  and  calcite 
replace  the  biotite,  hornblende  and  augite.  The  rock  often  assumes 
a  rusty  brown  colour  from  the  liberation  of  the  oxides  of  iron,  and 
the  decomposed  mass  is  friable  and  can  easily  be  dug  with  a  spade; 
where  the  granite  has  been  cut  by  joint  planes  not  too  close  together 
weathering  proceeds  from  their  surfaces  and  large  rounded  blocks 
may  be  left  embedded  in  rotted  materials.  The  amount  of  water 
in  the  rock  increases  and  part  of  the  alkalis  is  carried  away  in 
solution;  they  form  valuable  sources  of  mineral  food  to  plants. 
The  chemical  changes  are  shown  by  the  following  analyses: 


H2O. 

SiO2. 

TiO2. 

A1203. 

FeO. 

Fe20,. 

CaO. 

MgO. 

Na2O. 

K2O. 

P206. 

I. 
II. 

III. 

1-22 

3-27 
4-70 

69-33 
66-82 

65-69 

n.d. 
n.d. 
0-31 

H-33 
15-62 

15-23 

3-60 
1-69 

1-88 
4-39 

3'2i 

3-13 
2-63 

2-44 
2-76 
2-64 

2-70 
2-58 

2-12 

2-67 

2-44 

2-OO 

0-10 

n.d. 
0-06 

Analyses  of  I.,  fresh  grey  granite;  II.  brown  moderately  firm 
granite;  III.  residual  sand,  produced  by  the  weathering  of  the 
same  mass  (anal.  G.  P.  Merrill). 

The  differences  are  surprisingly  small  and  are  principally 
an  increase  in  the  water  and  a  diminution  in  the  amount  of 
alkalis  and  lime  together  with  the  oxidation  of  the  ferrous 
oxide.  (J.  S.  F.) 

GRAN  SASSO  D'lTALIA  ("  Great  Rock  of  Italy  "),  a  mountain 
of  the  Abruzzi,  Italy,  the  culminating  point  of  the  Apennines, 
9560  ft.  in  height.  In  formation  it  resembles  the  limestone  Alps 
of  Tirol  and  there  are  on  its  elevated  plateaus  a  number  of  doline 
or  funnel-shaped  depressions  into  which  the  melted  snow  and 
the  rain  sink.  The  summit  is  covered  with  snow  for  the  greater 
part  of  the  year.  Seen  from  the  Adriatic,  Monte  Corno,  as  it  is 
sometimes  called,  from  its  resemblance  to  a  horn,  affords  a 
magnificent  spectacle ;  the  Alpine  region  beneath  its  summit 
is  still  the  home  of  the  wild  boar,  and  here  and  there  are  dense 
woods  of  beech  and  pine.  The  group  has  numerous  other  lofty 
peaks,  of  which  the  chief  are  the  Pizzo  d  Intermesole  (8680  ft.), 
the  Corno  Piccolo  (8650  ft.),  the  Pizzo  Cefalone  (8307  ft.)  and 
the  Monte  della  Portella  (7835  ft.).  The  most  convenient 
starting-point  for  the  ascent  is  Assergi,  10  m.  N.E.  of  Aquila, 
at  the  S.  foot  of  the  Gran  Sasso.  The  Italian  Alpine  Club  has 
erected  a  hut  S.W.  of  the  principal  summit,  and  has  published  a 
special  guidebook  (E.  Abbate,  Guida  al  Gran  Sasso  d'  Italia, 
Rome,  1888).  The  view  from  the  summit  extends  to  the 
Tyrrhenian  Sea  on  the  west  and  the  mountains  of  Dalmatia  on 
the  east  in  clear  weather.  The  ascent  was  first  made  in  1794 
by  Orazio  Delfico  from  the  Teramo  side.  In  Assergi  is  the 
interesting  church  of  Sta.  Maria  Assunta,  dating  from  1150, 
with  later  alterations  (see  Gavini,  in  L'Arte,  1901,  316,  391). 

GRANT,  SIR  ALEXANDER,  8th  Bart.  (1826-1884),  British 
scholar  and  educationalist,  was  born  in  New  York  on  the  i3th  of 
September  1826.  After  a  childhood  spent  in  the  West  Indies, 
he  was  educated  at  Harrow  and  Oxford.  He  entered  Oxford 
as  scholar  of  Balliol,  and  subsequently  held  a  fellowship  at  Oriel 
from  1849  to  1860.  He  made  a  special  study  of  the  Aristotelian 
philosophy,  and  in  1857  published  an  edition  of  the  Ethics 
(4th  ed.  1885)  which  became  a  standard  text-book  at  Oxford. 
In  1855  he  was  one  of  the  examiners  for  the  Indian  Civil  Service, 
and  in  1856  a  public  examiner  in  classics  at  Oxford.  In  the 
latter  year  he  succeeded  to  the  baronetcy.  }n  1859  he  went  to 
Madras  with  Sir  Charles  Trevelyan,  and  was  appointed  inspector 
of  schools ;  the  next  year  he  removed  to  Bombay,  to  fill  the  post 
of  Professor  of  History  and  Political  Economy  in  the  Elphinstone 
College.  Of  this  he  became  Principal  in  1862;  and,  a  year 
later,  vice-chancellor  of  Bombay  University,  a  post  he  held  from 
1863  to  1865  and  again  from  1865  to  1868.  In  1865  he  took  upon 
himself  also  the  duties  of  Director  of  Public  Instruction  for 
Bombay  Presidency.  In  1868  he  was  appointed  a  member  of 
the  Legislative  Council.  In  the  same  year,  upon  the  death  of 
Sir  David  Brewster,.he  was  appointed  Principal  of  Edinburgh 

XII.    12 


University,  which  had  conferred  an  honorary  LL.D.  degree  upon 
him  in  1865.  From  that  time  till  his  death  (which  occurred  in 
Edinburgh  on  the  3Oth  of  November  1884)  his  energies  were 
entirely  devoted  to  the  well-being  of  the  University.  The 
institution  of  the  medical  school  in  the  University  was  almost 
solely  due  to  his  initiative;  and  the  Tercentenary  Festival, 
celebrated  in  1884,  was  the  result  of  his  wisely  directed  ethu- 
siasm.  In  that  year  he  published  The  Story  of  the  University  of 
Edinburgh  during  its  First  Three  Hundred  Years.  He  was 
created  Hon.  D.C.L.  of  Oxford  in  i88ov  and  an  honorary  fellow 
of  Oriel  College  in  1882. 

GRANT,  ANNE  (1755-1838),  Scottish  writer,  generally  known 
as  Mrs  Grant  of  Laggan,  was  born  in  Glasgow,  on  the  2ist  of 
February  1755.  Her  childhood  was  spent  in  America,  her  father, 
Duncan  MacVicar,  being  an  army  officer  on 
service  there.  In  1768  the  family  returned 
to  -Scotland,  and  in  1779  Anne  married 
James  Grant,  an  army  chaplain,  who  was 
also  minister  of  the  parish  of  Laggan,  near 
Fort  Augustus,  Inverness,  where  her  father 
was  barrack-master.  On  her  husband's  death  in  1801  she 
was  left  with  a  large  family  and  a  small  income.  In  1802  she 
published  by  subscription  a  volume  of  Original  Poems,  with 
some  Translations  from  the  Gaelic,  which  was  favourably  received. 
In  1806  her  Letters  from  the  Mountains,  with  their  spirited  descrip- 
tion of  Highland  scenery  and  legends,  awakened  much  interest. 
Her  other  works  are  Memoirs  of  an  American  Lady,  with  Sketches 
of  Manners  and  Scenery  in  America  as  they  existed  previous  to 
the  Revolution  (1808),  containing  reminiscences  of  her  childhood; 
Essays  on  the  Superstitions  of  the  Highlanders  of  Scotland  (1811); 
and  Eighteen  Hundred  and  Thirteen,  a  Poem  (1814).  In  1810 
she  went  to  live  in  Edinburgh.  For  the  last  twelve  years  of  her 
life  she  received  a  pension  from  government.  She  died  on  the 
7th  of  November  1838. 

See  Memoir  and  Correspondence  of  Mis  Grant  of  Laggan,  edited 
by  her  son  J.  P.  Grant  (3  vols.,  1844). 

GRANT,  CHARLES  (1746-1823),  British  politician,  was  born 
at  Aldourie,  Inverness-shire,  on  the  i6th  of  April  1746,  the  day 
on  which  his  father,  Alexander  Grant,  was  killed  whilst  fighting 
for  the  Jacobites  at  Culloden.  When  a  young  man  Charles 
went  to  India,  where  he  became  secretary,  and  later  a  member 
of  the  board  of  trade.  He  returned  to  Scotland  in  1 790,  and  in 
1802  was  elected  to  parliament  as  member  for  the  county  of 
Inverness.  In  the  House  of  Commons  his  chief  interests  were  in 
Indian  affairs,  and  he  was  especially  vigorous  in  his  hostility 
to  the  policy  of  the  Marquess  Wellesley.  In  1805  he  was  chosen 
chairman  of  the  directors  of  the  East  India  Company  and  he 
retired  from  parliament  in  1818.  A  friend  of  William  Wilberforce, 
Grant  was  a  prominent  member  of  the  evangelical  party  in  the 
Church  of  England;  he  was  a  generous  supporter  of  the  church's 
missionary  undertakings.  He  was  largely  responsible  for  the 
establishment  of  the  East  India  college,  which  was  afterwards 
erected  at  Haileybury.  He  died  in  London  on  the  3  ist  of  October 
1823.  His  eldest  son,  Charles,  was  created  a  peer  in  1835  as 
Baron  Glenelg. 

See  Henry  Morris,  Life  of  Charles  Grant  (1904). 

GRANT,  SIR  FRANCIS  (1803-1878),  English  portrait-painter, 
fourth  son  of  Francis  Grant  of  Kilgraston,  Perthshire,  was  born 
at  Edinburgh  in  1803.  He  was  educated  for  the  bar,  but  at  the 
age  of  twenty-four  he  began  at  Edinburgh  systematically  to 
study  the  practice  of  art.  On  completing  a  course  of  instruction 
he  removed  to  London,  and  as  early  as  1843  exhibited  at  the 
Royal  Academy.  At  the  beginning  of  his  career  he  utilized  his 
sporting  experiences  by  painting  groups  of  huntsmen,  horses 
and  hounds,  such  as  the  "  Meet  of  H.M.  Staghounds  "  and  the 
"  Melton  Hunt  ";  but  his  position  in  society  gradually  made 
him  a  fashionable  portrait-painter.  In  drapery  he  had  the  taste 
of  a  connoisseur,  and  rendered  the  minutest  details  of  costume 
with  felicitous  accuracy.  In  female  portraiture  he  achieved 
considerable  success,  although  rather  in  depicting  the  high- 
born graces  and  external  characteristics  than  the  true  personality. 
Among  his  portraits  of  this  class  may  be  mentioned  Lady 


GRANT,  G.  M.— GRANT,  SIR  J.  H. 


354 

Glenlyon,  the  marchioness  of  Waterford,  Lady  Rodney  and  Mrs 
Beauclerk.  In  his  portrait?  of  generals  and  sportsmen  he 
proved  himself  more  equal  to  his  subjects  than  in  those  of  states- 
men and  men  of  letters.  He  painted  many  of  the  principal 
celebrities  of  the  time,  including  Scott,  Macaulay,  Lockhart, 
Disraeli,  Hardinge,  Gough,  Derby,  Palmerston  and  Russell,  his 
brother  Sir  J.  Hope  Grant  and  his  friend  Sir  Edwin  Landseer. 
From  the  first  his  career  was  rapidly  prosperous.  In  1842  he 
was  elected  an  associate  of  the  Royal  Academy,  and  in  1851  an 
Academician;  and  in  1866  he  was  chosen  to  succeed  Sir  C. 
Eastlake  in  the  post  of  president,  for  which  his  chief  recom- 
mendations were  his  social  distinction,  tact,  urbanity  and 
friendly  and  liberal  consideration  of  his  brother  artists.  Shortly 
after  his  election  as  president  he  was  knighted,  and  in  1870  the 
degree  of  D.C.L.  was  conferred  upon  him  by  the  university  of 
Oxford.  He  died  on  the  5th  of  October  1878. 

GRANT,  GEORGE  MONRO  (1835-1902),  principal  of  Queen's 
University,  Kingston,  Ontario,  was  born  in  Nova  Scotia  in  1835. 
He  was  educated  at  Glasgow  university,  where  he  had  a  brilliant 
academic  career;  and  having  entered  the  ministry  of  the 
Presbyterian  Church,  he  returned  to  Canada  and  obtained  a 
pastoral  charge  in  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia,  which  he  held  from 
1863  to  1877.  He  quickly  gained  a  high  reputation  as  a  preacher 
and  as  an  eloquent  speaker  on  political  subjects.  When  Canada 
was  confederated  in  1867  Nova  Scotia  was  the  province  most 
strongly  opposed  to  federal  union.  Grant  threw  the  whole 
weight  of  his  great  influence  in  favour  of  confederation,  and  his 
oratory  played  an  important  part  in  securing  the  success  of 
the  movement.  When  the  consolidation  of  the  Dominion  by 
means  of  railway  construction  was  under  discussion  in  1872, 
Grant  travelled  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  with  the  engineers 
who  surveyed  the  route  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  railway,  and  his 
book  Ocean  to  Ocean  (1873)  was  one  of  the  first  things  that  opened 
the  eyes  of  Canadians  to  the  value  of  the  immense  heritage 
they  enjoyed.  He  never  lost  an  opportunity,  whether  in  the 
pulpit  or  on  the  platform,  of  pressing  on  his  hearers  that  the 
greatest  future  for  Canada  lay  in  unity  with  the  rest  of  the 
British  Empire;  and  his  broad  statesman-like  judgment  made  him 
an  authority  which  politicians  of  all  parties  were  glad  to  consult. 
In  1877  Grant  was  appointed  principal  of  Queen's  University, 
Kingston,  Ontario,  which  through  his  exertions  and  influence 
expanded  from  a  small  denominational  college  into  a  large  and 
influential  educational  centre;  and  he  attracted  to  it  an  excep- 
tionally able  body  of  professors  whose  influence  in  speculation 
and  research  was  widely  felt  during  the  quarter  of  a  century  that 
he  remained  at  its  head.  In  1888  he  visited  Australia,  New 
Zealand  and  South  Africa,  the  effect  of  this  experience  being  to 
strengthen  still  further  the  Imperialism  which  was  the  guiding 
principle  of  his  political  opinions.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  South 
African  War  in  1899  Grant  was  at  first  disposed  to  be  hostile 
to  the  policy  of  Lord  Salisbury  and  Mr  Chamberlain;  but  his 
eyes  were  soon  opened  to  the  real  nature  of  President  Kruger's 
government,  and  he  enthusiastically  welcomed  and  supported  the 
national  feeling  which  sent  men  from  the  outlying  portions  of  the 
Empire  to  assist  in  upholding  British  supremacy  in  South  Africa. 
Grant  did  not  live  to  see  the  conclusion  of  peace,  his  death  occur- 
ring at  Kingston  on  the  loth  of  May  1902.  At  the  time  of  his 
death  The  Times  observed  that  "  it  is  acknowledged  on  all  hands 
that  in  him  the  Dominion  has  lost  one  of  the  ablest  men  that  it 
has  yet  produced."  He  was  the  author  of  a  number  of  works,  of 
which  the  most  notable  besides  Ocean  to  Ocean  are,  Advantages  of 
Imperial  Federation  (1889),  Our  National  Objects  and  Aims  (1890) , 
Religions  of  the  World  in  Relation  to  Christianity  (1894)  and 
volumes  of  sermons  and  lectures.  Grant  married  in  1872  Jessie, 
daughter  of  William  Lawson  of  Halifax. 

GRANT,  JAMES  (1822-1887),  British  novelist,  was  born  in 
Edinburgh  on  the  ist  of  August  1822.  His  father,  John  Grant,  was 
a  captain  in  the  92nd  Gordon  Highlanders  and  had  served  through 
the  Peninsular  War.  For  several  years  James  Grant  was  in  New- 
foundland with  his  father,  but  in  1839  he  returned  to  England, 
and  entered  the  62nd  Foot  as  an  ensign.  In  1843  he  resigned 
his  commission  and  devoted  himself  to  writing,  first  magazine 


articles,  but  soon  a  profusion  of  novels,  full  of  vivacity  and 
incident,  and  dealing  mainly  with  military  scenes  and  characters. 
His  best  stories,  perhaps,  were  The  Romance  of  War  (his  first, 
1845),  Bolhwell  (1851),  Frank  Hilton;  or,  The  Queen's  Own  (18$$), 
The  Phantom  Regiment  and  Harry  Ogilvie  (1856),  Lucy  Arden 
(1858),  The  White  Cockade  (1867),  Only  an  Ensign  (1871),  Shall 
I  Win  Her?  (1874),  Playing  with  Fire  (1887).  Grant  also  wrote 
British  Battles  on  Land  and  Sea  (1873-1875)  and  valuable  books 
on  Scottish  history.  Permanent  value  attaches  to  his  great 
work,  in  three  volumes,  on  Old  and  New  Edinburgh  (1880). 
He  was  the  founder  and  energetic  promoter  of  the  National 
Association  for  the  Vindication  of  Scottish  Rights.  In  1875  he 
became  a  Roman  Catholic.  He  died  on  the  sth  of  May  1887. 

GRANT,  JAMES  AUGUSTUS  (1827-1892),  Scottish  explorer 
of  eastern  equatorial  Africa,  was  born  at  Nairn,  where  his  father 
was  the  parish  minister,  on  the  nth  of  April  1827.  He  was 
educated  at  the  grammar  school  and  Marischal  College,  Aberdeen, 
and  in  1846  joined  the  Indian  army.  He  saw  active  service  in  the 
Sikh  War  (1848-49),  served  throughout  the  mutiny  of  1857, 
and  was  wounded  in  the  operations  for  the  relief  of  Lucknow. 
He  returned  to  England  in  1858,  and  in  1860  joined  J.  H.  Speke 
(q.v.)  in  the  memorable  expedition  which  solved  the  problem  of 
the  Nile  sources.  The  expedition  left  Zanzibar  in  October  1860 
and  reached  Gondokoro,  where  the  travellers  were  again  in  touch 
with  civilization,  in  February  1863.  Speke  was  the  leader,  but 
Grant  carried  out  several  investigations  independently  and  made 
valuable  botanical  collections.  He  acted  throughout  in  absolute 
loyalty  to  his  comrade.  In  1864  he  published,  as  supplementary 
to  Speke's  account  of  their  journey,  A  Walk  across  Africa,  in 
which  he  dealt  particularly  with  "  the  ordinary  life  and  pursuits, 
the  habits  and  feelings  of  the  natives  "  and  the  economic  value 
of  the  countries  traversed.  In  1864  he  was  awarded  the  patron's 
medal  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society,  and  in  1866  given  the 
Companionship  of  the  Bath  in  recognition  of  his  services  in 
the  expedition.  He  served  in  the  intelligence  department  of  the 
Abyssinian  expedition  of  1868;  for  this  he  was  made  C.S.I,  and 
received  the  Abyssinian  medal.  At  the  close  of  the  war  he  re- 
tired from  the  army  with  the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel.  He  had 
married  in  1865,  and  he  now  settled  down  at  Nairn,  where  he 
died  on  the  nth  of  February  1892.  He  made  contributions  to 
the  journals  of  various  learned  societies,  the  most  notable  being 
the  "  Botany  of  the  Speke  and  Grant  Expedition  "  in  vol.  xxix. 
of  the  Transactions  of  the  Linnaean  Society. 

GRANT,  SIR  JAMES  HOPE  (1808-1875),  English  general, 
fifth  and  youngest  son  of  Francis  Grant  of  Kilgraston,  Perthshire, 
and  brother  of  Sir  Francis  Grant,  P.R.A.,  was  born  on  the  22nd 
of  July  1808.  He  entered  the  army  in  1826  as  cornet  in  the  9th 
Lancers,  and  became  lieutenant  in  1828  and  captain  in  1835. 
In  1842  he  was  brigade-major  to  Lord  Saltoun  in  the  Chinese  War, 
and  specially  distinguished  himself  at  the  capture  of  Chin-Kiang, 
after  which  he  received  the  rank  of  major  and  the  C.B.  In  the 
first  Sikh  War  of  1845-46  he  took  part  in  the  battle  of  Sobraon; 
and  in  the  Punjab  campaign  of  1848-49  he  commanded 
the  9th  Lancers,  and  won  high  reputation  in  the  battles  of 
Chillianwalla  and  Guzerat  (Gujarat).  He  was  promoted  brevet 
lieutenant-colonel  and  shortly  afterwards  to  the  same  substantive 
rank.  In  1854  he  became  brevet-colonel,  and  in  1856  brigadier 
of  cavalry.  He  took  a  leading  part  in  the  suppression  of  the 
Indian  mutiny  of  1857,  holding  for  some  time  the  command 
of  the  cavalry  division,  and  afterwards  of  a  movable  column  of 
horse  and  foot.  After  rendering  valuable  service  in  the  operations 
before  Delhi  and  in  the  final  assault  on  the  city,  he  directed  the 
victorious  march  of  the  cavalry  and  horse  artillery  despatched  in 
the  direction  of  Cawnpore  to  open  up  communication  with  the 
commander-in-chief  Sir  Colin  Campbell,  whom  he  met  near  the 
Alambagh,  and  who  raised  him  to  the  rank  of  brigadier-general, 
and  placed  the  whole  force  under  his  command  during  what 
remained  of  the  perilous  march  to  Lucknow  for  the  relief  of  the 
residency.  After  the  retirement  towards  Cawnpore  he  greatly 
aided  in  effecting  there  the  total  rout  of  the  rebel  troops,  by 
making  a  detour  which  threatened  their  rear;  and  following  in 
pursuit  with  a  flying  column,  he  defeated  them  with  the  loss  of 


GRANT,  SIR  P.— GRANT,  U.  S. 


355 


nearly  all  their  guns  at  Serai  Ghat.  He  also  took  part  in  the 
operations  connected  with  the  recapture  of  Lucknow,  shortly 
after  which  he  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  major-general, 
and  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  force  employed  for  the  final 
pacification  of  India,  a  position  in  which  his  unwearied  energy, 
and  his  vigilance  and  caution  united  to  high  personal  daring, 
rendered  very  valuable  service.  Before  the  work  of  pacification 
was  quite  completed  he  was  created  K.C.B.  In  1859  he  was 
appointed,  with  the  local  rank  of  lieutenant-general,  to  the  com- 
mand of  the  British  land  forces  in  the  united  French  and  British 
expedition  against  China.  The  object  of  the  campaign  was 
accomplished  within  three  months  of  the  landing  of  the  forces  at 
Pei-tang  (ist  of  August  1860).  The  Taku  Forts  had  been  carried 
by  assault,  the  Chinese  defeated  three  times  in  the  open  and 
Peking  occupied.  For  his  conduct  in  this,  which  has  been  called 
the  "  most  successful  and  the  best  carried  out  of  England's 
little  wars,"  he  received  the  thanks  of  parliament  and  was 
gazetted  G.C.B.  In  1861  he  was  made  lieutenant-general  and 
appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  of  Madras;  on  his 
return  to  England  in  1865  he  was  made  quartermaster-general 
at  headquarters;  and  in  1870  he  was  transferred  to  the  command 
of  the  camp  at  Aldershot,  where  he  took  a  leading  part  in  the 
reform  of  the  educational  and  training  systems  of  the  forces, 
which  followed  the  Franco-German  War.  The  introduction  of 
annual  army  manoeuvres  was  largely  due  to  Sir  Hope  Grant. 
In  1872  he  was  gazetted  general.  He  died  in  London  on  the 
7th  of  March  1875. 

Incidents  in  the  Sepoy  War  of  1857-58,  compiled  from  the  Private 
Journal  of  General  Sir  Hope  Grant,  K.C.B. ,  together  with  some  ex- 
planatory chapters  by  Capt.  H.  Knollys,  Royal  A  rtillery,  was  published 
in  1873,  and  Incidents  in  the  China  War  of  1860  appeared  posthum- 
ously under  the  same  editorship  in  1875. 

GRANT,  SIR  PATRICK  (1804-1895),  British  field  marshal,  was 
the  second  son  of  Major  John  Grant,  97th  Foot,  of  Auchterblair, 
Inverness-shire,  where  he  was  born  on  the  nth  of  September 
1804.  He  entered  the  Bengal  native  infantry  as  ensign  in  1820, 
and  became  captain  in  1832.  He  served  in  Oudh  from  1834  to 
1838,  and  raised  the  Hariana  Light  Infantry.  Employed  in  the 
adjutant-general's  department  of  the  Bengal  army  from  1838 
until  1854,  he  became  adjutant-general  in  1846.  He  served 
under  Sir  Hugh  Gough  at  the  battle  of  Maharajpur  in  1843, 
winning  a  brevet  majority,  was  adjutant-general  of  the  army 
at  the  battles  of  Moodkee  in  1845  (twice  severely  wounded), 
and  of  Ferozshah  and  Sobraon  in  1846,  receiving  the  C.B.  and  the 
brevet  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel.  He  took  part  in  the  battles 
of  Chillianwalla  and  Gujarat  in  1849,  gaining  further  promotion, 
and  was  appointed  aide-de-camp  to  the  queen.  He  served  also 
in  Kohat  in  1851  under  Sir  Charles  Napier.  Promoted  major- 
general  in  1854,  he  was  commander-in-cnief  of  the  Madras  army 
from  1856  to  1861.  He  was  made  K.C.B.  in  1857,  and  on  General 
Anson's  death  was  summoned  to  Calcutta  to  take  supreme 
command  of  the  army  in  India.  From  Calcutta  he  directed 
the  operations  against  the  mutineers,  sending  forces  under 
Havelock  and  Outram  for  the  relief  of  Cawnpore  and  Lucknow, 
until  the  arrival  of  Sir  Colin  Campbell  from  England  as  com- 
mander-in-chief, when  he  returned  to  Madras.  On  leaving 
India  in  1861  he  was  decorated  with  the  G.C.B.  He  was  promoted 
lieutenant-general  in  1862,  was  governor  of  Malta  from  1867  to 
1872,  was  made  G.C.M.G.  in  1868,  promoted  general  in  1870, 
field  marshal  in  1883  and  colonel  of  the  Royal  Horse  Guards 
and  gold-stick-in-waiting  to  the  queen  in  1885.  He  married  as 
his  second  wife,  in  1844,  Frances  Maria,  daughter  of  Sir  Hugh 
(afterwards  Lord)  Gough.  He  was  governor  of  the  Royal 
Hospital,  Chelsea,  from  1874  until  his  death  there  on  the  28th 
of  March  1895. 

GRANT,  ROBERT  (1814-1892),  British  astronomer,  was  born 
at  Grantown,  Scotland,  on  the  I7th  of  June  1814.  At  the  age 
of  thirteen  the  promise  of  a  brilliant  career  was  clouded  by  a 
prolonged  illness  of  such  a  serious  character  as  to  incapacitate 
him  from  all  school-work  for  six  years.  At  twenty,  however, 
his  health  greatly  improved,  and  he  set  himself  resolutely,  without 
assistance,  to  repair  his  earlier  disadvantages  by  the  diligent 
study  of  Greek,  Latin,  Italian  and  mathematics.  Astronomy 


also  occupied  his  attention,  and  it  was  stimulated  by  the  return 
of  Halley's  comet  in  1835,  as  well  as  by  his  success  in  observing 
the  annular  eclipse  of  the  sun  of  the  isth  of  May  1836.  After 
a  short  course  at  King's  College,  Aberdeen,  he  obtained  in  1841 
employment  in  his  brother's  counting-house  in  London.  During 
this  period  the  idea  occurred  to  him  of  writing  a  history  of 
physical  astronomy.  Before  definitely  beginning  the  work  he 
had  to  search,  amongst  other  records,  those  of  the  French 
Academy,  and  for  that  purpose  took  up  his  residence  in  Paris 
in  1845,  supporting  himself  by  giving  lessons  in  English.  He 
returned  to  London  in  1847.  The  History  of  Physical  Astronomy 
from  the  Earliest  Ages  to  the  Middle  of  the  Nineteenth  Century  was 
first  published  in  parts  in  The  Library  of  Useful  Knowledge,  but 
after  the  issue  of  the  ninth  part  this  mode  of  publication  was 
discontinued,  and  the  work  appeared  as  a  whole  in  1852.  The 
main  object  of  the  work  is,  in  the  author's  words,  "  to  exhibit 
a  view  of  the  labours  of  successive  inquirers  in  establishing  a 
knowledge  of  the  mechanical  principles  which  regulate  the 
movements  of  the  celestial  bodies,  and  in  explaining  the  various 
phenomena  relative  to  their  physical  constitution  which  observa- 
tion with  the  telescope  has  disclosed."  The  lucidity  and  complete- 
ness with  which  a  great  variety  of  abstruse  subjects  were  treated, 
the  extent  of  research  and  the  maturity  of  judgment  it  displayed, 
were  the  more  remarkable,  when  it  is  remembered  that  this  was 
the  first  published  work  of  one  who  enjoyed  no  special  oppor- 
tunities, either  for  acquiring  materials,  or  for  discussing  with 
others  engaged  in  similar  pursuits  the  subjects  it  treats  of. 
The  book  at  once  took  a  leading  place  in  astronomical  literature, 
and  earned  for  its  author  in  1856  the  award  of  the  Royal 
Astronomical  Society's  gold  medal.  In  1859  he  succeeded  John 
Pringle  Nichol  as  professor  of  astronomy  in  the  University  of 
Glasgow.  From  time  to  time  he  contributed  astronomical 
papers  to  the  Monthly  Notices,  Astronomische  Nachrichten, 
Comptes  rendus  and  other  scientific  serials;  but  his  principal 
work  at  Glasgow  consisted  in  determining  the  places  of  a  large 
number  of  stars  with  the  Ertel  transit-circle  of  the  Observatory. 
The  results  of  these  labours,  extending  over  twenty-one  years, 
are  contained  in  the  Glasgow  Catalogs  of  6415  Stars,  published 
in  1883.  This  was  followed  in  1892  by  the  Second  Glasgow 
Catalogue  of  21  $6  Stars,  published  a  few  weeks  after  his  death, 
which  took  place  on  the  24th  of  October  1892. 

See  Month.  Notices  Roy.  Astr.  Society,  liii.,  210  (E.  Dunkin); 
Nature,  Nov.  10,  1892;  The  Times,  Nov.  2,  1892;  Roy.  Society's 
Catalogue  of  Scient.  Papers.  (A.  A.  R.*) 

GRANT,  ULYSSES  SIMPSON  (1822-1885),  American  soldier, 
and  eighteenth  president  of  the  United  States,  was  born  at 
Point  Pleasant,  Ohio,  on  the  27th  of  April  1822.  He  was  a 
descendant  of  Matthew  Grant,  a  Scotchman,  who  settled  in 
Dorchester,  Massachusetts,  in  1630.  His  earlier  years  were 
spent  in  helping  his  father,  Jesse  R.  Grant,  upon  his  farm  in 
Ohio.  In  1839  he  was  appointed  to  a  place  in  the  military 
academy  at  West  Point,  and  it  was  then  that  his  name  assumed 
the  form  by  which  it  is  generally  known.  He  was  christened 
Hiram,  after  an  ancestor,  with  Ulysses  for  a  middle  name. 
As  he  was  usually  called  by  his  middle  name,  the  congressman 
who  recommended  him  for  West  Point  supposed  it  to  be  his 
first  name,  and  added  thereto  the  name  of  his  mother's  family, 
Simpson.  Grant  was  the  best  horseman  of  his  class,  and  took 
a  respectable  place  in  mathematics,  but  at  his  graduation  in 
1843  he  only  ranked  twenty-first  in  a  class  of  thirty-nine.  In 
September  1845  he  went  with  his  regiment  to  join  the  forces  of 
General  Taylor  in  Mexico;  there  he  took  part  in  the  battles  of 
Palo  Alto,  Resaca  de  la  Palma  and  Monterey,  and,  after  his  transfer 
to  General  Scott's  army,  which  he  joined  in  March  1847,  served 
at  Vera  Cruz,  Cerro  Gordo,  Churubusco,  Molino  del  Rey  and  at 
the  storming  of  Chapultepec.  He  was  breveted  first  lieutenant 
for  gallantry  at  Molino  del  Rey  and  captain  for  gallantry  at 
Chapultepec.  In  August  1848,  after  the  close  of  the  war,  he 
married  Julia  T.  Dent  (1826-1902),  and  was  for  a  while  stationed 
in  California  and  Oregon,  but  in  1854  he  resigned  his  commission. 
His  reputation  in  the  service  had  suffered  from  allegations  of 
intemperate  drinking,  which,  whether  well  founded  or  not, 


356 


GRANT,  U.  S. 


certainly  impaired  his  usefulness  as  a  soldier.  For  the  next 
six  years  he  lived  in  St  Louis,  Missouri,  earning  a  scanty  subsist- 
ence by  farming  and  dealings  in  real  estate.  In  1860  he  removed 
to  Galena,  Illinois,  and  became  a  clerk  in  a  leather  store  kept 
by  his  father.  At  that  time  his  earning  capacity  seems  not  to 
have  exceeded  $800  a  year,  and  he  was  regarded  by  his  friends 
as  a  broken  and  disappointed  man.  He  was  living  at  Galena 
at  the  outbreak  of  hostilities  between  the  North  and  South. 

[For  the  history  of  the  Civil  War,  and  of  Grant's  battles  and 
campaigns,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  article  AMERICAN  CIVIL 
WAR.  To  the  "  call  to  arms  "  of  1861  Grant  promptly 
CM? 'war  resP°n(Jed.  After  some  delay  he  was  commissioned 
career.  colonel  of  the  2ist  Illinois  regiment  and  soon  after- 
wards brigadier-general.  He  was  shortly  assigned  to 
a  territorial  command  on  the  Mississippi,  and  first  won  distinction 
by  his  energy  in  seizing,  on  his  own  responsibility,  the  important 
point  of  Paducah,  Kentucky,  situated  at  the  confluence  of 
the  two  great  waterways  of  the  Tennessee  and  the  Ohio  (6th 
Sept.  1861).  On  the  7th  of  November  he  fought  his  first 
battle  as  a  commander,  that  of  Belmont  (Missouri),  which,  if 
it  failed  to  achieve  any  material  result,  certainly  showed  him 
to  be  a  capable  and  skilful  leader.  Early  in  1862  he  was  en- 
trusted by  General  H.  W.  Halleck  with  the  command  of  a  large 
force  to  clear  the  lower  reaches  of  the  Cumberland  and  the 
Tennessee,  and,  whatever  criticism  may  be  passed  on  the  general 
strategy  of  the  campaign,  Grant  himself,  by  his  able  and 
energetic  work,  thoroughly  deserved  the  credit  of  his  brilliant 
success  of  Fort  Donelson,  where  15,000  Confederates  were  forced 
to  capitulate.  Grant  and  his  division  commanders  were  pro- 
moted to  the  rank  of  major-general  U.S.V.  soon  afterwards, 
but  Grant's  own  fortunes  suffered  a  temporary  eclipse  owing  to  a 
disagreement  with  Halleck.  When,  after  being  virtually  under 
arrest,  he  rejoined  his  army,  it  was  concentrated  about  Savannah 
on  the  Tennessee,  preparing  for  a  campaign  towards  Corinth, 
Miss.  On  the  6th  of  April  1862  a  furious  assault  on  Grant's 
camps  brought  on  the  battle  of  Shiloh  (q.  v.).  After  two  days' 
desperate  fighting  the  Confederates  withdrew  before  the  com- 
bined attack  of  the  Army  of  the  Tennessee  under  Grant  and  the 
Army  of  the  Ohio  under  Buell.  But  the  Army  of  the  Tennessee 
had  been  on  the  verge  of  annihilation  on  the  evening  of  the  first 
day,  and  Grant's  leadership  throughout  was  by  no  means  equal 
to  the  emergency, '  though  he  displayed  his  usual  personal 
bravery  and  resolution.  In  the  grand  advance  of  Halleck's 
armies  which  followed  Shiloh,  Grant  was  relieved  of  all  important 
duties  by  his  assignment  as  second  in  command  of  the  whole 
force,  and  was  thought  by  the  army  at  large  to  be  in  disgrace. 
But  Halleck  soon  went  to  Washington  as  general-in-chief,  and 
Grant  took  command  of  his  old  army  and  of  Rosecrans'  Army 
of  the  Mississippi.  Two  victories  (luka  and  Corinth)  were  won 
in  the  autumn  of  1862,  but  the  credit  of  both  fell  to  Rosecrans, 
who  commanded  in  the  field,  and  the  nadir  of  Grant's  military 
fortunes  was  reached  when  the  first  advance  on  Vicksburg  (q.v.), 
planned  on  an  unsound  basis,  and  complicated  by  a  series  of 
political  intrigues  (which  had  also  caused  the  adoption  of  the 
original  scheme),  collapsed  after  the  minor  reverses  of  Holly 
Springs  and  Chickasaw  Bayou  (December  1862). 

It  is  fair  to  assume  that  Grant  would  have  followed  other 
unsuccessful  generals  into  retirement,  had  he  not  shown  that, 
whatever  his  mistakes  or  failures,  and  whether  he  was  or  was 
not  sober  and  temperate  in  his  habits,  he  possessed  the  iron 
determination  and  energy  which  in  the  eyes  of  Lincoln  and 
Stanton,1  and  of  the  whole  Northern  people,  was  the  first  requisite 
of  their  generals.  He  remained  then  with  his  army  near  Vicks- 

1  President  Lincoln  was  Grant's  most  unwavering  supporter. 
Many  amusing  stories  are  told  of  his  replies  to  various  deputations 
which  waited  upon  him  to  ask  for  Grant's  removal.  On  one  occasion 
he  asked  the  critics  to  ascertain  the  brand  of  whisky  favoured  by 
Grant,  so  that  he  could  send  kegs  of  it  to  the  other  generals.  The 
question  of  Grant's  abstemiousness  was  and  is  of  little  importance. 
The  cause  at  stake  over- rode  every  prejudice  and  the  people  of  the 
United  States,  since  the  war,  have  been  in  general  content  to  leave 
the  question  alone,  as  was  evidenced  by  the  outcry  raised  in  1908, 
when  President  Taft  reopened  it  in  a  speech  at  Grant's  tomb. 


burg,  trying  one  plan  after  another  without  result,  until  at  last 
after  months  of  almost  hopeless  work  his  perseverance  was 
crowned  with  success — a  success  directly  consequent  upon  a 
strange  and  bizarre  campaign  of  ten  weeks,  in  which  his  daring 
and  vigour  were  more  conspicuous  than  ever  before.  On  the 
4th  of  July  1863  the  great  fortress  surrendered  with  29,491  men, 
this  being  one  of  the  most  important  victories  won  by  the  Union 
arms  in  the  whole  war.  Grant  was  at  once  made  a  major-general 
in  the  regular  army.  A  few  months  later  the  great  reverse  of 
Chickamauga  created  an  alarm  in  the  North  commensurate  with 
the  elation  that  had  been  felt  at  the  double  victory  of  Vicksburg 
and  Gettysburg,  and  Grant  was  at  once  ordered  to  Chattanooga, 
to  decide  the  fate  of  the  Army  of  the  Cumberland  in  a  second 
battle.  Four  armies  were  placed  under  his  command,  and 
three  of  these  concentrated  at  Chattanooga.  On  the  25th  of 
November  1863  a  great  three-days'  battle  ended  with  the 
crushing  defeat  of  the  Confederates,  who  from  this  day  had  no 
foothold  in  the  centre  and  west. 

After  this,  in  preparation  for  a  grand  combined  effort  of  all 
the  Union  forces,  Grant  was  placed  in  supreme  command,  and 
the  rank  of  lieutenant-general  revived  for  him  (March  1864). 
Grant's  headquarters  henceforth  accompanied  the  Army  of  the 
Potomac,  and  the  lieutenant-general  directed  the  campaign  in 
Virginia.  This,  with  Grant's  driving  energy  infused  into  the 
best  army  that  the  Union  possessed,  resolved  itself  into  a 
series,  almost  uninterrupted,  of  terrible  battles.  Tactically  the 
Confederates  were  almost  always  victorious,  strategically,  Grant, 
disposing  of  greatly  superior  forces,  pressed  back  Lee  and  the 
Army  of  Northern  Virginia  to  the  lines  of  Richmond  and  Peters- 
burg, while  above  all,  in  pursuance  of  his  explicit  policy  of 
"  attrition,"  the  Federal  leader  used  his  men  with  a  merciless 
energy  that  has  few,  if  any,  parallels  in  modern  history.  At 
Cold  Harbor  six  thousand  men  fell  in  one  useless  assault  lasting 
an  hour,  and  after  two  months  the  Union  armies  lay  before 
Richmond  and  Petersburg  indeed,  but  had  lost  no  fewer  than 
72,000  men.  But  Grant  was  unshaken  in  his  determination. 
"  I  purpose  to  fight  it  out  on  this  line,  if  it  takes  all  summer," 
was  his  message  from  the  battlefield  of  Spottsylvania  to  the 
chief  of  staff  at  Washington.  Through  many  weary  months  he 
never  relaxed  his  hold  on  Lee's  army,  and,  in  spite  of  repeated 
partial  reverses,  that  would  have  been  defeats  for  his  predeces- 
sors, he  gradually  wore  down  his  gallant  adversary.  The  terrible 
cost  of  these  operations  did  not  check  him:  only  on  one  occasion 
of  grave  peril  were  any  troops  sent  from  his  lines  to  serve  else- 
where, and  he  drew  to  himself  the  bulk  of  the  men  whom  the 
Union  government  was  recruiting  by  thousands  for  the  final 
effort.  Meanwhile  all  the  other  campaigns  had  been  closely 
supervised  by  Grant,  preoccupied  though  he  was  with  the 
operations  against  his  own  adversary.  At  a  critical  moment 
he  actually  left  the  Virginian  armies  to  their  own  commanders, 
and  started  to  take  personal  command  in  a  threatened  quarter, 
and  throughout  he  was  in  close  touch  with  Sherman  and  Thomas, 
who  conducted  the  campaigns  on  the  south-east  and  the  centre. 
That  he  succeeded  in  the  efficient  exercise  of  the  chief  command 
of  armies  of  a  total  strength  of  over  one  million  men,  operating 
many  thousands  of  miles  apart  from  each  other,  while  at  the 
same  time  he  watched  and  manoeuvred  against  a  great  captain 
and  a  veteran  army  in  one  field  of  the  war,  must  be  the  greatest 
proof  of  Grant's  powers  as  a  general.  In  the  end  complete  success 
rewarded  the  sacrifices  and  efforts  of  the  Federals  on  every  theatre 
of  war;  in  Virginia,  where  Grant  was  in  personal  control,  the 
merciless  policy  of  attrition  wore  down  Lee's  army  until  a  mere 
remnant  was  left  for  the  final  surrender. 

Grant  had  thus  brought  the  great  struggle  to  an  end,  and  was 
universally  regarded  as  the  saviour  of  the  Union.  A  careful 
study  of  the  history  of  the  war  thoroughly  bears  out  the  popular 
view.  There  were  soldiers  more  accomplished,  as  was  McClellan, 
more  brilliant,  as  was  Rosecrans,  and  more  exact,  as  was  Buell, 
but  it  would  be  difficult  to  prove  that  these  generals,  or  indeed 
any  others  in  the  service,  could  have  accomplished  the  task 
which  Grant  brought  to  complete  success.  Nor  must  it  be  sup- 
posed that  Grant  learned  little  from  three  years'  campaigning 


GRANT,  U.  S. 


357 


in  high  command.  There  is  less  in  common  than  is  often  supposed 
between  the  buoyant  energy  that  led  Grant  to  Shiloh  and  the 
grim  plodding  determination  that  led  him  to  Vicksburg  and 
to  Appomattox.  Shiloh  revealed  to  Grant  the  intensity  of  the 
struggle,  and  after  that  battle,  appreciating  to  the  full  the 
material  and  moral  factors  with  which  he  had  to  deal,  he  gradually 
trained  his  military  character  on  those  lines  which  alone  could 
conduce  to  ultimate  success.  Singleness  of  purpose,  and  relent- 
less vigour  in  the  execution  of  the  purpose,  were  the  qualities 
necessary  to  the  conduct  of  the  vast  enterprise  of  subduing  the 
Confederacy.  Grant  possessed  or  acquired  both  to  such  a  degree 
that  he  proved  fully  equal  to  the  emergency.  If  in  technical 
finesse  he  was  surpassed  by  many  of  his  predecessors  and  his 
subordinates,  he  had  the  most  important  qualities  of  a  great 
captain,  courage  that  rose  higher  with  each  obstacle,  and  the 
clear  judgment  to  distinguish  the  essential  from  the  minor 
issues  in  war. — (C.  F.  A.)] 

After  the  assassination  of  President  Lincoln  a  disposition  was 
shown  by  his  successor,  Andrew  Johnson,  to  deal  severely  with 
the  Confederate  leaders,  and  it  was  understood  that  indictments 
for  treason  were  to  be  brought  against  General  Lee  and  others. 
Grant,  however,  insisted  that  the  United  States  government 
was  bound  by  the  terms  accorded  to  Lee  and  his  army  at 
Appomattox.  He  went  so  far  as  to  threaten  to  resign  his  com- 
mission if  the  president  disregarded  his  protest.  This  energetic 
action  on  Grant's  part  saved  the  United  States  from  a  foul 
stain  upon  its  escutcheon.  In  July  1866  the  grade  of  general  was 
created,  for  the  first  time  since  the  organization  of  the  govern- 
ment, and  Grant  was  promoted  to  that  position.  In  the  follow- 
ing year  he  became  involved  in  the  deadly  quarrel  between 
President  Johnson  and  Congress.  To  tie  the  president's  hands 
Congress  had  passed  the  Tenure  of  Office  Act,  forbidding  the 
president  to  remove  any  cabinet  officer  without  the  consent  of 
the  Senate;  but  in  August  1867  President  Johnson  suspended 
Secretary  Stanton  and  appointed  Grant  secretary  of  war  ad 
interim  until  the  pleasure  of  the  Senate  should  be  ascertained. 
Grant  accepted  the  appointment  under  protest,  and  held  it 
until  the  following  January,  when  the  Senate  refused  to  confirm 
the  president's'  action,  and  Secretary  Stanton  resumed  his 
office.  President  Johnson  was  much  disgusted  at  the  readiness 
with  which  Grant  turned  over  the  office  to  Stanton,  and  a  bitter 
controversy  ensued  between  Johnson  and  Grant.  Hitherto 
Grant  had  taken  little  part  in  politics.  The  only  vote  which 
he  had  ever  cast  for  a  presidential  candidate  was  in  1856  for 
James  Buchanan;  and  leading  Democrats,  so  late  as 
the  beginning  of  1868,  hoped  to  make  him  their  can- 
1868?'  didate  in  the  election  of  that  year;  but  the  effect  of 
the  controversy  with  President  Johnson  was  to  bring 
Grant  forward  as  the  candidate  of  the  Republican  party.  At  the 
convention  in  Chicago  on  the  zoth  of  May  1868  he  was  unani- 
mously nominated  on  the  first  ballot.  The  Democratic  party 
nominated  the  one  available  Democrat  who  had  the  smallest 
chance  of  beating  him — Horatio  Seymour,  lately  governor  of 
New  York,  an  excellent  statesman,  but  at  that  time  hopeless 
as  a  candidate  because  of  his  attitude  during  the  war.  The 
result  of  the  contest  was  at  no  time  in  doubt;  Grant  received 
214  electoral  votes  and  Seymour  80. 

The  most  important  domestic  event  of  Grant's  first  term  as 
president  was  the  adoption  of  the  fifteenth  amendment  to  the 
Constitution  on  the  3Oth  of  March  1870,  providing  that  suffrage 
throughout  the  United  States  should  not  be  restricted  on  account 
of  race,  colour  or  previous  condition  of  servitude.  The  most 
important  event  in  foreign  policy  was  the  treaty  with  Great 
Britain  of  the  8th  of  May  1871,  commonly  known  as  the  Treaty 
of  Washington,  whereby  several  controversies  between  the 
United  States  and  Great  Britain,  including  the  bitter  questions 
as  to  damage  inflicted  upon  the  United  States  by  the  "Alabama" 
and  other  Confederate  cruisers  built  and  equipped  in  England, 
were  referred  to  arbitration.  In  1869  the  government  of  Santo 
Domingo  (or  the  Dominican  Republic)  expressed  a  wish  for 
annexation  by  the  United  States,  and  such  a  step  was  favoured 


by  Grant,  but  a  treaty  negotiated  with  this  end  in  view  failed 
to  obtain  the  requisite  two-thirds  vote  in  the  Senate.  In  May 
1872  something  was  done  towards  alleviating  the  odious  Recon- 
struction laws  for  dragooning  the  South,  which  had  been  passed 
by  Congress  in  spite  of  the  vetoes  of  President  Johnson.  The 
Amnesty  Bill  restored  civil  rights  to  all  persons  in  the  South, 
save  from  300  to  500  who  had  held  high  positions  under  the 
Confederacy.  As  early  as  1870  President  Grant  recommended 
measures  of  civil  service  reform,  and  succeeded  in  obtaining  an 
act  authorizing  him  to  appoint  a  Civil  Service  commission. 
A  commission  was  created,  but  owing  to  the  hostility  of  the 
politicians  in  Congress  it  accomplished  little.  During  the  fifty 
years  since  Crawford's  Tenure  of  Office  Act  was  passed  in  1820, 
the  country  had  been  growing  more  and  more  familiar  with  the 
spectacle  of  corruption  in  high  places.  The  evil  rose  to  alarming 
proportions  during  Grant's  presidency,  partly  because  of  the 
immense  extension  of  the  civil  service,  partly  because  of  the 
growing  tendency  to  alliance  between  spoilsmen  and  the  persons 
benefited  by  protective  tariffs,  and  partly  because  the  public 
attention  was  still  so  much  absorbed  in  Southern  affairs  that  little 
energy  was  left  for  curbing  rascality  in  the  North.  The  scandals, 
indeed,  were  rife  in  Washington,  and  affected  persons  in  close 
relations  with  the  president.  Grant  was  ill-fitted  for  coping 
with  the  difficulties  of  such  a  situation.  Along  with  high  in- 
tellectual powers  in  certain  directions,  he  had  a  simplicity  of 
nature  charming  in  itself,  but  often  calculated  to  render  him 
the  easy  prey  of  sharpers.  He  found  it  almost  impossible  to 
believe  that  anything  could  be  wrong  in  persons  to  whom  he 
had  given  his  friendship,  and  on  several  occasions  such  friends 
proved  themselves  unworthy  of  him.  The  feeling  was  widely 
prevalent  in  the  spring  of  1872  that  the  interests  of  pure  govern- 
ment in  the  United  States  demanded  that  President  Grant  should 
not  be  elected  to  a  second  term.  This  feeling  led  a  number  of 
high-minded  gentlemen  to  form  themselves  into  an  organization 
under  the  name  of  Liberal  Republicans.  They  held  a  convention 
at  Cincinnati  in  May  with  the  intention  of  nominating  for  the 
presidency  Charles  Francis  Adams,  who  had  ably  represented 
the  United  States  at  the  court  of  St  James's  during  the  Civil 
War.  The  convention,  was,  however,  captured  by  politicians 
who  converted  the  whole  affair  into  a  farce  by  nominating 
Horace  Greeley,  editor  of  the  New  York  Tribune,  who  represented 
almost  anything  rather  than  the  object  for  which  the  convention 
had  been  called  together.  The  Democrats  had  despaired  of 
electing  a  candidate  of  their  own,  and  hoped  to  achieve  success 
by  adopting  the  Cincinnati  nominee,  should  he  prove  to  be  an 
eligible  person.  The  event  showed  that  while  their  defeat  in 
1868  had  taught  them  despondency,  it  had  not  taught  them 
wisdom;  it  was  still  in  their  power  to  make  a  gallant  fight  by 
nominating  a  person  for  whom  Republican  reformers  could 
vote.  But  with  almost  incredible  fatuity,  they  adopted  Greeley 
as  their  candidate.  As  a  natural  result  Grant  was  re-elected 
by  an  overwhelming  majority. 

The  most  important  event  of  his  second  term  was  his  veto 
of  the  Inflation  Bill  in  1874  followed  by  the  passage  of  the 
Resumption  Act  in  the  following  year.  The  country 
was  still  labouring  under  the  curse  of  an  inconvertible 
paper  currency  originating  with  the  Legal  Tender  Act  deacy. 
of  1862.  There  was  a  considerable  party  in  favour  of 
debasing  the  currency  indefinitely  by  inflation,  and  a  bill  with 
that  object  was  passed  by  Congress  in  April  1874.  It  was 
promptly  vetoed  by  President  Grant,  and  two  months  later  he 
wrote  a  very  sensible  letter  to  Senator  J.  P.  Jones  of  Nevada 
advocating  a  speedy  return  to  specie  payments.  The  passage  of 
the  Resumption  Act  in  January  1875  was  largely  due  to  his  con- 
sistent advocacy,  and  for  these  measures  he  deserves  as  high 
credit  as  for  his  victories  in  the  field.  In  spite  of  these  great 
services,  popular  dissatisfaction  with  the  Republican  party 
rapidly  increased  during  the  years  1874-1876.  The  causes  were 
twofold:  firstly,  there  was  great  dissatisfaction  with  the  troubles 
in  the  Southern  states,  owing  to  the  harsh  Reconstruction 
laws  and  the  robberies  committed  by  the  carpet-bag  govern- 
ments which  those  laws  kept  in  power;  secondly,  the  scandals  at 


358 


GRANT— GRANTH 


Washington,  comprising  wholesale  frauds  on  the  public  revenue, 
awakened  lively  disgust.  In  some  cases  the  culprits  were  so  near 
to  President  Grant  that  many  persons  found  it  difficult  to  avoid 
the  suspicion  that  he  was  himself  implicated,  and  never  perhaps 
was  his  hold  upon  popular  favour  so  slight  as  in  the  summer 
and  autumn  of  1876. 

After  the  close  of  his  presidency  in  the  spring  of  1877  Grant 
started  on  a  journey  round  the  world,  accompanied  by  his  wife 
and  one  son.  He  was  received  with  distinguished 
honours  in  England  and  on  the  continent  of  Europe, 
whence  he  made  his  way  to  India,  China  and  Japan. 
After  his  return  to  America  in  September  1880  he  went  back  to 
his  old  home  in  Galena,  Illinois.  A  faction  among  the  managers 
of  the  Republican  party  attempted  to  secure  his  nomination  for 
a  third  term  as  president,  and  in  the  convention  at  Chicago  in 
June  1880  he  received  a  vote  exceeding  300  during  36  consecutive 
ballots.  Nevertheless,  his  opponents  made  such  effective  use  of 
the  popular  prejudice  against  third  terms  that  the  scheme  was 
defeated,  and  Garfield  was  named  in  his  stead.  In  August  1881 
General  Grant  bought  a  house  in  the  city  of  New  York.  His 
income  was  insufficient  for  the  proper  support  of  his  family,  and 
accordingly  he  had  become  partner  in  a  banking  house  in  which 
one  of  his  sons  was  interested  along  with  other  persons.  The 
name  of  the  firm  was  Grant  and  Ward.  The  ex-president 
invested  in  it  all  his  available  property,  but  paid  no  attention  to 
the  management  of  the  business.  His  facility  in  giving  his  con- 
fidence to  unworthy  people  was  now  to  be  visited  with  dire 
calamity.  In  1884  the  firm  became  bankrupt,  and  it  was  dis- 
covered that  two  of  the  partners  had  been  perpetrating  systematic 
and  gigantic  frauds.  This  severe  blow  left  General  Grant 
penniless,  just  at  the  time  when  he  was  beginning  to  suffer 
acutely  from  the  disease  which  finally  caused  his  death.  Down 
to  this  time  he  had  never  made  any  pretensions  to  literary  skill 
or  talent,  but  on  being  approached  by  the  Century  Magazine 
with  a  request  for  some  articles  he  undertook  the  work  in  order 
to  keep  the  wolf  from  the  door.  It  proved  a  congenial  task,  and 
led  to  the  writing  of  his  Personal  Memoirs,  a  frank,  modest 
and  charming  book,  which  ranks  among  the  best  standard 
military  biographies.  The  sales  earned  for  the  general  and  his 
family  something  like  half  a  million  dollars.  The  circumstances 
in  which  it  was  written  made  it  an  act  of  heroism  comparable 
with  any  that  Grant  ever  showed  as  a  soldier.  During  most  of 
the  time  he  was  suffering  tortures  from  cancer  in  the  throat,  and 
it  was  only  four  days  before  his  death  that  he  finished  the  manu- 
script. In  the  spring  of  1885  Congress  passed  a  bill  creating  him 
a  general  on  the  retired  list ;  and  in  the  summer  he  was  removed 
to  a  cottage  at  Mount  M'Gregor,  near  Saratoga,  where  he  passed 
the  last  five  weeks  of  his  life,  and  where  he  died  on  the  23rd  of 
July  1885.  His  body  was  placed  in  a  temporary  tomb  in 
Riverside  Drive,  in  New  York  City,  overlooking  the  Hudson 
river.1 

Grant  showed  many  admirable  and  lovable  traits.  There  was 
a  charming  side  to  his  trustful  simplicity,  which  was  at  times 
almost  like  that  of  a  sailor  set  ashore.  He  abounded  in  kindli- 
ness and  generosity,  and  if  there  was  anything  especially  difficult 
for  him  to  endure,  it  was  the  sight  of  human  suffering,  as  was 
shown  on  the  night  at  Shiloh,  where  he  lay  out  of  doors  in  the 
icy  rain  rather  than  stay  in  a  comfortable  room  where  the 
surgeons  were  at  work.  His  good  sense  was  strong,  as  well  as  his 
sense  of  justice,  and  these  qualities  stood  him  in  good  service  as 
president,  especially  in  his  triumphant  fight  against  the  green- 
back monster.  Altogether,  in  spite  of  some  shortcomings, 
Grant  was  a  massive,  noble  and  lovable  personality,  well  fit  to 
be  remembered  as  one  of  the  heroes  of  a  great  nation.  (J.  Fi.) 

1  The  permanent  tomb  is  of  white  granite  and  white  marble  and 
is  150  ft.  high  with  a  circular  cupola  topping  a  square  building 
90  ft.  on  the  side  and  72  ft.  high ;  the  sarcophagus,  in  the  centre 
of  the  building,  is  of  red  Wisconsin  porphyry.  The  cornerstone 
was  laid  by  President  Harrison  in  1802,  and  the  tomb  was  dedicated 
on  the  27th  of  April  1897  with  a  splendid  parade  and  addresses  by 
President  McKinley  and  General  Horace  Porter,  president  of  the 
Grant  Monument  Association,  which  from  90,000  contributions 
raised  the  funds  for  the  tomb. 


General  Grant's  son,  FREDERICK  DENT  GRANT  (b.  1850), 
graduated  at  the  U.S.  Military  Academy  in  1871,  was  aide-de- 
camp to  General  Philip  Sheridan  in  1873-1881,  and  resigned  from 
the  army  in  1881,  after  having  attained  the  rank  of  lieutenant- 
colonel.  He  was  U.S.  minister  to  Austria  in  1889-1893,  and 
police  commissioner  of  New  York  city  in  1894-1898.  He  served 
as  a  brigadier-general  of  volunteers  in  the  Spanish-American 
War  of  1898,  and  then  in  the  Philippines,  becoming  brigadier- 
general  in  the  regular  army  in  February  1901  and  major-general 
in  February  1906. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Adam  Badeau's  Military  History  of  U.  S.  Grant 
(3  vols.,  New  York,  1867-1881),  and  Grant  in  Peace  (Hartford, 
1887),  are  appreciative  but  lacking  in  discrimination.  William 
Conant  Church's  Ulysses  S.  Grant  and  the  Period  of  National  Pre- 
servation and  Reconstruction  (New  York,  1897)  is  a  good  succinct 
account.  Hamlin  Garland's  Ulysses  S.  Grant,  His  Life  and  Char- 
acter (New  York,  1898)  gives  especial  attention  to  the  personal 
traits  of  Grant  and  abounds  in  anecdote.  See  also  Grant's  Personal 
Memoirs  (2  vols.,  New  York,  1885-1886);  J.  G.  Wilson's  Life  and 
Public  Services  of  U.  S.  Grant  (New  York,  1886);  J.  R.  Young's 
Around  the  World  with  General  Grant  (New  York,  1880);  Horace 
Porter's  Campaigning  with  Grant  (New  York,  1897);  James  Ford 
Rhodes's  History  of  the  United  States  (vols.  iii.-vii.,  New  York,  1896^- 
1906) ;  James  K.  Hosmer's  Appeal  to  Arms  and  Outcome  of  the  Civil 
War  (New  York,  1907) ;  John  Eaton's  Grant,  Lincoln,  and  the 
Freedmen  (New  York,  1907),  and  various  works  mentioned  in  the 
articles  AMERICAN  CIVIL  WAR,  WILDERNESS  CAMPAIGN,  &c. 

GRANT  (from  A.-Fr.  graunter,  O.  Fr.  greanter  for  creanter, 
popular  Lat.  creantare,  for  credentare,  to  entrust,  Lat.  credere,  to 
believe,  trust),  originally  permission,  acknowledgment,  hence  the 
gift  of  privileges,  rights,  &c.,  specifically  in  law,  the  transfer  of 
property  by  an  instrument  in  writing,  termed  a  deed  of  grant. 
According  to  the  old  rule  of  common  law,  the  immediate  freehold 
in  corporeal  hereditaments  lay  in  livery  (see  FEOFFMENT), 
whereas  incorporeal  hereditaments,  such  as  a  reversion,  re- 
mainder, advowson,  &c.,  lay  in  grant,  that  is,  passed  by  the 
delivery  of  the  deed  of  conveyance  or  grant  without  further 
ceremony.  The  distinction  between  property  lying  in  livery  and 
in  grant  is  now  abolished,  the  Real  Property  Act  1845  providing 
that  all  corporeal  tenements  and  hereditaments  shall  be  trans- 
ferable as  well  by  grant  as  by  livery  (see  CONVEYANCING).  A 
grant  of  personal  property  is  properly  termed  an  assignment  or 
bill  of  sale. 

GRANTH,  the  holy  scriptures  of  the  Sikhs,  containing  the 
spiritual  and  moral  teaching  of  Sikhism  (<?.».).  The  book  is  called 
the  Adi  Granth  Sahib  by  the  Sikhs  as  a  title  of  respect,  because  it 
is  believed  by  them  to  be  an  embodiment  of  the  gurus.  The  title 
is  generally  applied  to  the  volume  compiled  by  the  fifth  guru 
Arjan,  which  contains  the  compositions  of  Guru  Nanak,  the 
founder  of  the  Sikh  religion;  of  his  successors,  Guru  Angad, 
Amar  Das,  Ram  Das  and  Arjan;  hymns  of  the  Hindu  bhagats  or 
saints,  Jaidev,  Namdev,  Trilochan,  Sain,  Ramanand,  Kabir, 
Rai  Das,  Pipa,  Bhikhan,  Beni,  Parmanand  Das,  Sur  Das,  Sadhna 
and  Dhanna  Jat;  verses  of  the  Mahommedan  saint  called  Farid; 
and  panegyrics  of  the  gurus  by  bards  who  either  attended  them  or 
admired  their  characters.  The  compositions  of  the  ninth  guru, 
Teg  Bahadur,  were  subsequently  added  to  the  Adi  Granth  by 
Guru  Govind  Singh.  One  recension  of  the  sacred  volume  pre- 
served at  Mangat  in  the  Gujrat  district  contains  a  hymn  com- 
posed by  Mira  Bai,  queen  of  Chitor.  The  Adi  Granth  contains 
passages  of  great  picturesqueness  and  beauty.  The  original 
copy  is  said  to  be  in  Kartarpur  in  the  Jullundur  district,  but  the 
chief  copy  in  use  is  now  in  the  Har  Mandar  or  Golden  Temple 
at  Amritsar,  where  it  is  daily  read  aloud  by  the  attendant 
Granthis  or  scripture  readers. 

There  is  also  a  second  Granth  which  was  compiled  by  the 
Sikhs  in  1734,  and  popularly  known  as  the  Granth  of  the  tenth 
Guru,  but  it  has  not  the  same  authority  as  the  Adi  Granth.  It 
contains  Guru  Govind  Singh's  Japji,  the  Akal  Ustit  or  Praise  of 
the  Creator,  thirty-three  sawaias  (quatrains  containing  some  of 
the  main  tenets  of  the  guru  and  strong  reprobation  of  idolatry 
and  hypocrisy),  and  the  Vachitar  Natak  or  wonderful  drama,  in 
which  the  guru  gives  an  account  of  his  parentage,  divine  mission 
and  the  battles  in  which  he  was  engaged.  Then  come  three 
abridged  translations  by  different  hands  of  the  Devi  Mahatamya, 


GRANTHAM,  LORD 


359 


an  episode  in  the  Markandeya  Puran,  in  praise  of  Durga,  the 
goddess  of  war.  Then  follow  the  Cyan  Parbodh  or  awakening  of 
knowledge,  accounts  of  twenty-four  incarnations  of  the  deity, 
selected  because  of  their  warlike  character;  the  Hazare  de 
Shabd;  the  Shastar  Nam  Mala,  which  is  a  list  of  offensive  and 
defensive  weapons  used  in  the  guru's  time,  with  special  reference 
to  the  attributes  of  the  Creator;  the  Tria  Charitar  or  tales  illus- 
trating the  qualities,  but  principally  the  deceit  of  women;  the 
Kabil,  compositions  of  a  miscellaneous  character;  the  Zafarnama 
containing  the  tenth  guru's  epistle  to  the  emperor  Aurangzeb,  and 
several  metrical  tales  in  the  Persian  language.  This  Granth  is 
only  partially  the  composition  of  the  tenth  guru.  The  greater 
portion  of  it  was  written  by  bards  in  his  employ. 

The  two  volumes  are  written  in  several  different  languages 
and  dialects.  The  Adi  Granth  is  largely  in  old  Punjabi  and  Hindi, 
but  Prakrit,  Persian,  Mahratti  and  Gujrati  are  also 
Form  of  represented.  The  Granth  of  the  Tenth  Guru  is  written 
'anatb.  in  tne  °ld  and  very  difficult  Hindi  affected  by  literary 
men  in  the  Patna  district  in  the  i6th  century.  In 
neither  of  these  sacred  volumes  is  there  any  separation  of  words. 
As  there  is  no  separation  of  words  in  Sanskrit,  the  gyanis  or 
interpreters  of  the  guru's  hymns  prefer  to  follow  the  ancient 
practice  of  junction  of  words.  This  makes  the  reading  of  the  Sikh 
scriptures  very  difficult,  and  is  one  of  the  causes  of  the  decline 
of  the  Sikh  religion. 

The  hymns  in. the  Adi  Granth  are  arranged  not  according  to 
the  gurus  or  bhagats  who  compose  them,  but  according  to  rags 
or  musical  measures.  There  are  thirty-one  such  measures  in 
the  Adi  Granth,  and  the  hymns  are  arranged  according  to  the 
neasures  to  which  they  are  composed.  The  gurus  who  composed 
hymns,  namely  the  first,  second,  third,  fourth,  fifth  and  ninth 
gurus,  all  used  the  name  Nanak  as  their  nom-de-plume.  Their 
compositions  are  distinguished  by  mahallas  or  wards.  Thus  the 
compositions  of  Guru  Nanak  are  styled  mahalla  one,  the  com- 
positions of  Guru  Angad  are  styled  mahalla  two,  and  so  on. 
After  the  hymns  of  the  gurus  are  found  the  hymns  of  the  bhagats 
under  their  several  musical  measures.  The  Sikhs  generally  dis- 
like any  arrangement  of  the  Adi  Granth  by  which  the  composi- 
tions of  each  guru  or  bhagat  should  be  separately  shown. 

All  the  doctrines  of  the  Sikhs  are  found  set  forth  in  the  two 

Granths  and  in  compositions  called  Rahit  Namas  and  Tanakhwah 

Namas,  which  are  believed  to  have  been  the  utterances 

The  of  the  tenth  guru.  The  cardinal  principle  of  the  sacred 

Doctrines.    DO°ks  is  the  unity  of  God,  and  starting  from  this 

premiss  the  rejection  of  idolatry  and  superstition. 

Thus  Guru  Govind  Singh  writes: 

"  Some  worshipping  stones,  put  them  on  their  heads; 

Some  suspend  lingams  from  their  necks; 
Some  see  the  God  in  the  South ;  some  bow  their  heads  to  the 

West. 

Some  fools  worship  idols,  others  busy  themselves  with  wor- 
shipping the  dead. 

The  whole  world  entangled  in  false  ceremonies  hath  not  found 
God's  secret." 

Next  to  the  unity  of  God  comes  the  equality  of  all  men  in  His 
sight,  and  so  the  abolition  of  caste  distinctions.  Guru  Nanak 
says: 

"  Caste  hath  no  power  in  the  next  world;  there  is  a  new  order  of 

beings, 
Those  whose  accounts  are  honoured  are  the  good." 

The  concremation  of  widows,  though  practised  in  later  times  by 
Hinduized  Sikhs,  is  forbidden  in  the  Granth.  Guru  Arjan 
writes: 

"  She  who  considereth  her  beloved  as  her  God, 
Is  the  blessed  sati  who  shall  be  acceptable  in  God's  Court." 

It  is  a  common  belief  that  the  Sikhs  are  allowed  to  drink  wine 
and  other  intoxicants.  This  is  not  the  case.  Guru  Nanak 
wrote: 

"  By  drinking  wine  man  committeth  many  sins." 
Guru  Arjan  wrote: 

"  The  fool  who  drinketh  evil  wine  is  involved  in  sin." 
And  in  the  Rahit  Nama  of  Bhai  Desa  Singh  there  is  the  follow- 
ing: 


"  Let  a  Sikh  take  no  intoxicant ;  it  makcth  the  body  lazy ;  it 
diverteth  men  from  their  temporal  and  spiritual  duties,  and  inciteth 
them  to  evil  deeds." 

It  is  also  generally  believed  that  the  Sikhs  are  bound  to 
abstain  from  the  flesh  of  kine.  This,  too,  is  a  mistake,  arising 
from  the  Sikh  adoption  of  Hindu  usages.  The  two  Granths  of 
the  Sikhs  and  all  their  canonical  works  are  absolutely  silent  on 
the  subject.  The  Sikhs  are  not  bound  to  abstain  from  any  flesh, 
except  that  which  is  obviously  unfit  for  human  food,  or  what  is 
killed  in  the  Mahommedan  fashion  by  jagging  an  animal's  throat 
with  a  knife.  This  flesh-eating  practice  is  one  of  the  main  sources 
of  their  physical  strength.  Smoking  is  strictly  prohibited  by 
the  Sikh  religion.  Guru  Teg  Bahadur  preached  to  his  host  as 
follows: 

"  Save  the  people  from  the  vile  drug,  and  employ  thyself  in  the 
service  of  Sikhs  and  holy  men.  When  the  people  abandon  the 
degrading  smoke  and  cultivate  their  lands,  their  wealth  and  pro- 
sperity shall  increase,  and  they  shall  want  for  nothing  .  .  .  but 
when  they  smoke  the  vile  vegetable,  they  shall  grow  poor  and  lose 
their  wealth." 

Guru  Govind  Singh  also  said : 

"  Wine  is  bad,  bhang  destroyeth  one  generation,  but  tobacco 
destroyeth  all  generations." 

In  addition  to  these  prohibitions  Sikhism  inculcates  most 
of  the  positive  virtues  of  Christianity,  and  specially  loyalty  to 
rulers,  a  quality  which  has  made  the  Sikhs  valuable  servants  of 
the  British  crown. 

The  Granth  was  translated  by  Dr  Trumpp,  a  German  missionary, 
on  behalf  of  the  Punjab  government  in  1877,  but  his  rendering  is 
in  many  respects  incorrect,  owing  to  insufficient  knowledge  of  the 
Punjabi  dialects.  The  Sikh  Religion,  &c.,  in  6  vols.  (London,  1909)  is 
an  authoritative  version  prepared  by  M.  Macauliffe,  in  concert  with 
the  modern  leaders  of  the  Sikh  sect.  (M.  M.) 

GRANTHAM,  THOMAS  ROBINSON,  ist  BARON  (c.  1695-1770), 
English  diplomatist  and  politician,  was  a  younger  son  of  Sir 
William  Robinson,  Bart.  (1655-1736)  of  Newby,  Yorkshire, 
who  was  member  of  parliament  for  York  from  1697  to  1722. 
Having  been  a  scholar  and  minor  fellow  of  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  Thomas  Robinson  gained  his  earliest  diplomatic 
experience  in  Paris  and  then  went  to  Vienna,  where  he  was 
English  ambassador  from  1730  to  1748.  During  1741  he  sought 
to  make  peace  between  the  empress  Maria  Theresa  and  Frederick 
the  Great,  but  in  vain,  and  in  1748  he  represented  his  country 
at  the  congress  of  Aix-la-Chapelle.  Returning  to  England  he 
sat  in  parliament  for  Christchurch  from  1749  to  1761.  In  1754 
Robinson  was  appointed  a  secretary  of  state  and  leader  of  the 
House  of  Commons  by  the  prime  minister,  the  duke  of  Newcastle, 
and  it  was  on  this  occasion  that  Pitt  made  the  famous  remark 
to  Fox,  "  the  duke  might  as  well  have  sent  us  his  jackboot 
to  lead  us."  In  November  1755  he  resigned,  and  in  April  1761 
he  was  created  Baron  Grantham.  He  was  master  of  the  wardrobe 
from  1749  to  1754  and  again  from  1755  to  1760,  and  was  joint 
postmaster-general  in  1765  and  1766.  He  died  in  London  on  the 
30th  of  September  1770. 

Grantham's  elder  son,  THOMAS  ROBINSON  (1738-1786),  who 
became  the  2nd  baron,  was  born  at  Vienna  on  the  3Oth  of 
November  1738.  Educated  at  Westminster  School  and  at  Christ's 
College,  Cambridge,  he  entered  parliament  as  member  for  Christ- 
church  in  1 76 1 ,  and  succeeded  to  the  peerage  ini77o.  In  1771  he 
was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Madrid  and  retained  this  post  until 
war  broke  out  between  England  and  Spain  in  1779.  From  1780 
to  1782  Grantham  was  first  commissioner  of  the  board  of  trade 
and  foreign  plantations,  and  from  July  1782  to  April  1783 
secretary  for  the  foreign  department  under  Lord  Shelburne. 
He  died  on  the  2Oth  of  July  1786,  leaving  two  sons,  Thomas 
Philip,  who  became  the  3rd  baron,  and  Frederick  John  after- 
wards ist  earl  of  Ripon. 

THOMAS  PHILIP  ROBINSON,  3rd  Baron  Grantham  (1781-1859), 
in  1803  took  the  name  of  Weddell  instead  of  that  of  Robinson. 
In  May  1833  he  became  Earl  de  Grey  of  Wrest  on  the  death  of 
his  maternal  aunt,  Amabell  Hume-Campbell,  Countess  de  Grey 
(1751-1833),  and  he  now  took  the  name  of  de  Grey.  He  was 
first  lord  of  the  admiralty  under  Sir  Robert  Peel  in  1834-1835, 


36° 


GRANTHAM— GRANULITE 


and  from  1841  to  1844  lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland.  On  his  death 
without  male  issue  his  nephew,  George  Frederick  Samuel  Robin- 
son, afterwards  marquess  of  Ripon  (?.*.),  succeeded  as  Earl  de 
Grey. 

GRANTHAM,  a  municipal  and  parliamentary  borough  of 
Lincolnshire,  England;  situated  in  a  pleasant  undulating 
country  on  the  river  Witham.  Pop.  (1901)  17,593.  It  is  an 
important  junction  of  the  Great  Northern  railway,  105  m.  N. 
by  W.  from  London,  with  branch  lines  to  Nottingham,  Lincoln 
and  Boston;  while  there  is  communication  with  Nottingham 
and  the  Trent  by  the  Grantham  canal.  The  parish  church  of  St 
Wulfram  is  a  splendid  building,  exhibiting  all  the  Gothic  styles, 
but  mainly  Early  English  and  Decorated.  The  massive  and 
ornate  western  tower  and  spire,  about  280  ft.  in  height,  are  of 
early  Decorated  workmanship.  There  is  a  double  Decorated 
crypt  beneath  the  lady  chapel.  The  north  and  south  porches  are 
fine  examples  of  a  later  period  of  the  same  style.  The  delicately 
carved  font  is  noteworthy.  Two  libraries,  respectively  of  the 
i6th  and  i;th  centuries,  are  preserved  in  the  church.  At  the 
King  Edward  VI.  grammar  school  Sir  Isaac  Newton  received 
part  of  his  education.  A  bronze  statue  commemorates  him. 
The  late  Perpendicular  building  is  picturesque,  and  the  school  was 
greatly  enlarged  in  1904.  The  Angel  Hotel  is  a  hostelry  of  the 
iSth  century,  with  a  gateway  of  earlier  date.  A  conduit  dating 
from  1597  stands  in  the  wide  market-place.  Modern  public 
buildings  are  a  gild  hall,  exchange  hall,  and  several  churches 
and  chapels.  The  Queen  Victoria  Memorial  home  for  nurses  was 
erected  in  1902-1903.  The  chief  industries  are  malting  and  the 
manufacture  of  agricultural  implements.  Grantham  returns  one 
member  to  parliament.  The  borough  falls  within  the  S.  Kesteven 
or  Stamford  division  of  the  county.  Grantham  was  created  a 
suffragan  bishopric  in  the  diocese  of  Lincoln  in  1905.  The 
municipal  borough  is  under  a  mayor,  4  aldermen  and  12 
councillors.  Area,  1726  acres. 

Although  there  is  no  authentic  evidence  of  Roman  occupation, 
Grantham  (Graham,  Granham  in  Domesday  Book)  from  its 
situation  on  the  Ermine  Street,  is  supposed  to  have  been  a 
Roman  station.  It  was  possibly  a  borough  in  the  Saxon  period, 
and  by  the  time  of  the  Domesday  Survey  it  was  a  royal  borough 
with  in  burgesses.  Charters  of  liberties  existing  now  only  in 
the  confirmation  charter  of  1377  were  granted  by  various  kings. 
From  the  first  the  town  was  governed  by  a  bailiff  appointed 
by  the  lord  of  the  manor,  but  by  the  end  of  the  I4th  century  the 
office  of  alderman  had  come  into  existence.  Finally  government 
under  a  mayor  and  alderman  was  granted  by  Edward  IV.  in 
1463,  and  Grantham  became  a  corporate  town.  Among  later 
charters,  that  of  James  II.,  given  in  1685,  changed  the  title  to 
that  of  government  by  a  mayor  and  6  aldermen,  but  this  was 
afterwards  reversed  and  the  old  order  resumed.  Grantham 
was  first  represented  in  parliament  in  1467,  and  returned  two 
members;  but  by  the  Redistribution  Act  of  1885  the  number 
was  reduced  to  one.  Richard  III.  in  1483  granted  a  Wednesday 
market  and  two  fairs  yearly,  namely  on  the  feast  of  St  Nicholas 
the  Bishop,  and  the  two  following  days,  and  on  Passion  Sunday 
and  the  day  following.  At  the  present  day  the  market  is  held 
on  Saturday,  and  fairs  are  held  on  the  Monday,  Tuesday  and 
Wednesday  following  the  fifth  Sunday  in  Lent;  a  cherry  fair 
on  the  1 1  th  of  July  and  two  stock  fairs  on  the  26th  of  October 
and  the  i7th  of  December. 

GRANTLEY,  FLETCHER  NORTON,  IST  BARON  (1716-1789), 
English  politician,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Thomas  Norton  of 
Grantley,  Yorkshire,  where  he  was  born  on  the  23rd  of  Jurie  1716. 
He  became  a  barrister  in  1739,  and,  after  a  period  of  inactivity, 
obtained  a  large  and  profitable  practice,  becoming  a  K.C.  in 
1754,  and  afterwards  attorney-general  for  the  county  palatine 
of  Lancaster.  In  1756  he  was  elected  member  of  parliament  for 
Appleby;  he  represented  Wigan  from  1761  to  1768,  and  was 
appointed  solicitor-general  for  England  and  knighted  in  1762. 
He  took  part  in  the  proceedings  against  John  Wilkes,  and, 
having  become  attorney -general  in  1763,  prosecuted  the  5th 
Lord  Byron  for  the  murder  of  William  Chaworth,  losing  his 
office  when  the  marquess  of  Rockingham  came  into  power  in 


July  1765.  In  1769,  being  now  member  of  parliament  for 
Guildford,  Norton  became  a  privy  councillor  and  chief  justice 
in  eyre  of  the  forests  south  of  the  Trent,  and  in  1770  was  chosen 
Speaker  of  the  House  of  Commons.  In  1777,  when  presenting 
the  bill  for  the  increase  of  the  civil  list  to  the  king,  he  told 
George  III.  that  parliament  has  "  not  only  granted  to  your 
majesty  a  large  present  supply,  but  also  a  very  great  additional 
revenue ;  great  beyond  example;  great  beyond  your  majesty's 
highest  expense."  This  speech  aroused  general  attention  and 
caused  some  irritation;  but  the  Speaker  was  supported  by  Fox 
and  by  the  city  of  London,  and  received  the  thanks  of  the  House 
of  Commons.  George,  however,  did  not  forget  these  plain  words, 
and  after  the  general  election  of  1780,  the  prime  minister,  Lord 
North,  and  his  followers  declined  to  support  the  re-election  of  the 
retiring  Speaker,  alleging  that  his  health  was  not  equal  to  the 
duties  of  the  office,  and  he  was  defeated  when  the  voting  took 
place.  In  1782  he  was  made  a  peer  as  Baron  Grantley  of 
Markenfield.  He  died  in  London  on  the  ist  of  January  1789. 
He  was  succeeded  as  Baron  Grantley  by  his  eldest  son  William 
(1742-1822).  Wraxall  describes  Norton  as  "a  bold,  able  and 
eloquent,  but  not  a  popular  pleader,"  and  as  Speaker  he  was 
aggressive  and  indiscreet.  Derided  by  satirists  as  "  Sir  Bullface 
Doublefee,"  and  described  by  Horace  Walpole  as  one  who  "  rose 
from  obscure  infamy  to  that  infamous  fame  which  will  long  stick 
to  him,"  his  character  was  also  assailed  by  Junius,  and  the  general 
impression  is  that  he  was  a  hot-tempered,  avaricious  and  un- 
principled man. 

See  H.  Walpole,  Memoirs  of  the  Reign  of  George  ///.."edited  by 
G.  F.  R.  Barker  (1894);  Sir  N.  W.  Wraxall,  Historical  and  Post- 
humous Memoirs,  edited  by  H.  B.  Wheatley  (1884);  and  J.  A. 
Manning,  Lives  of  the  Speakers  (1850). 

GRANTOWN,  the  capital  of  Speyside,  Elginshire,  Scotland. 
Pop.  (1901)  1568.  It  lies  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Spey,  235  m. 
S.  of  Forres  by  the  Highland  railway,  with  a  station  on  the  Great 
North  of  Scotland's  Speyside  line  connecting  Craigellachie  with 
Boat  of  Garten.  It  was  founded  in  1776  by  Sir  James  Grant  of 
Grant,  and  became  the  chief  seat  of  that  ancient  family,  who  had 
lived  on  their  adjoining  estate  of  Freuchie  (Gaelic,  fraochach, 
"heathery")  since  the  beginning  of  the  I5th  century,  and 
hence  were  usually  described  as  the  lairds  of  Freuchie.  The 
public  buildings  include  the  town  hall,  court  house  and  orphan 
hospital;  and  the  industries  are  mainly  connected  with  the 
cattle  trade  and  the  distilling  of  whisky.  The  town,  built  of  grey 
granite,  presents  a  handsome  appearance,  and  being  delightfully 
situated  in  the  midst  of  the  most  beautiful  pine  and  birch  woods 
in  Scotland,  with  pure  air  and  a  bracing  climate,  is  an  attractive 
resort.  Castle  Grant,  immediately  to  the  north,  is  the  principal 
mansion  of  the  earl  of  Seafield,  the  head  of  the  Clan  Grant. 
In  a  cave,  still  called  "  Lord  Huntly's  Cave,"  in  a  rocky  glen  in 
the  vicinity,  George,  marquess  of  Huntly,  lay  hid  during 
Montrose's  campaign  in  1644-45. 

GRANULITE  (Lat.  granulum,  a  little  grain),  a  name  used  by 
petrographers  to  designate  two  distinct  classes  of  rocks.  Accord- 
ing to  the  terminology  of  the  French  school  it  signifies  a  granite 
in  which  both  kinds  of  mica  (muscovite  and  biotite)  occur,  and 
corresponds  to  the  German  Granit,  or  to  the  English  "  muscovite 
biotite  granite."  This  application  has  not  been  accepted 
generally.  To  the  German  petrologists  "  granulite  "  means  a 
more  or  less  banded  fine-grained  metamorphic  rock,  consisting 
mainly  of  quartz  and  felspar  in  very  small  irregular  crystals, 
and  containing  usually  also  a  fair  number  of  minute  rounded 
pale-red  garnets.  Among  English  and  American  geologists  the 
term  is  generally  employed  in  this  sense.  The  granulites  are 
very  closely  allied  to  the  gneisses,  as  they  consist  of  nearly  the 
same  minerals,  but  they  are  finer  grained,  have  usually  less 
perfect  foliation,  are  more  frequently  garnetiferous,  and  have 
some  special  features  of  microscopic  structure.  In  the  rocks  of 
this  group  the  minerals,  as  seen  in  a  microscopic  slide,  occur  as 
small  rounded  grains  forming  a  mosaic  closely  fitted  together. 
The  individual  crystals  have  never  perfect  form,  and  indeed 
rarely  any  traces  of  it.  In  some  granulites  they  interlock,  with 
irregular  borders;  in  others  they  have  been  drawn  out  and 


GRANVELLA 


361 


flattened  into  tapering  lenticles  by  crushing.  In  most  cases  they 
are  somewhat  rounded  with  smaller  grains  between  the  larger. 
This  is  especially  true  of  the  quartz  and  felspar  which  are  the 
predominant  minerals;  mica  always  appears  as  flat  scales 
(irregular  or  rounded  but  not  hexagonal).  Both  muscovite  and 
biotite  may  be  present  and  vary  considerably  in  abundance; 
very  commonly  they  have  their  flat  sides  parallel  and  give  the 
rock  a  rudimentary  schistosity,  and  they  may  be  aggregated 
into  bands — in  which  case  the  granulites  are  indistinguishable 
from  certain  varieties  of  gneiss.  The  garnets  are  very  generally 
larger  than  the  above-mentioned  ingredients,  and  easily  visible 
with  the  eye  as  pink  spots  on  the  broken  surfaces  of  the  rock. 
They  usually  are  filled  with  enclosed  grains  of  the  other  minerals. 

The  felspar  of  the  granulites  is  mostly  orthoclase  or  crypto- 
perthite;  microcline,  oligoclase  and  albite  are  also  common. 
Basic  felspars  occur  only  rarely.  Among  accessory  minerals,  in 
addition  to  apatite,  zircon,  and  iron  oxides,  the  following  may 
be  mentioned:  hornblende  (not  common),  riebeckite  (rare), 
epidote  and  zoisite,  calcite,  sphene,  andalusite,  sillimanite, 
kyanite,  hercynite  (a  green  spinel),  rutile,  orthite  and  tourmaline. 
Though  occasionally  we  may  find  larger  grains  of  felspar,  quartz 
or  epidote,  it  is  more  characteristic  of  these  rocks  that  all  the 
minerals  are  in  small,  nearly  uniform,  imperfectly  shaped 
individuals. 

On  account  of  the  minuteness  with  which  it  has  been  described 
and  the  important  controversies  on  points  of  theoretical  geology 
which  have  arisen  regarding  it,  the  granulite  district  of  Saxony 
(around  Rosswein,  Penig,  &c.)  may  be  considered  the  typical 
region  for  rocks  of  this  group.  It  should  be  remembered  that 
though  granulites  are  probably  the  commonest  rocks  of  this 
country,  they  are  mingled  with  granites,  gneisses,  gabbros, 
amphibolites,  mica  schists  and  many  other  petrographical  types. 
All  of  these  rocks  show  more  or  less  metamorphism  either  of  a 
thermal  character  or  due  to  pressure  and  crushing.  The  granites 
pass  into  gneiss  and  granulite;  the  gabbros  into  flaser  gabbro  and 
amphibolite;  the  slates  often  contain  andalusite  or  chiastolite, 
and  show  transitions  to  mica  schists.  At  one  time  these  rocks 
were  regarded  as  Archean  gneisses  of  a  special  type.  Johannes 
Georg  Lehmann  propounded  the  hypothesis  that  their  present 
state  was  due  principally  to  crushing  acting  on  them  in  a  solid 
condition,  grinding  them  down  and  breaking  up  their  minerals, 
while  the  pressure  to  which  they  were  subjected  welded  them 
together  into  coherent  rock.  It  is  now  believed,  however,  that 
they  are  comparatively  recent  and  include  sedimentary  rocks, 
partly  of  Palaeozoic  age,  and  intrusive  masses  which  may  be 
nearly  massive  or  may  have  gneissose,  flaser  or  granulitic 
structures.  These  have  been  developed  largely  by  the  injection 
of  semi-consolidated  highly  viscous  intrusions,  and  the  varieties 
of  texture  are  original  or  were  produced  very  shortly  after  the 
crystallization  of  the  rocks.  Meanwhile,  however,  Lehmann's 
advocacy  of  post-consolidation  crushing  as  a  factor  in  the 
development  of  granulites  has  been  so  successful  that  the  terms 
granulitization  and  granulitic  structures  are  widely  employed 
to  indicate  the  results  of  dynamometamorphism  acting  on  rocks 
at  a  period  long  after  their  solidification. 

The  Saxon  granulites  are  apparently  for  the  most  part  igneous 
and  correspond  in  composition  to  granites  and  porphyries. 
There  are,  however,  many  granulites  which  undoubtedly  were 
originally  sediments  (arkoses,  grits  and  sandstones) .  A  large  part 
of  the  highlands  of  Scotland  consists  of  paragranulites  of  this 
kind,  which  have  received  the  group  name  of  "  Moine  gneisses." 

Along  with  the  typical  acid  granulites  above  described,  in 
Saxony,  India,  Scotland  and  other  countries  there  occur  dark- 
coloured  basic  granulites  ("  trap  granulites ").  These  are 
fine-grained  rocks,  not  usually  banded,  nearly  black  in  colour 
with  small  red  spots  of  garnet.  Their  essential  minerals  are 
pyroxene,  plagioclase  and  garnet:  chemically  they  resemble 
the  gabbros.  Green  augite  and  hypersthene  form  a  considerable 
part  of  these  rocks,  they  may  contain  also  biotite,  hornblende  and 
quartz.  Around  the  garnets  there  is  often  a  radial  grouping  of 
small  grains  of  pyroxene  and  hornblende  in  a  clear  matrix  of 
felspar:  these  "  centric "  structures  are  frequent  in  granu- 


lites. The  rocks  of  this  group  accompany  gabbro  and  serpen- 
tine, but  the  exact  conditions  under  which  they  are  formed 
and  the  significance  of  their  structures  is  not  very  clearly 
understood.  (J.  S.  F.) 

GRANVELLA,  ANTOINE  PERRENOT,  CARDINAL  DE  (1517- 
1586),  one  of  the  ablest  and  most  influential  of  the  princes  of 
the  church  during  the  great  political  and  ecclesiastical  movements 
which  immediately  followed  the  appearance  of  Protestantism 
in  Europe,  was  born  on  the  zoth  of  August  1517  at  Besancon, 
where  his  father,  Nicolas  Perrenot  de  Granvella  (1484-1550), 
who  afterwards  became  chancellor  of  the  empire  under  Charles  V., 
was  practising  as  a  lawyer.  Later  Nicolas  held  an  influential 
position  in  the  Netherlands,  and  from  1530  until  his  death  he 
was  one  of  the  emperor's  most  trusted  advisers  in  Germany. 
On  the  completion  of  his  studies  in  law  at  Padua  and  in  divinity 
at  Louvain,  Antoine  held  a  canonry  at  Besangon,  but  he  was 
promoted  to  the  bishopric  of  Arras  when  barely  twenty-three 
(1540).  In  his  episcopal  capacity  he  attended  several  diets  of 
the  empire,  as  well  as  the  opening  meetings  of  the  council  of 
Trent;  and  the  influence  of  his  father,  now  chancellor,  led  to 
his  being  entrusted  with  many  difficult  and  delicate  pieces  of 
public  business,  in  the  execution  of  which  he  developed  a  rare 
talent  for  diplomacy,  and  at  the  same  time  acquired  an  intimate 
acquaintance  with  most  of  the  currents  of  European  politics. 
One  of  his  specially  noteworthy  performances  was  the  settlement 
of  the  terms  of  peace  after  the  defeat  of  the  league  of  Schmalkalden 
at  Miihlberg  in  1547,  a  settlement  in  which,  to  say  the  least, 
some  particularly  sharp  practice  was  exhibited.  In  1550  he 
succeeded  his  father  in  the  office  of  secretary  of  state;  in  this 
capacity  he  attended  Charles  in  the  war  with  Maurice,  elector 
of  Saxony,  accompanied  him  in  the  flight  from  Innsbruck,  and 
afterwards  drew  up  the  treaty  of  Passau  (August  1552).  In  the 
following  year  he  conducted  the  negotiations  for  the  marriage 
of  Mary  of  England  and  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  to  whom,  in  1555, 
on  the  abdication  of  the  emperor,  he  transferred  his  services, 
and  by  whom  he  was  employed  in  the  Netherlands.  In  April 
1559  Granvella  was  one  of  the  Spanish  commissioners  who 
arranged  the  peace  of  Cateau  Cambresis,  and  on  Philip's  with- 
drawal from  the  Netherlands  in  August  of  the  same  year  he 
was  appointed  prime  minister  to  the  regent,  Margaret  of  Parma. 
The  policy  of  repression  which  in  this  capacity  he  pursued 
during  the  next  five  years  secured  for  him  many  tangible  rewards, 
in  1560  he  was  elevated  to  the  archiepiscopal  see  of  Malines, 
and  in  1561  he  received  the  cardinal's  hat;  but  the  growing 
hostility  of  a  people  whose  religious  convictions  he  had .  set 
himself  to  trample  under  foot  ultimately  made  it  impossible 
for  him  to  continue  in  the  Low  Countries;  and  by  the  advice 
of  his  royal  master  he,  in  March  1564,  retired  to  Franche  Comt6. 
Nominally  this  withdrawal  was  only  of  a  temporary  character, 
but  it  proved  to  be  final.  The  following  six  years  were  spent 
in  comparative  quiet,  broken,  however,  by  a  visit  to  Rome  in 
1565;  but  in  1570  Granvella,  at  the  call  of  Philip,  resumed 
public  life  by  accepting  another  mission  to  Rome.  Here  he 
helped  to  arrange  the  alliance  between  the  Papacy,  Venice  and 
Spain  against  the  Turks,  an  alliance  which  was  responsible  for 
the  victory  of  Lepanto.  In  the  same  year  he  became  viceroy 
of  Naples,  a  post  of  some  difficulty  and  danger,  which  for  five 
years  he  occupied  with  ability  and  success.  He  was  summoned 
to  Madrid  in  1575  by  Philip  II.  to  be  president  of  the  council 
for  Italian  affairs.  Among  the  more  delicate  negotiations  of 
his  later  years  were  those  of  1580,  which  had  for  their  object 
the  ultimate  union  of  the  crowns  of  Spain  and  Portugal,  and 
those  of  1584,  which  resulted  in  a  check  to  France  by  the  marriage 
of  the  Spanish  infanta  Catherine  to  Charles  Emmanuel,  duke  of 
Savoy.  In  the  same  year  he  was  made  archbishop  of  Besancon, 
but  meanwhile  he  had  been  stricken  with  a  lingering  disease; 
he  was  never  enthroned,  but  died  at  Madrid  on  the  zist  of 
September  1586.  His  body  was  removed  to  Besancon,  where 
his  father  had  been  buried.  Granvella  was  a  man  of  great 
learning,  which  was  equalled  by  his  industry,  and  these  qualities 
made  him  almost  indispensable  both  to  Charles  V.  and  to 
Philip  II. 


362 


GRANVILLE,  EARLS 


Numerous  letters  and  memoirs  of  Granvella  are  preserved  in  the 
archives  of  Besancon.  These  were  to  some  extent  made  use  of  by 
Prosper  Leveque  in  his  M6moires  pour  senrir  (1753).  as  well  as  by 
the  Abb(5  Boisot  in  the  Tresor  de  Granvella.  A  commission  for 
publishing  the  whole  of  the  letters  and  memoirs  was  appointed  by 
Guizot  in  1834,  and  the  result  has  been  the  issue  of  nine  volumes 
of  the  Papiers  d'Etat  du  cardinal  de  Granvelle,  edited  by  C.  Weiss 


Correspondence _. ,    „  „ 

Poullet  and  G.  J.  C.  Piot  (12  vols.,  Brussels,  1878-1896).  See  also 
the  anonymous  Histoire  du  cardinal  de  GranvUle,  attributed  to 
Courchetet  D'Esnans  (Paris,  1761);  J.  L.  Motley,  Rise  of  the  Dutch 
Republic;  M.  Philippson,  Ein  Ministerium  unter  Philipp  II.  (Berlin, 
1895);  and  the  Cambridge  Modern  History  (vol.  iii.  1904). 

GRANVILLE,    GRANVILLE    GEORGE     LEVESON-GOWER, 

2ND  EARL  (1815-1891),  English  statesman,  eldest  son  of  the 
ist  Earl  Granville  (1773-1846),  by  his  marriage  with  Lady 
Harriet,  daughter  of  the  duke  of  Devonshire,  was  born  in  London 
on  the  nth  of  May  1815.  His  father,  Granville  Leveson-Gower, 
was  a  younger  son  of  Granville,  2nd  Lord  Gower  and  ist  marquess 
of  Stafford  (1720-1803),  by  his  third  wife;  an  elder  son  by  the 
second  wife  (a  daughter  of  the  ist  duke  of  Bridgwater)  became 
the  2nd  marquess  of  Stafford,  and  his  marriage  with  the  daughter 
and  heiress  of  the  1 7th  earl  of  Sutherland  (countess  of  Sutherland 
in  her  own  right)  led  to  the  merging  of  the  Gower  and  Stafford 
titles  in  that  of  the  dukes  of  Sutherland  (created  1833),  who 
represent  the  elder  branch  of  the  family.  As  Lord  Granville 
Leveson-Gower,  the  ist  Earl  Granville  (created  viscount  in 
1815  and  earl  in  1833)  entered  the  diplomatic  service  and  was 
ambassador  at  St  Petersburg  (1804-1807)  and  at  Paris  (1824- 
1841).  He  was  a  Liberal  in  politics  and  an  intimate  friend  of 
Canning.  The  title  of  Earl  Granville  had  been  previously  held 
in  the  Carteret  family. 

After  being  at  Eton  and  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  young  Lord 
Leveson  went  to  Paris  for  a  short  time  under  his  father,  and  in 
1836  was  returned  to  parliament  in  the  Whig  interest  for  Morpeth. 
For  a  short  time  he  was  under-secretary  for  foreign  affairs  in 
Lord  Melbourne's  ministry.  In  1840  he  married  Lady  Acton 
(Marie  Louise  Pelline  de  Dalberg,  widow  of  Sir  Richard  Acton; 
see  ACTON  and  DALBERG).  From  1841  till  his  father's  death 
in  1846,  when  he  succeeded  to  the  title,  he  sat  for  Lichfield. 
In  the  House  of  Lords  he  signalized  himself  as  a  Free  Trader, 
and  Lord  John  Russell  made  him  master  of  the  buckhounds 
(1846).  He  proved  a  useful  member  of  the  party,  and  his 
influence  and  amiable  character  were  valuable  in  all  matters 
needing  diplomacy  and  good  breeding.  He  became  vice- 
president  of  the  Board  of  Trade  in  1848,  and  took  a  prominent 
part  in  promoting  the  great  exhibition  of  1851.  In  the  latter 
year,  having  already  been  admitted  to  the  cabinet,  he  succeeded 
Palmerston  at  the  foreign  office  until  Lord  John  Russell's  defeat 
in  1852;  and  when  Lord  Aberdeen  formed  his  government  at 
the  end  of  the  year,  he  became  first  president  of  the  council, 
and  then  chancellor  of  the  duchy  of  Lancaster  (1854).  Under 
Lord  Palmerston  (1855)  he  was  president  of  the  council.  His 
interest  in  education  (a  subject  associated  with  this  office)  led 
to  his  election  (1856)  as  chancellor  of  the  London  University, 
a  post  he  held  for  thirty -five  years;  and  he  was  a  prominent 
champion  of  the  movement  for  the  admission  of  women,  and 
also  of  the  teaching  of  modern  languages.  From  1855  Lord 
Granville  led  the  Liberals  in  the  Upper  House,  both  in  office, 
and,  after  Palmerston's  resignation  in  1858,  in  opposition. 
He  went  in  1856  as  head  of  the  British  mission  to  the  tsar's 
coronation  in  Moscow.  In  June  1859  the  queen,  embarrassed 
by  the  rival  ambitions  of  Palmerston  and  Russell,  sent  for  him 
to  form  a  ministry,  but  he  was  unable  to  do  so,  and  Palmerston 
again  became  prime  minister,  with  Lord  John  as  foreign  secretary 
and  Granville  as  president  of  the  council.  In  1860  his  wife 
died,  and  to  this  heavy  loss  was  shortly  added  that  of  his  great 
friends  Lord  and  Lady  Canning  and  of  his  mother  (1862);  but 
he  devoted  himself  to  his  political  work,  and  retained  his  office 
when,  on  Palmerston's  death  in  1865,  Lord  Russell  (now  a  peer) 
became  prime  minister  and  took  over  the  leadership  in  the 
House  of  Lords.  He  was  made  Lord  Warden  of  the  Cinque 


Ports,  and  in  the  same  year  married  again,  his  second  wife 
being  Miss  Castalia  Campbell.  From  1866  to  1868  he  was  in 
opposition,  but  in  December  1868  he  became  colonial  secretary 
in  Gladstone's  first  ministry.  His  tact  was  invaluable  to  the 
government  in  carrying  the  Irish  Church  and  Land  Bills  through 
the  House  of  Lords.  On  the  27th  of  June  1870,  on  Lord 
Clarendon's  death,  he  was  transferred  to  the  foreign  office. 
Lord  Granville's  name  is  mainly  associated  with  his  career  as 
foreign  secretary  (1870-1874  and  1880-1885);  but  tne  Liberal 
foreign  policy  of  that  period  was  not  distinguished  by  enterprise 
or  "  backbone."  Lord  Granville  personally  was  patient  and 
polite,  but  his  courteous  and  pacific  methods  were  somewhat 
inadequate  in  dealing  with  the  new  situation  then  arising  in 
Europe  and  outside  it;  and  foreign  governments  had  little 
scruple  in  creating  embarrassments  for  Great  Britain,  and  rely- 
ing on  the  disinclination  of  the  Liberal  leaders  to  take  strong 
measures.  The  Franco-German  War  of  1870  broke  out  within 
a  few  days  of  Lord  Granville's  quoting  in  the  House  of  Lords 
(nth  of  July)  the  curiously  unprophetic  opinion  of  the  per- 
manent under-secretary  (Mr  Hammond)  that  "  he  had  never 
known  so  great  a  lull  in  foreign  affairs."  Russia  took  advantage 
of  the  situation  to  denounce  the  Black  Sea  clauses  of  the  treaty 
of  Paris,  and  Lord  Granville's  protest  was  ineffectual.  In  1871 
an  intermediate  zone  between  Asiatic  Russia  and  Afghanistan 
was  agreed  on  between  him  and  Shuvalov;  but  in  1873  Russia 
took  possession  of  Khiva,  within  the  neutral  zone,  and  Lord 
Granville  had  to  accept  the  aggression.  When  the  Conservatives 
came  into  power  in  1874,  his  part  for  the  next  six  years  was  to 
criticize  Disraeli's  "  spirited  "  foreign  policy,  and  to  defend  his 
own  more  pliant  methods.  He  returned  to  the  foreign  office  in 
1880,  only  to  find  an  anti-British  spirit  developing  in  German 
policy  which  the  temporizing  methods  of  the  Liberal  leaders 
were  generally  powerless  to  deal  with.  Lord  Grarrville  failed 
to  realize  in  time  the  importance  of  the  Angra  Pequena  question 
in  1883-1884,  and  he  was  forced,  somewhat  ignominiously,  to 
yield  to  Bismarck  over  it.  Whether  in  Egypt,  Afghanistan 
or  equatorial  and  south-west  Africa,  British  foreign  policy  was 
dominated  by  suavity  rather  than  by  the  strength  which  com- 
mands respect.  Finally,  when  Gladstone  took  up  Home  Rule 
for  Ireland,  Lord  Granville,  whose  mind  was  similarly  receptive 
to  new  ideas,  adhered  to  his  chief  (1886),  and  gracefully  gave 
way  to  Lord  Rosebery  when  the  latter  was  preferred  to  the  foreign 
office;  the  Liberals  had  now  realized  that  they  had  lost  ground 
in  the  country  by  Lord  Granville's  occupancy  of  the  post.  He 
went  to  the  Colonial  Office  for  six  months,  and  in  July  1886 
retired  from  public  life.  He  died  in  London  on  the  3  ist  of  March 
1891,  being  succeeded  in  the  title  by  his  son,  born  in  1872. 
Lord  Granville  was  a  man  of  much  charm  and  many  friendships, 
and  an  admirable  after-dinner  speaker.  He  spoke  French  like 
a  Parisian,  and  was  essentially  a  diplomatist;  but  he  has  no 
place  in  history  as  a  constructive  statesman. 

The  life  of  Lord  Granville  (1905),  by  Lord  Fitzmaurice,  is  full  of 
interesting  material  for  the  history  of  the  period,  but  being  written 
by  a  Liberal,  himself  an  under-secretary  for  foreign  affairs,  it 
explains  rather  than  criticizes  Lord  Granville's  work  in  that  depart- 
ment. (H.  CH.) 

GRANVILLE,  JOHN  CARTERET,  EARL  (1690-1763),  English 
statesman,  commonly  known  by  his  earlier  title  as  Lord  Carteret, 
born  on  the  22nd  of  April  1690,  was  the  son  of  George,  ist  Lord 
Carteret,  by  his  marriage  with  Grace  Granville,  daughter  of 
Sir  John  Granville,  ist  earl  of  Bath,  and  great  grandson  of 
the  Elizabethan  admiral,  Sir  Richard  Grenville,  famous  for  his 
death  in  the  "  Revenge."  The  family  of  Carteret  was  settled 
in  the  Channel  Islands,  and  was  of  Norman  descent.  John 
Carteret  was  educated  at  Westminster,  and  at  Christ  Church, 
Oxford.  Swift  says  that  "  with  a  singularity  scarce  to  be 
justified  he  carried  away  more  Greek,  Latin  and  philosophy 
than  properly  became  a  person  of  his  rank."  Throughout  life 
Carteret  not  only  showed  a  keen  love  of  the  classics,  but  a  taste 
for,  and  a  knowledge  of,  modern  languages  and  literatures. 
He  was  almost  the  only  Englishman  of  his  time  who  knew 
German.  Harte,  the  author  of  the  Life  of  Gustavus  Adolphus, 
acknowledged  the  aid  which  Carteret  had  given  him.  On  the 


GRANVILLE 


I7th  of  October  1710  he  married  at  Longleat  Lady  Frances 
Worsley,  grand-daughter  of  the  first  Viscount  Weymouth. 
He  took  his  scat  in  the  Lords  on  the  2  sth  of  May  1711.  Though 
his  family,  on  both  sides,  had  been  devoted  to  the  house  of 
Stuart,  Carteret  was  a  steady  adherent  of  the  Hanoverian 
dynasty.  He  was  a  friend  of  the  Whig  leaders  Stanhope  and 
Sunderland,  took  a  share  in  defeating  the  Jacobite  conspiracy 
of  Bolingbroke  on  the  death  of  Queen  Anne,  and  supported  the 
passing  of  the  Septennial  Act.  Carteret's  interests  were  however 
in  foreign,  and  not  in  domestic  policy.  His  serious  work  in 
public  life  began  with  his  appointment,  early  in  1719,  as 
ambassador  to  Sweden.  During  this  and  the  following  year 
he  was  employed  in  saving  Sweden  from  the  attacks  of  Peter 
the  Great,  and  in  arranging  the  pacification  of  the  north.  His 
efforts  were  finally  successful.  During  this  period  of  diplomatic 
work  he  acquired  an  exceptional  knowledge  of  the  affairs  of 
Europe,  and  in  particular  of  Germany,  and  displayed  great  tact 
and  temper  in  dealing  with  the  Swedish  senate,  with  Queen 
Ulrica,  with  the  king  of  Denmark  and  Frederick  William  I. 
of  Prussia.  But  he  was  not  qualified  to  hold  his  own  in  the 
intrigues  of  court  and  parliament  in  London.  Named  secretary 
of  state  for  the  southern  department  on  his  return  home,  he  soon 
became  helplessly  in  conflict  with  the  intrigues  of  Townshend 
and  Sir  Robert  Walpole.  To  Walpole,  who  looked  upon  every 
able  colleague,  or  subordinate,  as  an  enemy  to  be  removed, 
Carteret  was  exceptionally  odious.  His  capacity  to  speak 
German  with  the  king  would  alone  have  made  Sir  Robert  detest 
him.  When,  therefore,  the  violent  agitation  in  Ireland  against 
Wood's  halfpence  (see  SWIFT,  JONATHAN)  made  it  necessary 
to  replace  the  duke  of  Grafton  as  lord  lieutenant,  Carteret  was 
sent  to  Dublin.  He  landed  in  Dublin  on  the  23rd  of  October 
1724,  and  remained  there  till  1730.  In  the  first  months  of  his 
tenure  of  office  he  had  to  deal  with  the  furious  opposition  to 
Wood's  halfpence,  and  to  counteract  the  effect  of  Swift's 
Draper's  Letters.  The  lord  lieutenant  had  a  strong  personal 
liking  for  Swift,  who  was  also  a  friend  of  Lady  Carteret's  family. 
It  is  highly  doubtful  whether  Carteret  could  have  reconciled 
his  duty  to  the  crown  with  his  private  friendships,  if  government 
had  persisted  in  endeavouring  to  force  the  detested  coinage 
on  the  Irish  people.  Wood's  patent  was  however  withdrawn, 
and  Ireland  settled  down.  Carteret  was  a  profuse  and 
popular  lord  lieutenant  who  pleased  both  the  "  English  interest  " 
and  the  native  Irish.  He  was  at  all  times  addicted  to  lavish 
hospitality,  and  according  to  the  testimony  of  contemporaries 
was  too  fond  of  burgundy.  When  he  returned  to  London  in 
1730,  Walpole  was  firmly  established  as  master  of  the  House  of 
Commons,  and  as  the  trusted  minister  of  King  George  II.  He 
had  the  full  confidence  of  Queen  Caroline,  whom  he  prejudiced 
against  Carteret.  Till  the  fall  of  Walpole  in  1742,  Carteret 
could  take  no  share  in  public  affairs  except  as  a  leader  of  opposi- 
tion of  the  Lords.  His  brilliant  parts  were  somewhat  obscured 
by  his  rather  erratic  conduct,  and  a  certain  contempt,  partly 
aristocratic  and  partly  intellectual,  for  commonplace  men  and 
ways.  He  endeavoured  to  please  Queen  Caroline,  who  loved 
literature,  and  he  has  the  credit,  on  good  grounds,  of  having 
paid  the  expenses  of  the  first  handsome  edition  of  Don  Quixote 
to  please  her.  But  he  reluctantly,  and  most  unwisely,  allowed 
himself  to  be  entangled  in  the  scandalous  family  quarrel  between 
Frederick,  prince  of  Wales,  and  his  parents.  Queen  Caroline 
was  provoked  into  classing  him  and  Bolingbroke,  as  "  the  two 
most  worthless  men  of  parts  in  the  country."  Carteret  took 
the  popular  side  in  the  outcry  against  Walpole  for  not  making 
war  on  Spain.  When  the  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession  ap- 
proached, his  sympathies  were  entirely  with  Maria  Theresa — 
mainly  on  the  ground  that  the  fall  of  the  house  of  Austria  would 
dangerously  increase  the  power  of  France,  even  if  she  gained 
no  accession  of  territory.  These  views  made  him  welcome  to 
George  II.,  who  gladly  accepted  him  as  secretary  of  state  in  1742. 
In  1743  he  accompanied  the  king  of  Germany,  and  was  present 
at  the  battle  of  Dettingen  on  the  27th  of  June.  He  held  the 
secretaryship  till  November  1744.  He  succeeded  in  promoting 
an  agreement  between  Maria  Theresa  and  Frederick.  He  under- 


stood the  relations  of  the  European  states,  and  the  interests 
of  Great  Britain  among  them.  But  the  defects  which  had 
rendered  him  unable  to  baffle  the  intrigues  of  Walpole  made  him 
equally  unable  to  contend  with  the  Pelhams.  His  support  of 
the  king's  policy  was  denounced  as  subservience  to  Hanover. 
Pitt  called  him  "  an  execrable,  a  sole  minister  who  had  renounced 
the  British  nation."  A  few  years  later  Pitt  adopted  an  identical 
policy,  and  professed  that  whatever  he  knew  he  had  learnt 
from  Carteret.  On  the  i8th  of  October  1744  Carteret  became 
Earl  Granville  on  the  death  of  his  mother.  His  first  wife  died 
in  June  1743  at  Aschaffenburg,  and  in  April  1744  he  married 
Lady  Sophia  Fermor,  daughter  of  Lord  Pomfret — a  fashionable 
beauty  and  "  reigning  toast  "  of  London  society,  who  was 
younger  than  his  daughters.  "  The  nuptials  of  our  great 
Quixote  and  the  fair  Sophia,"  and  Granville's  ostentatious 
performance  of  the  part  of  lover,  were  ridiculed  by  Horace 
Walpole.  The  countess  Granville  died  on  the  7th  of  October 
1745,  leaving  one  daughter  Sophia,  who  married  Lord  Shelburne, 
ist  marquis  of  Lansdowne.  This  marriage  may  have  done 
something  to  increase  Granville's  reputation  for  eccentricity. 
In  February  1746  he  allowed  himself  to  be  entrapped  by  the 
intrigues  of  the  Pelhams  into  accepting  the  secretaryship,  but 
resigned  in  forty-eight  hours.  In  June  1 7  5 1  he  became  president 
of  the  council,  and  was  still  liked  and  trusted  by  the  king,  but 
his  share  in  government  did  not  go  beyond  giving  advice,  and 
endeavouring  to  forward  ministerial  arrangements.  In  1756 
he  was  asked  by  Newcastle  to  become  prime  minister  as  the 
alternative  to  Pitt,  but  Granville,  who  perfectly  understood 
why  the  offer  was  made,  declined  and  supported  Pitt.  When 
in  October  1761  Pitt,  who  had  information  of  the  signing  of 
the  "  Family  Compact  "  wished  to  declare  war  on  Spain,  and 
declared  his  intention  to  resign  unless  his  advice  was  accepted, 
Granville  replied  that  "  the  opinion  of  the  majority  (of  the 
Cabinet)  must  decide."  He  spoke  in  complimentary  terms  of 
Pitt,  but  resisted  his  claim  to  be  considered  as  a  "  sole  minister  " 
or,  in  the  modern  phrase,  "  a  prime  minister."  Whether  he  used 
the  words  attributed  to  him  in  the  Annual  Register  for  1761 
is  more  than  doubtful,  but  the  minutes  of  council  show  that  they 
express  his  meaning.  Granville  remained  in  office  as  president 
till  his  death.  His  last  act  was  to  listen  while  on  his  death-bed 
to  the  reading  of  the  preliminaries  of  the  treaty  of  Paris.  He 
was  so  weak  that  the  under-secret ary,  Robert  Wood,  author 
of  an  essay  on  The  Original  Genius  of  Homer,  would  have  post- 
poned the  business,  but  Granville  said  that  it  "  could  not  pro- 
long his  life  to  neglect  his  duty,"  and  quoted  the  speech  of 
Sarpedon  from  Iliad  xii.  322-328,  repeating  the  last  word 
(top^v)  "  with  a  calm  and  determined  resignation."  He  died 
in  his  house  in  Arlington  Street,  London,  on  the  22nd  of  January 
1763.  The  title  of  Granville  descended  to  his  son  Robert,  who 
died  without  issue  in  1776,  when  the  earldom  of  this  creation 
became  extinct. 

A  somewhat  partisan  life  of  Granville  was  published  in  1887,  by 
Archibald  Ballantyne,  under  the  title  of  Lord  Carteret,  a  Political 
Biography. 

GRANVILLE,  a  town  of  Cumberland  county,  New  South 
Wales,  13  m.  by  rail  W.  of  Sydney.  Pop.  (1901)  5094.  It  is 
an  important  railway  junction  and  manufacturing  town,  pro- 
ducing agricultural  implements,  tweed,  pipes,  tiles  and  bricks; 
there  are  also  tanneries,  flour-mills,  and  kerosene  and  meat 
export  works.  It  became  a  municipality  in  1885. 

GRANVILLE,  a  fortified  sea-port  and  bathing-resort  of  north- 
western France,  in  the  department  of  Manche,  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Bosq,  85  m.  S.  by  W.  of  Cherbourg  by  rail.  Pop.  (1906) 
10,530.  Granville  consists  of  two  quarters,  the  upper  town 
built  on  a  promontory  jutting  into  the  sea  and  surrounded 
by  ramparts,  and  the  lower  town  and  harbour  lying  below  it. 
The  barracks  and  the  church  of  Notre-Dame,  a  low  building 
of  granite,  partly  Romanesque,  partly  late  Gothic  in  style,  are  in 
the  upper  town.  The  port  consists  of  a  tidal  harbour,  two 
floating  basins  and  a  dry  dock.  Its  fleets  take  an  active  part 
in  deep  sea  fishing,  including  the  cod-fishing  off  Newfoundland, 
and  oyster-fishing  is  carried  on.  It  has  regular  communication 


364 


GRANVILLE— GRAPHITE 


with  Guernsey  and  Jersey,  and  with  the  islands  of  St  Pierre 
and  Miquelon.  The  principal  exports  are  eggs,  vegetables  and 
fish;  coal,  timber  and  chemical  manures  are  imported.  The 
industries  include  ship-building,  fish-salting,  the  manufacture 
of  cod-liver  oil,  the  preserving  of  vegetables,  dyeing,  metal- 
founding,  rope-making  and  the  manufacture  of  chemical 
manures.  Among  the  public  institutions  are  a  tribunal  and 
a  chamber  of  commerce.  In  the  commune  are  included  the 
lies  Chausey  about  7^  m.  N.W.  of  Granville  (see  CHANNEL 
ISLANDS).  Granville,  before  an  insignificant  village,  was  fortified 
by  the  English  in  1437,  taken  by  the  French  in  1441,  bombarded 
and  burned  by  the  English  in  1695,  and  unsuccessfully  besieged 
by  the  Vendean  troops  in  1793.  It  was  again  bombarded  by 
the  English  in  1803. 

GRANVILLE,  a  village  in  Licking  county,  Ohio,  U.S.A.,  in 
the  township  of  Granville,  about  6  m.  W.  of  Newark  and  27  m. 
E.  by  N.  of  Columbus.  Pop.  of  the  village  (1910)  1394;  of  the 
township  (1910)  2442.  Granville  is  served  by  the  Toledo  &  Ohio 
Central  and  the  Ohio  Electric  railways,  the  latter  reaching 
Newark  (where  it  connects  with  the  Pittsburg,  Cincinnati, 
Chicago  &  St  Louis  and  the  Baltimore  &  Ohio  railways),Columbus, 
Dayton,  Zanesville  and  Springfield.  Granville  is  the  seat  of 
Denison  University,  founded  in  1831  by  the  Ohio  Baptist 
Education  Society  and  opened  as  a  manual  labour  school,  called 
the  Granville  Literary  and  Theological  Institution.  It  was 
renamed  Granville  College  in  1845,  and  took  its  present  name 
in  1854  in  honour  of  William  S.  Denison  of  Adamsville,  Ohio, 
who  had  given  $10,000  to  the  college.  The  university  comprised 
in  1907-1908  five  departments:  Granville  College  (229  students), 
the  collegiate  department  for  men;  Shepardson  College  (246 
students,  including  82  in  the  preparatory  department),  the  col- 
legiate department  for  women,  founded  as  the  Young  Ladies' 
Institute  of  Granville  in  1859,  given  to  the  Baptist  denomination 
in  1887  by  Dr  Daniel  Shepardson,  its  principal  and  owner, 
and  closely  affiliated  for  scholastic  purposes,  since  1900,  with  the 
university,  though  legally  it  is  still  a  distinct  institution  ; 
Doane  Academy  (137  students),  the  preparatory  department 
for  boys,  established  in  1831,  named  Granville  Academy  in 
1887,  and  renamed  in  1895  in  honour  of  William  H.  Doane  of 
Cincinnati,  who  gave  to  it  its  building;  a  conservatory  of  music 
(137  students) ;  and  a  school  of  art  (38  students). 

In  1805  the  Licking  Land  Company,  organized  in  the  preceding 
year  in  Granville,  Massachusetts,  bought  29,040  acres  of  land 
in  Ohio,  including  the  site  of  Granville;  the  town  was  laid  out, 
and  in  the  last  months  of  that  year  settlers  from  Granville,  Mass., 
began  to  arrive.  By  January  1806  the  colony  numbered  234 
persons;  the  township  was  incorporated  in  1806  and  the  village 
was  incorporated  in  1831.  There  are  several  remarkable  Indian 
mounds  near  Granville,  notably  one  shaped  like  an  alligator. 

SeeHenryBushnell,  History  of  Granville,  Ohio  (Columbus,  O.,  1889). 

GRAPE,  the  fruit  of  the  vine  (<?.».).  The  word  is  adopted 
from  the  O.  Fr.  grape,  mod.  grappe,  bunch  or  cluster  of  flowers 
or  fruit,  grappes  de  raisin,  bunch  of  grapes.  The  French  word 
meant  properly  a  hook;  cf.  M.H.G.  krapfe,  Eng.  "  grapnel,"  and 
"  cramp."  The  development  of  meaning  seems  to  be  vine-hook, 
cluster  of  grapes  cut  with  a  hook,  and  thence  in  English  a  single 
grape  of  a  cluster.  The  projectile  called  "  grape  "  or  "  grape- 
shot,"  formerly  used  with  smooth-bore  ordnance,  took  its  name 
from  its  general  resemblance  to  a  bunch  of  grapes.  It  consisted 
of  a  number  of  spherical  bullets  (heavier  than  those  of  the  con- 
temporary musket)  arranged  in  layers  separated  by  thin  iron 
plates,  a  bolt  passing  through  the  centre  of  the  plates  binding 
the  whole  together.  On  being  discharged  the  projectile  delivered 
the  bullets  in  a  shower  somewhat  after  the  fashion  of  case-shot. 

GRAPHICAL  METHODS,  devices  for  representing  by  geometri- 
cal figures  the  numerical  data  which  result  from  the  quantitative 
investigation  of  phenomena.  The  simplest  application  is  met 
with  in  the  representation  of  tabular  data  such  as  occur  in 
statistics.  Such  tables  are  usually  of  single  entry,  i.e.  to  a  certain 
value  of  one  variable  there  corresponds  one,  and  only  one,  value 
of  the  other  variable.  To  construct  the  graph,  as  it  is  called, 
of  such  a  table,  Cartesian  co-ordinates  are  usually  employed. 


Two  lines  or  axes  at  right  angles  to  each  other  are  chosen,  inter- 
secting at  a  point  called  the  origin;  the  horizontal  axis  is  the 
axis  of  abscissae,  the  vertical  one  the  axis  of  ordinates.  Along 
one,  say  the  axis  of  abscissae,  distances  are  taken  from  the  origin 
corresponding  to  the  values  of  one  of  the  variables;  at  these 
points  perpendiculars  are  erected,  and  along  these  ordinates 
distances  are  taken  corresponding  to  the  related  values  of  the 
other  variable.  The  curve  drawn  through  these  points  is  the 
graph.  A  general  inspection  of  the  graph  shows  in  bold  relief 
the  essential  characters  of  the  table.  For  example,  if  the  world's 
production  of  corn  over  a  number  of  years  be  plotted,  a  poor 
yield  is  represented  by  a  depression,  a  rich  one  by  a  peak,  a 
uniform  one  over  several  years  by  a  horizontal  line  and  so  on. 
Moreover,  such  graphs  permit  a  convenient  comparison  of  two 
or  more  different  phenomena,  and  the  curves  render  apparent 
at  first  sight  similarities  or  differences  which  can  be  made  out  from 
the  tables  only  after  close  examination.  In  making  graphs  for 
comparison,  the  scales  chosen  must  give  a  similar  range  of 
variation,  otherwise  the  correspondence  may  not  be  discerned. 
For  example,  the  scales  adopted  for  the  average  consumption  of 
tea  and  sugar  must  be  ounces  for  the  former  and  pounds  for  the 
latter.  Cartesian  graphs  are  almost  always  yielded  by  automatic 
recording  instruments,  such  as  the  barograph,  meteorograph, 
seismometer,  &c.  The  method  of  polar  co-ordinates  is  more 
rarely  used,  being  only  specially  applicable  when  one  of  the 
variables  is  a  direction  or  recorded  as  an  angle.  A  simple  case  is 
the  representation  of  photometric  data,  i.e.  the  value  of  the 
intensity  of  the  light  emitted  in  different  directions  from  a 
luminous  source  (see  LIGHTING). 

The  geometrical  solution  of  arithmetical  and  algebraical  problems 
is  usually  termed  graphical  analysis;  the  application  to  problems 
in  mechanics  is  treated  in  MECHANICS,  §  5,  Graphic  Statics,  and 
DIAGRAM.  A  special  phase  is  presented  in  VECTOR  ANALYSIS. 

GRAPHITE,  a  mineral  species  consisting  of  the  element 
carbon  crystallized  in  the  rhombohedral  system.  Chemically, 
it  is  thus  indentical  with  the  cubic  mineral  diamond,  but  between 
the  two  there  are  very  wide  differences  in  physical  characters. 
Graphite  is  black  and  opaque,  whilst  diamond  is  colourless  and 
transparent;  it  is  one  of  the  softest  (H=i)  of  minerals,  and 
diamond  the  hardest  of  all;  it  is  a  good  conductor  of  electricity, 
whilst  diamond  is  a  bad  conductor.  The  specific  gravity  is  2-2, 
that  of  diamond  is  3-5.  Further,  unlike  diamond,  it  never 
occurs  as  distinctly  developed  crystals,  but  only  as  imperfect 
six-sided  plates  and  scales.  There  is  a  perfect  cleavage  parallel 
to  the  surface  of  the  scales,  and  the  cleavage  flakes  are  flexible 
but  not  elastic.  The  material  is  greasy  to  the  touch,  and  soils 
everything  with  which  it  comes  into  contact.  The  lustre  is 
bright  and  metallic.  In  its  external  characters  graphite  is  thus 
strikingly  similar  to  molybdenite  (?.».). 

The  name  graphite,  given  by  A.  G.  Werner  in  1789,  is  from 
the  Greek  ypa<t>eu>,  "  to  write,"  because  the  mineral  is  used  for 
making  pencils.  Earlier  names,  still  in  common  use,  are  plum- 
bago and  black-lead,  but  since  the  mineral  contains  no  lead  these 
names  are  singularly  inappropriate.  Plumbago  (Lat.  plumbum, 
lead)  was  originally  used  for  an  artificial  product  obtained  from 
lead  ore,  and  afterwards  for  the  ore  (galena)  itself;  it  was  con- 
fused both  with  graphite  and  with  molybdenite.  The  true 
chemical  nature  of  graphite  was  determined  by  K.  W.  Scheele 
in  1779. 

Graphite  occurs  mainly  in  the  older  crystalline  rocks — gneiss, 
granulite,  schist  and  crystalline  limestone — and  also  sometimes  in 
granite:  it  is  found  as  isolated  scales  embedded  in  these  rocks, 
or  as  large  irregular  masses  or  filling  veins.  It  has  also  been 
observed  as  a  product  of  contact-metamorphism  in  carbonaceous 
clay-slates  near  their  contact  with  granite,  and  where  igneous 
rocks  have  been  intruded  into  beds  of  coal;  in  these  cases  the 
mineral  has  clearly  been  derived  from  organic  matter.  The 
graphite  found  in  granite  and  in  veins  in  gneiss,  as  well  as  that 
contained  in  meteoric  irons,  cannot  have  had  such  an  origin. 
As  an  artificial  product,  graphite  is  well  known  as  dark  lustrous 
scales  in  grey  pig-iron,  and  in  the  "  kish  "  of  iron  furnaces: 
it  is  also  produced  artificially  on  a  large  scale,  together  with 


GRAPTOLITES 


365 


carborundum,  in  the  electric  furnace  (see  below).  The  graphite 
veins  in  the  older  crystalline  rocks  are  probably  akin  to  metalli- 
ferous veins  and  the  material  derived  from  deep-seated  sources; 
the  decomposition  of  metallic  carbides  by  water  and  the  reduction 
of  hydrocarbon  vapours  have  been  suggested  as  possible  modes 
of  origin.  Such  veins  often  attain  a  thickness  of  several  feet,  and 
sometimes  possess  a  columnar  structure  perpendicular  to  the 
enclosing  walls;  they  are  met  with  in  the  crystalline  limestones 
and  other  Laurentian  rocks  of  New  York  and  Canada,  in  the 
gneisses  of  the  Austrian  Alps  and  the  granulites  of  Ceylon. 
Other  localities  which  have  yielded  the  mineral  in  large  amount 
are  the  Alibert  mine  in  Irkutsk,  Siberia  and  the  Borrowdale 
mine  in  Cumberland.  The  Santa  Maria  mines  of  Sonora,  Mexico, 
probably  the  richest  deposits  in  the  world,  supply  the  American 
lead  pencil  manufacturers.  The  graphite  of  New  York,  Penn- 
sylvania and  Alabama  is  "  flake  "  and  unsuitable  for  this  purpose. 

Graphite  is  used  for  the  manufacture  of  pencils,  dry  lubricants, 
grate  polish,  paints,  crucibles  and  for  foundry  facings.  The 
material  as  mined  usually  does  not  contain  more  than  20  to 
50%  of  graphite:  the  ore  has  therefore  to  be  crushed  and  the 
graphite  floated  off  in  water  from  the  heavier  impurities.  Even 
the  purest  forms  contain  a  small  percentage  of  volatile  matter 
and  ash.  The  Cumberland  graphite,  which  is  especially  suitable 
for  pencils,  contains  about  12  %  of  impurities.  (L.  J.  S.) 

Artificial  Manufacture. — The  alteration  of  carbon  at  high 
temperatures  into  a  material  resembling  graphite  has  long  been 
known.  In  1893  Girard  and  Street  patented  a  furnace  and  a 
process  by  which  this  transformation  could  be  effected.  Carbon 
powder  compressed  into  a  rod  was  slowly  passed  through  a  tube 
in  which  it  was  subjected  to  the  action  of  one  or  more  electric 
arcs.  E.  G.  Acheson,  in  1896,  patented  an  application  of  his 
carborundum  process  to  graphite  manufacture,  and  in  1899 
the  International  Acheson  Graphite  Co.  was  formed,  employing 
electric  current  from  the  Niagara  Falls.  Two  procedures  are 
adopted:  (i)  graphitization  of  moulded  carbons;  (2)  graphitiza- 
tion  of  anthracite  en  masse.  The  former  includes  electrodes, 
lamp  carbons,  &c.  Coke,  or  some  other  form  of  amorphous 
carbon,  is  mixed  with  a  little  tar,  and  the  required  article  moulded 
in  a  press  or  by  a  die.  The  articles  are  stacked  transversely  in  a 
furnace,  each  being  packed  in  granular  coke  and  covered  with 
carborundum.  At  first  the  current  is  3000  amperes  at  220  volts, 
increasing  to  9000  amperes  at  20  volts  after  20  hours.  In  graphi- 
tizing  en  masse  large  lumps  of  anthracite  are  treated  in  the 
electric  furnace.  A  soft,  unctuous  form  results  on  treating 
carbon  with  ash  or  silica  in  special  furnaces,  and  this  gives  the 
so-called  "  deflocculated  "  variety  when  treated  with  gallo- 
tannic  acid.  These  two  modifications  are  valuable  lubricants. 
The  massive  graphite  is  very  easily  machined  and  is  widely  used 
for  electrodes,  dynamo  brushes,  lead  pencils  and  the  like. 

See  "  Graphite  and  its  Uses,"  Bull.  Imperial  Institute,  (1906) 
P-  353.  (1907)  P-  7° ;  F.  Cirkel,  Graphite  (Ottawa,  1907).  (W.  G.  M.) 

GRAPTOLITES,  an  assemblage  of  extinct  zoophytes  whose 
skeletal  remains  are  found  in  the  Palaeozoic  rocks,  occasionally 
in  great  abundance.  They  are  usually  preserved  as  branching 
or  unbranching  carbonized  bodies,  tree-like,  leaf-like  or  rod-like  in 
shape,  their  edges  regularly  toothed  or  denticulated.  Most 
frequently  they  occur  lying  on  the  bedding  planes  of  black 
shales;  less  commonly  they  are  met  with  in  many  other  kinds  of 
sediment,  and  when  in  limestone  they  may  retain  much  of  their 
original  relief  and  admit  of  a  detailed  microscopic  study. 

Each  Graptolite  represents  the  common  horny  or  chitinous 
investment  or  supporting  structure  of  a  colony  of  zooids,  each 
tooth-like  projection  marking  the  position  of  the  sheath  or  theca 
of  an  individual  zooid.  Some  of  the  branching  forms  have  a 
distinct  outward  resemblance  to  the  polyparies  of  Sertularia  and 
Plumularia  among  the  recent  Hydroida  (Calypioblastea);  in 
none  of  the  unbranching  forms,  however,  is  the  similarity  by 
any  means  close. 

The  Graptolite  polyparies  vary  considerably  in  size:  the 
majority  range  from  i  in.  to  about  6  in.  in  length;  few  examples 
have  been  met  with  having  a  length  of  more  than  30  in. 

Very  different  views  have  been  held  as  to  the  systematic 


place  and  rank  of  the  Graptolites.  Linnaeus  included  them 
in  his  group  of  false  fossils  (Graptolithus  =  written  stone).  At 
one  time  they  were  referred  by  some  to  the  Polyzoa  (Bryozoa), 
and  later,  by  almost  general  consent,  to  the  Hydroida  (Calypto- 
blastea)  among  the  Hydrozoa  (Hydromedusae).  Of  late  years 
an  opinion  is  gaining  ground  that  they  may  be  regarded  as 
constituting  collectively  an  independent  phylum  of  their  own 
(Graptolithina). 

There  are  two  main  groups,  or  sub-phyla:  the  Graptoloidea 
or  Graptolites  proper,  and  the  Dendroidea  or  tree-like  Graptolites; 
the  former  is  typified  by  the  unbranched  genus  Monograptus 
and  the  latter  by  the  many-branched  genus  Dendrograptus. 

A  Monograptus  makes  its  first  appearance  as  a  minute  dagger-like 
body  (the  sicula),  which  represents  the  flattened  covering  of  the 
primary  or  embryonic  zooid  of  the  colony.  This  sicula,  which  had 
originally  the  shape  of  a  hollow  cone,  is  formed  of  two  portions  or 
regions — an  upper  and  smaller  (apical  or  embryonic)  portion,  marked 
by  delicate  longitudinal  lines,  and  having  a  fine  tabular  thread 
(the  nemo)  proceeding  from  its  apex;  and  a  lower  (thecal  or  apertural) 
portion,  marked  by  transverse  lines  of  growth  and  widening  in  the 
direction  of  the  mouth,  the  lip  or  apertural  margin  of  which  forms 
the  broad  end  of  the  sicula.  This  margin  is  normally  furnished  with 
a  perpendicular  spine  (virgella)  and  occasionally  with  two  shorter 
lateral  spines  or  lobes. 

A  bud  is  given  off  from  the  sicula  at  a  variable  distance  along  its 
length.  From  this  bud  is  developed  the  first  zooid  and  first  serial 
theca  of  the  colony.  This  theca  grows  in  the  direction  of  the  apex  of 
the  sicula,  to  which  it  adheres  by  its  dorsal  wall.  Thus  while  the 
mouth  of  the  sicula  is  directed  downwards,  that  of  the  first  serial 
theca  is  pointed  upwards,  making  a  theoretical  angle  of  about  180° 
with  the  direction  of  that  of  the  sicula. 

From  this  first  theca  originates  a  second,  opening  in  the  same 
direction,  and  from  the  second  a  third,  and  so  on,  in  a  continuous  linear 
series  until  the  polypary  is  complete.  Each  zooid  buds  from  the  one 
immediately  preceding  it  in  the  series,  and  intercommunication  is 
effected  by  all  the  budding  orifices  (including  that  in  the  wall  of  the 
sicula)  remaining  permanently  open.  The  sicula  itself  ceases  to  grow 
soon  after  the  earliest  theca  have  been  developed;  it  remains 
permanently  attached  to  the  dorsal  wall  of  the  polypary,  of  which  it 
forms  the  proximal  end,  its  apex  rarely  reaching  beyond  the  third 
or  fourth  theca. 

A  fine  cylindrical  rod  or  fibre  (the  so-called  solid  axis  or 
virgula)  becomes  developed  in  a  median  groove  in  the  dorsal  wall 
of  the  polypary,  and  is  sometimes  continued  distally  as  a  naked 
rod.  It  was  formerly  supposed  that  a  virgula  was  present  in 
all  the  Graptoloidea;  hence  the  term  Rhabdophora  sometimes 
employed  for  the  Graptoloidea  in  general,  and  rhabdosome  for  the 
individual  polypary;  but  while  the  virgula  is  present  in  many 
(Axonophora)  it  is  absent  as  sucli  in  others  (Axonolipa). 

The  GRAPTOLOIDEA  are  arranged  in  eight  families,  each  named 
after  a  characteristic  genus:  (i)  Dichograptidae;  (2)  Lepto- 
graptidae;  (3)  Dicranograptidae;  (4)  Diplograptidae;  (5) 
Glossograptidae  (sub-family,  Lasiograptidae) ;  (6)  Retiolitidae; 
(7)  Dimorphograptidae;  (8)  Monograptidae. 

In  all  these  families  the  polypary  originates  as  in  Monograptus 
from  a  nema-bearing  sicula,  which  invariably  opens  downwards 
and  gives  off  only  a  single  bud,  such  branching  as  may  take 
place  ocoirring  at  subsequent  stages  in  the  growth  of  the  poly- 
pary.  In  some  species  young  examples  have  been  met  with  in 
which  the  nema  ends  above  in  a  small  membranous  disk,  which 
has  been  interpreted  as  an  organ  of  attachment  to  the  underside 
of  floating  bodies,  probably  sea  weeds,  from  which  the  young 
polypary  hung  suspended. 

Broadly  speaking,  these  families  make  their  first  appearance 
in  time  in  the  order  given  above,  and  show  a  progressive  morpho- 
logical evolution  along  certain  special  lines.  There  is  a  tendency 
for  the  branches  to  become  reduced  in  number,  and  for  the  serial 
thecae  to  become  directed  more  and  more  upwards  towards  the 
line  of  the  nema.  In  the  oldest  family — Dichograptidae — in 
which  the  branching  polypary  is  bilaterally  symmetrical  and 
the  thecae  uniserial  (monoprionidian) — there  is  a  gradation 
from  earlier  groups  with  many  branches  to  later  groups  with 
only  two;  and  from  species  in  which  all  the  branches  and  their 
thecae  are  directed  downwards,  through  species  in  which  the 
branches  become  bent  back  more  and  more  outwards  and 
upwards,  until  in  some  the  terminal  thecae  open  almost  vertically. 
In  the  genus  Phyllograptus  the  branches  have  become  reduced 


366 


GRAPTOLITES 


I, 

2, 


40, 
46, 

5. 
6, 

7- 
8, 
9- 

10, 
ii, 


13. 
14. 

15, 
16, 

17 

18, 
19, 


Diptograptus,   young   sicula.  20, 

Monograptus   dubius,    sicula  21, 

and  first  serial  theca  (partly  22, 

restored). 

Young  form  (all  above  after  23, 

Wiman). 

Older  form.  24, 
Showing  virgula  (after  Holm). 
Rastrites  distans.                    ) 

Base  of  Diptograptus  (after  25, 

Wiman). 

D.  calcaratus.  26, 
Dimorphograptus. 

Base  of  Didymograptus  minu-  27, 

lus  (after  Holm).  28, 
Young    Dictyograptus,    with 

primary  disk.  S, 

Ibid.     Diptograptus      (after  «, 

Ruedemann).  /, 

a-b,  Base  and  transverse  sec-  m, 

tion,  Retiolites  Geinitzianus  N, 

(after  Holm).  nn, 

Bryograptus  Kjerulfi.  V, 

Dichograptus    octobrachiatus,  m, 

with  central  disk.  zz, 
Didymograptus  Murchisoni.  T, 
D.  gibberulus.  C, 
a-b,  Phyllograptus  and  trans- 
verse section.  G, 
Nemagraptus  gracilis.  g, 
Dicranograptus  ramosus.  b, 


Climacograptus  Scharenbergi. 

Glossograptus  Hincksii. 

Lasiograplus   costatus    (after 

Elles  and  Wood). 
Dictyonema  (-graptus)flabelli- 
fprme  (-is). 

Dictyonema  (-dendron)  pel- 
tatunt  with  base  of  attach- 
ment. 

D.  cervicorne,  branches  (after 
Holm). 

D.  rarum  (section  after 
Wiman). 

Dendrograptus  Hallianus. 

Synrhabdosome  of  Dipto- 
graptus (after  Ruedemann). 

Sicula. 

Upper  or  apical  portion. 

Lower  or  apertural. 

Mouth. 

Nema. 

Nemacaulus  or  virgular  tube. 

Virgula. 

Virgella. 

Septal  strands. 

Theca. 

Common  canal  (in  Retio- 
lites). 

Gonangium. 

Gonotheca. 

Budding  theca. 


to  four  and  these  coalesce  by  their  dorsal  walls  along  the  line  of 
the  nema,  and  the  sicula  becomes  embedded  in  the  base  of  the 


polypary.  In  the  family  of  the  Diplograptidae  the  branches  are 
reduced  to  two;  these  also  coalesce  similarly  by  their  dorsal 
walls,  and  the  polypary  thus  becomes  biserial  (diprionidian) ,  and 
the  line  of  the  nema  is  taken  by  a  long  axial  tube-like  structure, 
the  nemacaulus  or  virgular  tube.  Finally,  in  the  latest  family, 
the  Monograptidae,  the  branches  are  theoretically  reduced  to 
one,  the  polypary  is  uniserial  throughout,  and  all  the  thecae 
are  directed  outwards  and  upwards. 

The  thecae  in  the  earliest  family — Dichograptidae — are  so  similar  in 
form  to  the  sicula  itself  that  the  polypary  has  been  compared  to  a' 
colony  of  siculae;  there  is  the  greatest  variation  in  shape  in 
those  of  the  latest  family — Monograptidae — in  some  species  of  which 
the  terminal  portion  of  each  theca  becomes  isolated  (Rastrites)  and 
in  some  coiled  into  a  rounded  lobe.  The  thecae  in  several  of  the 
families  are  occasionally  provided  with  spines  or  lateral  processes: 
the  spines  are  especially  conspicuous  at  the  base  in  some  biserial 
forms:  in  the  Lasiograptidae  the  lateral  processes  originate  a 
marginal  meshwork  surrounding  the  polypary. 

Histologically,  the  perisarc  or  test  in  the  Graptoloidea  appears 
to  be  composed  of  three  layers,  a  middle  layer  of  variable  structure, 
and  an  overlying  and  an  underlying  layer  of  remarkable  tenuity. 
The  central  layer  is  usually  thick  and  marked  by  lines  of  growth; 
but  in  Glossograptus  and  Lasiograptus  it  is  thinned  down  to  a  fine 
membrane  stretched  upon  a  skeleton  framework  of  lists  and  fibres, 
and  in  Retiolites  this  membrane  is  reduced  to  a  delicate  network. 
The  groups  typified  by  these  three  genera  are  sometimes  referred  to, 
collectively,  as  the  Retioloidea,  and  the  structure  as  relioloid. 

It  is  the  general  practice  of  palaeontologists  to  regard  each 
graptolite  polypary  (rhabdosome)  developed  from  a  single  sicula 
as  an  individual  of  the  highest  order.  Certain  American  forms, 
however,  which  are  preserved  as  stellate  groups,  have  been 
interpreted  as  complex  umbrella-shaped  colonial  stocks,  indivi- 
duals of  a  still  higher  order  (synrhabdosomes) ,  composed  of  a 
number  of  biserial  polyparies  (each  having  a  sicula  at  its  outer 
extremity)  attached  by  their  nemacauli  to  a  common  centre  of 
origin,  which  is  provided  with  two  disks,  a  swimming  bladder  and 
a  ring  of  capsules. 

In  the  DENDROIDEA,  as  a  rule,  the  polypary  is  non-symmetrical 
in  shape  and  tree-like  or  shrub-like  in  habit,  with  numerous 
branches  irregularly  disposed,  and  with  a  distinct  stem-like  or 
short  basal  portion  ending  below  in  root-like  fibres  or  in  a  mem- 
branous disk  or  sheet  of  attachment.  An  exception,  however, 
is  constituted  by  the  comprehensive  genus  Dictyonema,  which 
embraces  species  composed  of  a  large  number  of  divergent  and 
sub-parallel  branches,  united  by  transverse  dissepiments  into 
a  symmetrical  cone-like  or  funnel-shaped  polypary,  and  includes 
some  forms  (Dictyograptus)  which  originate  from  a  nema-bearing 
sicula  and  have  been  claimed  as  belonging  to  the  Graptoloidea. 

Of  the  early  development  of  the  polypary  in  the  Dendroidea 
little  is  known,  but  the  more  mature  stages  have  been  fully 
worked  out.  In  Dictyonema  the  branches  show  thecae  of  two 
kinds:  (i)  the  ordinary  tubular  thecae  answering  to  those  of 
the  Graptoloidea  and  occupied  by  the  nourishing  zooids;  and 
(2)  the  so-called  bithecae,  birdnest-like  cups  (regarded  by  their 
discoverers  as  gonothecae)  opening  alternately  right  and  left 
of  the  ordinary  thecae.  Internally,  there  existed  a  third  set  of 
thecae,  held  to  have  been  inhabited  by  the  budding  individuals. 
In  the  genus  Dendrograptus  the  gonothecae  open  within  the  walls 
of  the  ordinary  thecae,  and  the  branches  present  an  outward 
resemblance  to  those  of  the  uniserial  Graptoloidea.  But  in 
striking  contrast  to  what  obtains  among  the  Graptoloidea  in 
general,  the  budding  orifices  in  the  Dendroidea  become  closed, 
and  all  the  various  cells  shut  off  from  each  other. 

The  classification  of  the  Dendroidea  is  as  yet  unsatisfactory: 
the  families  most  conspicuous  are  those  typified  by  the  genera 
Dendrograptus,  Dictyonema,  Inocaulis  and  Thamnograptus. 

As  regards  the  modes  of  reproduction  among  the  Graptoliles  little  is 
known.  In  the  Dendroidea,  as  already  pointed  out,  the  bithecae 
were  possibly  gonothecae,  but  they  have  been  interpreted  by  some 
as  nematophores.  In  the  Graptoloidea  certain  lateral  and  vesicular 
appendages  of  the  polypary  in  the  Lasiograptidae  have  been  looked 
upon  as  connected  with  the  reproductive  system;  and  in  the 
umbrella-shaped  synrhabdosomes  already  referred  to,  the  common 
centre  is  surrounded  by  a  ring  of  what  have  been  regarded  as  ovarian 
capsules.  The  theory  of  the  gonangial  nature  of  the  vesicular  bodies 
in  the  Graptoloidea  is,  however,  disputed  by  some  authorities,  and 
it  has  been  suggested  that  the  zooid  of  the  sicula  itself  is  not  the 


GRASLITZ— GRASS  AND  GRASSLAND 


367 


product  of  the  normal  or  sexual  mode  of  propagation  in  the  group, 
but  owes  its  origin  to  a  peculiar  type  of  budding  or  non-sexual 
reproduction,  in  which,  as  temporary  resting  or  protecting  structures, 
the  vesicular  bodies  may  have  had  a  share. 

As  respects  the  mode  of  life  of  the  Graptolites  there  can  be 
little  doubt  that  the  Dendroidea  were,  with  some  exceptions, 
sessile  or  benthonic  animals,  their  polyparies,  like  those  of  the 
recent  Calyptoblastea,  growing  upwards,  their  bases  remaining 
attached  to  the  sea  floor  or  to  foreign  bodies,  usually  fixed.  The 
Graptoloidea  have  also  been  regarded  by  some  as  benthonic 
organisms.  A  more  prevalent  view,  however,  is  that  the  majority 
were  pseudo-planktonic  or  drifting  colonies,  hanging  from  the 
underside  of  floating  seaweeds;  their  polyparies  being  each 
suspended  by  the  nema  in  the  earliest  stages  of  growth,  and,  in 
later  stages,  some  by  the  nemacaulus,  while  others  became 
adherent  above  by  means  of  a  central  disk  or  by  parts  of  their 
dorsal  walls.  Some  of  these  ancient  seaweeds  may  have  remained 
permanently  rooted  in  the  littoral  regions,  while  others  may 
have  become  broken  off  and  drifted,  like  the  recent  Sargassum, 
at  the  mercy  of  the  winds  and  currents,  carrying  the  attached 
Graptolites  into  all  latitudes.  The  more  complex  umbrella- 
shaped  colonies  of  colonies  (synrhabdosomes)  described  as 
provided  with  a  common  swimming  bladder  (pneumatophore?) 
may  have  attained  a  holo-planktonic  or  free-swimming  mode 
of  existence. 

The  range  of  the  Graptolites  in  time  extends  from  the  Cambrian 
to  the  Carboniferous.  The  Dendroidea  alone,  however,  have 
this  extended  range,  the  Graptoloidea  becoming  extinct  at  the 
close  of  Silurian  time.  Both  groups  make  their  first  appearance 
together  near  the  end  of  the  Cambrian;  but  while  in  the  succeed- 
ing Ordovician  and  Silurian  the  Dendroidea  are  comparatively 
rare,  the  Graptok>idea  become  the  most  characteristic  and, 
locally,  the  most  abundant  fossils  of  these  systems. 

The  species  of  the  Graptoloidea  have  individually  a  remarkably 
short  range  in  geological  time;  but  the  geographical  distribution 
of  the  group  as  a  whole,  and  that  of  many  of  its  species,  is  almost 
world-wide.  This  combination  of  circumstances  has  given  the 
Graptoloidea  a  paramount  stratigraphical  importance  aspalaeon- 
tological  indices  of  the  detailed  sequence  and  correlation  of  the 
Lower  Palaeozoic  rocks  in  general.  Many  Graptolite  zones, 
showing  a  constant  uniformity  of  succession,  paralleled  in  this 
respect  only  by  the  longer  known  Ammonite  zones  of  the  Jurassic, 
have  been  distinguished  in  Britain  and  northern  Europe,  each 
marked  by  a  characteristic  species.  Many  British  species  and 
associations  of  genera  and  species,  occurring  on  corresponding 
horizons  to  those  on  which  they  are  found  in  Britain,  have  been 
met  with  in  the  graptolite-bearing  Lower  Palaeozoic  formations 
of  other  parts  of  Europe,  in  America,  Australia,  New  Zealand 
and  elsewhere. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Linnaeus,  Systema  naturae  (i2th  ed".  1768); 
Hall,  Graptolites  of  the  Quebec  Group  (1865);  Barrande,  Graptolites 
de  Boheme  (1850);  Carruthers,  Revision  of  the  British  Graptolites 
(1868);  H.  A.  Nicholson,  Monograph  of  British  Graptolites,  pt.  I 
(1872);  id.  and  J.  E.  Marr,  Phylogeny  of  the  Graptolites  (1895); 
Hopkinson,  On  British  Graptolites  (1869);  Allman,  Monograph  of 
Gymnoblastic  Hydroids  (1872) ;  Lapworth,  An  Improved  Classification 
of  the  Rhabdophora  (1873);  The  Geological  Distribution  of  the  Rhabdo- 
phora  (1879,  1880);  Walther,  Lebensweise  fossiler  Meerestiere 
(1897);  Tullberg,  Skanes  Graptoliter  (1882,  1883);  Tornquist, 
Graptolites  Scanian  Rastrites  Beds  (1899);  Wiman,  Die  Graptolithen 
(1895);  Holm,  Gotlands  Graptoliter  (1890);  Perner,  Graptolites  de 
Boheme  (1894-1899) ;  R.  Ruedemann,  Development  and  Mode  of  Growth 
of  Diplograptus  (1895-1896) ;  Graptolites  of  New  York,  vol.  i.  (1904), 
vol.  ii.  (1908) ;  Freeh,  Lethaea  palaeozoica,  Graptolithiden  (1897) ;  Elles 
and  Wood,  Monograph  of  British  Graptolites  (1901-1909).  (C.  L.*) 

GRASLITZ  (Czech,  Kraslice),  a  town  of  Bohemia,  on  the 
Zwodau,  145  m.  N.W.  of  Prague  by  rail.  Pop.  (1900)  11,803, 
exclusively  German.  Graslitz  is  one  of  the  most  important 
industrial  towns  of  Bohemia,  its  specialities  being  the  manu- 
facture of  musical  instruments,  carried  on  both  as  a  factory  and 
a  domestic  industry,  and  lace-making.  Next  in  importance  are 
cotton-spinning  and  weaving,  machine  embroidery,  brewing, 
and  the  mother-of-pearl  industry. 

GRASMERE,  a  village  and  lake  of  Westmorland,  in  the  heart 
of  the  English  Lake  District.  The  village  (pop.  of  urban  district 


in  1901,  781)  lies  near  the  head  of  the  lake,  on  the  small  river 
Rothay  and  the  Keswick-Ambleside  road,  12$  m.  from  Keswick 
and  4  from  Ambleside.  The  scenery  is  very  beautiful ;  the  valley 
about  the  lakes  of  Grasmere  and  Rydal  Water  is  in  great  part 
wooded,  while  on  its  eastern  flank  there  rises  boldly  the  range 
of  hills  which  includes  Rydal  Fell,  Fairfield  and  Seat  Sandal, 
and,  farther  north,  Helvellyn.  On  the  west  side  are  Loughrigg 
Fell  and  Silver  How.  The  village  has  become  a  favourite  centre 
for  tourists,  but  preserves  its  picturesque  and  sequestered 
appearance.  In  a  house  still  standing  William  Wordsworth 
lived  from  1799  to  1808,  and  it  was  subsequently  occupied  by 
Thomas  de  Quincey  and  by  Hartley  Coleridge.  Wordsworth's 
tomb,  and  also  that  of  Coleridge,  are  in  the  churchyard  of  the 
ancient  church  of  St  Oswald,  which  contains  a  memorial  to 
Wordsworth  with  an  inscription  by  John  Keble.  A  festival 
called  the  Rushbearing  takes  place  on  the  Saturday  within  the 
octave  of  St  Oswald's  day  (August  sth),  when  a  holiday  is 
observed  and  the  church  decorated  with  rushes,  heather  and 
flowers.  The  festival  is  of  early  origin,  and  has  been  derived  by 
some  from  the  Roman  Floralia,  but  appears  also  to  have  been 
made  the  occasion  for  carpeting  the  floors  of  churches,  unpaved 
in  early  times,  with  rushes.  Moreover,  in  a  procession  which 
forms  part  of  the  festivities  at  Grasmere,  certain  Biblical  stories 
are  symbolized,  and  in  this  a  connexion  with  the  ancient  miracle 
plays  may  be  found  (see  H.  D.  Rawnsley,  A  Rambler's  Note-Book 
at  the  English  Lakes,  Glasgow,  1902).  Grasmere  is  also  noted  for 
an  athletic  meeting  in  August. 

The  lake  of  Grasmere  is  just  under  i  m.  in  length,  and  has 
an  extreme  breadth  of  766  yds.  A  ridge  divides  the  basin  from 
north  to  south,  and  rises  so  high  as  to  form  an  island  about  the 
middle.  The  greatest  depth  of  the  lake  (75  ft.)  lies  to  the  east 
of  this  ridge. 

GRASS  AND  GRASSLAND,  in  agriculture.  The  natural 
vegetable  covering  of  the  soil  in  most  countries  is  "  grass  " 
(for  derivation  see  GRASSES)  of  various  kinds.  Even  where 
dense  forest  or  other  growth  exists,  if  a  little  daylight  penetrates 
to  the  ground  grass  of  some  sort  or  another  will  grow.  On 
ordinary  farms,  or  wherever  farming  of  any  kind  is  carried  out, 
the  proportion  of  the  land  not  actually  cultivated  will  either 
be  in  grass  or  will  revert  naturally  to  grass  in  time  if  left  alone, 
after  having  been  cultivated. 

Pasture  land  has  always  been  an  important  part  of  the  farm, 
but  since  the  "  era  of  cheap  corn  "  set  in  its  importance  has 
been  increased,  and  much  more  attention  has  been  given  to  the 
study  of  the  different  species  of  grass,  their  characteristics,  the 
improvement  of  a  pasture  generally,  and  the  "  laying  down  " 
of  arable  land  into  grass  where  tillage  farming  has  not  paid. 
Most  farmers  desire  a  proportion  of  grass-land  on  their  farms — 
from  a  third  to  a  half  of  the  area — and  even  on  wholly  arable 
farms  there  are  usually  certain  courses  in  the  rotation  of  crops 
devoted  to  grass  (or  clover).  Thus  the  Norfolk  4-course  rotation 
is  corn,  roots,  corn,  clover;  the  Berwick  s-course  is  corn,  .roots, 
corn,  grass,  grass;  the  Ulster  8-course,  corn,  flax,  roots,  corn, 
flax,  grass,  grass,  grass;  and  so  on,  to  the  point  where  the  grass 
remains  down  for  5  years,  or  is  left  indefinitely. 

Permanent  grass  may  be  grazed  by  live-stock  and  classed 
as  pasture  pure  and  simple,  or  it  may  be  cut  for  hay.  In  the 
latter  case  it  is  usually  classed  as  "  meadow  "  land,  and  often 
forms  an  alluvial  tract  alongside  a  stream,  but  as  grass  is  often 
grazed  and  hayed  in  alternate  years,  the  distinction  is  not  a  hard 
and  fast  one. 

There  are  two  classes  of  pasturage,  temporary  and  permanent. 
The  latter  again  consists  of  two  kinds,  the  permanent  grass 
natural  to  land  that  has  never  been  cultivated,  and  the  pasture 
that  has  been  laid  down  artificially  on  land  previously  arable 
and  allowed  to  remain  and  improve  itself  in  the  course  of  time. 
The  existence  of  ridge  and  furrow  on  many  old  pastures  in 
Great  Britain  shows  that  they  were  cultivated  at  one  time, 
though  perhaps  more  than  a  century  ago.  Often  a  newly  laid 
down  pasture  will  decline  markedly  in  thickness  and  quality 
about  the  fifth  and  sixth  year,  and  then  begin  to  thicken  and 
improve  year  by  year  afterwards.  This  is  usually  attributed 


368 


GRASS  AND  GRASSLAND 


to  the  fact  that  the  unsuitable  varieties  die  out,  and  the  "  natur- 
ally "  suitable  varieties  only  come  in  gradually.  This  trouble 
can  be  largely  prevented,  however,  by  a  judicious  selection 
of  seed,  and  by  subsequently  manuring  with  phosphatic  manures, 
with  farmyard  or  other  bulky  "  topdressings,"  or  by  feeding 
sheep  with  cake  and  corn  over  the  field. 

All  the  grasses  proper  belong  to  the  natural  order  Gramineae 
(see  GRASSES),  to  which  order  also  belong  all  the  "  corn  "  plants 
cultivated  throughout  the  world,  also  many  others,  such  as 
bamboo,  sugar-cane,  millet,  rice,  &c.  &c.,  which  yield  food  for 
mankind.  Of  the  grasses  which  constitute  pastures  and  hay- 
fields  over  a  hundred  species  are  classified  by  botanists  in  Great 
Britain,  with  many  varieties  in  addition,  but  the  majority  of 
these,  though  often  forming  a  part  of  natural  pastures,  are 
worthless  or  inferior  for  farming  purposes.  The  grasses  of  good 
quality  which  should  form  a  "  sole  "  in  an  old  pasture  and  pro- 
vide the  bulk  of  the  forage  on  a  newly  laid  down  piece  of  grass 
are  only  about  a  dozen  in  number  (see  below) ,  and  of  these  there  are 
only  some  six  species  of  the  very  first  importance  and  indispensable 
in  a  "  prescription  "  of  grass  seeds  intended  for  laying  away  land 
in  temporary  or  permanent  pasture.  Dr  W.  Fream  caused  a 
botanical  examination  to  be  made  of  several  of  the  most  cele- 
brated pastures  of  England,  and,  contrary  to  expectation,  found 
that  their  chief  constituents  were  ordinary  perennial  ryegrass  and 
white  clover.  Many  other  grasses  and  legumes  were  present,  but 
these  two  formed  an  overwhelming  proportion  of  the  plants. 

In  ordinary  usage  the  term  grass,  pasturage,  hay,  &c.,  includes 
many  varieties  of  clover  and  other  members  of  the  natural  order 
Leguminosae  as  well  as  other  "  herbs  of  the  field,"  which,  though 
not  strictly  "  grasses,"  are  always  found  in  a  grass  field,  and 
are  included  in  mixtures  of  seeds  for  pasture  and  meadows. 
The  following  is  a  list  of  the  most  desirable  or  valuable  agri- 
cultural grasses  and  clovers,  which  are  either  actually  sown  or,  in 
the  case  of  old  pastures,  encouraged  to  grow  by  draining,  liming, 
manuring,  and  so  on: — 

Grasses. 

Meadow  foxtail. 

Sweet  vernal  grass. 

Tall  oat-grass. 

Golden  oat-grass. 

Crested  dogstail. 

Cocksfoot. 

Hard  fescue. 

Tall  fescue. 

Sheep's  fescue. 

Meadow  fescue. 

Italian  ryegrass. 

Timothy  or  catstail. 

Wood  meadow-grass. 

Smooth  meadow-grass. 

Rough  meadow-grass. 


Alopecurus  pratensis 
Anthoxanthum  odoraturn 
Avena  elatior 
Avena  flavescens 
Cynosurus  cristatus. 
Dactylis  glomerata  . 
Festuca  duriuscula  . 
Festuca  elatior    . 
Festuca  ovina     . 
Festuca  pratensis     . 
I  .nl  in  in  italicum. 
Phleum  pratense 
Poa  nemoralis 
Poa  pratensis 
Poa  trivialis  . 


Clovers,  &c. 

Medicago  lupulina   .      .      .   Trefoil  or  "  Nonsuch." 
Lucerne  (Alfalfa). 
Alsike  clover. 


Medicago  sativa. 

Trifolium  hybridum 
pratense  . 
pratense  ) 
perenne  $ 
mcarnatum 
procumbens 
repens 

Achillea  Millefolium. 

Anthyllis  vulneraria. 


Broad  red  clover. 
Perennial  clover. 


.  Crimson  clover  or  "  Trifolium." 

.  Yellow  Hop-trefoil. 

.  White  or  Dutch  clover. 

.  Yarrow  or  Milfoil. 

.  Kidney-vetch. 

Lotus  major Greater  Birdsfoot  Trefoil. 

Lotus  corniculatus   .      .      .  Lesser  „  „ 

Carum  petroselinum      .      .  Field  parsley. 

Plantago  lanceolata.      .      .  Plantain. 

Cichonum  intybus  .      .      .  Chicory. 

Poterium  officinale  .      .      .  Burnet. 

The  predominance  of  any  particular  species  -is  largely  deter- 
mined by  climatic  circumstances,  the  nature  of  the  soil  and  the 
treatment  it  receives.  In  limestone  regions  sheep's  fescue  has 
been  found  to  predominate;  on  wet  clay  soil  the  dog's  bent 
(Agrostis  canina)  is  common;  continuous  manuring  with  nitro- 
genous manures  kills  out  the  leguminous  plants  and  stimulates 
such  grasses  as  cocksfoot;  manuring  with  phosphates  stimulates 
the  clovers  and  other  legumes;  and  so  on.  Manuring  with 


basic  slag  at  the  rate  of  from  5  to  10  cwt.  per  acre  has  been  found 
to  give  excellent  results  on  poor  clays  and  peaty  soils.  Basic 
slag  is  a  by-product  of  the  Bessemer  steel  process,  and  is  rich  in  a 
soluble  form  of  phosphate  of  lime  (tetra-phosphate)  which  specially 
stimulates  the  growth  of  clovers  and  other  legumes,  and  has 
renovated  many  inferior  pastures. 

In  the  Rothamsted  experiments  continuous  manuring  with 
"  mineral  manures  "  (no  nitrogen)  on  an  old  meadow  has  reduced 
the  grasses  from  71  to  64%  of  the  whole,  while  at  the  same  time 
it  has  increased  the  Leguminosae  from  7%  to  24%.  On  the 
other  hand,  continuous  use  of  nitrogenous  manure  in  addition  to 
"  minerals  "  has  raised  the  grasses  to  94%  of  the  total  and 
reduced  the  legumes  to  less  than  i%. 

As  to  the  best  kinds  of  grasses,  &c.,  to  sow  in  making  a  pasture 
out  of  arable  land,  experiments  at  Cambridge,  England,  have 
demonstrated  that  of  the  many  varieties  offered  by  seedsmen 
only  a  very  few  are  of  any  permanent  value.  A  complex  mixture 
of  tested  seeds  was  sown,  and  after  five  years  an  examination  of 
the  pasture  showed  that  only  a  few  varieties  survived  and  made 
the  "  sole  "  for  either  grazing  or  forage.  These  varieties  in  the 
order  of  their  importance  were: — 

Cocksfoot 26 

Perennial  rye  grass 16 

Meadow  fescue .      .13 

Hard  fescue 9 

Crested  dogstail 8 

Timothy 6 

White  clover 4 

Meadow  foxtail 2 

The  figures  represent  approximate  percentages. 

Before  laying  down  grass  it  is  well  to  examine  the  species  already 
growing  round  the  hedges  and  adjacent  fields.  An  inspection  of 
this  sort  will  show  that  the  Cambridge  experiments  are  very 
conclusive,  and  that  the  above  species  are  the  only  ones  to  be 
depended  on.  Occasionally  some  other  variety  will  be  pro- 
minent, but  if  so  there  will  be  a  special  local  reason  for  this. 

On  the  other  hand,  many  farmers  when  sowing  down  to  grass 
like  to  have  a  good  bulk  of  forage  for  the  first  year  or  two,  and 
therefore  include  several  of  the  clovers,  lucerne,  Italian  ryegrass, 
evergreen  ryegrass,  &c.,  knowing  that  these  will  die  out  in  the 
course  of  years  and  leave  the  ground  to  the  more  permanent 
species. 

There  are  also  several  mixtures  of  "  seeds  "  (the  technical 
name  given  on  the  farm  to  grass-seeds)  which  have  been  adopted 
with  success  in  laying  down  permanent  pasture  in  some  localities. 


II 

c 

fc 

bo^j 

•g  8!  Si 

bo 

a 

3 

3 

I 

1 

4 

i  2 

!§•! 

o 

Q 

Jj 

5 

i  I 
u 

0  a  i 

Cocksfoot     ... 

8 

4 

8 

8 

4 

Perennial  ryegrass  . 

2 

6 

10 

Meadow  fescue. 

6 

2 

5 

Hard  fescue 

i 

I 

2 

3 

Crested  dogstail 

3 

2 

I 

3 

Timothy 

3 

I 

2 

2 

Meadow  foxtail 

10 

I 

I 

Tall  fescue  . 

3 

I 

3i 

2 

Tall  oat  grass    . 

I 

3 

Italian  ryegrass 

2 

5 

Smooth  meadow  grass 

i 

Rough  meadow  grass 

I 

i 

Golden  oat  grass    . 

1 

i 

Sheep's  fescue   . 

i 

Broad  red  clover    . 

i 

2 

Perennial  red  clover 

I 

'i 

2 

Alsike     .... 

I 

'i 

i 

2 

Lucerne  (Alfalfa)    . 

8 

White  clover 

4 

I 

I 

2 

2 

2 

Kidney  vetch    . 
Sheep's  parsley. 

6 

I 

Yarrow  

I 

i 

'i 

I 

Burnet    

8 

4 

g 

Chicory  

2* 

Plantain      

4 

*  a 

Total  ft  per  acre 

30 

40 

17 

40 

3° 

40 

GRASSE,  COMTE  DE— GRASSES 


369 


Arthur  Young  more  than  100  years  ago  made  out  one  to  suit 
chalky  hillsides;  Mr  Faunce  de  Laune  (Sussex)  in  our  days  was 
the  first  to  study  grasses  and  advocated  leaving  out  ryegrass  of 
all  kinds;  Lord  Leicester  adopted  a  cheap  mixture  suitable  for 
poor  land  with  success;  Mr  Elliot  (Kelso)  has  introduced  many 
deep-rooted  "  herbs  "  in  his  mixture  with  good  results.  Typical 
examples  of  such  mixtures  are  given  on  preceding  page.' 

Temporary  pastures  are  commonly  resorted  to  for  rotation 
purposes,  and  in  these  the  bulky  fast-growing  and  short-lived 
grasses  and  clovers  are  given  the  preference.  Three  examples  of 
temporary  mixtures  are  given  below. 


One 

year. 

Two 
years. 

Three 
or  four 
years. 

Italian  ryegrass 

14 

IO 

6 

Cocksfoot    . 

2 

4 

6 

Timothy           .     . 

2 

3 

Broad  red  clover    . 

8 

5 

3 

Alsike 

3 

2 

2 

Trefoil    .... 

3 

2 

2 

Perennial  ryegrass 

5 

10 

Meadow  fescue 

2 

2 

Perennial  red  clover 

2 

2 

White  clover     . 

I 

2 

Meadow  foxtail 

I 

2 

Total  Ib  per  acre    . 

3° 

36 

40 

Where  only  a  one-year  hay  is  required,  broad  red  clover  is 
often  grown,  either  alone  or  mixed  with  a  little  Italian  ryegrass, 
while  other  forage  crops,  like  trefoil  and  trifolium,  are  often  grown 
alone. 

In  Great  Britain  a  heavy  clay  soil  is  usually  preferred  for 
pasture,  both  because  it  takes  most  kindly  to  grass  and  because 
the  expense  of  cultivating  it  makes  it  unprofitable  as  arable  land 
when  the  price  of  corn  is  low.  On  light  soil  the  plant  frequently 
suffers  from  drought  in  summer,  the  want  of  moisture  preventing 
it  from  obtaining  proper  root-hold.  On  such  soil  the  use  of  a 
heavy  roller  is  advantageous,  and  indeed  on  any  soil  excepting 
heavy  clay  frequent  rolling  is  beneficial  to  the  grass,  as  it  pro- 
motes the  capillary  action  of  the  soil-particles  and  the  consequent 
ascension  of  ground-water. 

In  addition,  the  grass  on  the  surface  helps  to  keep  the  moisture 
from  being  wasted  by  the  sun's  heat. 

The  graminaceous  crops  of  western  Europe  generally  are 
similar  to  those  enumerated.  Elsewhere  in  Europe  are  found 
certain  grasses,  such  as  Hungarian  brome,  which  are  suitable  for 
introduction  into  the  British  Isles.  The  grasses  of  the  American 
prairies  also  include  many  plants  not  met  with  in  Great  Britain. 
Some  half-dozen  species  are  common  to  both  countries:  Kentucky 
"  blue-grass  "  is  the  British  Poa  pratensis;  couch  grass  (Triticum 
repens)  grows  plentifully  without  its  underground  runners; 
bent  (Agrostis  vulgaris)  forms  the  famous  "  red-top,"  and  so  on. 
But  the  American  buffalo-grass,  the  Canadian  buffalo-grass,  the 
"  bunch  "  grasses,  "  squirrel-tail  "  and  many  others  which  have 
no  equivalents  in  the  British  Islands,  form  a  large  part  of  the 
prairie  pasturage.  There  is  not  a  single  species  of  true  clover 
found  on  the  prairies,  though  cultivated  varieties  can  be  intro- 
duced. (P.  McC.) 

GRASSE,  FRANQOIS  JOSEPH  PAUL,  MARQUIS  DE  GRASSE- 
TILLY,  COMTE  DE  (1722-1788),  French  sailor,  was  born  at  Bar, 
in  the  present  department  of  the  Alpes  Maritimes.  In  1734  he 
took  service  on  the  galleys  of  the  order  of  Malta,  and  in  1740 
entered  the  service  of  France,  being  promoted  to  chief  of  squadron 
in  1779.  He  took  part  in  the  naval  operations  of  the  American 
War  of  Independence,  and  distinguished  himself  in  the  battles  of 
Dominica  and  Saint  Lucia  (1780),  and  of  Tobago  (1781).  He 
was  less  fortunate  at  St  Kitts,  where  he  was  defeated  by  Admiral 
Hood.  Shortly  afterwards,  in  April  1782,  he  was  defeated  and 
taken  prisoner  by  Admiral  Rodney.  Some  months  later  he  re- 
turned to  France,  published  a  Memoire  justificalif,  and  was 
acquitted  by  a  court-martial  (1784).  He  died  at  Paris  in  January 
1788. 


His  son  Alexandre  de  Grasse,  published  a  Notice  bibliographique 
sur  Vamiral  comte  de  Grasse  d'apres  les  documents  inedits  in  1840. 
See  G.  Lacour-Gayet,  La  Marine  militaire  de  la  France  sous  le  regne 
de  Louis  XV  (Paris,  1902). 

GRASSE,  a  town  in  the  French  department  of  the  Alpes 
Maritimes  (till  1860  in  that  of  the  Var) ,  1 1\  m.  by  rail  N.  of  Cannes. 
Pop.  (1906)  town,  13,958;  commune,  20,305.  It  is  built  in  a 
picturesque  situation,  in  the  form  of  an  amphitheatre  and  at  a 
height  of  1066  ft.  above  the  sea,  on  the  southern  slope  of  a  hill, 
facing  the  Mediterranean.  In  the  older  (eastern)  part  of  the  town 
the  streets  are  narrow,  steep  and  winding,  but  the  new  portion 
(western)  is  laid  out  in  accordance  with  modern  French  ideas. 
It  possesses  a  remarkably  mild  and  salubrious  climate,  and  is 
well  supplied  with  water.  That  used  for  the  purpose  of  the 
factories  comes  from  the  fine  spring  of  Foux.  But  the  drinking 
water  used  in  the  higher  portions  of  the  town  flows,  by  means  of 
a  conduit,  from  the  Foulon  stream,  one  of  the  sources  of  the 
Loup.  Grasse  was  from  1244  (when  the  see  was  transferred 
hither  from  Antibes)  to  1790  an  episcopal  see,  but  was  then 
included  in  the  diocese  of  Frejus  till  1860,  when  politically  as 
well  as  ecclesiastically,  the  region  was  annexed  to  the  newly- 
formed  department  of  the  Alpes  Maritimes.  It  still  possesses  a 
12th-century  cathedral,  now  a  simple  parish  church;  while  an 
ancient  tower,  of  uncertain  date,  rises  close  by  near  the  town 
hall,  which  was  formerly  the  bishop's  palace  (i3th  century). 
There  is  a  good  town  library,  containing  the  muniments  of  the 
abbey  of  Lerins,  on  the  island  of  St  Honorat  opposite  Cannes. 
In  the  chapel  of  the  old  hospital  are  three  pictures  by  Rubens. 
The  painter  J.  H.  Fragonard  (1732-1806)  was  a  native  of  Grasse, 
and  some  of  his  best  works  were  formerly  to  be  seen  here  (now 
in  America).  Grasse  is  particularly  celebrated  for  its  perfumery. 
Oranges  and  roses  are  cultivated  abundantly  in  the  neighbour- 
hood. It  is  stated  that  the  preparation  of  attar  of  roses  (which 
costs  nearly  £100  per  2  Ib)  requires  alone  nearly  7,000,000  roses 
a  year.  The  finest  quality  of  olive  oil  is  also  manufactured  at 
Grasse.  (W.  A.  B.  C.) 

GRASSES,1  a  group  of  plants  possessing  certain  characters  in 
common  and  constituting  a  family  (Gramineae)  of  the  class 
Monocotyledons.  It  is  one  of  the  largest  and  most  widespread 
and,  from  an  economic  point  of  view,  the  most  important  family 
of  flowering  plants.  No  plant  is  correctly  termed  a  grass  which 
is  not  a  member  of  this  family,  but  the  word  is  in  common 
language  also  used,  generally  in  combination,  for  many  plants  of 
widely  different  affinities  which  possess  some  resemblance  (often 
slight)  in  foliage  to  true  grasses;  e.g.  knot-grass  (Polygonum 
aviculare),  cotton-grass  (Eriophorum) ,  rib-grass  (Plantago), 
scorpion-grass  (Myosotis),  blue-eyed  grass  (Sisyrinchium) ,  sea- 
grass  (Zoslera).  The  grass-tree  of  Australia  (Xanlhorrhoea)  is  a 
remarkable  plant,  allied  to  the  rushes  in  the  form  of  its  flower,  but 
with  a  tall,  unbranched,  soft-woody,  palm-h'ke  trunk  bearing  a 
crown  of  long,  narrow,  grass-like  leaves  and  stalked  heads  of 
small,  densely-crowded  flowers.  In  agriculture  the  word  has  an 
extended  signification  to  include  the  various  fodder-plants, 
chiefly  leguminous,  often  called  "  artificial  grasses."  Indeed, 
formerly  grass  (also  spelt  spurs,  gres,  gyrs  in  the  old  herbals) 
meant  any  green  herbaceous  plant  of  small  size. 

Yet  the  first  attempts  at  a  classification  of  plants  recognized 
and  separated  a  group  of  Gramina,  and  this,  though  bounded  by 
nothing  more  definite  than  habit  and  general  appearance, 
contained  the  Gramineae  of  modern  botanists.  The  older  group, 
however,  even  with  such  systematists  as  Ray  (1703),  Scheuchzer 
(1719),  and  Micheli  (1729),  embraced  in  addition  the  Cyperaceae 

1  The  word  "  grass  "  (O.  Eng.  gars,  grass)  is  common  to  Teutonic 
languages,  cf.  Dutch  Ger.  Goth,  gras,  Dan.  grees;  the  root  is  the 
O.  Teut.  gra-,  gro-,  to  increase,  whence  "  grow,"  and  "  green,"  the 
typical  colour  of  growing  vegetation.  The  Indo-European  root  is 
seen  in  Lat._  gramen.  The  O.  Eng.  grasian,  formed  from  trees,  gives 
"  to  graze,"  of  cattle  feeding  on  growing  herbage,  also  grazier," 
one  who  grazes  or  feeds  cattle  for  the  market;  "to  graze,"  to 
abrade,  to  touch  lightly  in  passing,  may  be  a  development  of  this 
from  the  idea  of  close  cropping ;  if  it  is  to  be  distinguished  a  possible 
connexion  may  be  found  with  "  glace  "  (Fr.  glacer,  glide,  slip,  Lat. 
tlacies,  ice),  to  glance  off,  the  change  in  form  being  influenced  by 

grate,"  to  scrape,  scratch  (Fr.  gratter,  Ger.  kratzen). 


370 


GRASSES 


(Sedge  family),  Juncaceae  (Rush  family),  and  some  other  mono- 
cotyledons with  inconspicuous  flowers.  Singularly  enough,  the 
sexual  system  of  Linnaeus  (1735)  served  to  mark  off  more  dis- 
tinctly the  true  grasses  from  these  allies,  since  very  nearly  all 
of  the  former  then  known  fell  under  his  Triandria  Digynia,  whilst 
the  latter  found  themselves  under  his  other  classes  and  orders. 

I.  STRUCTURE. — The  general  type  of  true  grasses  is  familiar  in 
the  cultivated  cereals  of  temperate  climates — wheat,  barley, 
rye,  oats,  and  in  the  smaller  plants  which  make  up  pastures  and 
meadows  and  form  a  principal  factor  of  the  turf  of  natural 
downs.  Less  familiar  are  the  grains  of  warmer  climates — rice, 
maize,  millet  and  sorgho,  or  the  sugar-cane.  Still  farther  re- 
moved are  the  bamboos  of  the  tropics,  the  columnar  stems  of 
which  reach  to  the  height  of  forest  trees.  All  are,  however, 
formed  on  a  common  plan. 

Root. — Most  cereals  and  many  other  grasses  are  annual,  and 
possess  a  tuft  of  very  numerous  slender  root-fibres,  much  branched 
and  of  great  length.  The  majority  of  the  members  of  the  family 
are  of  longer  duration,  and  have  the  roots  also  fibrous,  but  fewer, 
thicker  and  less  branched.  In  such  cases  they  are  very  generally 
given  off  from  just  above  each  node  (often  in  a  circle)  of  the  lower 
part  of  the  stem  or  rhizome,  perforating  the  leaf-sheaths.  In 
some  bamboos  they  are  very  numerous  from  the  lower  nodes  of 
the  erect  culms,  and  pass  downwards  to  the  soil,  whilst  those  from 
the  upper  nodes  shrivel  up  and  form  circles  of  spiny  fibres. 

Stem. — The  underground  stern  or  rootstock  (rhizome)  of 
perennial  grasses  is  usually  well  developed,  and  often  forms  very 


FIG.  i. — rRhizome  of  Bamboo.  A,  B,  C,  D,  successive  series  of  axes, 
the  last  bearing  aerial  culms.    Much  reduced. 

long  creeping  or  subterranean  rhizomes,  with  elongated  inter- 
nodes  and  sheathing  scales;  the  widely-creeping,  slender 
rhizomes  in  Marram-grass  (Psamma),  Agropyrum  junceum, 
Elymus  arenarius,  and  other  sand-loving  plants  render  them 
useful  as  sand-binders.  It  is  also  frequently  short,  with  the 
nodes  crowded.  The  turf-formation,  which  is  characteristic 
of  open  situations  in  cool  temperate  climates,  results  from  an 
extensive  production  of  short  stolons,  the  branches  and  the 
fibrous  roots  developed  from  their  nodes  forming  the  dense 
"  sod."  The  very  large  rhizome  of  the  bamboos  (fig.  i)  is  also 
a  striking  example  of  "  definite  "  growth;  it  is  much  branched, 
the  short,  thick,  curved  branches  being  given  off  below  the  apex 
of  the  older  ones  and  at  right  angles  to  them,  the  whole  forming 
a  series  of  connected  arched  axes,  truncate  at  their  ends,  which 
were  formerly  continued  into  leafy  culms.  The  rhizome  is  always 
solid,  and  has  the  usual  internal  structure  of  the  monocotyle- 
donous  stem.  In  the  cases  of  branching  just  cited  the  branches 
break  directly  through  the  sheath  of  the  leaf  in  connexion  with 
which  they  arise.  In  other  cases  the  branches  grow  upwards 
through  the  sheaths  which  they  ultimately  split  from  above, 
and  emerging  as  aerial  shoots  give  a  tufted  habit  to  the  plant. 
Good  examples  are  the  oat,  cock's-foot  (Dactylis)  and  other 
British  grasses.  This  mode  of  growth  is  the  cause  of  the  "  tiller- 
ing "  of  cereals,  or  the  production  of  a  large  number  of  erect 
growing  branches  from  the  lower  nodes  of  the  young  stem. 
Isolated  tufts  or  tussocks  are  also  characteristic  of  steppe — and 
savanna — vegetation  and  open  places  generally  in  the  warmer 
parts  of  the  earth. 


The  aerial  leaf-bearing  branches  (culms)  are  a  characteristic 
feature  of  grasses.  They  are  generally  numerous,  erect,  cylin- 
drical (rarely  flattened)  and  conspicuously  jointed  with  evident 
nodes.  The  nodes  are  solid,  a  strong  plate  of  tissue  passing 
across  the  stem,  but  the  internodes  are  commonly  hollow,  although 
examples  of  completely  solid  stems  are  not  uncommon  (e.g.  maize, 
many  Andropogons,  sugar-cane).  The  swollen  nodes  are  a 
characteristic  feature.  In  wheat,  barley  and  most  of  the 
British  native  grasses  they  are  a  development,  not  of  the  culm, 
but  of  the  base  of  the  leaf-sheath.  The  function  of  the  nodes 
is  to  raise  again  culms  which  have  become  bent  down;  they  are 
composed  of  highly  turgescent  tissue,  the  cells  of  which  elongate 
on  the  side  next  the  earth  when  the  culm  is  placed  in  a  horizontal 
or  oblique  position,  and  thus  raise  the  culm  again  to  an  erect 
position.  The  internodes  continue  to  grow  in  length,  especially 
the  upper  ones,  for  some  time;  the  increase  takes  place  in  a  zone 
at  the  extreme  base,  just  above  the  node.  The  exterior  of  the 
culms  is  more  or  less  concealed  by  the  leaf -sheaths ;  it  is  usually 
smooth  and  often  highly  polished,  the  epidermal  cells  containing 
an  amount  of  silica  sufficient  to  leave  after  burning  a  distinct 
skeleton  of  their  structure.  Tabasheer  is  a  white  substance 
mainly  composed  of  silica,  found  in  the  joints  of  several  bamboos. 
A  few  of  the  lower  internodes  may  become  enlarged  and  sub- 
globular,  forming  nutriment-stores,  and  grasses  so  characterized 
are  termed  "  bulbous  "  (Arrhenatherum,  Poa  bulbosa,  &c.).  In 
internal  structure  grass-culms,  save  in  being  hollow,  conform 
to  that  usual  in  monocotyledons;  the  vascular  bundles  run 
parallel  in  the  internodes,  but  a  horizontal  interlacement  occurs 
at  the  nodes.  In  grasses  of  temperate  climates  branching  is 
rare  at  the  upper  nodes  of  the  culm,  but  it  is  characteristic  of 
the  bamboos  and  many  tropical  grasses.  The  branches  are 
strictly  distichous.  In  many  bamboos  they  are  long  and  spread- 
ing or  drooping  and  copiously  ramified,  in  others  they  are 
reduced  to  hooked  spines.  One  genus  (Dinochloa,  a  native 
of  the  Malay  archipelago)  is  scandent,  and  climbs  over  trees 
100  ft.  or  more  in  height,  Olyra  latifolia,  a  widely-spread 
tropical  species,  is  also  a  climber  on  a  humbler  scale. 

Grass-culms  grow  with  great  rapidity,  as  is  most  strikingly 
seen  in  bamboos,  where  a  height  of  over  100  ft.  is  attained  in 
from  two  to  three  months,  and  many  species  grow  two,  three  or 
even  more  feet  in  twenty-four  hours.  Silicic  hardening  does  not 
begin  till  the  full  height  is  nearly  attained.  The  largest  bamboo 
recorded  is  170  ft.,  and  the  diameter  is  usually  reckoned  at  about 
4  in.  to  each  50  ft. 

Leaves. —  These  present  special  characters  usually  sufficient 
for  ordinal  determination.  They  are  solitary  at  each  node  and 
arranged  in  two  rows,  the  lower  often  crowded,  forming  a  basal 
tuft.  They  consist  of  two  distinct  portions,  the  sheath  and  the 
blade.  The  sheath  is  often  of  great  length,  and  generally  com- 
pletely surrounds  the  culm,  forming  a  firm  protection  for  the 
internode,  the  younger  basal  portion  of  which,  including  the 
zone  of  growth,  remains  tender  for  some  time.  As  a  rule  it  is 
split  down  its  whole  length,  thus  differing  from  that  of  Cyperaceae 
which  is  almost  invariably  (Eriospora  is  an  exception)  a  complete 
tube;  in  some  grasses,  however  (species  of  Poa,  Bromus  and 
others),  the  edges  are  united.  The  sheaths  are  much  dilated 
in  Alopecurus  vaginatus  and  in  a  species  of  Potamochloa,  in  the 
latter,  an  East  Indian  aquatic  grass,  serving  as  floats.  At  the 
summit  of  the  sheath,  above  the  origin  of  the  blade,  is  the 
ligule,  a  usually  membranous  process  of  small  size  (occasionally 
reaching  i  in.  in  length)  erect  and  pressed  around  the  culm. 
It  is  rarely  quite  absent,  but  may  be  represented  by  a  tuft  of 
hairs  (very  conspicuous  in  Pariana).  It  serves  to  prevent 
rain-water,  which  has  run  down  the  blade,  from  entering  the 
sheath.  Melica  uniflora  has  in  addition  to  the  ligule,  a  green 
erect  tongue-like  process,  from  the  line  of  junction  of  the  edges 
of  the  sheath. 

The  blade  is  frequently  wanting  or  small  and  imperfect  !n 
the  basal  leaves,  but  in  the  rest  is  long  and  set  on  to  the  sheath 
at  an  angle.  The  usual  form  is  familiar — sessile,  more  or  less 
ribbon-shaped,  tapering  to  a  point,  and  entire  at  the  edge. 
The  chief  modifications  are  the  articulation  of  the  deciduous 


GRASSES 


blade  on  to  the  sheath,  which  occurs  in  all  the  Bambuseae 
(except  Planolia)  and  in  Sparlina  stricta;  and  the  interposition 
of  a  petiole  between  the  sheath  and  the  blade,  as  in  bamboos, 
Leptaspis,  Pharus,  Pariana,  Lophatherum  and  others.  In  the 
latter  case  the  leaf  usually  becomes  oval,  ovate  or  even  cordate 
or  sagittate,  but  these  forms  are  found  in  sessile  leaves  also 
(Olyra,  Panicum).  The  venation  is  strictly  parallel,  the  midrib 
usually  strong,  and  the  other  ribs  more  slender.  In  Anomochloa 
there  are  several  nearly  equal  ribs  and  in  some  broad-leaved 
grasses  (Bambuseae,  Pharus,  Leptaspis)  the  venation  becomes 

tesselated    by  transverse 
connecting    veins.      The 
tissue  is  often  raised 
above    the    veins,    form- 
ing   longitudinal    ridges, 
FIG.  2. — Magnified  transverse  section  generally    on    the    upper 
of  one-half  of  a  leaf-blade  of  Festuca  face;  the  stomata  are  in 
rubra.      The    dark    portions    represent  ,-          •      th     intervening 
supporting  and  conducting  tissue;    the  "nf 

upper  face  bears  furrows,  at  the  bottom  furrows.  The  thick  pro- 
of each  of  which  are  seen  the  motor  minent  veins  in  Agro- 
cells  m.  pyrum  occupy  the  whole 
upper  surface  of  the  leaf.  Epidermal  appendages  are  rare, 
the  most  frequent  being  marginal,  saw-like,  cartilaginous 
teeth,  usually  minute,  but  occasionally  (Danthonia  scabra, 
Panicum  serratum)  so  large  as  to  give  the  margin  a  serrate 
appearance.  The  leaves  are  occasionally  woolly,  as  in  Alopecurus 
lanatus  and  one  or  two  Panicums.  The  blade  is  often  twisted, 
frequently  so  much  so  that  the  upper  and  under  faces  become 
reversed.  In  dry-country  grasses  the  blades  are  often  folded 
on  the  midrib,  or  rolled  up.  The  rolling  is  effected  by  bands  of 
large  wedge-shaped  cells — motor-cells — between  the  nerves, 
the  loss  of  turgescence  by  which,  as  the  air  dries,  causes  the 
blade  to  curl  towards  the  face  on  which  they  occur.  The  rolling 
up  acts  as  a  .protection  from  too  great  loss  of  water,  the  exposed 
surface  being  specially  protected  to  this  end  by  a  strong  cuticle, 
the  majority  or  all  of  the  stomata  occurring  on  the  protected 
surface.  The  stiffness  of  the  blade,  which  becomes  very  marked 
in  dry-country  grasses,  is  due  to  the  development  of  girders  of 
thick-walled  mechanical  tissue  which  follow  the  course  of  all 
or  the  principal  veins  (fig.  2). 

Inflorescence. — This  possesses  an  exceptional  importance  in 
grasses,  since,  their  floral  envelopes  being  much  reduced  and  the 
sexual  organs  of  very  great  uniformity,  the  characters  employed 
for  classification  are  mainly  derived  from  the  arrangement  of 
the  flowers  and  their  investing  bracts.  Various  interpretations 
have  been  given  to  these  glumaceous  organs  and  different  terms 
employed  for  them  by  various  writers.  It  may,  however,  be 


FIG.  3. — One-flowered         FIG.  4. — Two-flowered  spikelet 
spikelet  of  Agrostis.  of  Aira. 

b,  Barren  glumes ;  /,  flowering  glumes.      (Both  enlarged.) 

considered  as  settled  that  the  whole  of  the  bodies  known  as 
glumes  and  paleae,  and  distichously  arranged  externally  to 
the  flower,  form  no  part  of  the  floral  envelopes,  but  are  of  the 
nature  of  bracts.  These  are  arranged  so  as  to  form  spikelets 
(locustae),  and  each  spikelet  may  contain  one,  as  in  Agrostis 
(fig.  3)  two,  as  in  Aira  (fig.  4)  three,  or  a  great  number  of 
flowers,  as  in  Briza  (fig.  5)  Triticum  (fig.  6) ;  in  some  species  of 
Eragroslis  there  are  nearly  60.  The  flowers  are,  as  a  rule,  placed 
laterally  on  the  a.xis(rachilla)ol  the  spikelet,  but  in  one-flowered 
spikelets  they  appear  to  be  terminal,  and  are  probably  really 


so  in   Anthoxiinthum   (fig.   7)   and  in  two  anomalous  genera, 
Anomochloa  and  Streptochaela. 

In  immediate  relation  with  the  flower  itself,  and  often  entirely 
concealing  it,  is  the  palea  or  pale  ("  upper  pale  "  of  most  syste- 
matic agrostologists) .  This  organ  (fig.  13,  i)  is  peculiar  to  grasses 


FIG.  7. — Spikelet  of  Antho- 
xanthum  (enlarged)  without  the 
two  lower  barren  glumes,  show- 
ing the  two  upper  awned  barren 
glumes  (g)  and  the  flower. 


FIG.  5. — Spikelet  of  Briza.        FIG.  6. — Spikelet  of  Triticum. 
(Both  enlarged.) 

among  Glumiflorae  (the  series  to  which  belong  the  two  families 
Gramineae  and  Cyperaceae),  and  is  almost  always  present, 
certain  Oryzeae  and  Phalarideae 
being  the  only  exceptions.  It  is 
of  thin  membranous  consistence, 
usually  obtuse,  often  bifid,  and 
possesses  no  central  rib  or  nerve, 
but  has  two  lateral  ones,  one  on 
either  side;  the  margins  are  fre- 
quently folded  in  at  the  ribs, 
which  thus  become  placed  at  the 
sharp  angles.  This  structure  was  ' 
formerly  regarded  as  pointing  to 
the  fusion  of  two  organs,  and 
the  pale  was  considered  by 
Robert  Brown  to  represent  two 
portions  soldered  together  of  a 
trimerous  perianth  -  whorl,  the 
third  portion  being  the  "  lower 
pale."  The  pale  is  now  gener- 
ally considered  to  represent  the 
single  bracteole,  characteristic 
of  Monocotyledons,  the  binerved 
structure  being  the  result  of  the  pressure  of  the  axis  of  the 
spikelet  during  the  development  of  the  pale,  as  in  Iris  and  others. 

The  flower  with  its  pale  is  sessile,  and  is  placed  in  the  axil  of 
another  bract  in  such  a  way  that  the  pale  is  exactly  opposed 
to  it,  though  at  a  slightly  higher  level.  It  is  this  second  bract 
or  flowering  glume  which  has  been  generally  called  by  systemat- 
ists  the  "  lower  pale,"  and  with  the  "  upper  pale  "  was  formerly 
considered  to  form  an  outer  floral  envelope  ("  calyx,"  Jussieu; 
"  perianthium,"  Brown).  The  two  bracts  are,  however,  on 
different  axes,  one  secondary  to  the  other,  and  cannot  therefore 
be  parts  of  one  whorl  of  organs.  They  are  usually  quite  unlike 
one  another,  but  in  some  genera  (e.g.  most  Festuceae)  are  very 
similar  in  shape  and  appearance. 

The  flowering  glume  has  generally  a  more  or  less  boat-shaped 
form,  is  of  firm  consistence,  and  possesses  a  well-marked  central 
midrib  and  frequently  several  lateral  ones.  The  midrib  in  a 
large  proportion  of  genera  extends  into  an  appendage  termed 
the  awn  (fig.  4),  and  the  lateral  veins  more  rarely  extend  beyond 
the  glume  as  sharp  points  (e.g.  Pappophorum).  The  form  of  the 
flowering  glume  is  very  various,  this  organ  being  plastic  and 
extensively  modified  in  different  genera.  It  frequently  extends 
downwards  a  little  on  the  rachilla,  forming  with  the  latter  a 
swollen  callus,  which  is  separated  from  the  free  portion  by  a 
furrow.  In  Leptaspis  it  is  formed  into  a  closed  cavity  by  the 
union  of  its  edges,  and  encloses  the  flower,  the  styles  projecting 
through  the  pervious  summit.  Valuable  characters  for  dis- 
tinguishing genera  are  obtained  from  the  awn.  This  presents 
itself  variously  developed  from  a  mere  subulate  point  to  an 
organ  several  inches  in  length,  and  when  complete  (as  in  Andro- 
pogoneae,  Aveneae  and  Stipeae)  consists  of  two  well-marked 
portions,  a  lower  twisted  part  and  a  terminal  straight  portion, 


372 


GRASSES 


usually  set  in  at  an  angle  with  the  former,  sometimes  trifid  and 
occasionally  beautifully  feathery  (fig.  8).  The  lower  part  is  most 
often  suppressed,  and  in  the  large  group  of  the  Paniceae  awns 
of  any  sort  are  very  rarely  seen.  The  awn  may  be  either  terminal 
or  may  come  off  from  the  back  of  the  flowering  glume,  and 
Duval  Jouve's  observations  have  shown  that  it  represents  the 
blade  of  the  leaf  of  which  the  portion  of  the 
flowering  glume  below  its  origin  is  the  sheath; 
the  twisted  part  (so  often  suppressed)  corre- 
sponds with  the  petiole,  and  the  portion  of 
the  glume  extending  beyond  the  origin  of 
the  awn  (very  long  in  some  species,  e.g.  of 
Danthonia)  with  the  ligule  of  the  developed 
foliage-leaf.  When  terminal  the  awn  has 
three  fibro-vascular  bundles,  when  dorsal 
only  one;  it  is  covered  with  stomate-bearing 
epidermis. 

The  flower  with  its  palea  is  thus  sessile  in 
the  axil  of  a  floriferous  glume,  and  in  a  few 
grasses  (Leersia  (fig.  9),  Coleanthus,  Nardus) 
the  spikelet  consists  of  nothing  more,  but 
usually  (even  in  uniflorous  spikelets)  other 
glumes  are  present.     Of  these  the  two  placed 
distichously  opposite  each  other  at  the  base 
of  the  spikelet  never  bear  any  flower  in  their 
axils,   and  are  called  the  empty  or  barren 
glumes  (figs.  3,  8).    They  are  the  "  glumes  " 
of   most   writers,   and   together  form  what 
was    called   the    "  gluma "    by   R.    Brown. 
They  rarely  differ  much  from  one  another, 
but     one    may    be    smaller    or    quite 
absent  (Panicum,  Setaria  (fig.  10),  Pas- 
palum,  Lolium),  or  both  be  altogether 
suppressed,  as  above  noticed.    They  are 
commonly  firm  and  strong,  often  enclose 
the  spikelet,  and  are  rarely  provided  with 
long  points  or  imperfect  awns.     Gener- 
ally speaking  they  do  not  share  in  the 
special   modifications   of   the   flowering 
glumes,  and  rarely  themselves  undergo 
modification,    chiefly    in    hardening    of 
portions  (Sclerachne,  Manisuris,  Anthe- 


FIG.  8. — Spikelet  of 
Stipa  pennata.  The  pair 
of  barren  glumes  (6) 
are  separated  from  the 
flowering  glume,  which  FIG.  Q. —  FIG.  ip.  —  Spikelet  of 
bears  a  long  awn,  Spikelet  of  Leer-  Setaria,  with  an  abortive 
twisted  below  the  knee  sta.  f,  Flower-  branch  (h)  beneath  it.  b, 
and  feathery  above,  ing  glume;  p,  Barren  glumes;  /.flower- 
About  I  nat.  size.  pale.  ing  glume ;  p,  pale. 

phora,  Peltophorum),  so  as  to  afford  greater  protection  to  the 
flowers  or  fruit.  But  it  is  usual  to  find,  besides  the  basal  glumes, 
a  few  other  empty  ones,  and  these  are  in  two-  or  more-flowered 
spikelets  (see  Triticum,  fig.  6)  at  the  top  of  the  rhachilla  (numer- 
ous in  Lophatherum) ,  or  in  uniflorous  ones  (fig.  10)  below  and 
interposed  between  the  floral  glume  and  the  basal  pair. 

The  axis  of  the  spikelet  is  frequently  jointed  and  breaks  up 
into  articulations  above  each  flower.  Tufts  or  borders  of  hairs 
are  frequently  present  (Calamagrostis,  Phragmites,  Andropogon), 
and  are  often  so  long  as  to  surround  and  conceal  the  flowers 
(fig.  n).  The  axis  is  often  continued  beyond  the  last  flower  or 
glume  as  a  bristle  or  stalk. 

Involucres  or  organs  outside  the  spikelets  also  occur,  and  are 


formed  in  various  ways.  Thus  in  Setaria  (fig.  10),  Pennisetum, 
&c.,  the  one  or  more  circles  of  simple  or  feathery  hairs  represent 
abortive  branches  of  the  inflorescence;  in  Cenchrus  (fig.  12) 
these  become  consolidated,  and  the  inner  ones  flattened  so  as 
to  form  a  very  hard  globular  spiny  case  to  the  spikelets.  The 
cup-shaped  involucre  of  Cornucopia 
is  a  dilatation  of  the  axis  into 
a  hollow  receptacle  with  a  raised 
border.  In  Cynosurus  (Dog's  tail) 
the  pectinate  involucre  which  con- 
ceals the  spikelet  is  a  barren  or 
abortive  spikelet.  Bracts  of  a  more 
general  character  subtending  branches 
of  the  inflorescence  are  singularly 
rare  in  Gramineae,  in  marked  con- 
trast with  Cyperaceae,  where  they  are 
so  conspicuous.  They  however  occur 
in  a  whole  section  of  Andropogon,  in 
Anomochloa,  and  at  the  base  of  the 
spike  in  Sesleria.  The  remarkable 
ovoid  involucre  of  Coix,  which  be- 
comes of  stony  hardness,  white  and 
polished  (then  known  as  "  Job's 
tears,"  q.v.),  is  also  a  modified  bract 
or  leaf-sheath.  It  is  closed  except  at 


a 


b 


c,  c, 


FIG.     ii.— Spikelet    of 
Reed      (Phragmites     corn- 
mums)  opened  out. 
a,  b,    Barren  glumes. 

Fertile  glumes,  each 
enclosing  one 
flower  with  its 
pale  d. 

Note  the  zigzag  axis 
(rhachilla)  bearing 
long  silky  hairs. 


the   apex,   and   contains   the   female 

spikelet,  the  stalks  of  the  male  inflorescence  and  the  long  styles 

emerging  through  the  small  apical  orifice. 

Any  number  of  spikelets  may  compose  the  inflorescence,  and 
their  arrangement  is  very  various.  In  the  spicate  forms,  with 
sessile  spikelets  on  the  main  axis,  the  latter  is  often  dilated  and 
flattened  (Paspalum),  or  is  more  or  less 
thickened  and  hollowed  out  (Stenotaphrum, 
Rottboellia,  Tripsacum),  when  the  spikelets 
are  sunk  and  buried  within  the  cavities. 
Every  variety  of  racemose  and  paniculate 
inflorescence  obtains,  and  the  number  of 
spikelets  composing  those  of  the  large  kinds 
is  often  immense.  Rarely  the  inflorescence 
consists  of  very  few  flowers;  thus  Lygeum  FIG.  12. — Spikelet 
Spartum,  the  most  anomalous  of  European  of  Cenchrus  echinatus 
grasses,  has  but  two  or  three  large  uni-  enclosed  in  a  bristly 
florous  spikelets,  which  are  fused  together  " 
at  the  base,  and  have  no  basal  glumes,  but  are  enveloped  in  a 
large,  hooded,  spathe-like  bract. 

Flower. — This  is  characterized  by  remarkable  uniformity. 
The  perianth  is  represented  by  very  rudimentary,  small,  fleshy 
scales  arising  below  the  ovary,  called  lodicules;  they  are  elongated 


FIG.  13. — Flowers  of  Grasses  (enlarged).     I,  Piptatherum,  with  the 
palea  p;  2,  Poa;  3,  Oryza;    I,  Lodicule. 

or  truncate,  sometimes  fringed  with  hairs,  and  are  in  contact 
with  the  ovary.  Their  usual  number  is  two,  and  they  are  placed 
collaterally  at  the  anterior  side  of  the  flower  (fig.  13,)  that  is, 
within  the  flowering  glume.  They  are  generally  considered  to 
represent  the  inner  whorl  of  the  ordinary  monocotyledonous 


GRASSES 


373 


(liliaceous)  perianth,  the  outer  whorl  of  these  being  suppressed 
as  well  as  the  posterior  member  of  the  inner  whorl.  This  latter 
is  present  almost  constantly  in  Stlpeae  and  Bambuseae,  which 
have  three  lodicules,  and  in  the  latter  group  they  are  occasionally 
more  numerous.  In  AnomoMoa  they  are  represented  by  hairs. 
In  Streplochaeta  there  are  six  lodicules,  alternately  arranged 
in  two  whorls.  Sometimes,  as  in  Anthoxanlhum,  they  are 
absent.  In  Mdica  there  is  one  large  anterior  lodicule  resulting 
presumably  from  the  union  of  the  two  which  are  present  in  allied 
genera.  Professor  E.  Hackel,  however,  regards  this  as  an 
undivided  second  pale,  which  in  the  majority  of  the  grasses  is 
split  in  halves,  and  the  posterior  lodicule,  when  present,  as  a 
third  pale.  On  this  view  the  grass-flower  has  no  perianth. 
The  function  of  the  lodicules  is  the  separation  of  the  pale  and 
glume  to  allow  the  protrusion  of  stamens  and  stigmas;  they 
effect  this  by  swelling  and  thus  exerting  pressure  on  the  base  of 
these  two  structures.  Where,  as  in  Anthoxanthum,  there  are  no 
lodicules,  pale  and  glume  do  not  become  laterally  separated, 
and  the  stamens  and  stigmas  protrude  only  at  the  apex  of  the 
floret  (fig.  7).  Grass-flowers  are  usually  hermaphrodite,  but 
there  are  very  many  exceptions.  Thus  it  is  common  to  find  one 
or  more  imperfect  (usually  male)  flowers  in  the  same  spikelet 
with  bisexual  ones,  and  their  relative  position  is  important 
in  classification.  Holcus  and  Arrhenatherum  are  examples  in 
English  grasses;  and  as  a  rule  in  species  of  temperate  regions 
separation  of  the  sexes  is  not  carried  further.  In  warmer 
countries  monoecious  and  dioecious  grasses  are  more  frequent. 
In  such  cases  the  male  and  female  spikelets  and  inflorescence 
may  be  very  dissimilar,  as  in  maize,  Job's  tears,  Euchlaena, 
Spinifex,  &c.;  and  in  some  dioecious  species  this  dissimilarity 
has  led  to  the  two  sexes  being  referred  to  different  genera  (e.g. 
Anthephora  axillifiora  is  the  female  of  Buchloe  dactyloides, 
and  Neurachne  paradoxa  of  a  species  of  Spinifex).  In  other 
grasses,  however,  with  the  sexes  in  different  plants  (e.g.  Brizo- 
pyrum,  DistiMis,  Eragrostis  capitata,  Gynerium),  no  such 
dimorphism  obtains.  Amphicarpum  is  remarkable  in  having 
cleistogamic  flowers  borne  on  long  radical  subterranean  peduncles 
which  are  fertile,  whilst  the  conspicuous  upper  paniculate  ones, 
though  apparently  perfect,  never  produce  fruit.  Something 
similar  occurs  in  Leersia  oryzoides,  where  the  fertile  spikelets 
are  concealed  within  the  leaf-sheaths. 

Androecium. — In  the  vast  majority  there  are  three  stamens 
alternating  with  the  lodicules,  and  therefore  one  anterior,  i.e. 
opposite  the  flowering  glume,  the  other  two  being  posterior  and 
in  contact  with  the  palea  (fig.  13,  i  and  2).  They  are  hypo- 
gynous,  and  have  long  and  very  delicate  filaments,  and  large, 
linear  or  oblong  two-celled  anthers,  dorsifixed  and  ultimately 
very  versatile,  deeply  indented  at  each  end,  and  commonly 
exserted  and  pendulous.  Suppression  of  the  anterior  stamen 
sometimes  occurs  (e.g.  Anthoxanthum,  fig.  7),  or  the  two  posterior 
ones  may  be  absent  (Uniola,  Cinna,  Phippsia,Festuca  bromoid.es). 
There  is  in  some  genera  (Oryza,  most  Bambuseae)  another  row  of 
three  stamens,  making  six  in  all  (fig.  13,  3);  and  AnomoMoa  and 
Tetrarrhena  possess  four.  The  stamens  become  numerous  (ten 
to  forty)  in  the  male  flowers  of  a  few  monoecious  genera  (Pariana, 
Luziola).  In  Ochlandra  they  vary  from  seven  to  thirty,  and  in 
GigantoMoa  they  are  monadelphous. 

Gynoecium. — The  pistil  consists  of  a  single  carpel,  opposite  the 
pale  in  the  median  plane  of  the  spikelet.  The  ovary  is  small, 
rounded  to  elliptical,  and  one-celled,  and  contains  a  single 
slightly  bent  ovule  sessile  on  the  ventral  suture  (that  is,  springing 
from  the  back  of  the  ovary);  the  micropyle  points  downwards. 
It  bears  usually  two  lateral  styles  which  are  quite  distinct  or 
connate  at  the  base,  sometimes  for  a  greater  length  (fig.  14,  i), 
each  ends  in  a  densely  hairy  or  feathery  stigma  (fig.  14).  Occa- 
sionally there  is  but  a  single  style,  as  in  Nardus  (fig.  14,  7),  which 
corresponds  to  the  midrib  of  the  carpel.  The  very  long  and 
apparently  simple  stigma  of  maize  arises  from  the  union  of  two. 
Many  of  the  bamboos  have  a  third,  anterior,  style. 

Comparing  the  flower  of  Gramineae  with  the  general  mono- 
cotyledonous  plan  as  represented  by  Liliaceae  and  other  families 
(fig.  1 5),  it  will  be  seen  to  differ  in  the  absence  of  the  outer  row  and 


the  posterior  member  of  the  inner  row  of  the  perianth-leaves,  of 
the  whole  inner  row  of  stamens,  and  of  the  two  lateral  carpels, 


FIG.  15. — Diagrams  of  the  ordinary  Grass- 
flower. 

1,  Actual  condition ; 

2,  Theoretical,  with 

the    suppressed 

organs  supplied. 
a,  Axis. 

6,  Flowering  glume. 
c, 


d,  Outer  row  of  peri- 

anth leaves. 

e,  Inner  row. 

/,  Outer     row     of 
stamens. 

f,  Inner  row. 
,  Pistil. 


FIG.  14.— Pistils  of  Grasses  (much  enlarged),  i,  Alopecurus;  I 
Bromus;  3,  Arrhenatherum;  4,  Glyceria;  5,  Melica;  6,  Mibora; 
7,  Nardus. 

whilst  the  remaining  members  of  the  perianth  are  in  a  rudiment- 
ary condition.  But  each  or  any  of  the  usually  missing  organs 
are  to  be  found  a  9a 

normally  in  differ- 
ent genera,  or  as 
occasional  develop- 
ments. 

Pollination. — 
Grasses  are  gener- 
ally wind  -  pollin- 
ated, though  self- 
fertilization  some- 
times occurs.  A  few 
species,  as  we  have 
seen,  are  mono- 
ecious or  dioecious, 
while  many  are 
polygamous  (having 
unisexual  as  well 
as  bisexual  flowers 
as  in  many  members  of  the  tribes  Andropogoneae,  fig.  18, 
and  Paniceae),  and  in  these  the  male  flower  of  a  spikelet 
always  blooms  later  than  the  hermaphrodite,  so  that  its 
pollen  can  only  effect  cross-fertilization  upon  other  spikelets 
in  the  same  or  another  plant.  Of  those  with  only  bisexual 
flowers,  many  are  strongly  protogynous  (the  stigmas  protrud- 
ing before  the  anthers  are  ripe),  such  as  Alopecurus  and 
Anthoxanthum  (fig.  7),  but  generally  the  anthers  protrude  first 
and  discharge  the  greater  part  of  their  pollen  before  the  stigmas 
appear.  The  filaments  elongate  rapidly  at  flowering-time,  and 
the  lightly  versatile  anthers  empty  an  abundance  of  finely 
granular  smooth  pollen  through  a  longitudinal  slit.  Some 
flowers,  such  as  rye,  have  lost  the  power  of  effective  self-fertiliza- 
tion, but  in  most  cases  both  forms,  self-  and  cross-fertilization, 
seem  to  be  possible.  Thus  the  species  of  wheat  are  usually  self- 
fertilized,  but  cross-fertilization  is  possible  since  the  glumes  are 
open  above,  the  stigmas  project  laterally,  and  the  anthers  empty 
only  about  one-third  of  their  pollen  in  their  own  flower  and 
the  rest  into  the  air.  In  some  cultivated  races  of  barley,  cross- 
fertilization  is  precluded,  as  the  flowers  never  open.  Reference 
has  already  been  made  to  cleistogamic  species  which  occur  in 
several  genera. 

Fruit  and  Seed. — The  ovary  ripens  into  a  usually  small  ovoid 
or  rounded  fruit,  which  is  entirely  occupied  by  the  single  large 
seed,  from  which  it  is  not  to  be  distinguished,  the  thin  pericarp 
being  completely  united  to  its  surface.  To  this  peculiar 
fruit  the  term  caryopsis  has  been  applied  (more  familiarly 
"grain");  it  is  commonly  furrowed  longitudinally  down  one 
side  (usually  the  inner,  but  in  Coix  and  its  allies,  the  outer),  and 
an  additional  covering  is  not  unfrequently  provided  by  the 
adherence  of  the  persistent  palea,  or  even  also  of  the  flowering 


374 


GRASSES 


FIG.    16.— 


the  dehiscent 
pericarp  and 
seed. 


glume  ("  chaff  "  of  cereals).  From  this  type  are  a  few  deviations 
thus  in  Sporobolus,  &c.  (fig.  16),  the  pericarp  is  not  united  with 
the  seed  but  is  quite  distinct,  dehisces,  and  allows  the  loose  seed  to 
escape.  Sometimes  the  pericarp  is  membranous,  sometimes  hard, 
forming  a  nut,  as  in  some  genera  of  Bambuseae,  while  in  other 
Bambuseae  it  becomes  thick  and  fleshy,  forming  a  berry  often  as 
large  as  an  apple.  In  Melocanna  the  berry  forms 
an  edible  fruit  3  or  4  in.  long,  with  a  pointed 
beak  of  2  in.  more;  it  is  indehiscent,  and  the 
small  seed  germinates  whilst  the  fruit  is  still 
attached  to  the  tree,  putting  out  a  tuft  of  roots 
and  a  shoot,  and  not  falling  till  the  latter  is  6  in. 
Fruit  oSSporo-  long.  The  position  of  the  embryo  is  plainly 
bolus,  showing  visible  on  the  front  side  at  the  base  of  the  grain. 
On  the  other,  posterior,  side  of  the  grain  is  a 
more  or  less  evident,  sometimes  punctiform, 
sometimes  elongated  or  linear  mark,  the  hilum, 
the  place  where  the  ovule  was  fastened  to  the  wall  of  the  ovary. 
The  form  of  the  hilum  is  constant  throughout  a  genus,  and 
sometimes  also  in  whole  tribes. 

The  testa  is  thin  and  membranous  but  occasionally  coloured, 
and  the  embryo  small,  the  great  bulk  of  the  seed  being  occupied 
by  the  hard  farinaceous  endosperm  (albumen)  on  which  the 
nutritive  value  of  the  grain  depends.  The  outermost  layer  of 
endosperm,  the  aleuron-Iayer,  consists  of  regular  cells  filled  with 
small  proteid  granules;  the  rest  is  made  up  of  large  polygonal 
cells  containing  numerous  starch-grains  in  a  matrix  of  proteid 
which  may  be  continuous  (horny  endosperm)  or  granular  (mealy 
endosperm).  The  embryo  presents  many  points  of  interest.  Its 
position  is  remarkable,  closely  applied  to  the  surface  of  the 
endosperm  at  the  base  of  its  outer  side.  This  character  is 
absolute  for  the  whole  order,  and  effectually  separates  Gramineae 
from  Cyperaceae.  The  part  in  contact  with  the  endosperm  is 
plate-like,  and  is  known  as  the  scutellum;  the  surface  in  contact 
with  the  endosperm  forms  an  absorptive  epithelium.  In  some 
grasses  there  is  a  small  scale-like  appendage  opposite  the  scutel- 
lum, the  epiblast.  There  is  some  difference  of  opinion  as  to  which 
structure  or  structures  represent  the  cotyledon.  Three  must  be 
considered:  (i)  the  scutellum,  connected  by  vascular  tissue 
with  the  vascular  cylinder  of  the  main  axis  of  the  embryo  which 
it  more  or  less  envelops;  it  never  leaves  the  seed,  serving 
merely  to  prepare  and  absorb  the  food-stuff  in  the  endosperm; 
(2)  the  cellular  outgrowth  of  the  axis,  the  epiblast,  small  and 
inconspicuous  as  in  wheat,  or  larger  as  in  Slipa;  (3)  the  pileole 
or  germ-sheath,  arising  on  the  same  side  of  the  axis  and  above  the 
scutellum,  enveloping  the  plumule  in  the  seed  and  appearing 
above  ground  as  a  generally  colourless  sheath  from  the  apex  of 
which  the  plumule  ultimately  breaks  (fig.  17,4,6).  The  develop- 
ment of  these  structures  (which  was  investigated  by  van  Tieghem) , 


FIG.  17. — A  Grain  of  Wheat.  I,  back,  and  2,  front  view;  3, 
vertical  section,  showing  (b)  the  endosperm,  and  (a)  embryo;  4, 
beginning  of  germination,  showing  (6)  the  pileole  and  (c)  the  radicle 
and  secondary  rootlets  surrounded  by  their  coleorrhizae. 

especially  in  relation  to  the  origin  of  the  vascular  bundles  which 
supply  them,  favours  the  view  that  the  scutellum  and  pileole  are 
highly  differentiated  parts  of  a  single  cotyledon,and  this  view  is  in 
accord  with  a  comparative  study  of  the  seedling  of  grasses  and 
of  other  monocotyledons.  The  epiblast  has  been  regarded  as 
representing  a  second  cotyledon,  but  this  is  a  very  doubtful 
interpretation. 

Germination. — In  germination  the  coleorhiza  lengthens, 
ruptures  the  pericarp,  and  fixes  the  grain  to  the  ground  by 


developing  numerous  hairs.  The  radicle  then  breaks  through 
the  coleorhiza,  as  do  also  the  secondary  rootlets  where,  as  in 
the  case  of  many  cereals,  these  have  been  formed  in  the  embryo 
(fig.  17,  4).  The  germ-sheath  grows  vertically  upwards,  its 
stiff  apex  pushing  through  the  soil,  while  the  plumule  is  hidden 
in  its  hollow  interior.  Finally  the  plumule  escapes,  its  leaves 
successively  breaking  through  at  the  tip  of  the  germ-sheath. 
The  scutellum  meanwhile  feeds  the  developing  embryo  from 
the  endosperm.  The  growth  of  the  primary  root  is  limited; 
sooner  or  later  adventitious  roots  develop  from  the  axis  above 
the  radicle  which  they  ultimately  exceed  in  growth. 

Means  of  Distribution. — Various  methods  of  scattering  the 
grain  have  been  adopted,  in  which  parts  of  thespikelet  or  in- 
florescence are  concerned.  Short  spikes  may  fall  from  the 
culm  as  a  whole;  or  the  axis  of  a  spike  or  raceme  is  jointed  so 
that  one  spikelet  falls  with  each  joint  as  in  many  Andropogoneae 
and  Hordeae.  In  many-flowered  spikelets  the  rachilla  is  often 
jointed  and  breaks  into  as  many  pieces  as  there  are  fruits,  each 
piece  bearing  a  glume  and  pale.  One-flowered  spikelets  may 
fall  as  a  whole  (as  in  the  tribes  Paniceae  and  Andropogoneae), 
or  the  axis  is  jointed  above  the  barren  glumes  so  that  only  the 
flowering  glume  and  pale  fall  with  the  fruit.  These  arrange- 
ments are,  with  few  exceptions,  lacking  in  cultivated  cereals 
though  present  in  their  wild  forms,  so  far  as  these  are  known. 
Such  arrangements  are  disadvantageous  for  the  complete  gather- 
ing of  the  fruit,  and  therefore  varieties  in  which  they  are  not 
present  would  be  preferred  for  cultivation.  The  persistent 
bracts  (glume  and  pale)  afford  an  additional  protection  to  the 
fruit;  they  protect  the  embryo,  which  is  near  the  surface,  from 
too  rapid  wetting  and,  when  once  soaked,  from  drying  up  again. 
They  also  decrease  the  specific  gravity,  so  that  the  grain  is  more 
readily  carried  by  the  wind,  especially  when,  as  in  Briza,  the  glume 
has  a  large  surface  compared  with  the  size  of  the  grain,  or  when, 
as  in  Holcus,  empty  glumes  also  take  part;  in  Canary  grass 
(Phalaris)  the  large  empty  glumes  bear  a  membranous  wing 
on  the  keel.  In  the  sugar-cane  (Saccharum)  and  several  allied 
genera  the  separating  joints  of  the  axis  bear  long  hairs  below 
the  spikelets;  in  others,  as  in  Arundo  (a  reed-grass),  the  flowering 
glumes  are  enveloped  in  long  hairs.  The  awn  which  is  frequently 
borne  on  the  flowering  glume  is  also  a  very  efficient  means  of 
distribution,  catching  into  fur  of  animals  or  plumage  of  birds, 
or  as  often  in  Stipa  (fig.  8)  forming  a  long  feather  for  wind- 
carriage.  In  Tragus  the  glumes  bear  numerous  short  hooked 
bristles.  The  fleshy  berries  of  some  Bambuseae  favour  distribu- 
tion by  animals. 

The  awn  is  also  of  use  in  burying  the  fruit  in  the  soil.  Thus 
in  Stipa,  species  of  Avena,  Heleropogon  and  others  the  base  of 
the  glume  forms  a  sharp  point  which  will  easily  penetrate  the 
ground;  above  the  point  are  short  stiff  upwardly  pointing  hairs 
which  oppose  its  withdrawal.  The.long  awn,  which  is  bent  and 
closely  twisted  below  the  bend,  acts  as  a  driving  organ;  it  is 
very  hygroscopic,  the  coils  untwisting  when  damp  and  twisting 
up  when  dry.  The  repeated  twisting  and  untwisting,  especi- 
ally when  the  upper  part  of  the  awn  has  become  fixed  in  the 
earth  or  caught  in  surrounding  vegetation,  drives  the  point 
deeper  and  deeper  into  the  ground.  Such  grasses  often  cause 
harm  to  sheep  by  catching  in  the  wool  and  boring  through 
the  skin. 

A  peculiar  method  of  distribution  occurs  in  some  alpine  and 
arctic  grasses,  which  grow  under  conditions  where  ripening  of 
the  fruit  is  often  uncertain.  The  entire  spikelet,  or  single 
[lowers,  are  transformed  into  small-leaved  shoots  which  fall 
Erom  the  axes  and  readily  root  in  the  ground.  Some  species, 
such  as  Poa  stricta,  are  known  only  in  this  viviparous 
condition;  others,  like  our  British  species  Festuca  ovina 
and  Poa  alpina,  become  viviparous  under  the  special  climatic 
conditions. 

II.  CLASSIFICATION. — Gramineae  are  sharply  defined  from 
all  other  plants,  and  there  are  no  genera  as  to  which  it  is  possible 
:o  feel  a  doubt  whether  they  should  be  referred  to  it  or  not. 
The  only  family  closely  allied  is  Cyperaceae,  and  the  points  of 
difference  between  the  two  may  be  here  brought  together.  The 


GRASSES 


375 


best  distinctions  are  found  in  the  position  of  the  embryo  in 
relation  to  the  endosperm — lateral  in  grasses,  basal  in  Cyperaceae 
— and  in  the  possession  by  Gramineae  of  the  2-nerved  palea 
below  each  flower.  Less  absolute  characters,  but  generally 
trustworthy  and  more  easily  observed,  are  the  feathery  stigmas, 
the  always  distichous  arrangement  of  the  glumes,  the  usual 
absence  of  more  general  bracts  in  the  inflorescence,  the  split 
leaf-sheaths,  and  the  hollow,  cylindrical,  jointed  culms — some 
or  all  of  which  are  wanting  in  all  Cyperaceae.  The  same  char- 
acters will  distinguish  grasses  from  the  other  glumiferous  orders, 
Restiaceae,  and  Eriocaulonaceae,  which  are  besides  further 
removed  by  their  capsular  fruit  and  pendulous  ovules.  To  other 
monocotyledonous  families  the  resemblances  are  merely  of 
adaptive  or  vegetative  characters.  Some  Commelinaceae  and 
Marantaceae  approach  grasses  in  foliage;  the  leaves  of  Allium, 
&c.,  possess  a  ligule;  the  habit  of  some  palms  reminds  one  of 
the  bamboos;  and  Juncaceae  and  a  few  Liliaceae  possess  an 
inconspicuous  scarious  perianth.  There  are  about  300  genera 
containing  about  3500  well-defined  species. 

The  great  uniformity  among  the  very  numerous  species  of  this 
vast  family  renders  its  classification  very  difficult.  The  difficulty 
has  been  increased  by  the  confusion  resulting  from  the  multiplica- 
tion of  genera  founded  on  slight  characters,  and  from  the  descrip- 
tion (in  consequence  of  their  wide  distribution)  of  identical 
plants  under  several  different  genera. 

No  characters  for  main  divisions  can  be  obtained  from  the 
flower  proper  or  fruit  (with  the  exception  of  the  character  of 
the  hilum),  and  it  has  therefore  been  found  necessary  to  trust 
to  characters  derived  from  the  usually  less  important  inflor- 
escence and  bracts. 

Robert  Brown  suggested  two  primary  divisions — Paniceae 
and  Poaceae,  according  to  the  position  of  the  most  perfect 
flower  in  the  spikelet;  this  is  the  upper  (apparently)  terminal 
one  in  the  first,  whilst  in  the  second  it  occupies  the  lower  position, 
the  more  imperfect  ones  (if  any)  being  above  it.  Munro  supple- 
mented this  by  another  character  easier  of  verification,  and  of 
even  greater  constancy,  in  the  articulation  of  the  pedicel  in  the 
Paniceae  immediately  below  the  glumes;  whilst  in  Poaceae 
this  does  not  occur,  but  the  axis  of  the  spikelet  frequently 
articulates  above  the  pair  of  empty  basal  glumes.  Neither  of 
these  great  divisions  will  well  accommodate  certain  genera 
allied  to  Phalaris,  for  which  Brown  proposed  tentatively  a 
third  group  (since  named  Phalarideae);  this,  or  at  least  the 
greater  part  of  it,  is  placed  by  Bentham .under  the  Poaceae.' 

The  following  arrangement  has  been  proposed  by  Professor 
Eduard  Hackel  in  his  recent  monograph  on  the  order. 

A.  Spikelets  one-flowered,  rarely  two-flowered  as  in  Zea,  falling 
from  the  pedicel  entire  or  with  certain  joints  of  the  rachis  at  maturity. 
Rachilla  not  produced  beyond  the  flowers. 

a.  Hilum  a  point;   spikelets  not  laterally  compressed. 

a  Fertile  glume  and  pale  hyaline;  empty  glumes  thick, 
membranous  to  coriaceous  or  cartilaginous,  the  lowest 
the  largest.  Rachis  generally  jointed  and  breaking  up 
when  mature. 

1.  Spikelets  unisexual,  male  and  female  in  separate 

inflorescences  or  on  different  parts  of  the  same 
inflorescence.  I.  Maydeae. 

2.  Spikelets  bisexual,  or  male  and  bisexual,  each  male 

standing  close  to  a  bisexual.  2.  Andropogoneae. 
0  Fertile  glume  and  pale  cartilaginous,  coriaceous  or  papery ; 
empty  glumes  more  delicate,  usually  herbaceous,  the 
lowest  usually  smallest.  Spikelets  falling  singly  from  the 
unjointed  rachis  of  the  spike  or  the  ultimate  branches  of 
the  panicle.  3.  Paniceae. 

b.  Hilum  a  line ;   spikelets  laterally  compressed. 

4.  Oryzeae. 

B.  Spikelets  one-  to  indefinite-flowered;    in  the  one-flowered  the 
rachilla  frequently  produced  beyond  the  flower;    rachilla  generally 
jointed  above  the  empty  glumes,  which  remain  after  the  fruiting 
glumes  have  fallen.    When  more  than  one-flowered,  distinct  inter- 
nodes  are  developed  between  the  flowers. 

a.  Culm  herbaceous,  annual ;    leaf -blade  sessile,  and  not  jointed 

to  the  sheath. 
a  Spikelets  upon  disdnct  pedicels  and  arranged  in  panicles  or 

racemes. 
I.  Spikelets  one-flowered. 

i.  Empty  glumes  4.  5.  Phalarideae. 

ii.  Empty  glumes  2.  6.  Agrostideae. 


II.  Spikelets  more  than  one-flowered. 

i.  Fertile    glumes   generally   shorter  than   the  empty 
glumes,  usually  with  a  bent  awn  on  the  back. 

7.  Aveneae. 

ii.  Fertile  glumes  generally  longer  than  the  empty,  un- 
awned  or  with  a  straight,  terminal  awn. 

9.  Fesluceae. 

0  Spikelets  crowded  in  two  close  rows,  forming  a  one-sided 

spike  or  raceme  with  a  continuous  (not  jointed)  rachis. 

8.  Chlorideae. 

1  Spikelets  in  two  opposite  rows  forming  an  equal-sided  spike. 

10.  Hordeae. 

b.  Culm  woody,  at  any  rate  at  the  base,  leaf-blade  jointed  to  the 
sheath,  often  with  a  short,  slender  petiole. 

11.  Bambuseae. 
Tribe  i.  Maydeae  (7  genera  in  the  warmer  parts  of  the  earth). 

Zea  Mays  (maize,  q.v.,  or  Indian  corn)  (q.v.).  Tripsacum,  2  or  3  species 
in  subtropical  America  north  of  the  equator;  Tr.  dactyloides  (gama 
grass)  extends  northwards  to  Illinois  and  Connecticut ;  it  is  used  for 
fodder  and  as  an  ornamental  plant.  Coix  Lacryma-  Jobi  (Job's 
tears)  q.v. 

Tribe  2.  Andropogoneae  (25  genera,  mainly  tropical).  The 
spikelets  are  arranged  in  spike-like  racemes,  generally  in  pairs  con- 
sisting of  a  sessile  and  stalked  spikelet  at  each  joint  of  the  rachis 
(fig.  18).  Many  are  savanna  grasses,  in  various  parts  of  the  tropics, 
for  instance  the  large  genus  Andropogon,  Elionurus  and  others. 
Saccharum  officinarum  (sugar-cane)  (q.v.).  Sorghum,  an  important 
tropical  cereal  known  as  black  millet  or  durra  (q.v.).  Miscanthus  and 
Enanthus,  nearly  allied  to  Saccharum,  are  tall  reed-like  grasses, 
with  large  silky  flower-panicles,  which  are 
grown  for  ornament.  Imperata,  another 
ally,  is  a  widespread  tropical  genus;  one 
species  /.  arundinacea  is  the  principal  grass 
of  the  alang-alang  fields  in  the  Malay  Archi- 
pelago; it  is  used  for  thatch.  Vossia,  an 
aquatic  grass,  often  floating,  is  found  in 
western  India  and  tropical  Africa.  In  the 
swampyT  lands  of  the  upper  Nile  it  forms, 
along  with  a  species  of  Saccharum,  huge 
floating  grass  barriers.  Elionurus,  a  wide- 
spread savanna  grass  in  tropical  and  sub- 
tropical America,  and  also  in  the  tropics  of 
the  old  world,  is  rejected  by  cattle  probably 
on  account  of  its  aromatic  character,  the 
spikelets  having  a  strong  balsam-like  smell. 
Other  aromatic  members  are  Andropogon 
Nardus,  a  native  of  India,  but  also  cultivated, 
the  rhizome,  leaves  and  especially  the  spike- 
lets  of  which  contain  a  volatile  oil,  which  on 
distillation  yields  the  citronella  oil  of  com- 
merce. A  closely  allied  species,  A.  Schoen- 

anthus  (lemon-grass),  yields  lemon-grass  oil; __i 

a  variety  is  used  by  the  negroes  in  western  spikelets   of   Andrd- 
Africa   for   haemorrhage.     Other   species   of  pogon. 
the  same  genus  are  used  as  stimulants  and 

cosmetics  in  various  parts  of  the  tropics.  The  species  of  Hetero- 
pogon,  a  cosmopolitan  genus  in  the  warmer  parts  of  the  world,  have 
strongly  awned  spikelets.  Themeda  Forskalii,  which  occurs  from  the 
Mediterranean  region  to  South  Africa  and  Tasmania,  is  the  kangaroo 
grass  of  Australia,  where,  as  in  South  Africa,  it  often  covers  wide 
tracts. 

Tribe  3.  Paniceae  (about  25  genera,  tropical  to  subtropical; 
a  few  temperate),  a  second  flower,  generally  male,  rarely  herma- 
phrodite, is  often  present  below  the  fertile  flower.  Paspalum,  is  a 
large  tropical  genus,  most  abundant  in  America,  especially  on  the 
pampas  and  campos;  many  species  are  good  forage  plants,  and  the 
grain  is  sometimes  used  for  food.  Amphicarpum,  native  in  the  south- 
eastern United  States,  has  fertile  cleistogamous  spikelets  on  filiform 
runners  at  the  base  of  the  culm,  those  on  the  terminal  panicle  are 
sterile.  Panicum,  a  very  polymorphic  genus,  and  one  of  the  largest 
in  the  order,  is  widely  spread  in  all  warm  countries;  together  with 
species  of  Paspalum  they  form  good  forage  grasses  in  the  South 
American  savannas  and  campos.  Panicum  Crus-galli  is  a  poly- 
morphic cosmopolitan  grass,  which  is  often  grown  for  fodder;  in  one 
form  (P.  frumentaceum)  it  is  cultivated  in  India  for  its  grain.  P. 
plicatum,  with  broad  folded  leaves,  is  an  ornamental  greenhouse  grass. 
P.  miliaceum  is  millet  (q.v.),  and  P.  altissimum,  Guinea  grass.  In 
the  closely  allied  genus  Digitaria,  which  is  sometimes  regarded  as 
a  section  of  Panicum,  the  lowest  barren  glume  is  reduced  to  a  point ; 
D.  sanguinalis  is  a  very  widespread  grass,  in  Bohemia  it  is  cultivated 
as  a  food-grain ;  it  is  also  the  crab-grass  of  the  southern  United  States, 
where  it  is  used  for  fodder. 

In  Setaria  and  allied  genera  the  spikelet  is  subtended  by  an 
involucre  of  bristles  or  spines  which  represent  sterile  branches  of  the 
inflorescence.  Setaria  italica,  Hungarian  grass,  is  extensively  grown 
as  a  food-grain  both  in  China  and  Japan,  parts  of  India  and  western 
Asia,  as  well  as  in  Europe,  where  its  culture  dates  from  prehistoric 
times;  it  is  found  in  considerable  quantity  in  the  lake  dwellings  of 
the  Stone  age. 

In   Cenchrus  the  bristles  unite  to  form  a  tough  spiny  capsule 


FIG.  18. — A  pair  of 


376 


GRASSES 


FIG.  19. — Phalarideae.    Spike- 
let  of  Hierochloe. 


fig.  12);  C.  tribuloides  (bur-grass)  and  other  species  are  troublesome 
weeds  in  North  and  South  America,  as  the  involucre  clings  to  the 
wool  of  sheep  and  is  removed  with  great  difficulty.  Pennisetum 
typhoideum  is  widely  cultivated  as  a  grain  in  tropical  Africa.  Spini- 
fex,  a  dioecious  grass,  is  widespread  on  the  coasts  of  Australia  and 
eastern  Asia,  forming  an  important  sand-binder.  The  female  heads 
are  spinose  with  long  pungent  bracts,  fall  entire  when  ripe  and  are 
carried  away  by  wind  or  sea,  becoming  finally  anchored  in  the  sand 
and  falling  to  pieces. 

Tribe  4.  Oryzeae  (16  genera,  mainly  tropical  and  subtropical). 
The  spikelets  are  sometimes  unisexual,  and  there  are  often  six 
stamens.  Leersia  is  a  genus  of  swamp  grasses,  one  of  which  L. 
oryzoides  occurs  in  the  north  temperate  zone  of  both  old  and  new 
worlds,  and  is  a  rare  grass  in  Surrey,  Sussex  and  Hampshire.  Zizania 
aquatica  (Tuscarora  or  Indian  rice)  is  a  reed-like  grass  growing  over 
large  areas  on  banks  of  streams  and  lakes  in  North  America  and  north- 
east Asia.  The  Indians  collect  the  grain  for  food.  Oryza  saliva 
(rice)  (q.v.).  Lygeum  Spartum,  with  a  creeping  stem  and  stiff  rush- 
like  leaves,  is  common  on  rocky  soil  on  the  high  plains  bordering  the 
western  Mediterranean,  and  is  one  of  the  sources  of  esparto. 

Tribe  5.  Phalarideae  (6  genera, 
three  of  which  are  South  African 
and  Australasian;  the  others  are 
more  widely  distributed,  and  re- 
presented in  our  flora).  Phalaris 
arundinacea,  is  a  reed-grass  found 
on  the  banlfs  of  British  rivers  and 
lakes;  a  variety  with  striped  leaves 
known  as  ribbon-grass  is  grown  for 
ornament.  P.  canariensis  (Canary 
grass,  a  native  of  southern  Europe 
and  the  Mediterranean  area)  is 
grown  for  bird-food  and  some- 
times as  a  cereal.  Anthoxanthum 
odoratum,  the  sweet  vernal  grassof 
our  flora,  owes  its  scent  to  the 
presence  of  coumarin,  which  is  also  present  in  the  closely  allied 
genus  Hierochloe  (fig.  19),  which  occurs  throughout  the  temperate 
and  frigid  zones. 

Tribe  6.  Agrostideae  (about  35  genera,  occurring  in  all  parts  of 
the  world;  eleven  are  British).  Aristida  and  Stipa  are  large  and 
widely  distributed  genera,  occurring  especially  on  open  plains  and 
steppes;  the  conspicuously  awned  persistent  flowering  glume  forms 
an  efficient  means  of  dispersing  the  grain.  Stipa  pennata  is  a  char- 
acteristic species  of  the  Russian  steppes.  St.  spartea  (porcupine 
grass)  and  other  species  are  plentiful  on  the  North  American  prairies. 
St.  tenacissima  is  the  Spanish  esparto  grass  (q.v.),  known  in  North 
Africa  as  halfa  or  alfa.  Phleum  has  a  cylindrical  spike-like  inflores- 
cence; P.  pratense  (timothy)  is  a  valuable  fodder  grass,  as  also  is 
Alopecurus  pratensis  (foxtail).  Sporobolus,  a  large  genus  _in  the 
wanner  parts  of  both  hemispheres,  but  chiefly  America,  derives  its 
name  from  the  fact  that  the  seed  is  ultimately  expelled  from  the 
fruit.  Agrostis  is  a  large  world-wide  genus,  but  especially  developed 
in  the  north  temperate  zone,  where  it  includes  important  meadow- 
grasses.  Calamagrostis  and  Deyeuxia  are  tall,  often  reed-like  grasses, 
occurring  throughout  the  temperate  and  arctic  zones  and  upon  high 
mountains  in  the  tropics.  Ammophila  arundinacea  (or  Psamma 
arenaria)  (Marram  grass)  with  its  long  creeping  stems  forms  a  useful 
sand-binder  on  the  coasts  of  Europe,  North  Africa  and  the  Atlantic 
states  of  America. 

Tribe  7.  Aveneae  (about  24  genera,  seven  of  which  are  British). 
Holcus  lanatus  (Yorkshire  fog,  soft  grass)  is  a  common  meadow  and 
wayside  grass  with  woolly  or  downy  leaves.  Aira  is  a  genus  of 
delicate  annuals  with  slender  hair-like  branches  of  the  panicle. 
Deschampsia  and  Trisetum  occur  in  temperate  and  cold  regions  or  on 
high  mountains  in  the  tropics;  T.  pratense  (Avena  flavescens)  with 
a  loose  panicle  and  yellow  shining  spikelets  is  a  valuable  fodder- 
grass.  Avena  fatua  is  the  wild  oat  and  A.  saliva  the  cultivated  oat 
(q.v.).  Arrhenatherum  avenaceum,  a  perennial  field  grass,  native  in 
Britain  and  central  and  southern  Europe,  is  cultivated  in  North 
America. 

Tribe  8.  CUorideae  (about  30  genera,  chiefly  in  warm  countries). 
The  only  British  representative  is  Cynodon  Dactylon  (dog's  tooth, 
Bermuda  grass)  found  on  sandy  shores  in  the  south-west  of  England ; 
it  is  a  cosmopolitan,  covering  the  ground  in  sandy  soils,  and  forming 
an  important  forage  grass  in  many  dry  climates  (Bermuda  grass  of 
the  southern  United  States,  and  known  as  durba,  dub  and  other 
names  in  India).  Species  of  Chloris  are  grown  as  ornamental  grasses. 
Bouteloua  with  numerous  species  (mesquite  grass,  grama  grass)  on 
the  plains  of  the  south-western  United  States,  afford  good  grazing. 
Eleusine  indica  is  a  common  tropical  weed ;  the  nearly  allied  species 
E.  Coracana  is  a  cultivated  gram  in  the  warmer  parts  of  Asia  and 
throughout  Africa.  Buchloe  dactyloides  is  the  buffalo  grass  of  the 
North  American  prairies,  a  valuable  fodder. 

Tribe  9.  Festuceae  (about  83  genera,  including  tropical,  temperate, 
arctic  and  alpine  forms)  many  are  important  meadow-grasses;  IJ 
are  British.  Gynerium  argenteum  (pampas  grass)  is  a  native  ol 
southern  Brazil  and  Argentina.  Arundo  and  Phragmites  are  tal! 
reed-grasses  (see  REED).  Several  species  of  Triodia  cover  large  areas 
of  the  interior  of  Australia,  and  from  their  stiff,  sharply  pointed  leaves 


are  very  troublesome.    Eragrostis,  one  of  the  larger  genera  of  the 

order,  is  widely  distributed  in  the  warmer  parts  of  the  earth  ;  many 

species  are  grown  for  ornament  and  E.  abyssinica  is  an  important 

:ood-plant  in  Abyssinia. 

Koeleria  cristata  is  a 

"odder-grass.    Briza 

tiedia   (quaking  grass) 

is  a  useful   meadow- 

jrass.    Dactylis   glo- 

merata  (cock's-foot),  a 

perennial  grass  with  a 

dense  panicle,  common 

in  pastures  and  waste 

places    is  a    useful 

meadow-grass.     It  has 

become   naturalized   in 

North  America,  where 

it  is  known  as  orchard 

grass,   as  it   will   grow 

in    shade.      Cynosurus 

cristatus  (dog's  tail)  is 

a    common   pasture- 

grass.  Poa,  a  large 
;enus  widely  distri- 
mted  in  temperate  and 

cold  countries,  includes 

many    meadow    and 

alpine     grasses;     eight 

species  are  British;  P. 

annua  (fig.  20)   is  the 

very  common  weed  in 

paths  and  waste  places; 

P.  pratensis  and  P.  tri- 

viatis  are  also  common 
;rasses  of  meadows, 
lanks  and  pastures,  the 

former    is    the    "  June 

grass  "  or  "  Kentucky 

blue  grass  "   of   North 

America  ;      P.     alpina 

is  a  mountain  grass  of 

the    northern    hemi- 

sphere and  found  also 

in    the    Arctic    region.      FIG.  20.—  Poa  annua.  Plant  in  Flower; 

The  largest  species  of          about  *  nat.  size.    I,  one  spikelet. 

the  genus  is  Poa  flabel- 

lata  which  forms  great 

tufts  6-7  ft.  high  with  leaves  arranged  like  a  fan;  it  is  a   native 

of  the  Falkland  and  certain  antarctic  islands  where  it  is  known  as 

tussock  grass.     Glyceria  fluitans,  manna-grass,  so- 

called  from  the  sweet  grain,  is  one  of  the  best  fodder 

grasses  for  swampy  meadows;  the  grain  is  an  article 
of  food  in  central  Europe.  Festuca  (fescue)  is  also 
a  large  and  widely  distributed  genus,  but  found 

especially  in  the  temperate  and  cold  zones;  it 
includes  valuable  pasture  grasses,  such  as  F.  ovina 
(sheep's  fescue),  F.  rubra;  nine  species  are  British. 
The  closely  allied  genus  Bromus  (brome  grass)  is 
also  widely  distributed  but  most  abundant  in  the 
north  temperate  zone;  B.  erectus  is  a  useful  forage 
grass  on  dry  chalky  soil. 

Tribe  10.  Hordeae  (about  19  genera,  widely 
distributed;  six  are  British).  Nardus  stricta  (mat- 
weed),  found  on  heaths  and  dry  pastures,  is  a  small 
perennial  with  slender  rigid  stem  and  leaves,  it  is 
a  useless  grass,  crowding  out  better  sorts.  Lolium 
perenne,  ray-  (or  by  corruption  rye-)  grass,  is 
common  in  waste  places  and  a  valuable  pasture- 
grass;  L.  italicum  is  the  Italian  ray-grass;  L. 
temulentum  (darnel)  contains  a  narcotic  principle 
in  the  grain.  Secale  cereale,  rye  (q.v.),  is  cultivated 
mainly  in.  northern  Europe.  Agropyrum  repens 
(couch  grass)  has  a  long  creeping  underground  stem, 
and  is  a  troublesome  weed  in  cultivated  land;  the 
widely  creeping  stem  of  A.  junceum,  found  on 
sandy  sea-shores,  renders  it  a  useful  sand-binder. 
Triticum  sativum  is  wheat  (q.v.)  (fig.  21),  and  Hor- 
deum  sativum,  barley  (q.v.).  H.  murinum,  wild 
barley,  is  a  common  grass  in  waste  places.  Elymus 
arenarius  (lyme  grass)  occurs  on  sandy  sea-shores  in 
the  north  temperate  zone  and  is  a  useful  sand-binder,  gnike  of  Wheat 
Tribe  n.  Bambuseae.  Contains  23  genera,  mainly  forHicum  Sati 
tropical.  See  BAMBOO. 

III.  DISTRIBUTION.  —  Grasses    are    the    most  nat- 
universally    diffused    of    all    flowering    plants. 
There  is  no  district  in  which  they  do  not  occur,  and  in  nearly 
all  they  are  a  leading  feature  of  the  flora.     In  number  of 
species  Gramineae  comes  considerably  after  Compositae  and 


FIG.  2i.— 


„«,»).  About  \ 


GRASSHOPPER 


377 


Leguminosae,  the  two  most  numerous  orders  of  phanerogams, 
but  in  number  of  individual  plants  it  probably  far  exceeds 
either;  whilst  from  the  wide  extension  of  many  of  its 
species,  the  proportion  of  Gramineae  to  other  orders  in  the 
various  floras  of  the  world  is  much  higher  than  its  number  of 
species  would  lead  one  to  expect.  In  tropical  regions,  where 
Leguminosae  is  the  leading  order,  grasses  closely  follow  as  the 
second,  whilst  in  the  warm  and  temperate  regions  of  the  northern 
hemisphere,  in  which  Compositae  takes  the  lead,  Gramineae 
again  occupies  the  second  position. 

While  the  greatest  number  of  species  is  found  in  the  tropical 
zone,  the  number  of  individuals  is  greater  in  the  temperate 
zones,  where  they  form  extended  areas  of  turf.  Turf-  or  meadow- 
formation  depends  upon  uniform  rainfall.  Grasses  also  char- 
acterize steppes  and  savannas,  where  they  form  scattered  tufts. 
The  bamboos  are  a  feature  of  tropical  forest  vegetation,  especially 
in  the  monsoon  region.  As  the  colder  latitudes  are  entered  the 
grasses  become  relatively  more  numerous,  and  are  the  leading 
family  in  Arctic  and  Antarctic  regions.  The  only  countries 
where  the  order  plays  a  distinctly  subordinate  part  are  some 
extra-tropical  regions  of  the  southern  hemisphere,  Australia, 
the  Cape,  Chili,  &c.  The  proportion  of  graminaceous  species 
to  the  whole  phanerogamic  flora  in  different  countries  is  found 
to  vary  from  nearly  |th  in  the  Arctic  regions  to  about  -jVth  at 
the  Cape;  in  the  British  Isles  it  is  about  rVh. 

The  principal  climatic  cause  influencing  the  number  of  gramin- 
aceous species  appears  to  be  amount  of  moisture.  A  remarkable 
feature  of  the  distribution  of  grasses  is  its  uniformity;  there  are 
no  great  centres  for  the  order,  as  in  Compositae,  where  a  marked 
preponderance  of  endemic  species  exists;  and  the  genera, 
except  some  of  the  smallest  or  monotypic  ones,  have  usually 
a' wide  distribution. 

The  distribution  of  the  tropical  tribe  Banfouseae  is  interesting. 
The  species  are  about  equally  divided  between  the  Indo-Malayan 
region  and  tropical  America,  only  one  species  being  common 
to  both.  The  tribe  is  very  poorly  represented  in  tropical  Africa; 
one  species  Oxyienanthera  abyssinica  has  a  wide  range,  and  three 
monotypic  genera  are  endemic  in  western  tropical  Africa.  None 
is  recorded  for  Australia,  though  species  may  perhaps  occur 
on  the  northern  coast.  One  species  of  Arundinaria  reaches 
northwards  as  far  as  Virginia,  and  the  elevation  attained  in  the 
Andes  by  some  species  of  Chusquea  is  very  remarkable, — one, 
C.  aristata,  being  abundant  from  15,000  ft.  up  to  nearly  the  level 
of  perpetual  snow. 

Many  grasses  are  almost  cosmopolitan,  such  as  the  common 
reed,  Phragmites  communis;  and  many  range  throughout  the 
warm  regions  of  the  globe,  e.g.  Cynodon  Dactylon,  Eleusine 
indica,  Imperata  arundinacea,  Sporobolus  indicus,  &c.,  and  such 
weeds  of  cultivation  as  species  of  Setaria,  Echinochloa.  Several 
species  of  the  north  temperate  zone,  such  as  Poo.  nemoralis, 
P.  pratensis,  Festuca  ovina,  F.  rubra  and  others,  are  absent  in 
the  tropics  but  reappear  in  the  antarctic  regions;  others  (e.g. 
Phleum  alpinum)  appear  in  isolated  positions  on  high  mountains 
in  the  intervening  tropics.  No  tribe  is  confined  to  one  hemisphere 
and  no  large  genus  to  any  one  floral  region ;  facts  which  indicate 
that  the  separation  of  the  tribes  goes  back  to  very  ancient  times. 
The  revision  of  the  Australian  species  by  Bentham  well  exhibits 
the  wide  range  of  the  genera  of  the  order  in  a  flora  generally  so 
peculiar  and  restricted  as  that  of  Australia.  Thus  of  the  90 
indigenous  genera  (many  monotypic  or  very  small)  only  14  are 
endemic,  i  extends  to  South  Africa,  3  are  common  to  Australia 
and  New  Zealand,  18  extend  also  into  Asia,  whilst  no  fewer  than 
54  are  found  in  both  the  Old  and  New  Worlds,  26  being  chiefly 
tropical  and  28  chiefly  extra-tropical. 

Of  specially  remarkable  species  Lygeum  is  found  on  the 
sea-sand  of  the  eastern  half  of  the  Mediterranean  basin,  and  the 
minute  Colcanthus  occurs  in  three  or  four  isolated  spots  in 
Europe  (Norway,  Bohemia,  Austria,  Normandy),  in  North-east 
Asia  (Amur)  and  on  the  Pacific  coast  of  North  America  (Oregon, 
Washington).  Many  remarkable  endemic  genera  occur  in 
tropical  America,  including  Anomochloa  of  Brazil,  and  most  of 
the  large  aquatic  species  with  separated  sexes  are  found  in  this 


region.  The  only  genus  of  flowering  plants  peculiar  to  the  arctic 
regions  is  the  beautiful  and  rare  grass  Pleuropogon  Sabinii,  of 
Melville  Island. 

Fossil  Grasses. — While  numerous  remains  of  grass-like  leaves 
are  a  proof  that  grasses  were  widespread  and  abundantly 
developed  in  past  geological  ages,  especially  in  the  Tertiary 
period,  the  fossil  remains  are  in  most  cases  too  fragmentary  and 
badly  preserved  for  the  determination  of  genera,  and  conclusions 
based  thereon  in  explanation  of  existing  geographical  distribution 
are  most  unsatisfactory.  There  is,  however,  justification  for 
referring  some  specimens  to  Arundo,.  Phragmites,  and  to  the 
Bambuseae. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — E.  Hackel,  The  True  Grasses  (translated"  from 
Engler  and  Prantl,  Die  natiirlichen  Pflanzenfamilien,  by  F.  Lamson 
Scribner  and  E.  A.  Southworth) ;  and  Andropogoneae  in  de  Candolle's 
Monographiae  phanerogamarum  (Paris,  1889);  K.  S.  Kunth, 
Revision  des  graminees  (Paris,  1829-1835)  and  Agrostographia 
(Stuttgart,  1 833) ;  J.C.  Doll  in  Martius  and  Eichler,  Flora  Brasuiensis, 
ii.  Pts.  II.  and  III.  (Munich,  1871-1883);  A.  W.  Eichler,  Bluthen- 
diagramme  i.  119  (Leipzig,  1875);  Bentham  and  Hooker,  Genera 
plantarum,  iii.  1074  (London,  1883) ;  H.  Baillon,  Histoire  des 
plantes,  xii.  136  (Paris,  1893) ;  J.  S.  Gamble,  "  Bambuseae  of  British 
India"  in  Annals  Royal  Botanic  Gardens,  Calcutta,  vii.  (1896); 
John  Percival,  Agricultural  Botany  (chapters  on  "  Grasses,"  2nd  ed., 
London,  1902).  See  also  accounts  of  the  family  in  the  various  great 
floras,  such  as  Ascherson  and  Graebner,  Synopsis  der  mitteleuropaischen 
Flora;  N.  L.  Britton  and  A.  Brown,  Illustrated  Flora  of  the  Northern 
United  Stales  and  Canada  (New  York,  1896);  Hooker's  Flora  of 
British  India;  Flora  Capensis  (edited  by  W.  Thiselton-Dyer); 
Boissier,  Flora  orientalis,  &c.  &c. 

GRASSHOPPER  (Fr.  sauterelle,  "Ital.  grille,  Get.  Gras/tupfer, 
Heuschrecke,  Swed.  Griishoppa),  names  applied  to  orthopterous 
insects  belonging  to  the  families  Locus tidae  and  Acridiidae. 
They  are  especially  remarkable  for  their  saltatory  powers,  due 
to  the  great  development  of  the  hind  legs,  which  are  much  longer 
than  the  others  and  have  stout  and  powerful  thighs,  and  also  for 
their  stridulation,  which  is  not  always  an  attribute  of  the  male 
only.  The  distinctions  between  the  two  families  may  be  briefly 
stated  as  follows: — The  Locttsiidae  have  very  long  thread-like 
antennae,  four-jointed  tarsi,  a  long  ovipositor,  the  auditory 
organs  on  the  tibiae  of  the  first  leg  and  the  stridulatory  organ 
in  the  wings;  the  Acridiidae  have  short  stout  antennae,  three- 
jointed  tarsi,  a  short  ovipositor,  the  auditory  organs  on  the  first 
abdominal  segment,  and  the  stridulatory  organ  between  the 
posterior  leg  and  the  wing.  The  term  "  grasshopper  "  is  almost 
synonymous  with  LOCUST  (q.v.).  Under  both  "  grasshopper  " 
and  "  locust  "  are  included  members  of  both  families  above 
noticed,  but  the  majority  belong  to  the  Acridiidae  in  both  cases. 
In  Britain  the  term  is  chiefly  applicable  to  the  large  green 
grasshopper  (Locusta  or  Phasgonura  viridissima)  common  in 
most  parts  of  the  south  of  England,  and  to  smaller  and  much 
better-known  species  of  the  genera  Stenobothrus,  Gomphocerus 
and  Tettix,  the  latter  remarkable  for  the  great  extension  of  the 
pronotum,  which  often  reaches  beyond  the  extremity  of  the  body. 
All  are  vegetable  feeders,  and,  as  in  all  orthopterous  insects, 
have  an  incomplete  metamorphosis,  so  that  their  destructive 
powers  are  continuous  from  the  moment  of  emergence  from 
the  egg  till  death.  The  migratory  locust  (Pachytylus  cinerascens) 
may  be  considered  only  an  exaggerated  grasshopper,  and  the 
Rocky  Mountain  locust  (Caloptenus  spretus)  is  still  more  entitled 
to  the  name.  In  Britain  the  species  are  not  of  sufficient  size, 
nor  of  sufficient  numerical  importance,  to  do  any  great  damage. 
The  colours  of  many  of  them  assimilate  greatly  to  those  of  their 
habitats;  the  green  of  the  Locusta  viridissima  is  wonderfully 
similar  to  that  of  the  herbage  amongst  which  it  lives,  and  those 
species  that  frequent  more  arid  spots  are  protected  in  the  same 
manner.  Yet  many  species  have  brilliantly  coloured  under-wings 
(though  scarcely  so  in  English  forms),  and  during  flight  are  almost 
as  conspicuous  as  butterflies.  Those  that  belong  to  the  Acridiidae 
mostly  lay  their  eggs  in  more  or  less  cylindrical  masses,  sur- 
rounded by  a  glutinous  secretion,  in  the  ground.  Some  of  the 
Locustidae  also  lay  their  eggs  in  the  ground,  but  others  deposit 
them  in  fissures  in  trees  and  low  plants,  in  which  the  female  is 
aided  by  a  long  flattened  ovipositor,  or  process  at  the  extremity 
of  the  abdomen,  whereas  in  the  Acridiidae  there  is  only  an 


378 


GRASS  OF  PARNASSUS— GRATIANUS 


apparatus  of  valves.  The  stridulation  or  "  song  "  in  the  latter 
is  produced  by  friction  of  the  hind  legs  against  portions  of  the 
wings  or  wing-covers.  To  a  practised  ear  it  is  perhaps  possible 
to  distinguish  the  "  song  "  of  even  closely  allied  species,  and  some 
are  said  to  produce  a  sound  differing  by  day  and  night. 

GRASS  OF  PARNASSUS,  in  botany,  a  small  herbaceous  plant 
known  as  Parnassia  palustris  (natural  order  Saxifragaceae) , 
found  on  wet  moors  and  bogs  in  Britain  but  less  common  in  the 
south.  The  white  regular  flower  is  rendered  very  attractive 


Grass  of  Parnassus  (Parnassia  palustris)  half  nat.  size.  I,  One  of 
the  gland-bearing  scales  enlarged. 

by  a  circlet  of  scales,  opposite  the  petals,  each  of  which  bears  a 
fringe  of  delicate  filaments  ending  in  a  yellow  knob.  These 
glisten  in  the  sunshine  and  look  like  a  drop  of  honey.  Honey  is 
secreted  by  the  base  of  each  of  the  scales. 

GRATE  (from  Lat.  crates,  a  hurdle),  the  iron  or  steel  receptacle 
for  a  domestic  fire.  When  coal  replaced  logs  and  irons  were  found 
to  be  unsuitable  for  burning  the  comparatively  small  lumps,  and 
for  this  reason  and  on  account  of  the  more  concentrated  heat  of 
coal  it  became  necessary  to  confine  the  area  of  the  fire.  Thus  a 
basket  or  cage  came  into  use,  which,  as  knowledge  of  the  scientific 
principles  of  heating  increased,  was  succeeded  by  the  small 
grate  of  iron  and  fire-brick  set  close  into  the  wall  which  has  since 
been  in  ordinary  use  in  England.  In  the  early  part  of  the  ipth 
century  polished  steel  grates  were  extensively  used,  but  the 
labour  and  difficulty  of  keeping  them  bright  were  considerable, 
and  they  were  gradually  replaced  by  grates  with  a  polished  black 
surface  which  could  be  quickly  renewed  by  an  application  of 
black-lead.  The  most  frequent  form  of  the  iSth-century  grate 
was  rather  high  from  the  hearth,  with  a  small  hob  on  each  side. 
The  brothers  Adam  designed  many  exceedingly  elegant  grates 
in  the  shape  of  movable  baskets  ornamented  with  the  paterae 


and  acanthus  leaves,  the  swags  and  festoons  characteristic  of 
their  manner.  The  modern  dog-grate  is  a  somewhat  similar 
basket  supported  upon  dogs  or  andirons,  fixed  or  movable. 
In  the  closing  years  of  the  igth  century  a  "  well-grate  "  was 
invented,  in  which  the  fire  burns  upon  the  hearth,  combustion 
being  aided  by  an  air-chamber  below. 

GRATIAN  (FLAVIUS  GRATIANUS  AUGUSTUS),  Roman  emperor 
375-383,  son  of  Valentinian  I.  by  Severa,  was  born  at  Sirmium 
in  Pannonia,  on  the  i8th  of  April  (or  23rd  of  May)  359.  On  the 
24th  of  August  367  he  received  from  his  father  the  title  of 
Augustus.  On  the  death  of  Valentinian  (i7th  of  November  375) 
the  troops  in  Pannonia  proclaimed  his  infant  son  (by  a  second 
wife  Justina)  emperor  under  the  title  of  Valentinian  II.  (?.».). 
Gratian  acquiesced  in  their  choice;  reserving  for  himself  the 
administration  of  the  Gallic  provinces,  he  handed  over  Italy, 
Illyria  and  Africa  to  Valentinian  and  his  mother,  who  fixed  their 
residence  at  Milan.  The  division,  however,  was  merely  nominal, 
and  the  real  authority  remained  in  the  hands  of  Gratian.  The 
eastern  portion  of  the  empire  was  under  the  rule  of  his  uncle 
Valens.  In  May  378  Gratian  completely  defeated  the  Lentienses, 
the  southernmost  branch  of  the  Alamanni,  at  Argentaria,  near 
the  site  of  the  modern  Colmar.  When  Valens  met  his  death 
fighting  against  the  Goths  near  Adrianople  on  the  9th  of  August 
in  the  same  year,  the  government  of  the  eastern  empire  devolved 
upon  Gratian,  but  feeling  himself  unable  to  resist  unaided  the 
incursions  of  the  barbarians,  he  ceded  it  to  Theodosius  (January 
379).  With  Theodosius  he  cleared  the  Balkans  of  barbarians. 
For  some  years  Gratian  governed  the  empire  with  energy  and 
success,  but  gradually  he  sank  into  indolence,  occupied  himself 
chiefly  with  the  pleasures  of  the  chase,  and  became  a  tool  in  the 
hands  of  the  Prankish  general  Merobaudes  and  bishop  Ambrose. 
By  taking  into  his  personal  service  a  body  of  Alani,  and  appearing 
in  public  in  the  dress  of  a  Scythian  warrior,  he  aroused  the 
contempt  and  resentment  of  his  Roman  troops.  A  Roman  named 
Maximus  took  advantage  of  this  feeling  to  raise  the  standard  of 
revolt  in  Britain  and  invaded  Gaul  with  a  large  army,  upon  which 
Gratian,  who  was  then  in  Paris,  being  deserted  by  his  troops,  fled 
to  Lyons,  where,  through  the  treachery  of  the  governor,  he  was 
delivered  over  to  one  of  the  rebel  generals  and  assassinated  on 
the  25th  of  August  383. 

The  reign  of  Gratian  forms  an  important  epoch  in  ecclesiastical 
history,  since  during  that  period  orthodox  Christianity  for  the 
first  time  became  dominant  throughout  the  empire.  In  dealing 
with  pagans  and  heretics  Gratian,  who  during  his  later  years  was 
greatly  influenced  by  Ambrose,  bishop  of  Milan,  exhibited 
severity  and  injustice  at  variance  with  his  usual  character.  He 
prohibited  heathen  worship  at  Rome;  refused  to  wear  the 
insignia  of  the  pontifex  maximus  as  unbefitting  a  Christian; 
removed  the  altar  of  Victory  from  the  senate-house  at  Rome, 
in  spite  of  the  remonstrance  of  the  pagan  members  of  the  senate, 
and  confiscated  its  revenues;  forbade  legacies  of  real  property 
to  the  Vestals;  and  abolished  other  privileges  belonging  to  them 
and  to  the  pontiffs.  For  his  treatment  of  heretics  see  the  church 
histories  of  the  period. 

AUTHORITIES. — Ammianus  Marcellinus  xxvii.  - xxxi. ;  Aurelius 
Victor,  Epit.  47;  Zosimus  iv.  vi. ;  Ausonius  (Gratian's  tutor), 
especially  the  Gratiarum  actio  pro  consulate;  Symmachus  x.  epp. 
2  and  61 ;  Ambrose,  De  fide,  prolegomena  to  Epistolae  n,  17,  21, 
Consolatio  de  obitu  Valentiniani ;  H.  Richter,  Das  westromische 
Reich,  besonders  unter  den  Kaisern  Gratian,  Valentinian  II.  und 
Maximus  (1865);  A.  de  Broglie,  L'Eglise  et  Vempire  remain  an  IV" 
stecle  (4th  ed.,  1882) ;  H.  Schiller,  Geschichte  der  romischen  Kaiserzeit, 
in.,  iv.  31-33;  Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fall,  ch.  27;  R.  Gumpoltsberger, 
Kaiser  Gratian  (Vienna,  1879);  T.  Hodgkin,  Italy  and  her  Invaders 
(Oxford,  1892),  vol.  i.;  Tillemont,  Hist,  des  empereurs,  v.;  J.  Words- 
worth in  Smith's  Dictionary  of  Christian  Biography.  (J.  H.  F.) 

GRATIANUS,  FRANCISCUS,  compiler  of  the  Concordia  dis- 
cordanlium  canonum  or  Decrelum  Gratiani,  and  founder  of  the 
science  of  canon  law,  was  born  about  the  end  of  the  nth  century 
at  Chiusi  in  Tuscany  or,  according  to  another  account,  at  Carraria 
near  Orvieto.  In  early  life  he  appears  to  have  been  received  into 
the  Camaldulian  monastery  of  Classe  near  Ravenna,  whence  he 
afterwards  removed  to  that  of  San  Felice  in  Bologna,  where  he 
spent  many  years  in  the  preparation  of  the  Concordia.  The 


GRATRY— GRATTAN 


379 


precise  date  of  this  work  cannot  be  ascertained,  but  it  contains 
references  to  the  decisions  of  the  Lateran  council  of  1139,  and 
there  is  fair  authority  for  believing  that  it  was  completed  while 
Pope  Alexander  III.  was  still  simply  professor  of  theology  at 
Bologna, — in  other  words,  prior  to  1 1 50.  The  labours  of  Gratian 
are  said  to  have  been  rewarded  with  the  bishopric  of  Chiusi,  but 
if  so  he  appears  never  to  have  been  consecrated;  at  least  his 
name  is  not  in  any  authentic  list  of  those  who  have  occupied 
that  see.  The  year  of  his  death  is  unknown. 

For  some  account  of  the  Decretum  Gratiani  and  its  history  see 
CANON  LAW.  The  best  edition  is  that  of  Friedberg  (Corpus  juris 
canonici,  Leipzig,  1879).  Compare  Schultze,  Zur  Geschichte  der 
Litteratur  uber  das  Decret  Gratians  (1870),  Die  Glosse  zum  Decret 
Gratians  (1872),  and  Geschichte  der  Quellen  und  Litteratur  des  kano- 
nischen  Rechts  (3  vols.,  Stuttgart,  1875). 

GRATRY,  AUGUSTE  JOSEPH  ALPHONSE  (1805-1872), 
French  author  and  theologian,  was  born  at  Lille  on  the  loth  of 
March  1805.  He  was  educated  at  the  ficole  Polytechnique, 
Paris,  and,  after  a  period  of  mental  struggle  which  he  has 
described  in  Souvenirs  de  ma  jeunesse,  he  was  ordained  priest 
in  1832.  After  a  stay  at  Strassburg  as  professor  of  the  Petit 
Seminaire,  he  was  appointed  director  of  the  College  Stanislas 
in  Paris  in  1842  and,  in  1847,  chaplain  of  the  ficole  Normale 
Superieure.  He  became  vicar-general  of  Orleans  in  1861, 
professor  of  ethics  at  the  Sorbonne  in  1862,  and,  on  the  death  of 
Barante,  a  member  of  the  French  Academy  in  1867,  where  he 
occupied  the  seat  formerly  held  by  Voltaire.  Together  with  M. 
Petetot,  cure  of  Saint  Roch,  he  reconstituted  the  Oratory  of  the 
Immaculate  Conception,  a  society  of  priests  mainly  devoted  to 
education.  Gratry  was  one  of  the  principal  opponents  of  the 
definition  of  the  dogma  of  papal  infallibility,  but  in  this  respect 
he  submitted  to  the  authority  of  the  Vatican  Council.  He  died 
at  Montreux  in  Switzerland  on  the  6th  of  February  1872. 

His  chief  works  are:  De  la  connaissance  de  Dieu,  opposing 
Positivism  (1855);  La  Logique  (1856);  Les  Sources,  conseils  pour 
la  conduite  de  I'esprit  (1861-1862);  La  Philpsophie  du  credo  (1861); 
Commentaire  sur  I'evangile  de  Saint  Matthieu  (1863);  Jesus-Christ, 
lettres  a  M.  Renan  (1864) ;  Les  Sophistes  et  la  critique  (in  controversy 
with  E.  Vacherot)  (1864);  La  Morale  et  la  hi  de  I'histoire,  setting 
forth  his  social  views  (1868);  Mgr.  I'eveque  d' Orleans  et  Mgr. 
Varcheveque  de  Malines  (1869),  containing  a  clear  exposition  of  the 
historical  arguments  against  the  doctrine  of  papal  infallibility. 
There  is  a  selection  of  Gratry's  writings  and  appreciation  of  his  style 
by  the  Abb6  Pichot,  in  Pages  choisies  des  Grands  Ecrivains  series, 
published  by  Armand-Colin  (1897).  See  also  the  critical  study  by 
the  oratorian  A.  Chauvin,  L'Abbe  Gratry  (1901);  Le  Pere  Gratry 
(1900),  and  Les  Derniers  Jours  du  Pere  Gratry  et  son  testament  spirituel, 
(1872),  by  Cardinal  Adolphe  Perraud,  Gratry's  friend  and  disciple. 

GRATTAN,  HENRY  (1746-1820),  Irish  statesman,  son  of 
James  Grattan,  for  many  years  recorder  of  Dublin,  was  born 
in  Dublin  on  the  3rd  of  July  1746.  He  early  gave  evidence 
of  exceptional  gifts  both  of  intellect  and  character.  At 
Trinity  College,  Dublin,  where  he  had  a  distinguished  career,  he 
began  a  lifelong  devotion  to  classical  literature  and  especially 
to  the  great  orators  of  antiquity.  He  was  called  to  the  Irish 
bar  in  1772,  but  never  seriously  practised  the  law.  Like  Flood, 
with  whom  he  was  on  terms  of  friendship,  he  cultivated  his 
natural  genius  for  eloquence  by  study  of  good  models,  including 
Bolingbroke  and  Junius.  A  visit  to  the  English  House  of  Lords 
excited  boundless  admiration  for  Lord  Chatham,  of  whose  style 
of  oratory  Grattan  contributed  an  interesting  description  to 
Baratariana  (see  FLOOD,  HENRY).  The  influence  of  Flood  did 
much  to  give  direction  to  Grattan's  political  aims;  and  it  was 
through  no  design  on  Grattan's  part  that  when  Lord  Charlemont 
brought  him  into  the  Irish  parliament  in  1775,  in  the  very  session 
in  which  Flood  damaged  his  popularity  by  accepting  office, 
Grattan  quickly  superseded  his  friend  in  the  leadership  of  the 
national  party.  Grattan  was  well  qualified  for  it.  His  oratorical 
powers  were  unsurpassed  among  his  contemporaries.  He 
conspicuously  lacked,  indeed,  the  grace  of  gesture  which  he  so 
much  admired  in  Chatham;  he  had  not  the  sustained  dignity 
of  Pitt;  his  powers  of  close  reasoning  were  inferior  to  those  of 
Fox  and  Flood.  But  his  speeches  were  packed  with  epigram, 
and  expressed  with  rare  felicity  of  phrase;  his  terse  and  telling 
sentences  were  richer  in  profound  aphorisms  and  maxims  of 
political  philosophy  than  those  of  any  other  statesman  save 


Burke;  he  possessed  the  orator's  incomparable  gift  of  conveying 
bis  own  enthusiasm  to  his  audience  and  convincing  them  of  the 
loftiness  of  his  aims. 

The  principal  object  of  the  national  party  was  to  set  the  Irish 
parliament  free  from  constitutional  bondage  to  the  English 
privy  council.  By  virtue  of  Poyning's  Act,  a  celebrated  statute 
of  Henry  VII.,  all  proposed  Irish  legislation  had  to  be  submitted 
to  the  English  privy  council  for  its  approval  under  the  great 
seal  of  England  before  being  passed  by  the  Irish  parliament. 
A  bill  so  approved  might  be  accepted  or  rejected,  but  not 
amended.  More  recent  English  acts  had  further  emphasized 
the  complete  dependence  of  the  Irish  parliament,  and  the 
appellate  jurisdiction  of  the  Irish  House  of  Lords  had  also  been 
annulled.  Moreover,  the  English  Houses  claimed  and  exercised 
the  power  to  legislate  directly  for  Ireland  without  even  the 
nominal  concurrence  of  the  parliament  in  Dublin.  This  was 
the  constitution  which  Molyneux  and  Swift  had  denounced, 
which  Flood  had  attacked,  and  which  Grattan  was  to  destroy. 
The  menacing  attitude  of  the  Volunteer  Convention  at  Dungannon 
greatly  influenced  the  decision  of  the  government  in  1782  to 
resist  the  agitation  no  longer.  It  was  through  ranks  of  volunteers 
drawn  up  outside  the  parliament  house  in  Dublin  that  Grattan 
passed  on  the  i6th  of  April  1782,  amidst  unparalleled  popular 
enthusiasm,  to  move  a  declaration  of  the  independence  of  the 
Irish  parliament.  "  I  found  Ireland  on  her  knees,"  Grattan 
exclaimed,  "  I  watched  over  her  with  a  paternal  solicitude; 
I  have  traced  her  progress  from  injuries  to  arms,  and  from  arms 
to  liberty.  Spirit  of  Swift,  spirit  of  Molyneux,  your  genius  has 
prevailed!  Ireland  is  now  a  nation!"  After  a  month  of 
negotiation  the  claims  of  Ireland  were  conceded.  The  gratitude 
of  his  countrymen  to  Grattan  found  expression  in  a  parliamentary 
grant  of  £100,000,  which  had  to  be  reduced  by  one  half  before 
he  would  consent  to  accept  it. 

One  of  the  first  acts  of  "  Grattan's  parliament  "  was  to  prove 
its  loyalty  to  England  by  passing  a  vote  for  the  support  of 
20,000  sailors  for  the  navy.  Grattan  himself  never  failed  in 
loyalty  to  the  crown  and  the  English  connexion.  He  was, 
however,  anxious  for  moderate  parliamentary  reform,  and, 
unlike  Flood,  he  favoured  Catholic  emancipation.  It  was, 
indeed,  evident  that  without  reform  the  Irish  House  of  Commons 
would  not  be  able  to  make  much  use  of  its  newly  won  independence. 
Though  now  free  from  constitutional  control  it  was  no  less  subject 
than  before  to  the  influence  of  corruption,  which  the  English 
government  had  wielded  through  the  Irish  borough  owners, 
known  as  the  "  undertakers,"  or  more  directly  through  the  great 
executive  officers.  "  Grattan's  parliament "  had  no  control 
over  the  Irish  executive.  The  lord  lieutenant  and  his  chief 
secretary  continued  to  be  appointed  by  the  English  ministers; 
their  tenure  of  office  depended  on  the  vicissitudes  of  English, 
not  Irish,  party  politics;  the  royal  prerogative  was  exercised 
in  Ireland  on  the  advice  of  English  ministers.  The  House  of 
Commons  was  in  no  sense  representative  of  the  Irish  people. 
The  great  majority  of  the  people  were  excluded  as  Roman 
Catholics  from  the  franchise;  two-thirds  of  the  members  of 
the  House  of  Commons  were  returned  by  small  boroughs  at  the 
absolute  disposal  of  single  patrons,  whose  support  was  bought 
by  a  lavish  distribution  of  peerages  and  pensions.  It  was  to 
give  stability  and  true  independence  to  the  new  constitution 
that  Grattan  pressed  for  reform.  Having  quarrelled  with  Flood 
over  "  simple  repeal  "  Grattan  also  differed  from  him  on  the 
question  of  maintaining  the  Volunteer  Convention.  He  opposed 
the  policy  of  protective  duties,  but  supported  Pitt's  famous 
commercial  propositions  in  1785  for  establishing  free  trade 
between  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  which,  however,  had  to  be 
abandoned  owing  to  the  hostility  of  the  English  mercantile 
classes.  In  general  Grattan  supported  the  government  for  a 
time  after  1782,  and  in  particular  spoke  and  voted  for  the 
stringent  coercive  legislation  rendered  necessary  by  the  Whiteboy 
outrages  in  1785;  but  as  the  years  passed  without  Pitt's 
personal  favour  towards  parliamentary  reform  bearing  fruit 
in  legislation,  he  gravitated  towards  the  opposition,  agitated 
for  commutation  of  tithes  in  Ireland,  and  supported  the  Whigs 


38o 


GRATTAN 


on  the  regency  question  in  1788.  In  1792  he  succeeded  in 
carrying  an  Act  conferring  the  franchise  on  the  Roman  Catholics; 
in  1794  in  conjunction  with  William  Ponsonby  he  introduced 
a  reform  bill  which  was  even  less  democratic  than  Flood's  bill 
of  1783.  He  was  as  anxious  as  Flood  had  been  to  retain  the 
legislative  power  in  the  hands  of  men  of  property,  for  "  he  had 
through  the  whole  of  his  life  a  strong  conviction  that  while 
Ireland  could  best  be  governed  by  Irish  hands,  democracy  in 
Ireland  would  inevitably  turn  to  plunder  and  anarchy."  *  At 
the  same  time  he  desired  to  admit  the  Roman  Catholic  gentry 
of  property  to  membership  of  the  House  of  Commons,  a  proposal 
that  was  the  logical  corollary  of  the  Relief  Act  of  1792.  The 
defeat  of  Grattan's  mild  proposals  helped  to  promote  more 
extreme  opinions,  which,  under  French  revolutionary  influence, 
were  now  becoming  heard  in  Ireland. 

The  Catholic  question  had  rapidly  become  of  the  first  im- 
portance, and  when  a  powerful  section  of  the  Whigs  joined 
Pitt's  ministry  in  1794,  and  it  became  known  that  the  lord- 
lieutenancy  was  to  go  to  Lord  Fitzwilliam,  who  shared  Grattan's 
views,  expectations  were  raised  that  the  question  was  about  to 
be  settled  in  a  manner  satisfactory  to  the  Irish  Catholics.  Such 
seems  to  have  been  Pitt's  intention,  though  there  has  been  much 
controversy  as  to  how  far  Lord  Fitzwilliam  (<?.».)  had  been 
authorized  to  pledge  the  government.  After  taking  Grattan 
into  his  confidence,  it  was  arranged  that  the  latter  should  bring 
in  a  Roman  Catholic  emancipation  bill,  and  that  it  should  then 
receive  government  support.  But  finally  it  appeared  that  the 
viceroy  had  either  misunderstood  or  exceeded  his  instructions; 
and  on  the  igth  of  February  1795  Fitzwilliam  was  recalled. 
In  the  outburst  of  indignation,  followed  by  increasing  disaffec- 
tion in  Ireland,  which  this  event  produced,  Grattan  acted  with 
conspicuous  moderation  and  loyalty,  which  won  for  him  warm 
acknowledgments  from  a  member  of  the  English  cabinet.2 
That  cabinet,  however,  doubtless  influenced  by  the  wishes  of 
the  king,  was  now  determined  firmly  to  resist  the  Catholic 
demands,  with  the  result  that  the  country  rapidly  drifted  to- 
wards rebellion.  Grattan  warned  the  government  in  a  series 
of  masterly  speeches  of  the  lawless  condition  to  which  Ireland 
had  been  driven.  But  he  could  now  count  on  no  more  than 
some  forty  followers  in  the  House  of  Commons,  and  his  words 
were  unheeded.  He  retired  from  parliament  in  May  1797,  and 
departed  from  his  customary  moderation  by  attacking  the  govern- 
ment in  an  inflammatory  "Letter  to  the  citizens  of  Dublin." 

At  this  time  religious  animosity  had  almost  died  out  in  Ireland, 
and  men  of  different  faiths  were  ready  to  combine  for  common 
political  objects.  Thus  the  Presbyterians  of  the  north,  who  were 
mainly  republican  in  sentiment,  combined  with,  a  section  of  the 
Roman  Catholics  to  form  the  organization  of  the  United  Irishmen, 
to  promote  revolutionary  ideas  imported  from  France;  and  a 
party  prepared  to  welcome  a  French  invasion  soon  came  into 
existence.  Thus  stimulated,  the  increasing  disaffection  cul- 
minated in  the  rebellion  of  1798,  which  was  sternly  and  cruelly 
repressed.  No  sooner  was  this  effected  than  the  project  of  a 
legislative  union  between  the  British  and  Irish  parliaments, 
which  had  been  from  time  to  time  discussed  since  the  beginning 
of  the  1 8th  century,  was  taken  up  in  earnest  by  Pitt's  govern- 
ment. Grattan  from  the  first  denounced  the  scheme  with 
implacable  hostility.  There  was,  however,  much  to  be  said  in 
its  favour.  The  constitution  of  Grattan's  parliament  offered  no 
security,  as  the  differences  over  the  regency  question  had  made 
evident  that  in  matters  of  imperial  interest  the  policy  of  the 
Irish  parliament  and  that  of  Great  Britain  would  be  in  agreement; 
and  at  a  moment  when  England  was  engaged  in  a  life  and  death 
struggle  with  France  it  was  impossible  for  the  ministry  to  ignore 
the  danger,  which  had  so  recently  been  emphasized  by  the  fact 
that  the  independent  constitution  of  1782  had  offered  no  safe- 
guard against  armed  revolt.  The  rebellion  put  an  end  to  the 
growing  reconciliation  between  Roman  Catholics  and  Protestants ; 
religious  passions  were  now  violently  inflamed,  and  the  Orange- 
men and  Catholics  divided  the  island  into  two  hostile  factions. 

1  W.  E.  H.  Lecky,  Leaders  of  Public  Opinion  in  Ireland,  i.  127 
(enlarged  edition,  2  vols.,  1903).  2  Ibid.  i.  204. 


It  is  a  curious  circumstance,  in  view  of  the  subsequent  history  of 
Irish  politics,  that  it  was  from  the  Protestant  Established 
Church,  and  particularly  from  the  Orangemen,  that  the  bitterest 
opposition  to  the  union  proceeded;  and  that  the  proposal 
found  support  chiefly  among  the  Roman  Catholic  clergy  and 
especially  the  bishops,  while  in  no  part  of  Ireland  was  it  received 
with  more  favour  than  in  the  city  of  Cork.  This  attitude  of  the 
Catholics  was  caused  by  Pitt's  encouragement  of  the  expectation 
that  Catholic  emancipation,  the  commutation  of  tithes,  and  the 
endowment  of  the  Catholic  priesthood,  would  accompany  or 
quickly  follow  the  passing  of  the  measure. 

When  in  1 799  the  government  brought  forward  their  bill  it 
was  defeated  in  the  Irish  House  of  Commons.  Grattan  was  still 
in  retirement.  His  popularity  had  temporarily  declined,  and 
the  fact  that  his  proposals  for  parliamentary  reform  and  Catholic 
emancipation  had  become  the  watchwords  of  the  rebellious 
United  Irishmen  had  brought  upon  him  the  bitter  hostility  of 
the  governing  classes.  He  was  dismissed  from  the  privy  council; 
his  portrait  was  removed  from  the  hall  of  Trinity  College;  the 
Merchant  Guild  of  Dublin  struck  his  name  off  their  rolls.  But 
the  threatened  destruction  of  the  constitution  of  1782  quickly 
restored  its  author  to  his  former  place  in  the  affections  of  the 
Irish  people.  The  parliamentary  recess  had  been  effectually 
employed  by  the  government  in  securing  by  lavish  corruption  a 
majority  in  favour  of  their  policy.  On  the  isth  of  January 
1800  the  Irish  parliament  met  for  its  last  session;  on  the  same 
day  Grattan  secured  by  purchase  a  seat  for  Wicklow;  and  at  a 
late  hour,  while  the  debate  was  proceeding,  he  appeared  to  take 
his  seat.  "There  was  a  moment's  pause,  an  electric  thrill  passed 
through  the  House,  and  a  long  wild  cheer  burst  from  the 
galleries."3  Enfeebled  by  illness,  Grattan's  strength  gave  way 
when  he  rose  to  speak,  and  he  obtained  leave  to  address  the  House 
sitting.  Nevertheless  his  speech  was  a  superb  effort  of  oratory; 
for  more  than  two  hours  he  kept  his  audience  spellbound  by  a 
flood  of  epigram,  of  sustained  reasoning,  of  eloquent  appeal. 
After  prolonged  debates  Grattan,  on  the  26th  of  May,  spoke 
finally  against  the  committal  of  the  bill,  ending  with  an  im- 
passioned peroration  in  which  he  declared,  "  I  will  remain 
anchored  here  with  fidelity  to  the  fortunes  of  my  country, 
faithful  to  her  freedom,  faithful  to  her  fall."4  These  were  the 
last  words  spoken  by  Grattan  in  the  Irish  parliament. 

The  bill  establishing  the  union  was  carried  through  its  final 
stages  by  substantial  majorities.  The  people  remained  listless, 
giving  no  indications  of  any  eager  dislike  of  the  government 
policy.  "There  were  absolutely  none  of  the  signs  which  are 
invariably  found  when  a  nation  struggles  passionately  against 
what  it  deems  an  impending  tyranny,  or  rallies  around  some 
institution  which  it  really  loves."6  One  of  Grattan's  main 
grounds  of  opposition  to  the  union  had  been  his  dread  of  seeing 
the  political  leadership  in  Ireland  pass  out  of  the  hands  of  the 
landed  gentry;  and  he  prophesied  that  the  time  would  come 
when  Ireland  would  send  to  the  united  parliament  "  a  hundred 
of  the  greatest  rascals  in  the  kingdom."6  Like  Flood  before  him, 
Grattan  had  no  leaning  towards  democracy;  and  he  anticipated 
that  by  the  removal  of  the  centre  of  political  interest  from  Ireland 
the  evil  of  absenteeism  would  be  intensified. 

For  the  next  five  years  Grattan  took  no  active  part  in  public 
affairs;  it  was  not  till  1805  that  he  became  a  member  of  the 
parliament  of  the  United  Kingdom.  He  modestly  took  his  seat 
on  one  of  the  back  benches,  till  Fox  brought  him  forward  to  a 
seat  near  his  own,  exclaiming,  "  This  is  no  place  for  the  Irish 
Demosthenes  !  "  His  first  speech  was  on  the  Catholic  question, 
and  though  some  doubt  had  been  felt  lest  Grattan,  like  Flood, 
should  belie  at  Westminster  the  reputation  made  in  Dublin,  all 
agreed  with  the  description  of  his  speech  by  the  Annual  Register 
as  "  one  of  the  most  brilliant  and  eloquent  ever  pronounced 
within  the  walls  of  parliament."  When  Fox  and  Grenville 
came  into  power  in  1806  Grattan  was  offered,  but  refused  to 

8  Ibid.  i.  241.  4  Grattan's  Speeches,  iv.  23. 

6  W.  E.  H.  Lecky,  History  of  England  in  the  Eighteenth  Century, 
viii.  491.  Cf.  Cornwallis  Correspondence,  iii.  250. 

6  W.  E.  H.  Lecky,  Leaders  of  Public  Opinion  in  Ireland,  i.  270. 


GRATTIUS— GRAUN 


accept,  an  office  in  the  government.  In  the  following  year  he 
showed  the  strength  of  his  judgment  and  character  by  supporting, 
in  spite  of  consequent  unpopularity  in  Ireland,  a  measure  for 
increasing  the  powers  of  the  executive  to  deal  with  Irish  disorder. 
Roman  Catholic  emancipation,  which  he  continued  to  advocate 
with  unflagging  energy  though  now  advanced  in  age,  became 
complicated  after  1808  by  the  question  whether  a  veto  on  the 
appointment  of  Roman  Catholic  bishops  should  rest  with  the 
crown.  Grattan  supported  the  veto,  but  a  more  extreme  Catholic 
party  was  now  arising  in  Ireland  under  the  leadership  of  Daniel 
O'Connell,  and  Grattan's  influence  gradually  declined.  He 
seldom  spoke  in  parliament  after  1810,  the  most  notable  excep- 
tion being  in  1815,  when  he  separated  himself  from  the  Whigs 
and  supported  the  final  struggle  against  Napoleon.  His  last 
speech  of  all,  in  1819,  contained  a  passage  referring  to  the  union 
he  had  so  passionately  resisted,  which  exhibits  the  statesmanship 
and  at  the  same  time  the  equable  quality  of  Grattan's  character. 
His  sentiments  with  regard  to  the  policy  of  the  union  remained, 
he  said,  unchanged;  but  "the  marriage  having  taken  place  it  is 
now  the  duty,  as  it  ought  to  be  the  inclination,  of  every  individual 
to  render  it  as  fruitful,  as  profitable  and  as  advantageous  as 
possible."  In  the  following  summer,  after  crossing  from  Ireland 
to  London  when  out  of  health  to  bring  forward  the  Catholic 
question  once  more,  he  became  seriously  ill.  On  his  death-bed 
he  spoke  generously  of  Castlereagh,  and  with  warm  eulogy  of 
his  former  rival,  Flood.  He  died  on  the  6th  of  June  1820,  and 
was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey  close  to  the  tombs  of  Pitt  and 
Fox.  His  statue  is  in  the  outer  lobby  of  the  Houses  of  Parliament 
at  Westminster.  Grattan  had  married  in  1782  Henrietta  Fitz- 
gerald, a  lady  descended  from  the  ancient  family  of  Desmond, 
by  whom  he  had  two  sons  and  two  daughters. 

The  most  searching  scrutiny  of  his  private  life  only  increases  the 
respect  due  to  the  memory  of  Grattan  as  a  statesman  and  the 
greatest  of  Irish  orators.  His  patriotism  was  untainted  by  self- 
seeking;  he  was  courageous  in  risking  his  popularity  for  what  his 
sound  judgment  showed  him  to  be  the  right  course.  As  Sydney 
Smith  said  with  truth  of  Grattan  soon  after  his  death:  "  No 
government  ever  dismayed  him.  The  world  could  not  bribe 
him.  He  thought  only  of  Ireland;  lived  for  no  other  object; 
dedicated  to  her  his  beautiful  fancy,  his  elegant  wit,  his  manly 
courage,  and  all  the  splendour  of  his  astonishing  eloquence."  * 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Henry  Grattan,  Memoirs  of  the  Life  and  Times  of 
the  Right  Hon.  H.  Grattan  (5  vols.,  London,  1839-1846);  Grattan's 
Speeches  (ed.  by  H.  Grattan,  junr.,  1822);  Irish  Parl.  Debates; 
W.  E.  H.  Lecky,  History  of  England  in  the  Eighteenth  Century  (8  vols., 
London,  1878-1890)  and  Leaders  of  Public  Opinion  in  Ireland 
(enlarged  edition,  2  vols.,  1903).  For  the  controversy  concerning  the 
recall  of  Lord  Fitzwilliam  see,  in  addition  to  the  foregoing,  Lord 
Rosebery,  Pitt  (London,  1891);  Lord  Ashbourne,  Pitt:  Some 
Chapters  of  his  Life  (London,  1898);  The  Pelham  Papers  (Brit.  Mus. 
Add.  MSS.,  33118);  Carlisle  Correspondence;  Beresford  Correspond- 
ence; Stanhope  Miscellanies;  for  the  Catholic  question,  W.  I. 
Amhurst,  History  of  Catholic  Emancipation  (2  vols.,  London,  1886); 
Sir  Thomas  Wyse,  Historical  Sketch  of  the  late  Catholic  Association 
of  Ireland  (London,  1829);  W.  J.  MacNeven,  Pieces  of  Irish  History 
(New  York,  1807)  containing  an  account  of  the  United  Irishmen; 
for  the  volunteer  movement  Thomas  MacNevin,  History  of  the 
Volunteers  of  1782  (Dublin,  1845);  Proceedings  of  the  Volunteer 
Delegates  of  Ireland  1784  (Anon.  Pamph.  Brit.  Mus.).  See  also  F. 
Hardy,  Memoirs  of  Lord  Charlemont  (London,  1812);  Warden 
Flood,  Memoirs  of  Henry  Flood  (London,  1838);  Francis  Plowden, 
Historical  Review  of  the  State  of  Ireland  (London,  1803);  Alfred 
Webb,  Compendium  of  Irish  Biography  (Dublin,  1878);  Sir  Jonah 
Barrington,  Rise  and  Fall  of  the  Irish  Nation  (London,  1833);  W.  J. 
O'Neill  Daunt,  Ireland  and  her  Agitators;  Lord  Mountmorres, 
History  of  the  Irish  Parliament  (2  vols.,  London,  1792);  Horace 
Walpole,  Memoirs  of  the  Reign  of  George  III.  (4  vols.,  London,  1845 
and  1894);  Lord  Stanhope,  Life  of  William  Pitt  (4  vols.,  London, 
1861);  Thomas  Davis,  Life  of  J.  P.  Curran  (Dublin,  1846)— this 
contains  a  memoir  of  Grattan  by  D.  O.  Madden,  and  Grattan's  reply 
to  Lord  Clare  on  the  question  of  the  Union ;  Char|es  Phillips,  Recollec- 
tions of  Curran  and  some  of  his  Contemporaries  (London,  1822); 
J.A.Froude,  The  English  in  Ireland  (London,  1881);  J.G.  McCarthy, 
Henry  Grattan:  an  Historical  Study  (London,  1886);  Lord  Mahon's 
History  of  England,  vol.  vii.  (1858).  With  special  reference  to  the 
Union  see  Castlereagh  Correspondence;  Cornwallis  Correspondence; 
Westmorland  Papers  (Irish  State  Paper  Office).  (R.  J.  M.) 

'Sydney  Smith's  Works,  ii.  166-167. 


GRATTIUS  [FALISCUS],  Roman  poet,  of  the  age  of  Augustus, 
author  of  a  poem  on  hunting  (Cynegelica),  of  which  541  hexa- 
meters remain.  He  was  possibly  a  native  of  Falerii.  The  only 
reference  to  him  in  any  ancient  writer  is  incidental  (Ovid,  Ex 
Ponlo,  iv.  16.  33).  He  describes  various  kinds  of  game,  methods 
of  hunting,  the  best  breeds  of  horses  and  dogs. 

There  are  editions  by  R.  Stern  (1832);  E.  Bah'rens  in  Poetae 
Latini  Minores  (i.,  1879)  and  G.  G.  Curcio  in  Poeti  Latini  Minori  (i., 
1902),  with  bibliography;  see  also  H.  Schenkl,  Zur  Kritik  des  G. 
(1898).  There  is  a  translation  by  Christopher  Wase  (1654). 

GRAUDENZ  (Polish  Grudziadz),  a  town  in  the  kingdom  of 
Prussia,  province  of  West  Prussia,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Vistula,  18  m.  S.S.W.  of  Marienwerder  and  37  m.  by  rail  N.N.E. 
of  Thorn.  Pop.  (1885)  17,336,  (1905)  35,988.  It  has  two  Pro- 
testant and  three  Roman  Catholic  churches,  and  a  synagogue. 
It  is  a  place  of  considerable  manufacturing  activity.  The  town 
possesses  a  museum  and  a  monument  to  Guillaume  Rene  Cour- 
biere  (1733-1811),  the  defender  of  the  town  in  1807.  It  has 
fine  promenades  along  the  bank  of  the  Vistula.  Graudenz  is 
an  important  place  in  the  German  system  of  fortifications,  and 
has  a  garrison  of  considerable  size. 

Graudenz  was  founded  about  1250,  and  received  civic  rights  in 
1291.  At  the  peace  of  Thorn  in  1466  it  came  under  the  lordship 
of  Poland.  From  1665  to  1759  it  was  held  by  Sweden,  and  in 
1772  it  came  into  the  possession  of  Prussia.  The  fortress  of 
Graudenz,  which  since  1873  has  been  used  as  a  barracks  and 
a  military  depot  and  prison,  is  situated  on  a  steep  eminence  about 
i \  m.  north  of  the  town  and  outside  its  limits.  It  was  completed 
by  Frederick  the  Great  in  1776,  and  was  rendered  famous 
through  its  defence  by  Courbiere  against  the  French  in  1807. 

GRAUN,  CARL  HEINRICH  (1701-1759),  German  musical 
composer,  the  youngest  of  three  brothers,  all  more  or  less  musical, 
was  born  on  the  7th  of  May  1701  at  Wahrenbriick  in  Saxony. 
His  father  held  a  small  government  post  and  he  gave  his  children 
a  careful  education.  Graun's  beautiful  soprano  voice  secured 
him  an  appointment  in  the  choir  at  Dresden.  At  an  early  age  he 
composed  a  number  of  sacred  cantatas  and  other  pieces  for  the 
church  service.  He  completed  his  studies  under  Johann  Christoph 
Schmidt  (1664-1728),  and  profited  much  by  the  Italian  operas 
which  were  performed  at  Dresden  under  the  composer  Lotti. 
After  his  voice  had  changed  to  a  tenor,  he  made  his  debut  at 
the  opera  of  Brunswick,  in  a  work  by  Schiirmann,  an  inferior 
composer  of  the  day ;  but  not  being  satisfied  with  the  arias  assigned 
him  he  re-wrote  them,  so  much  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  court 
that  he  was  commissioned  to  write  an  opera  for  the  next  season. 
This  work,  Polydorus  (1726),  and  five  other  operas  written  for 
Brunswick,  spread  his  fame  all  over  Germany.  Other  works, 
mostly  of  a  sacred  character,  including  two  settings  of  the 
Passion,  also  belong  to  the  Brunswick  period.  Frederick  the 
Great,  at  that  time  crown  prince  of  Prussia,  heard  the  singer  in 
Brunswick  in  1735,  and  immediately  engaged  him  for  his  private 
chapel  at  Rheinsberg.  There  Graun  remained  for  five  years, 
and  wrote  a  number  of  cantatas,  mostly  to  words  written  by 
Frederick  himself  in  French,  and  translated  into  Italian  by 
Boltarelli.  On  his  accession  to  the  throne  in  1740,  Frederick 
sent  Graun  to  Italy  to  engage  singers  for  a  new  opera  to  be 
established  at  Berlin.  Graun  remained  a  year  on  his  travels, 
earning  universal  applause  as  a  singer  in  the  chief  cities  of  Italy. 
After  his  return  to  Berlin  he  was  appointed  conductor  of  the 
royal  orchestra  (Kapellmeister)  with  a  salary  of  2000  thalers 
(£300).  In  this  capacity  he  wrote  twenty-eight  operas,  all  to 
Italian  words,  of  which  the  last,  Merope  (1756),  is  perhaps  the 
most  perfect.  It  is  probable  that  Graun  was  subjected  to  con- 
siderable humiliation  from  the  arbitrary  caprices  of  his  royal 
master,  who  was  never  tired  of  praising  the  operas  of  Hasse  and 
abusing  those  of  his  Kapellmeister.  In  his  oratorio  The  Death 
of  Jesus  Graun  shows  his  skill  as  a  contrapuntist,  and  his  origin- 
ality of  melodious  invention.  In  the  Italian  operas  he  imitates 
the  florid  style  of  his  time,  but  even  in  these  the  recitatives 
occasionally  show  considerable  dramatic  power.  Graun  died 
on  the  8th  of  August  1759,  at  Berlin,  in  the  same  house  in  which, 
thirty-two  years  later,  Meyerbeer  was  born. 


382 


GRAVAMEN— GRAVELINES 


GRAVAMEN  (from  Lat.  gravare,  to  weigh  down;  gravis, 
heavy),  a  complaint  or  grievance,  the  ground  of  a  legal  action, 
and  particularly  the  more  serious  part  of  a  charge  against  an 
accused  person.  In  English  the  term  is  used  chiefly  in  ecclesi- 
astical cases,  being  the  technical  designation  of  a  memorial 
presented  from  the  Lower  to  the  Upper  House  of  Convocation, 
setting  forth  grievances  to  be  redressed,  or  calling  attention  to 
breaches  in  church  discipline. 

GRAVE,  (i)  (From  a  common  Teutonic  verb,  meaning  "  to 
dig  ";  in  O.  Eng.  grafan;  cf.  Dutch  graven,  Ger.  graberi),  a  place 
dug  out  of  the  earth  in  which  a  dead  body  is  laid  for  burial,  and 
hence  any  place  of  burial,  not  necessarily  an  excavation  (see 
FUNERAL  RITES  and  BURIAL).  The  verb  "  to  grave,"  meaning 
properly  to  dig,  is  particularly  used  of  the  making  of  incisions 
in  a  hard  surface  (see  ENGRAVING).  (2)  A  title,  now  obsolete, 
of  a  local  administrative  official  for  a  township  in  certain  parts 
of  Yorkshire  and  Lincolnshire;  it  also  sometimes  appears  in  the 
form  "  grieve,"  which  in  Scotland  and  Northumberland  is  used 
for  sheriff  (q.v.),  and  also  for  a  bailiff  or  under-steward.  The 
origin  of  the  word  is  obscure,  but  it  is  probably  connected  with 
the  German  graf,  count,  and  thus  appears  as  the  second  part  of 
many  Teutonic  titles,  such  as  landgrave,  burgrave  and  margrave. 
"  Grieve,"  on  the  other  hand,  seems  to  be  the  northern  repre- 
sentative of  O.E.  gerefa,  reeve;  cf.  "  sheriff  "  and  "  count." 
(3)  (From  the  Lat.  grams,  heavy),  weighty,  serious,  particularly 
with  the  idea  of  dangerous,  as  applied  to  diseases  and  the  like, 
of  character  or  temperament  as  opposed  to  gay.  It  is  also  applied 
to  sound,  low  or  deep,  and  is  thus  opposed  to  "  acute."  In 
music  the  term  is  adopted  from  the  French  and  Italian,  and 
applied  to  a  movement  which  is  solemn  or  slow.  (4)  To  clean  a 
snip's  bottom  in  a  specially  constructed  dock,  called  a  "  graving 
dock."  The  origin  of  the  word  is  obscure;  according  to  the 
New  English  Dictionary  there  is  no  foundation  for  the  connexion 
with  "  greaves  "  or  "  graves,"  the  refuse  of  tallow,  in  candle  or 
soap-making,  supposed  to  be  used  in  "  graving  "  a  ship.  It  may 
be  connected  with  an  O.  Fr.  grave,  mod.  greve,  shore. 

GRAVEL,  or  PEBBLE  BEDS,  the  name  given  to  deposits  of 
rounded,  subangular,  water-worn  stones,  mingled  with  finer 
material  such  as  sand  and  clay.  The  word  "  gravel  "  is  adapted 
from  the  O.  Fr.  gravele,  mod.  gravelle,  dim.  of  grave,  coarse  sand, 
sea-shore,  Mod.  Fr.  greve.  The  deposits  are  produced  by  the 
attrition  of  rock  fragments  by  moving  water,  the  waves  and 
tides  of  the  sea  and  the  flow  of  rivers.  Extensive  beds  of  gravel 
are  forming  at  the  present  time  on  many  parts  of  the  British 
coasts  where  suitable  rocks  are  exposed  to  the  attack  of  the 
atmosphere  and  of  the  sea  waves  during  storms.  The  flint 
gravels  of  the  coast  of  the  Channel,  Norfolk,  &c.,  are  excellent 
examples.  When  the  sea  is  rough  the  lesser  stones  are  washed  up 
and  down  the  beach  by  each  wave,  and  in  this  way  are  rounded, 
worn  down  and  finally  reduced  to  sand.  These  gravels  are 
constantly  in  movement,  being  urged  forward  by  the  shore 
currents  especially  during  storms.  Large  banks  of  gravel  may 
be  swept  away  in  a  single  night,  and  in  this  way  the  coast  is  laid 
bare  to  the  erosive  action  of  the  sea.  Moreover,  the  movement 
of  the  gravel  itself  wears  down  the  subjacent  rocks.  Hence  in 
many  places  barriers  have  been  erected  to  prevent  the  drift  of 
the  pebbles  and  preserve  the  land,  while  often  it  has  been  found 
necessary  to  protect  the  shores  by  masonry  or  cement  work. 
Where  the  pebbles  are  swept  along  to  a  projecting  cape  they  may 
be  carried  onwards  and  form  a  long  spit  or  submarine  bank, 
which  is  constantly  reduced  in  size  by  the  currents  and  tides 
which  flow  across  it  (e.g.  Spurn  Head  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Humber).  The  Chesil  Bank  is  the  best  instance  in  Britain  of 
a  great  accumulation  of  pebbles  constantly  urged  forward  by 
storms  in  a  definite  direction.  In  the  shallower  parts  of  the  North 
Sea  considerable  areas  are  covered  with  coarse  sand  and  pebbles. 
In  deeper  water,  however,  as  in  the  Atlantic,  beyond  the  100 
fathom  line  pebbles  are  very  rare,  and  those  which  are  found 
are  mostly  erratics  carried  southward  by  floating  icebergs,  or 
volcanic  rocks  ejected  by  submarine  volcanoes. 

In  many  parts  of  Britain,  Scandinavia  and  North  America 
there  are  marine  gravels,  in  every  essential  resembling  those  of 


the  sea-shore,  at  levels  considerably  above  high  tide.  These 
gravels  often  lie  in  flat-topped  terraces  which  may  be  traced 
for  great  distances  along  the  coast.  They  are  indications  that 
the  sea  at  one  time  stood  higher  than  it  does  at  present,  and 
are  known  to  geologists  as  "  raised  beaches."  In  Scotland  such 
beaches  are  known  25,  50  and  100  ft.  above  the  present  shores. 
In  exposed  situations  they  have  old  shore  cliffs  behind  them; 
although  their  deposits  are  mainly  gravelly  there  is  much  fine 
sand  and  silt  in  the  raised  beaches  of  sheltered  estuaries  and  near 
river  mouths. 

River  gravels  occur  most  commonly  in  the  middle  and  upper 
parts  of  streams  where  the  currents  in  times  of  flood  are  strong 
enough  to  transport  fairly  large  stones.  In  deltas  and  the  lower 
portions  of  large  rivers  gravel  deposits  are  comparatively  rare 
and  indicate  periods  when  the  volume  of  the  stream  was  tem- 
porarily greatly  increased.  In  the  higher  torrents  also,  gravels 
are  rare  because  transport  is  so  effective  that  no  considerable 
accumulations  can  form.  In  most  countries  where  the  drainage 
is  of  a  mature  type,  river  gravels  occur  in  the  lower  parts  of  the 
courses  of  the  rivers  as  banks  or  terraces  which  lie  some  distance 
above  the  stream  level.  Individual  terraces  usually  do  not 
persist  for  a  long  space  but  are  represented  by  a  series  of  benches 
at  about  the  same  altitude.  These  were  once  continuous,  and 
have  been  separated  by  the  stream  cutting  away  the  intervening 
portions  as  it  deepened  and  broadened  its  channel.  Terraces 
of  this  kind  often  occur  in  successive  series  at  different  heights, 
and  the  highest  are  the  oldest  because  they  were  laid  down  at 
a  time  when  the  stream  flowed  at  their  level  and  mark  the 
various  stages  by  which  the  valley  has  been  eroded.  While 
marine  terraces  are  nearly  always  horizontal,  stream  terraces 
slope  downwards  along  the  course  of  the  river. 

The  extensive  deposits  of  river  gravels  in  many  parts  of 
England,  France,  Switzerland,  North  America,  &c.,  would 
indicate  that  at  some  former  time  the  rivers  flowed  in  greater 
volume  than  at  the  present  day.  This  is  believed  to  be  connected 
with  the  glacial  epoch  and  the  augmentation  of  the  streams 
during  those  periods  when  the  ice  was  melting  away.  Many 
changes  in  drainage  have  taken  place  since  then;  consequently 
wide  sheets  of  glacial  and  fluvio-glacial  gravel  lie  spread  out 
where  at  present  there  is  no  stream.  Often  they  are  commingled 
with  sand,  and  where  there  were  temporary  post-glacial  lakes 
deposits  of  silt,  brick  clay  and  mud  have  been  formed.  These 
may  be  compared  to  the  similar  deposits  now  forming  in  Green- 
land, Spitzbergen  and  other  countries  which  are  at  present  in  a 
glacial  condition. 

As  a  rule  gravels  consist  mainly  of  the  harder  kinds  of  stone 
because  these  alone  can  resist  attrition.  Thus  the  gravels  formed 
from  chalk  consist  almost  entirely  of  flint,  which  is  so  hard  that 
the  chalk  is  ground  to  powder  and  washed  away,  while  the  flint 
remains  little  affected.  Other  hard  rocks  such  as  chert,  quartzite, 
felsite,  granite,  sandstone  and  volcanic  rocks  very  frequently 
are  largely  represented  in  gravels,  while  coal,  limestone  and 
shale  are  far  less  common.  The  size  of  the  pebbles  varies  from  a 
fraction  of  an  inch  to  several  feet;  it  depends  partly  on  the 
fissility  of  the  original  rocks  and  partly  on  the  strength  of  the 
currents  of  water;  coarse  gravels  indicate  the  action  of  powerful 
eroding  agents.  In  the  Tertiary  systems  gravels  occur  on  many 
horizons,  e.g.  the  Woolwich  and  Reading  beds,  Oldhaven  beds 
and  Bagshot  beds  of  the  Eocene  of  the  London  basin.  They  do 
not  essentially  differ  from  recent  gravel  deposits.  But  in  course 
of  time  the  action  of  percolating  water  assisted  by  pressure  tends 
to  convert  gravels  in  to  firm  masses  of  conglomerate  by  depositing 
carbonate  of  lime,  silica  and  other  substances  in  their  interstices. 
Gravels  are  not  usually  so  fossiliferous  as  finer  deposits  of  the 
same  age,  partly  because  their  porous  texture  enables  organic 
remains  to  be  dissolved  away  by  water,  and  partly  because 
shells  and  other  fossils  are  comparatively  fragile  and  would  be 
broken  up  during  the  accumulation  of  the  pebbles.  The  rock 
fragments  in  conglomerates,  however,  sometimes  contain  fossils 
which  have  not  been  found  elsewhere.  (J.  S.  F.) 

GRAVELINES  (Flem.  Gravelinghe),  a  fortified  seaport  town  of 
northern  France,  in  the  department  of  Nord  and  arrondissement 


GRAVELOTTE— GRAVINA 


3*3 


of  Dunkirk,  15  m.  S.W.  of  Dunkirk  on  the  railway  to 
Calais.  Pop.  (1906)  town,  1858;  commune,  6284.  Gravelines 
is  situated  on  the  Aa,  ij  m.  from  its  mouth  in  the  North  Sea. 
It  is  surrounded  by  a  double  circuit  of  ramparts  and  by  a  tidal 
moat.  The  river  is  canalized  and  opens  out  beneath  the  fortifica- 
tions into  a  floating  basin.  The  situation  of  the  port  is  one  of 
the  best  in  France  on  the  North  Sea,  though  its  trade  has  suffered 
owing  to  the  nearness  of  Calais  and  Dunkirk  and  the  silting  up 
of  the  channel  to  the  sea.  It  is  a  centre  for  the  cod  and  herring 
fisheries.  Imports  consist  chiefly  of  timber  from  Northern 
Europe  and  coal  from  England,  to  which  eggs  and  fruit  are 
exported.  Gravelines  has  paper-manufactories,  sugar-works, 
fish-curing  works,  salt-refineries,  chicory-roasting  factories,  a 
cannery  for  preserved  peas  and  other  vegetables  and  an  important 
timber-yard.  The  harbour  is  accessible  to  vessels  drawing  18  ft. 
at  high  tides.  The  greater  part  of  the  population  of  the  commune 
of  Gravelines  dwells  in  the  maritime  quarter  of  Petit-Fort- 
Philippe  at  the  mouth  of  the  Aa,  and  in  the  village  of  Les  Huttes 
(to  the  east  of  the  town),  which  is  inhabited  by  the  fisher-folk. 

The  canalization  of  the  Aa  by  a  count  of  Flanders  about  the 
middle  of  the  I2th  century  led  to  the  foundation  of  Gravelines 
(grave-linghe,  meaning  "  count's  canal.").  In  1558  it  was  the 
scene  of  the  signal  victory  of  the  Spaniards  under  the  count  of 
Egmont  over  the  French.  It  finally  passed  from  the  Spaniards 
to  the  French  by  the  treaty  of  the  Pyrenees  in  1659. 

GRAVELOTTE,  a  village  of  Lorraine  between  Metz  and  the 
French  frontier,  famous  as  the  scene  of  the  battle  of  the  i8th 
of  August  1870  between  the  Germans  under  King  William  of 
Prussia  and  the  French  under  Marshal  Bazaine  (see  METZ  and 
FRANCO-GERMAN  WAR).  The  battlefield  extends  from  the 
woods  which  border  the  Moselle  above  Metz  to  Roncourt,  near 
the  river  Orne.  Other  villages  which  played  an  important  part 
in  the  battle  of  Gravelotte  were  Saint  Privat,  Amanweiler  or 
Amanvillers  and  Sainte-Marie-aux-Chenes,  all  lying  to  the  N. 
of  Gravelotte. 

GRAVES,  ALFRED  PERCEVAL  (1846-  ),  Irish  writer, 
was  born  in  Dublin,  the  son  of  the  bishop  of  Limerick.  He  was 
educated  at  Windermere  College,  and  took  high  honours  at 
Dublin  University.  In  1869  he  entered  the  Civil  Service  as 
clerk  in  the  Home  Office,  where  he  remained  until  he  became  in 
1874  an  inspector  of  schools.  He  was  a  constant  contributor  of 
prose  and  verse  to  the  Spectator,  The  Athenaeum,  John  Bull,  and 
Punch,  and  took  a  leading  part  in  the  revival  of  Irish  letters. 
He  was  for  several  years  president  of  the  Irish  Literary  Society, 
and  is  the  author  of  the  famous  ballad  of  "  Father  O'Flynn  " 
and  many  other  songs  and  ballads.  In  collaboration  with  Sir 
C.  V.  Stanford  he  published  Songs  of  Old  Ireland  (1882),  Irish 
Songs  and  Ballads  (1893),  the  airs  of  which  are  taken  from  the 
Petrie  MSS.;  the  airs  of  his  Irish  Folk-Songs  (1897)  were  arranged 
by  Charles  Wood,  with  whom  he  also  collaborated  in  Songs  of 
Erin  (1901). 

His  brother,  Charles  L.  Graves  (b.  1856),  educated  at  Marl- 
borough  and  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  also  became  well  known 
as  a  journalist,  author  of  two  volumes  of  parodies,  The  Haivarden 
Horace  (1894)  and  More  Hawarden  Horace  (1896),  and  of  skits 
in  prose  and  verse.  An  admirable  musical  critic,  his  Life  and 
Letters  of  Sir  George  Grove  (1903)  is  a  model  biography. 

GRAVESEND,  a  municipal  and  parliamentary  borough, 
river-port  and  market  town  of  Kent,  England,  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Thames  opposite  Tilbury  Fort,  22  m.  E.  by  S.  of  London 
by  the  South-Eastern  &  Chatham  railway.  Pop.  (1901)  27,196. 
It  extends  about  2  m.  along  the  river  bank,  occupying  a  slight 
acclivity  which  reaches  its  summit  at  Windmill  Hill,  whence 
extensive  views  are  obtained  of  the  river,  with  its  windings  and 
shipping.  The  older  and  lower  part  of  the  town  is  irregularly 
built,  with  narrow  and  inconvenient  streets,  but  the  upper  and 
newer  portion  contains  several  handsome  streets  and  terraces. 
Among  several  piers  are  the  town  pier,  erected  in  1832,  and  the 
terrace  pier,  built  in  1845,  at  a  time  when  local  river-traffic  by 
steamboat  was  specially  prosperous.  Gravesend  is  a  favourite 
resort  of  the  inhabitants  of  London,  both  for  excursions  and  as 
a  summer  residence;  it  is  also  a  favourite  yachting  centre. 


The  principal  buildings  are  the  town-hall,  the  parish  church  of 
Gravesend,  erected  on  the  site  of  an  ancient  building  destroyed 
by  fire  in  1727;  Milton  parish  church,  a  Decorated  and  Perpen- 
dicular building  erected  in  the  time  of  Edward  II.;  and  the 
county  courts.  Milton  Mount  College  is  a  large  institution  for 
the  daughters  of  Congregational  ministers.  East  of  the  town 
are  the  earthworks  designed  to  assist  Tilbury  Fort  in  obstructing 
the  passage  up  river  of  an  enemy's  force.  They  were  originally 
constructed  on  Vauban's  system  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II. 
Rosherville  Gardens,  a  popular  resort,  are  in  the  western  suburb 
of  Rosherville,  a  residential  quarter  named  after  James  Rosher, 
an  owner  of  lime  works.  They  were  founded  in  1843  by  George 
Jones.  Gravesend,  which  is  within  the  Port  of  London,  has  some 
import  trade  in  coal  and  timber,  and  fishing,  especially  of 
shrimps,  is  carried  on  extensively.  The  principal  other  industries 
are  boat-building,  ironfounding,  brewing  and  soap-boiling. 
Fruit  and  vegetables  are  largely  grown  in  the  neighbourhood 
for  the  London  market.  Since  1867  Gravesend  has  returned  a 
member  to  parliament,  the  borough  including  Northfleet  to  the 
west.  The  town  is  governed  by  a  mayor,  6  aldermen  and  18 
councillors.  Area,  1259  acres. 

In  the  Domesday  Survey  "  Gravesham  "  is  entered  among  the 
bishop  of  Bayeux's  lands,  and  a  "  hythe  "  or  landing-place  is 
mentioned.  In  1401  Henry  IV.  granted  the  men  of  Gravesend 
the  sole  right  of  conveying  in  their  own  vessels  all  persons 
travelling  between  London  and  Gravesend,  and  this  right  was 
confirmed  by  Edward  IV.  in  1462.  In  1562  the  town  was 
granted  a  charter  of  incorporation  by  Elizabeth,  which  vested 
the  government  in  2  portreeves  and  12  jurats,  but  by  a  later 
charter  of  1568  one  portreeve  was  substituted  for  the  two. 
Charles  I.  incorporated  the  town  anew  under  the  title  of  the 
mayor,  jurats  and  inhabitants  of  Gravesend,  and  a  further 
charter  of  liberties  was  granted  by  James  II.  in  1687.  A 
Thursday  market  and  fair  on  the  i3th  of  October  were  granted 
to  the  men  of  Gravesend  by  Edward  III.  in  1367;  Elizabeth's 
charters  gave  them  a  Wednesday  market  and  fairs  on  the  24th 
of  June  and  the  i3th  of  October,  with  a  court  of  pie-powder; 
by  the  charter  of  Charles  I.  Thursday  and  Saturday  were  made 
the  market  days,  and  these  were  changed  again  to  Wednesday 
and  Saturday  by  a  charter  of  1694,  which  also  granted  a  fair 
on  the  23rd  of  April;  the  fairs  on  these  dates  have  died  out,  but 
the  Saturday  market  is  still  held. 

From  the  beginning  of  the  i7th  century  Gravesend  was  the 
chief  station  for  East  Indiamen;  most  of  the  ships  outward 
bound  from  London  stopped  here  to  victual.  A  customs  house 
was  built  in  1782.  Queen  Elizabeth  established  Gravesend  as 
the  point  where  the  corporation  of  London  should  welcome  in 
state  eminent  foreign  visitors  arriving  by  water.  State  proces- 
sions by  water  from  Gravesend  to  London  had  previously  taken 
place,  as  in  1522,  when  Henry  VIII.  escorted  the  emperor 
Charles  V.  A  similar  practice  was  maintained  until  modern 
times;  as  when,  on  the  7th  of  March  1863,  the  princess  Alexandra 
was  received  here  by  the  prince  of  Wales  (King  Edward  VII.) 
three  days  before  their  marriage.  Gravesend  parish  church 
contains  memorials  to  "  Princess  "  Pocahontas,  who  died  when 
preparing  to  return  home  from  a  visit  to  England  in  1617,  and 
was  buried  in  the  old  church.  A  memorial  pulpit  from  the  state 
of  Indiana,  U.S.A.,  made  of  Virginian  wood,  was  provided  in 
1904,  and  a  fund  was  raised  for  a  stained-glass  window  by  ladies 
of  the  state  of  Virginia. 

GRAVINA,  GIOVANNI  VINCENZO  (1664-1718),  Italian 
litterateur  and  jurisconsult,  was  born  at  Roggiano,  a  small  town 
near  Cosenza,  in  Calabria,  on  the  2oth  of  January  1664.  He  was 
descended  from  a  distinguished  family,  and  under  the  direction 
of  his  maternal  uncle,  Gregorio  Caloprese,  who  possessed  some 
reputation  as  a  poet  and  philosopher,  received  a  learned  educa- 
tion, after  which  he  studied  at  Naples  civil  and  canon  law.  In 
1689  he  came  to  Rome,  where  in  1695  he  united  with  several 
others  of  literary  tastes  in  forming  the  Academy  of  Arcadians. 
A  schism  occurred  in  the  academy  in  1711,  and  Gravina  and  his 
followers  founded  in  opposition  to  it  the  Academy  of  Quirina. 
From  Innocent  XII.  Gravina  received  the  offer  of  various 


384 


GRAVINA— GRAVITATION 


ecclesiastical  honours,  but  declined  them  from  a  disinclination 
to  enter  the  clerical  profession.  In  1699  he  was  appointed  to 
the  chair  of  civil  law  in  the  college  of  La  Sapienza,  and  in  1703 
he  was  transferred  to  the  chair  of  canon  law.  He  died  at  Rome 
on  the  6th  of  January  1718.  He  was  the  adoptive  father  of 
Metastasio. 

Gravina  is  the  author  of  a  number  of  works  of  great  erudition,  the 
principal  being  his  Origines  juris  civilis,  completed  in  3  vpls.  (1713) 
and  his  De  Romano  imperio  (1712).  A  French  translation  of  the 
former  appeared  in  1775,  of  which  a  second  edition  was  published 
in  1822.  His  collected  works  were  published  at  Leipzig  in  1737, 
and  at  Naples,  with  notes  by  Mascovius,  in  1756. 

GRAVINA,  a  town  and  episcopal  see  of  Apulia,  Italy,  in  the 
province  of  Bari,  from  which  it  is  63  m.  S.W.  by  rail  (29  m.  direct), 
1148  ft.  above  sea-level.  Pop.  (1901)  18,197.  The  town  is 
probably  of  medieval  origin,  though  some  conjecture  that  it 
occupies  the  site  of  the  ancient  Blera,  a  post  station  on  the  Via 
Appia.  The  cathedral  is  a  basilica  of  the  i5th  century.  The 
town  is  surrounded  with  walls  and  towers,  and  a  castle  of  the 
emperor  Frederick  II.  rises  above  the  town,  which  later  belonged 
to  the  Orsini,  dukes  of  Gravina;  just  outside  it  are  dwellings 
and  a  church  (S.  Michele)  all  hewn  in  the  rock,  and  now 
abandoned. 

Prehistoric  remains  in  the  district  (remains  of  ancient  settlements, 
tumuli,  &c.)  are  described  by  V.  di  Cicco  in  Notizie  degli  scam 
(1901),  p.  217. 

GRAVITATION  (from  Lat.  grams,  heavy),  in  physical  science, 
that  mutual  action  between  masses  of  matter  by  virtue  of  which 
every  such  mass  tends  toward  every  other  with  a  force  varying 
directly  as  the  product  of  the  masses  and  inversely  as  the  square 
of  their  distances  apart.  Although  the  law  was  first  clearly  and 
rigorously  formulated  by  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  the  fact  of  the 
action  indicated  by  it  was  more  or  less  clearly  seen  by  others. 
Even  Ptolemy  had  a  vague  conception  of  a  force  tending  toward 
the  centre  of  the  earth  which  not  only  kept  bodies  upon  its 
surface,  but  in  some  way  upheld  the  order  of  the  universe.  John 
Kepler  inferred  that  the  planets  move  in  their  orbits  under  some 
influence  or  force  exerted  by  the  sun;  but  the  laws  of  motion 
were  not  then  sufficiently  developed,  nor  were  Kepler's  ideas  of 
force  sufficiently  clear,  to  admit  of  a  precise  statement  of  the 
nature  of  the  force.  C.  Huygens  and  R.  Hooke,  contemporaries 
of  Newton,  saw  that  Kepler's  third  law  implied  a  force  tending 
toward  the  sun  which,  acting  on  the  several  planets,  varied 
inversely  as  the  square  of  the  distance.  But  two  requirements 
necessary  to  generalize  the  theory  were  still  wanting.  One  was 
to  show  that  the  law  of  the  inverse  square  not  only  represented 
Kepler's  third  law,  but  his  first  two  laws  also.  The  other  was  to 
show  that  the  gravitation  of  the  earth,  following  one  and  the 
same  law  with  that  of  the  sun,  extended  to  the  moon.  Newton's 
researches  showed  that  the  attraction  of  the  earth  on  the  moon 
was  the  same  as  that  for  bodies  at  the  earth's  surface,  only 
reduced  in  the  inverse  square  of  the  moon's  distance  from  the 
earth's  centre.  He  also  showed  that  the  total  gravitation  of 
the  earth,  assumed  as  spherical,  on  external  bodies,  would  be 
the  same  as  if  the  earth's  mass  were  concentrated  in  the  centre. 
This  led  at  once  to  the  statement  of  the  law  in  its  most  general 
form. 

The  law  of  gravitation  is  unique  among  the  laws  of  nature, 
not  only  in  its  wide  generality,  taking  the  whole  universe  in  its 
scope,  but  in  the  fact  that,  so  far  as  yet  known,  it  is  absolutely 
unmodified  by  any  condition  or  cause  whatever.  All  other  forms 
of  action  between  masses  of  matter,  vary  with  circumstances. 
The  mutual  action  of  electrified  bodies,  for  example,  is  affected 
by  their  relative  or  absolute  motion.  But  no  conditions  to 
which  matter  has  ever  been  subjected,  or  under  which  it  has 
ever  been  observed,  have  been  found  to  influence  its  gravitation 
in  the  slightest  degree.  We  might  conceive  the  rapid  motions 
of  the  heavenly  bodies  to  result  in  some  change  either  in  the 
direction  or  amount  of  their  gravitation  towards  each  other  at 
each  moment;  but  such  is  not  the  case,  even  in  the  most  rapidly 
moving  bodies  of  the  solar  system.  The  question  has  also  been 
raised  whether  the  action  of  gravitatiori  is  absolutely  instant- 
aneous. If  not,  the  action  would  not  be  exactly  in  the  line 


adjoining  the  two  bodies  at  the  instant,  but  would  be  affected 
by  the  motion  of  the  line  joining  them  during  the  time  required 
by  the  force  to  pass  from  one  body  to  the  other.  The  result  of 
this  would  be  seen  in  the  motions  of  the  planets  around  the  sun; 
but  the  most  refined  observations  show  no  such  effect.  'It  is 
also  conceivable  that  bodies  might  gravitate  differently  at 
different  temperatures.  But  the  most  careful  researches  have 
failed  to  show  any  apparent  modification  produced  in  this  way 
except  what  might  be  attributed1  to  the  surrounding  conditions. 
The  most  recent  and  exhaustive  experiment  was  that  of  J.  H. 
Poynting  and  P.  Phillips  (Proc.  Roy.  Soc.,  76*.,  p.  445).  The 
result  was  that  the  change,  if  any,  was  less  than  -fa  of  the  force 
for  one  degree  change  of  temperature,  a  result  too  minute  to  be 
established  by  any  measures. 

Another  cause  which  might  be  supposed  to  modify  the  action 
of  gravitation  between  two  bodies  would  be  the  interposition  of 
masses  of  matter  between  them,  a  cause  which  materially 
modifies  the  action  of  electrified  bodies.  The  question  whether 
this  cause  modifies  gravitation  admits  of  an  easy  test  from 
observation.  If  it  did,  then  a  portion  of  the  earth's  mass  or  of 
that  of  any  other  planet  turned  away  from  the  sun  would  not  be 
subjected  to  the  same  action  of  the  sun  as  if  directly  exposed  to 
that  action.  Great  masses,  as  those  of  the  great  planets,  would 
not  be  attracted  with  a  force  proportional  to  the  mass  because 
of  the  hindrance  or  other  effect  of  the  interposed  portions. 
But  not  the  slightest  modification  due  to  this  cause  is  shown. 
The  general  conclusion  from  everything  we  see  is  that  a  mass  of 
matter  in  Australia  attracts  a  mass  in  London  precisely  as  it 
would  if  the  earth  were  not  interposed  between  the  two  masses. 

We  must  therefore  regard  the  law  in  question  as  the  broadest 
and  most  fundamental  one  which  nature  makes  known  to  us. 

It  is  not  yet  experimentally  proved  that  variation  as  the 
inverse  square  is  absolutely  true  at  all  distances.  Astronomical 
observations  extend  over  too  brief  a  period  of  time  to  show  any 
attraction  between  different  stars  except  those  in  each  other's 
neighbourhood.  But  this  proves  nothing  because,  in  the  case 
of  distances  so  great,  centuries  or  even  thousands  of  years  of 
accurate  observation  will  be  required  to  show  any  action.  On 
the  other  hand  the  enigmatical  motion  of  the  perihelion  of 
Mercury  has  not  yet  found  any  plausible  explanation  except  on 
the  hypothesis  that  the  gravitation  of  the  sun  diminishes  at 
a  rate  slightly  greater  than  that  of  the  inverse  square — the  most 
simple  modification  being  to  suppose  that  instead  of  the  exponent 
of  the  distance  being  exactly  -  2,  it  is  -2-000  ooo  161  2. 

The  argument  is  extremely  simple  in  form.  It  is  certain  that, 
in  the  general  average,  year  after  year,  the  force  with  which 
Mercury  is  drawn  toward  the  sun  does  vary  from  the  exact 
inverse  square  of  its  distance  from  the  sun.  The  most  plausible 
explanation  of  this  is  that  one  or  more  masses  of  matter  move 
around  the  sun,  whose  action,  whether  they  are  inside  or  outside 
the  orbit  of  Mercury,  would  produce  the  required  modification  in 
the  force.  From  an  investigation  of  all  the  observations  upon 
Mercury  and  the  other  three  interior  planets,  Simon  Newcomb 
found  it  almost  out  of  the  question  that  any  such  mass  of  matter 
could  exist  without  changing  either  the  figure  of  the  sun  itself 
or  the  motion  of  the  planes  of  the  orbits  of  either  Mercury  or 
Venus.  The  qualification  "  almost  "  is  necessary  because  so 
complex  a  system  of  actions  comes  into  play,  and  accurate 
observations  have  extended  through  so  short  a  period,  that  the 
proof  cannot  be  regarded  as  absolute.  But  the  fact  that  careful 
and  repeated  search  for  a  mass  of  matter  sufficient  to  produce 
the  desired  effect  has  been  in  vain,  affords  additional  evidence  of 
its  non-existence.  The  most  obvious  test  of  the  reality  of  the 
required  modifications  would  be  afforded  by  two  other  bodies, 
the  motions  of  whose  pericentres  should  be  similarly  affected. 
These  are  Mars  and  the  moon.  Newcomb  found  an  excess  of 
motions  in  the  perihelion  of  Mars  amounting  to  about  5*  per 
century.  But  the  combination  of  observations  and  theory  on 
which  this  is  based  is  not  sufficient  fully  to  establish  so  slight  a 
motion.  In  the  case  of  the  motion  of  the  moon  around  the  earth, 
assuming  the  gravitation  of  the  latter  to  be  subject  to  the 
modification  in  question,  the  annual  motion  of  the  moon's 


GRAVITATION 


385 


perigee  should  be  greater  by  1-5"  than  the  theoretical  motion. 
E.  W.  Brown  is  the  first  investigator  to  determine  the  theoretical 
motions  with  this  degree  of  precision;  and  he  finds  that  there 
is  no  such  divergence  between  the  actual  and  the  computed 
motion.  There  is  therefore  as  yet  no  ground  for  regarding  any 
deviation  from  the  law  of  inverse  square-  as  more  than  a  possi- 
bility. (S.  N.) 

GRAVITATION  CONSTANT  AND  MEAN  DENSITY  OF  THE  EARTH 

The  law  of  gravitation  states  that  two  masses  Mi  and  M2, 
distant  d  from  each  other,  are  pulled  together  each  with  a  force 
G.  MI  M2/(f,  where  G  is  a  constant  for  all  kinds  of  matter  —  the 
gravitation  constant.  The  acceleration  of  M2  towards  Mi  or  the 
force  exerted  on  it  by  MI  per  unit  of  its  mass  is  therefore  GM\/d?. 
Astronomical  observations  of  the  accelerations  of  different 
planets  towards  the  sun,  or  of  different  satellites  towards  the 
same  primary,  give  us  the  most  accurate  confirmation  of  the 
distance  part  of  the  law.  By  comparing  accelerations  towards 
different  bodies  we  obtain  the  ratios  of  the  masses  of  those 
different  bodies  and,  in  so  far  as  the  ratios  are  consistent,  we 
obtain  confirmation  of  the  mass  part.  But  we  only  obtain  the 
ratios  of  the  masses  to  the  mass  of  some  one  member  of  the 
system,  say  the  earth.  We  do  not  find  the  mass  in  terms  of 
grammes  or  pounds.  In  fact,  astronomy  gives  us  the  product 
GM,  but  neither  G  nor  M.  For  example,  the  acceleration  of  the 
earth  towards  the  sun  is  about  0-6  cm/sec.2  at  a  distance  from 
it  about  isXio12cm.  The  acceleration  of  the  moon  towards 
the  earth  is  about  0-27  cm/sec.2  at  a  distance  from  it  about 
4Xio10  cm.  If  S  is  the  mass  of  the  sun  and  E  the  mass  of  the 
earth  we  have  o-6  =  GS/  (isXio12)2  and  o-27  =  GE/  foXio10)2 
giving  us  GS  and  GE,  and  the  ratio  S/E  =  300,000  roughly; 
but  we  do  not  obtain  either  S  or  E  in  grammes,  and  we  do  not 
find  G. 

The  aim  of  the  experiments  to  be  described  here  may  be 
regarded  either  as  the  determination  of  the  mass  of  the  earth 
in  grammes,  most  conveniently  expressed  by  its  mass-;-  its 
volume,  that  is  by  its  "  mean  density  "  A,  or  the  determination 
of  the  "  gravitation  constant  "  G.  Corresponding  to  these  two 
aspects  of  the  problem  there  are  two  modes  of  attack.  Suppose 
that  a  body  of  mass  m  is  suspended  at  the  earth's  surface  where 
it  is  pulled  with  a  force  w  vertically  downwards  by  the  earth  —  its 
weight.  At  the  same  time  let  it  be  pulled  with  a  force  p  by  a 
measurable  mass  M  which  may  be  a  mountain,  or  some  measur- 
able part  of  the  earth's  surface  layers,  or  an  artificially  prepared 
mass  brought  near  m,  and  let  the  pull  of  M  be  the  same  as  if 
it  were  concentrated  at  a  distance  d.  The  earth  pull  may  be 
regarded  as  the  same  as  if  the  earth  were  all  concentrated  at  its 
centre,  distant  R. 
Then  w  =  G.jirR3A»j/R2  =  G.J7rRAm,  .  .  .  .  (i) 

and 

p  =  GMm/d*    .......     (2) 

By  division 


If  then  we  can  arrange  to  observe  w/p  we  obtain  A,  the'mean 
density  of  the  earth. 

But  the  same  observations  give  us  G  also.  For,  putting 
m=w/g  in  (2),  we  get 

r     &    P 

[=M-£T 

In  the  second  mode  of  attack  the  pull  p  between  two  artificially 
prepared  measured  masses  Mi,  M2  is  determined  when  they  are 
a  distance  d  apart,  and  since  /»  =  G.MiM2/'rf2  we  get  at  once 
G  =  />d2/MiM2.  But  we  can  also  deduce  A.  •  For  putting  w=mg 
in  (i)  we  get 


Experiments  of  the  first  class  in  which  the  pull  of  a  known  mass 
is  compared  with  the  pull  of  the  earth  maybe  termed  experiments 
on  the  mean  density  of  the  earth,  while  experiments  of  the 
second  class  in  which  the  pull  between  two  known  masses  is 
HI.  13 


directly  measured  may  be  termed  experiments  on  the  gravitation 
constant. 

We  shall,  however,  adopt  a  slightly  different  classification 
for  the  purpose  of  describing  methods  of  experiment,  viz: — 

1 .  Comparison  of  the  earth  pull  on  a  body  with  the  pull  of  a  natural 

mass  as  in  the  Schiehallion  experiment. 

2.  Determination  of  the  attraction  between  two  artificial  masses 

as  in  Cavendish's  experiment. 

3.  Comparison  of  the  earth  pull  on  a  body  with  the  pull  of  an 

artificial  mass  as  in  experiments  with  the  common  balance. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  possibility  of  gravitation 
experiments  of  this-  kind  was  first  considered  by  Newton,  and 
in  both  of  the  forms  (i)  and  (2).  In  the  System  of  the  World 
(3rd  ed.,  1737,  p.  40)  he  calculates  that  the  deviation  by  a  hemi- 
spherical mountain,  of  the  earth's  density  and  with  radius  3  m., 
on  a  plumb-line  at  its  side  will  be  less  than  2  minutes.  He  also 
calculates  (though  with  an  error  in  his  arithmetic)  the  accelera- 
tion towards  each  other  of  two  spheres  each  a  foot  in  diameter 
and  of  the  earth's  density,  and  comes  to  the  conclusion  that  in 
either  case  the  effect  is  too  small  for  measurement.  In  the 
Principia,  bk.  iii.,  prop,  x.,  he  makes  a  celebrated  estimate 
that  the  earth's  mean  density  is  five  or  six  times  that  of  water. 
Adopting  this  estimate,  the  deviation  by  an  actual  mountain 
or  the  attraction  of  two  terrestrial  spheres  would  be  of  the  orders 
calculated,  and  regarded  by  Newton  as  immeasurably  small. 

Whatever  method  is  adopted  the  force  to  be  measured  is  very 
minute.  This  may  be  realized  if  we  here  anticipate  the  results 
of  the  experiments,  which  show  that  in  round  numbers  A=S-S 
and  0  =  1/15,000,000  when  the  masses  are  in  grammes  and  the 
distances  in  centimetres. 

Newton's  mountain,  which  would  probably  have  density  about 
A/2  would  deviate  the  plumb-line  not  much  more  than  half  a 
minute.  Two  spheres  30  cm.  in  diameter  (about  i  ft.)  and  of 
density  n  (about  that  of  lead)  just  not  touching  would  pull 
each  other  with  a  force  rather  less  than  2  dynes,  and  their 
acceleration  would  be  such  that  they  would  move  into  contact 
if  starting  i  cm.  apart  in  rather  over  400  seconds. 

From  these  examples  it  will  be  realized  that  in  gravitation 
experiments  extraordinary  precautions  must  be  adopted'  to 
eliminate  disturbing  forces  which  may  easily  rise  to  be  com- 
parable with  the  forces  to  be  measured.  We  shall  not  attempt 
to  give  an  account  of  these  precautions,  but  only  seek  to  set 
forth  the  general  principles  of  the  different  experiments  which 
have  been  made. 

I.     Comparison  of  the  Earth  Pull  with  that  of  a  Natural  Mass. 

Bouguer's  Experiments. — The  earliest  experiments  were  made 
by  Pierre  Bouguer  about  1740,  and  they  are  recorded  in  his 
Figure  de  la  terre  (1749).  They  were  of  two  kinds.  In  the  first 
he  determined  the  length  of  the  seconds  pendulum,  and  thence 
g  at  different  levels.  Thus  at  Quito,  which  may  be  regarded 
as  on  a  table-land  1466  toises  (a  toise  is  about  6-4  ft.)  above 
sea-level,  the  seconds  pendulum  was  less  by  1/1331  than  on  the 
Isle  of  Inca  at  sea-level.  But  if  there  were  no  matter  above  the 
sea-level,  the  inverse  square  law  would  make  the  pendulum  less 
by  i/in8  at  the  higher  level.  The  value  of  g  then  at  the  higher 
level  was  greater  than  could  be  accounted  for  by  the  attraction 
of  an  earth  ending  atsea-level  by  the  difference  1/1118-1/1331  = 
1/6983,  and  this  was  put  down  to  the  attraction  of  the  plateau 
1466  toises  high;  or  the  attraction  of  the  whole  earth  was 
6983  times  the  attraction  of  the  plateau.  Using  the  rule,  now 
known  as  "  Young's  rule,"  for  the  attraction  of  the  plateau, 
Bouguer  found  that  the  density  of  the  earth  was  4-7  times  that 
of  the  plateau,  a  result  certainly  much  too  large. 

In  the  second  kind  of  experiment  he  attempted  to  measure 
the  horizontal  pull  of  Chimborazo,  a  mountain  about  20,000  ft. 
high,  by  the  deflection  of  a  plumb-line  at  a  station  on  its  south 
side.  Fig.  i  shows  the  principle  of  the  method.  Suppose  that 
two  stations  are  fixed,  one  on  the  side  of  the  mountain  due  south 
of  the  summit,  and  the  other  on  the  same  latitude  but  some 
distance  westward,  away  from  the  influence  of  the  mountain. 
Suppose  that  at  the  second  station  a  star  is  observed  to  pass  the 
meridian,  for  simplicity  we  will  say  directly  overhead,  then  a 


386 


GRAVITATION 


I"  Stihoo 
Out. South  el 
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OutWtiUf 

fcrst  Stihon 


plumb-line  will  hang  down  exactly  parallel  to  the  observing 
telescope.    If  the  mountain  were  away  it  would  also  hang  paralle 
to  the  telescope  at  the  first  station  when  directed  to  the  same 
star.     But  the  mountain  pulls  the  plumb-line  towards  it  anc 
the  star  appears  to   the  north  of  the  zenith   and  evidently 

mountain  pull/earth  pull  =  tan- 
gent of  angle  of  displacement 
of  zenith. 

Bouguer  observed  the  meridian 
altitude  of  several  stars  at  the 
two  stations.  There  was  still 
some  deflection  at  the  second 
station,  a  deflection  which  he 
estimated  as  1/14  that  at  the 
first  station,  and  he  found  on 
allowing  for  this  that  his  observa- 
tions gave  a  deflection  of  8  seconds 
at  the  first  station.  From  the 
form  and  size  of  the  mountain  he 
found  that  if  its  density  were  that 
of  the  earth  the  deflection  should 
be  103  seconds,  or  the  earth  was 

FIG.  i.-Bouguer's  Plumb-  nearlyf  V  times  f  dense  as  the 
line  Experiment  on  the  at-  mountain,  a  result  several  times 
traction  of  Chimborazo.  too  large.  But  the  work  was 

carried  on  under  enormous  diffi- 
culties owing  to  the  severity  of  the  weather,  and  no  exactness 
could  be  expected.  The  importance  of  the  experiment  lay  in  its 
proof  that  the  method  was  possible. 

Maskelyne's  Experiment. — In  1774  Nevil  Maskelyne  (Phil. 
Trans.,  1775,  p.  495)  made  an  experiment  on  the  deflection  of  the 
plumb-line  by  Schiehallion,  a  mountain  in  Perthshire,  which  has 
a  short  ridge  nearly  east  and  west,  and  sides  sloping  steeply  on 
the  north  and  south.  He  selected  two  stations  on  the  same 
meridian,  one  on  the  north,  the  other  on  the  south  slope,  and  by 
means  of  a  zenith  sector,  a  telescope  provided  with  a  plumb-bob, 
he  determined  at  each  station  the  meridian  zenith  distances  of 
a  number  of  stars.  From  a  survey  of  the  district  made  in  the 
years  1774-1776  the  geographical  difference  of  latitude  between 
the  two  stations  was  found  to  be  42-94  seconds,  and  this  would 
have  been  the  difference  in  the  meridian  zenith  difference  of  the 
same  star  at  the  two  stations  had  the  mountain  been  away. 
But  at  the  north  station  the  plumb-bob  was  pulled  south  and  the 
zenith  was  deflected  northwards,  while  at  the  south  station  the 
effect  was  reversed.  Hence  the  angle  between  the  zeniths,  or  the 
angle  between  the  zenith  distances  of  the  same  star  at  the  two 
stations  was  greater  than  the  geographical  42-94  seconds.  The 
mean  of  the  observations  gave  a  difference  of  54-2  seconds,  or 
the  double  deflection  of, the  plumb-line  was  54-2-42-94,  say 
11-26  seconds. 

The  computation  of  the  attraction  of  the  mountain  on  the 
supposition  that  its  density  was  that  of  the  earth  was  made  by 
Charles  Button  from  the  results  of  the  survey  (Phil.  Trans., 
1778,  p.  689),  a  computation  carried  out  by  ingenious  and 
importantVmethods.  He  found  that  the  deflection  should  have 
been  greater  in  the  ratio  17804  19933  say  9  :  5,  whence  the 
density  of  the  earth  comes  out  at  9/5  that  of  the  mountain. 
Hutton  took  the  density  of  the  mountain  at  2-5,  giving  the  mean 
density  of  the  earth  4-5.  A  revision  of  the  density  of  the  moun- 
tain from  a  careful  survey  of  the  rocks  composing  it  was  made 
by  John  Playfair  many  years  later  (PhiL  Trans.,  1811,  p.  347), 
and  the  density  of  the  earth  was  given  as  lying  between  4-5588 
and  4-867. 

Other  experiments  have  been  made  on  the  attraction  of 
mountains  by  Francesco  Carlini  (Milano  E/em.  Ast.,  1824, 
p.  28)  on  Mt.  Blanc  in  1821,  using  the  pendulum  method  after 
the  manner  of  Bouguer,  by  Colonel  Sir  Henry  James  and  Captain 
A.  R.  Clarke  (Phil.  Trans.,  1856,  p.  591),  using  the  plumb-line 
deflection  at  Arthur's  Seat,  by  T.  C.  Mendenhall  (Amer.  Jour,  of 
Sci.  xxi.  p.  99),  using  the  pendulum  method  on  Fujiyama  in 
Japan,  and  by  E.  D.  Preston  (U.S.  Coast  and  Geod.  Survey  Rep., 
1893,  p.  513)  in  Hawaii,  using  both  methods. 


Airy's  Experiment.— In  1854  Sir  G.  B.  Airy  (Phil.  Trans., 
1856,  p.  297)  carried  out  at  Harton  pit  near  South  Shields  an 
experiment  which  he  had  attempted  many  years  before  in  con- 
junction with  W.  Whewell  and  R.  Sheepshanks  at  Dolcoath. 
This  consisted  in  comparing  gravity  at  the  top  and  at  the  bottom 
of  a  mine  by  the  swings  of  the  same  pendulum,  and  thence  finding 
the  ratio  of  the  pull  of  the  intervening  strata  to  the  pull  of  the 
whole  earth.  The  principle  of  the  method  may  be  understood 
by  assuming  that  the  earth  consists  of  concentric  spherical  shells 
each  homogeneous,  the  last  of  thickness  h  equal  to  the  depth 
of  the  mine.  Let  the  radius  of  the  earth  to  the  bottom  of  the 
mine  be  R,  and  the  mean  density  up  to  that  point  be  A.  This 
will  not  differ  appreciably  from  the  mean  density  of  the  whole. 
Let  the  density  of  the  strata  of  depth  h  be  8.  Denoting  the 
values  of  gravity  above  and  below  by  ga  and  gi  we  have 


irR3A 


=  G.|jrRA,  j 


rR3A 


and 


(since  the  attraction  of  a  shell  h  thick  on  a  point  just  outside  it  is 

G.4ir(R+h)2h8/(R+h)*=  G.+whS). 

Therefore 

I.  =  G.JTRA(I  -^+^|)  nearly, 

whence 

JE«=,_2*+2*  8 
gb  R  ^  R  A' 

and 


Stations  were  chosen  in  the  same  vertical,  one  near  the  pit 
bank,  another  1250  ft.  below  in  a  disused  working,  and  a  "  com- 
parison "  clock  was  fixed  at  each  station.  A  third  clock  was 
placed  at  the  upper  station  connected  by  an  electric  circuit  to 
the  lower  station.  It  gave  an  electric  signal  every  15  seconds 
by  which  the  rates  of  the  two  comparison  clocks  could  be  accur- 
ately compared.  Two  "  invariable  "  seconds  pendulums  were 
swung,  one  in  front  of  the  upper  and  the  other  in  front  of  the 
lower  comparison  clock  after  the  manner  of  Kater,  and  these 
invariables  were  interchanged  at  intervals.  From  continuous 
observations  extending  over  three  weeks  and  after  applying 
various  corrections  Airy  obtained  gt/ga=  1-00005 185.  Making 
corrections  for  the  irregularity  of  the  neighbouring  strata  he 
found  A/5  =  2-6266.  W.  H.  Miller  made  a  careful  determination 
of  8  from  specimens  of  the  strata,  finding  it  2-5.  The  final 
result  taking  into  account  the  ellipticity  and  rotation  of  the  earth 
is  A  =  6-s6s. 

Von  Slerneck's  Experiments. — (Mitth.  des  K.U.K.  Mil.  Geog. 
Inst.  zu  Wien,  ii.,  1882,  p.  77;  1883,  p.  59;  vi.,  1886,  p.  97). 
R.  von  Sterneck  repeated  the  mine  experiment  in  1882-1883 
at  the  Adalbert  shaft  at  Pribram  in  Bohemia  and  in  1885  at  the 
Abraham  shaft  near  Freiberg.  He  used  two  invariable  half- 
seconds  pendulums,  one  swung  at  the  surface,  the  other  below 
at  the  same  time.  The  two  were  at  intervals  interchanged. 
Von  Sterneck  introduced  a  most  important  improvement  by 
comparing  the  swings  of  the  two  invariables  with  the  same  clock 
which  by  an  electric  circuit  gave  a  signal  at  each  station  each 
second.  This  eliminated  clock  rates.  His  method,  of  which  it 
s  not  necessary  to  give  the  details  here,  began  a  new  era  in  the 
determinations  of  local  variations  of  gravity.  The  values  which 
von  Sterneck  obtained  for  A  were  not  consistent,  but  increased 
with  the  depth  of  the  second  station.  This  was  probably  due 
to  local  irregularities  in  the  strata  which  could  not  be  directly 
detected. 

All  the  experiments  to  determine  A  by  the  attraction  of 
natural  masses  are  open  to  the  serious  objection  that  we  cannot 
determine  the  distribution  of  density  in  the  neighbourhood 
with  any  approach  to  accuracy.  The  experiments  with  artificial 
masses  next  to  be  described  give  much  more  consistent  results, 
and  the  experiments  with  natural  masses  are  now  only  of  use 


GRAVITATION 


in  showing  the  existence  of  irregularities  in  the  earth's  superficial 

strata  when  they  give  results  deviating  largely  from  the  accepted 

value. 

II.  Determination  of  the  Attraction  between  two  Artificial  Masses. 

Cavendish's  Experiment  (Phil.  Trans.,  1798,  p.  469). — This 
celebrated  experiment  was  planned  by  the  Rev.  John  Michell. 
He  completed  an  apparatus  for  it  but  did  not  live  to  begin  work 
with  it.  After  Michell's  death  the  apparatus  came  into  the 
possession  of  Henry  Cavendish,  who  largely  reconstructed  it, 
but  still  adhered  to  Michell's  plan,  and  in  1797-1798  he  carried 
out  the  experiment.  The  essential  feature  of  it  consisted  in  the 
determination  of  the  attraction  of  a  lead  sphere  1 2  in.  in  diameter 
on  another  lead  sphere  2  in.  in  diameter,  the  distance  between 
the  centres  being  about  9  in.,  by  means  of  a  torsion  balance. 
Fig.  2  shows  how  the  experiment  was  carried  out.  A  torsion 
rod  hh  6  ft.  long,  tied  from  its  ends  to  a  vertical  piece  mg,  was 


FIG.  2.  —  Cavendish's  Apparatus. 

h  h,  torsion  rod  hung  by  wire  I  g,  ;  x,x,  attracted  balls  hung  from 
its  ends;  WW,  attracting  masses. 

hung  by  a  wire  Ig.  From  its  ends  depended  two  lead  balls  xx  each 
2  in.  in  diameter.  The  position  of  the  rod  was  determined  by  a 
scale  fixed  near  the  end  of  the  arm,  the  arm  itself  carrying  a 
vernier  moving  along  the  scale.  This  was  lighted  by  a  lamp  and 
viewed  by  a  telescope  T  from  the  outside  of  the  room  containing 
the  apparatus.  The  torsion  balance  was  enclosed  in  a  case 
and  outside  this  two  lead  spheres  WW  each  12  in.  in  diameter 
hung  from  an  arm  which  could  turn  round  an  axis  Pp  in  the  line 
of  gl.  Suppose  that  first  the  spheres  are  placed  so  that  one  is 
just  in  front  of  the  right-hand  ball  x  and  the  other  is  just  behind 
the  left-hand  ball  x.  The  two  will  conspire  to  pull  the  balls  so 
that  the  right  end  of  the  rod  moves  forward.  Now  let  the  big 
spheres  be  moved  round  so  that  one  is  in  front  of  the  left  ball 
and  the  other  behind  the  right  ball.  The  pulls  are  reversed 
and  t  he  right  end  moves  backward.  The  angle  between  its  two 
positions  is  (if  we  neglect  cross  attractions  of  right  sphere  on 
left  ball  and  left  sphere  on  right  ball)  four  times  as  great  as  the 
deflection  of  the  rod  due  to  approach  of  one  sphere  to  one  ball. 

The  principle  of  the  experiment  may  be  set  forth  thus.  Let  20 
be  the  length  of  the  torsion  rod,  m  the  mass  of  a  ball,  M  the  mass  of 
a  large  sphere,  d  the  distance  between  the  centres,  supposed  the  same 
on  each  side.  Let  6  be  the  angle  through  which  the  rod  moves  round 
when  the  spheres  WW  are  moved  from  the  first  to  the  second  of  the 
positions  described  above.  Let  M  be  the  couple  required  to  twist 
the  rod  through  i  radian.  Then  ft8  =  4.GMma/tP.  But  /»  can  be 
found  from  the  time  of  vibration  of  the  torsion  system  when  we 
know  its  moment  of  inertia  I,  and  this  can  be  determined.  If  T 
is  the  period  ^=4^1/1^,  whence  G=ir2dzIe/T2M»ta,  or  putting  the 
result  in  terms  of  the  mean  density  of  the  earth  A  it  is  easy  to  show 
that,  if  L,  the  length  of  the  seconds  pendulum,  is  put  for  g/ir2,  and  C 
for  2irR,  the  earth's  circumference,  then 

,L  MmoT1 


The  original  account  by  Cavendish  is  still  well  worth  studying 


on  account  of  the  excellence  of  his  methods.  His  work  was 
undoubtedly  very  accurate  for  a  pioneer  experiment  and  has 
only  really  been  improved  upon  within  the  last  generation. 
Making  various  corrections  of  which  it  is  not  necessary  to  give 
a  description,  the  result  obtained  (after  correcting  a  mistake 
first  pointed  out  by  F.  Baily)  is  A  =  5-448.  In  seeking  the  origin 
of  the  disturbed  motion  of  the  torsion  rod  Cavendish  made  a  very 
important  observation.  He  found  that  when  the  masses  were 
left  in  one  position  for  a  time  the  attracted  balls  crept  now  in 
one  direction,  now  in  another,  as  if  the  attraction  were  varying. 
Ultimately  he  found  that  this  was  due  to  convection  currents 
in  the  case  containing  the  torsion  rod,  currents  produced  by 
temperature  inequalities.  When  a  large  sphere  was  heated  the 
ball  near  it  tended  to  approach  and  when  it  was  cooled  the  ball 
tended  to  recede.  Convection  currents  constitute  the  chief 
disturbance  and  the  chief  source  of  error  in  all  attempts  to 
measure  small  forces  in  air  at  ordinary  pressure. 

Reich's  Experiments  (  Versuche  tiber  die  mittlere  Dichtigkeit 
der  Erde  mittelst  der  Drehwage,  Freiberg,  1838;  "  Neue 
Versuche  mit  der  Drehwage,"  Leipzig  Abh.  Math.  Phys.  i., 
1852,  p.  383).  —  In  1838  F.  Reich  published  an  account  of  a 
repetition  of  the  Cavendish  experiment  carried  out  on  the 
same  general  lines,  though  with  somewhat  smaller  apparatus. 
The  chief  differences  consisted  in  the  methods  of  measuring 
the  times  of  vibration  and  the  deflection,  and  the  changes 
were  hardly  improvements.  His  result  after  revision  was 
A=  5-49.  In  1852  he  published  an  account  of  further  work 
giving  as  result  A  =5-  58.  It  is  noteworthy  that  in  his 
second  paper  he  gives  an  account  of  experiments  suggested 
by  J.  D.  Forbes  in  which  the  deflection  was  not  observed 
directly,  but  was  deduced  from  observations  of  the  time 
of  vibration  when  the  attracting  masses  were  in  different 
positions. 

Let  Ti  be  the  time  of  vibration  when  the  masses  are  in  one 
of  the  usual  attracting  positions.  Let  d  be  the  distance  between 
the  centres  of  attracting  mass  and  attracted  ball,  and  &  the 
distance  through  which  the  ball  is  pulled.  If  a  is  the  half  length 
of  the  torsion  rod  and  0  the  deflection,  5=00.  Now  let  the 
attracting  masses  be  put  one  at  each  end  of  the  torsion  rod 
with  their  centres  in  the  line  through  the  centres  of  the  balls 
and  d  from  them,  and  let  T2  be  the  time  of  vibration.  Then 
it  is  easy  to  show  that 

S[d=ae/d  =  (Ti  - 


This  gives  a  value  of  6  which  may  be  used  in  the  formula.  The 
experiments  by  this  method  were  not  Consistent,  and  the  mean 
result  was  A  =  6-25. 

Baily'  s  Experiment  (Memoirs  of  the  Royal  Astron.  Soc.  xiv.).  — 
In  1841-1842  Francis  Baily  made  a  long  series  of  determinations 
by  Cavendish's  'method  a'nd  with  apparatus  nearly  of  the  same 
dimensions.  The  attracting  masses  were  i2-in.  lead  spheres 
and  as  attracted  balls  he  used  various  masses,  lead,  zinc,  glass, 
ivory,  platinum,  hollow  brass,  and  finally  the  torsion  rod  alone 
without  balls.  The  suspension  was  also  varied,  sometimes 
consisting  of  a  single  wire,  sometimes  being  bifilar.  There  were 
systematic  errors  running  through  Baily's  work,  which  it  is 
impossible  now  wholly  to  explain.  These  made  the  resulting 
value  of  A  show  a  variation  with  the  nature  of  the  attracted 
masses  and  a  variation  with  the  temperature.  His  final  result 
A  =  5-6747  is  not  of  value  compared  with  later  results. 

Cornu  and  Bailie's  Experiment  (Comptes  rendus,  Ixxvi., 
l873>  P-  954;  Ixxxvi.,  1878,  pp.  571,  699,  1001;  xcvi.,  1883, 
p.  1493)-  —  In  1870  MM.  A.  Cornu  and  ].  Bailie  commenced 
an  experiment  by  the  Cavendish  method  which  was  never 
definitely  completed,  though  valuable  studies  of  the  behaviour 
of  the  torsion  apparatus  were  made.  They  purposely  departed 
from  the  dimensions  previously  used.  The  torsion  balls  were  of 
copper  about  100  gm.  each,  the  rod  was  50  cm.  long,  and  the 
suspending  wire  was  4  metres  long.  On  each  side  of  each  ball 
was  a  hollow  iron  sphere.  Two  of  these  were  filled  with  mercury 
weighing  12  kgm.,  the  two  spheres  of  mercury  constituting  the 
attracting  masses.  When  the  position  of  a  mass  was  to  be 
changed  the  mercury  was  pumped  from  the  sphere  on  one  side 
to  that  on  the  other  side  of  a  ball.  To  avoid  counting  time  a 


388 


GRAVITATION 


method  of  electric  registration  on  a  chronograph  was  adopted. 
A  provisional  result  was  A  =5- 56. 

Boys's  Experiment  (Phil.  Trans.,  A.,  1895,  pt.  i.,  p.  i). — 
Professor  C.  V.  Boys  having  found  that  it  is  possible  to  draw 
quartz  fibres  of  practically  any  degree  of  fineness,  of  great 
strength  and  true  in  their  elasticity,  determined  to  repeat  the 
Cavendish  experiment,  using  his  newly  invented  fibres  for 
the  suspension  of  the  torsion  rod.  He  began  by  an  inquiry 
as  to  the  best  dimensions  for  the  apparatus.  He  saw  that  if 
the  period  of  vibration  is  kept  constant,  that  is,  if  the  moment 
of  inertia  I  is  kept  proportional  to  the  torsion  couple  per  radian 
/i,  then  the  deflection  remains  the  same  however  the  linear 
dimensions  are  altered  so  long  as  they  are  all  altered  in  the  same 
proportion.  Hence  we  are  driven  to  conclude  that  the  dimen- 
sions should  be  reduced  until  further  reduction  would  make  the 
linear  quantities  too  small  to  be  measured  with  exactness,  for 
reduction  in  the  apparatus  enables  variations  in  temperature 
and  the  consequent  air  disturbances  to  be  reduced,  and  the 
experiment  in  other  ways  becomes  more  manageable.  Professor 
Boys  took  as  the  exactness  to  be  sought  for  i  in  10,000.  He 
further  saw  that  reduction  in  length  of  the  torsion  rod  with 
given  balls  is  an  advantage.  For  if  the  rod  be  halved  the  moment 
of  inertia  is  one-fourth,  and  if  the  suspending  fibre  is  made 
finer  so  that  the  torsion  couple  per  radian  is  also  one-fourth 
the  time  remains  the  same.  But  the  moment  of  the  attracting 
force  is  halved  only,  so  that  the  deflection  against  one-fourth 
torsion  is  doubled.  In  Cavendish's  arrangement  there  would 

be  an  early  limit 
to  the  advantage 
in  reduction  of 
rod  in  that  the 
mass  opposite 
one  ball  would 
begin  seriously  to 
attract  the  other 
ball.  But  Boys 
avoided  this 
difficulty  by  sus- 
pending the  balls 
from  the  ends  of 
the  torsion  rod  at 
different  levels 
and  by  placing 
the  attracting 
masses  at  these 
different  levels. 
Fig.  3  represents 
diagrammatic- 
ally  a  vertical 
section  of  the 
a  rrangement 
used  on  a  scale 
of  about  i/io. 
The  torsion  rod 
was  a  small  rect- 
angular mirror 
about  2-4  cm. 
wide  hung  by  a 
quartz  fibre 
about  43  cm. 

long.  From  the  sides  of  this  mirror  the  balls  were  hung  by  quartz 
fibres  at  levels  differing  by  1 5  cm.  The  balls  were  of  gold  either 
about  5  mm.  in  diameter  and  weighing  about  1-3  gm.  or  about 
6-5  mm.  in  diameter  and  weighing  2-65  gm.  The  attracting 
masses  were  lead  spheres,  about  10  cm.  in  diameter  and  weighing 
about  7-4  kgm.  each.  These  were  suspended  from  the  top  of 
the  case  which  could  be  rotated  round  the  central  tube,  and  they 
were  arranged  so  that  the  radius  to  the  centre  from  the  axis  of 
the  torsion  system  made  65°  with  the  torsion  rod,  the  position  in 
which  the  moment  of  the  attraction  was  a  maximum.  The 
torsion  rod  mirror  reflected  a  distant  scale  by  which  the  deflection 
could  be  read.  The  time  of  vibration  was  recorded  on  a  chrono- 


Fig.  3. — Diagram  of  a  Section  of  Professor 
Boys's  Apparatus. 


graph.  The  result  of  the  experiment,  probably  the  best  yet  made, 
was  A  =  5>527;  G  =  6-6s8Xio~8. 

Braun's  Experiment  (Denkschr.  Akad.  Wiss.  Wien,  math.- 
naturw.  Cl.  64,  p.  187,  1896). — In  1896  Dr  K.  Braun,  S.J.,  gave 
an  account  of  a  very  careful  and  excellent  repetition  of  the 
Cavendish  experiment  with  apparatus  much  smaller  than  was 
used  in  the  older  experiments,  yet  much  larger  than  that  used 
by  Boys.  A  notable  feature  of  the  work  consisted  in  the  suspen- 
sion of  the  torsion  apparatus  in  a  receiver  exhausted  to  about 
4  mm.  of  mercury,  a  pressure  at  which  convection  currents 
almost  disappear  while  "  radiometer "  forces  have  hardly 
begun.  For  other  ingenious  arrangements  the  original  paper 
or  a  short  abstract  in  Nature,  Ivi.,  1897,  p.  127,  may  be  con- 
sulted. The  attracted  balls  weighed  54  gm.  each  and  were 
25  cm.  apart.  The  attracting  masses  were  spheres  of  mercury 
each  weighing  9  kgm.  and  brought  into  position  outside  the 
receiver.  Braun  used  both  the  deflection  method  and  the  time 
of  vibration  method  suggested  to  Reich  by  Forbes.  The  methods 
gave  almost  identical  results  and  his  final  values  are  to  three 
decimal  places  the  same  as  those  obtained  by  Boys. 

G.  K.  Burgess's  Experiment  (Theses  presentees  d,  la  jaculte 
des  sciences  de  Paris  pour  obtenir  le  litre  de  docteur  de  I'universite 
de  Paris,  1901). — This  was  a  Cavendish  experiment  in  which 
the  torsion  system  was  buoyed  up  by  a  float  in  a  mercury  bath. 
The  attracted  masses  could  thus  be  made  large,  and  yet  the 
suspending  wire  could  be  kept  fine.  The  torsion  beam  was  1 2  cm. 
long,  and  the  attracted  balls  were  lead  spheres  each  2  kgm.  From 
the  centre  of  the  beam  depended  a  vertical  steel  rod  with  a 
varnished  copper  hollow  float  at  its  end,  entirely  immersed  in 
mercury.  The  surface  of  the  mercury  was  covered  with  dilute 
sulphuric  acid  to  remove  irregularities  due  to  varying  surface 
tension  acting  on  the  steel  rod.  The  size  of  the  float  was  adjusted 
so  that  the  torsion  fibre  of  quartz  35  cm.  long  had  only  to  carry 
a  weight  of  5  to  10  gm.  The  time  of  vibration  was  over  one 
hour.  The  torsion  couple  per  radian  was  determined  by  pre- 
liminary experiments.  The  attracting  masses  were  each  10  kgm. 
turning  in  a  circle  18  cm.  in  diameter.  The  results  gave  A=  5-55 
andG  =  6-64Xio~8. 

Eotvos's  Experiment  (Ann.  der  Physik  und  Cltemie,  1896,  59, 
P-  354)- — In  the  course  of  investigations  on  local  variations 
of  gravity  by  means  of  the  torsion  balance,  R.  Eotvos  devised 
a  method  for  determining  G  somewhat  like  the  vibration  method 
used  by  Reich  and  Braun.  Two  pillars  were  built  up  of  lead 
blocks  30  cm.  square  in  cross  section,  60  cm.  high  and  30  cm. 
apart.  A  torsion  rod  somewhat  less  than  30  cm.  long  with 
small  weights  at  the  ends  was  enclosed  in  a  double-walled  brass 
case  of  as  little  depth  as  possible,  a  device  which  secured  great 
steadiness  through  freedom  from  convection  currents.  The 
suspension  was  a  platinum  wire  about  150  cm.  long.  The 
torsion  rod  was  first  set  in  the  line  joining  the  centres  of  the 
pillars  and  its  time  of  vibration  was  taken.  Then  it  was  set 
with  its  length  perpendicular  to  the  line  joining  the  centres  and 
the  time  again  taken.  From  these  times  Eotvos  was  able  to 
deduce  G  =  6-6sXio~8  whence  A=s>53.  This  is  only  a  pro- 
visional value.  The  experiment  was  only  as  it  were  a  by-product 
in  the  course  of  exceedingly  ingenious  work  on  the  local  variation 
in  gravity  for  which  the  original  paper  should  be  consulted. 

W Using' s  Experiment  (Publ.  des  astrophysikalischen  Obseru.  zu 
Potsdam,  1887,  No.  22,  vol.  vi.  pt.  ii.;  pt.  iii.  p.  133). — We  may 
perhaps  class  with  the  Cavendish  type  an  experiment  made  by 
J.  Wilsing,  in  which  a  vertical  "  double  pendulum  "  was  used 
in  place  of  a  horizontal  torsion  system.  Two  weights  each  540 
gm.  were  fixed  at  the  ends  of  a  rod  i  metre  long.  A  knife  edge 
was  fixed  on  the  rod  just  above  its  centre  of  gravity,  and  this 
was  supported  so  that  the  rod  could  vibrate  about  a  vertical 
position.  Two  attracting  masses,  cast-iron  cylinders  each  325 
kgm.,  were  placed,  say,  one  in  front  of  the  top  weight  on  the 
pendulum  and  the  other  behind  the  bottom  weight,  and  the 
position  of  the  rod  was  observed  in  the  usual  mirror  and  scale 
way.  Then  the  front  attracting  mass  was  dropped  to  the  level 
of  the  lower  weight  and  the  back  mass  was  raised  to  that  of  the 
upper  weight,  and  the  consequent  deflection  of  the  rod  was 


GRAVY 


3»9 


observed.  By  taking  the  time  of  vibration  of  the  pendulum 
first  as  used  in  the  deflection  experiment  and  then  when  a  small 
weight  wasiemoved  from  the  upper  end  a  known  distance  from 
the  knife  edge,  the  restoring  couple  per  radian  deflection  could 
be  found.  The  final  result  gave  A  =  5-579. 

/.  Joly's  suggested  Experiment  (Nature  xli.,  1890,  p.  256). — 
Joly  has  suggested  that  G  might  be  determined  by  hanging  a 
simple  pendulum  in  a  vacuum,  and  vibrating  outside  the  case 
two  massive  pendulums  each  with  the  same  time  of  swing  as  the 
simple  pendulum.  The  simple  pendulum  would  be  set  swinging 
by  the  varying  attraction  and  from  its  amplitude  after  a  known 
number  of  swings  of  the  outside  pendulums  G  could  be  found. 

III.  Comparison  of  the  Earth  Pull  on  a  body  with  the  Pull  of  an 
Artificial  Mass  by  Means  oj  the  Common  Balance. 

The  principle  of  the  method  is  as  follows: — Suppose  a  sphere 
of  mass  m  and  weight  w  to  be  hung  by  a  wire  from  one  arm  of 
a  balance.  Let  the  mass  of  the  earth  be  E  and  its  radius  be  R. 
Then  w  =  GEm/R2.  Now  introduce  beneath  m  a  sphere  of 
mass  M  and  let  d  be  the  distance  of  its  centre  from  that  of  m. 
Its  pull  increases  the  apparent  weight  of  m  say  by  Sw.  Then 
5w  =  GMm[d2>.  Dividing  we  obtain  5w/w=MR?jE,d?,  whence 
E  =  MR^ivjd^Sw;  and  since  g  =  GE/R2,  G  can  be  found  when  E  is 
known. 

Von  Jolly's  Experiment  (Abhand.  der  k.  bayer.  Akad.  der  Wiss. 
2  Cl.  xiii.  Bd.  i  Abt.  p.  157,  and  xiv.  Bd.  2  Abt.  p.  3).— In  the 
first  of  these  papers  Ph.  von  Jolly  described  an  experiment  in 
which  he  sought  to  determine  the  decrease  in  weight  with  increase 
of  height  from  the  earth's  surface,  an  experiment  suggested  by 
Bacon  (Nov.  Org.  Bk.  2,  §36),  in  the  form  of  comparison  of  rates 
of  two  clocks  at  different  levels,  one  driven  by  a  spring,  the  other 
by  weights.  The  experiment  in  the  form  carried  out  by  von 
Jolly  was  attempted  by  H.  Power,  R.  Hooke,  and  others  in  the 
early  days  of  the  Royal  Society  (Mackenzie,  The  Laws  of  Gravita- 
tion). Von  Jolly  fixed  a  balance  at  the  top  of  his  laboratory  and 
from  each  pan  depended  a  wire  supporting  another  pan  5  metres 
below.  Two  i-kgm.  weights  were  first  balanced  in  the  upper  pans 
and  then  one  was  moved  from  an  upper  to  the  lower  pan  on  the 
same  side.  A  gain  of  1-5  mgm.  was  observed  after  correction 
for  greater  weight  of  air  displaced  at  the  lower  level.  The  inverse 
square  law  would  give  a  slightly  greater  gain  and  the  deficiency 
was  ascribed  to  the  configuration  of  the  land  near  the  laboratory. 
In  the  second  paper  a  second  experiment  was  described  in  which 
a  balance  was  fixed  at  the  top  of  a  tower  and  provided  as  before 
with  one  pair  of  pans  just  below  the  arms  and  a  second  pair 
hung  from  these  by  wires  21  metres  below.  Four  glass  globes 
were  prepared  equal  in  weight  and  volume.  Two  of  these  were 
filled  each  with  5  kgm.  of  mercury  and  then  all  were  sealed  up. 
The  two  heavy  globes  were  then  placed  in  the  upper  pans  and 
the  two  light  ones  in  the  lower.  The  two  on  one  side  were  now 
interchanged  and  a  gain  in  weight  of  about  31-7  mgm.  was 
observed.  Air  corrections  were  eliminated  by  the  use  of  the 
globes  of  equal  volume.  Then  a  lead  sphere  about  i  metre  radius 
was  built  up  of  blocks  under  one  of  the  lower  pans  and  the 
experiment  was  repeated.  Through  the  attraction  of  the  lead 
sphere  on  the  mass  of  mercury  when  below  the  gain  was  greater 
by  0-589  mgm.  This  result  gave  A=  5-692. 

Experiment  of  Richarz  and  Krigar-Menzel  (Anhang  zu  den 
Abhand.  der  k.  preuss.  Akad.  der  Wiss.  zu  Berlin,  1808). — In 
1884  A  Konig  and  F.  Richarz  proposed  a  similar  experiment 
which  was  ultimately  carried  out  by  Richarz  and  O.  Krigar- 
Menzel.  In  this  experiment  a  balance  was  supported  somewhat 
more  than  2  metres  above  the  floor  and  with  scale  pans  above 
and  below  as  in  von  Jolly's  experiment.  Weights  each  i  kgm. 
were  placed,  say,  in  the  top  right  pan  and  the  bottom  left  pan. 
Then  they  were  shifted  to  the  bottom  right  and  the  top  left,  the 
result  being,  after  corrections  for  change  in  density  of  air  dis- 
placed through  pressure  and  temperature  changes,  a  gain  in 
weight  of  1-2453  mgm.  on  the  right  due  to  change  in  level  of 
2.2628  metres.  Then  a  rectangular  column  of  lead  210  cm. 
square  cross  section  and  200  cm.  high  was  built  up  under  the 
balance  between  the  pairs  of  pans.  The  column  was  perforated 


with  two  vertical  tunnels  for  the  passage  of  the  wires  supporting 
the  lower  pans.  On  repeating  the  weighings  there  was  now  a 
decrease  on  the  right  when  a  kgm.  was  moved  on  that  side  from 
top  to  bottom  while  another  was  moved  on  the  left  from  bottom 
to  top.  This  decrease  was  0-1211  mgm.  showing  a  total  change 
due  to  the  lead  mass  of  1-2453  +  0-1211  =  1-3664  mgm.  and  this 
is  obviously  four  times  the  attraction  of  the  lead  mass  on  one 
kgm.  The  changes  in  the  positions  of  the  weights  were  made 
automatically.  The  results  gave  A  =  5-osandG  =  6-685Xio~8. 

Poynting's  Experiment  (Phil.  Trans.,  vol.  182,  A,  1891, 
p.  565). — In  1878  J.  H.  Poynting  published  an  account  of  a 
preliminary  experiment  which  he  had  made  to  show  that  the 
common  balance  was  available  for  gravitational  work.  The 
experiment  was  on  the  same  lines  as  that  of  von  Jolly  but  on  a 
much  smaller  scale.  In  1891  he  gave  an  account  of  the  full 
experiment  carried  out  with  a  larger  balance  and  with  much 
greater  care.  The  balance  had  a  4-ft.  beam.  The  scale  pans 
were  removed,  and  from  the  two  arms  were  hung  lead  spheres 
each  weighing  about  20  kgm.  at  a  level  about  120  cm.  below  the 
beam.  The  balance  was  supported  in  a  case  above  a  horizontal 
turn-table  with  axis  vertically  below  the  central  knife  edge,  and 
on  this  turn-table  was  a  lead  sphere  weighing  150  kgm. — the 
attracting  mass.  The  centre  of  this  sphere  was  30  cm.  below  the 
level  of  the  centres  of  the  hanging  weights.  The  turn-table 
could  be  rotated  between  stops  so  that  the  attracting  mass  was 
first  immediately  below  the  hanging  weight  on  one  side,  and  then 
immediately  under  that  on  the  other  side.  On  the  same  turn- 
table but  at  double  the  distance  from  the  centre  was  a  second 
sphere  of  half  the  weight  introduced  merely  to  balance  the 
larger  sphere  and  keep  the  centre  of  gravity  at  the  centre  of  the 
turn-table.  Before  the  introduction  of  this  sphere  errors  were 
introduced  through  the  tilting  of  the  floor  of  the  balance  room 
when  the  turn-table  was  rotated.  Corrections  of  course  had 
to  be  made  for  the  attraction  of  this  second  sphere.  The  removal 
of  the  large  mass  from  left  to  right  made  an  increase  in  weight 
on  that  side  of  about  i  mgm.  determined  by  riders  in  a  special 
way  described  in  the  paper.  To  eliminate  the  attraction  on  the 
beam  and  the  rods  supporting  the  hanging  weights  another 
experiment  was  made  in  which  these  weights  were  moved  up 
the  rods  through  30  cm.  and  on  now  moving  the  attracting 
sphere  from  left  to  right  the  gain  on  the  right  was  only  about 
%  mgm.  The  difference,  $  mgm.,  was  due  entirely  to  change  in 
distance  of  the  attracted  masses.  After  all  corrections  the  results 
gave  A=  5-493  and  G  =  6-698  X  io~8. 

Final  Remarks. — The  earlier  methods  in  which  natural  masses 
were  used  have  disadvantages,  as  already  pointed  out,  which 
render  them  now  quite  valueless.  Of  later  methods  the 
Cavendish  appears  to  possess  advantages  over  the  common 
balance  method  in  that  it  is  more  easy  to  ward  off  temperature 
variations,  and  so  avoid  convection  currents,  and  probably  more 
easy  to  determine  the  actual  value  of  the  attracting  force.  For 
the  present  the  values  determined  by  Boys  and  Braun  may  be 
accepted  as  having  the  greatest  weight  and  we  therefore  take 
Mean  density  of  the  earth  A=  5-527 
Constant  of  gravitation  G  =  6-658  X  io~8. 
Probably  A  =  5-53  and  G  =  6-66  X  io~8  are  correct  to  i  in  500. 

AUTHORITIES. — J.  H.  Poynting,  The  Mean  Density  of  the  Earth 
(1894),  gives  an  account  of  all  work  up  to  the  date  of  publication 
with  a  bibliography;  A.  Stanley  Mackenzie,  The  Laws  of  Gravita- 
tion (1899),  gives  annotated  extracts  from  various  papers,  some 
historical  notes  and  a  bibliography.  A  Bibliography  of  Geodesy, 
Appendix  8,  Report  for  1902  of  the  U.S.  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey  in- 
cludes a  very  complete  bibliography  of  gravitational  work.  (J.H.P.) 

GRAVY,  a  word  usually  confined  to  the  natural  juices  which 
come  from  meat  during  cooking.  In  early  uses  (in  the  New 
English  Dictionary  the  quotations  date  from  the  end  of  the  I4th 
to  the  beginning  of  the  i6th  centuries)  it  meant  a  sauce  of  broth 
flavoured  with  spices  and  almonds.  The  more  modern  usage 
seems  to  date  from  the  end  of  the  i6th  century.  The  word  is 
obscure  in  origin.  It  has  been  connected  with  "graves"  or 
"  greaves,"  the  refuse  of  tallow  in  the  manufacture  of  soap  or 
candles.  The  more  probable  derivation  is  from  the  French. 
In  Old  French  the  word  is  almost  certainly  grant,  and  is  derived 


390 


GRAY,  A.— GRAY,  E. 


from  grain,  "  something  used  in  cooking."  The  word  was  early 
read  and  spelled  with  a  u  or  v  instead  of  n,  and  the  corruption 
was  adopted  in  English. 

GRAY,  ASA  (1810-1888),  American  botanist,  was  born  at 
Paris,  Oneida  county,  N.Y.,  on  the  i8th  of  November  1810. 
He  was  the  son  of  a  farmer,  and  received  no  formal  education 
except  at  the  Fairfield  (N.Y.)  academy  and  the  Fairfield  medical 
school.  From  Dr  James  Hadley,  the  professor  of  chemistry  and 
materia  medico,  he  obtained  his  first  instruction  in  science  (1825- 
1826).  In  the  spring  of  1827  he  first  began  to  collect  and  identify 
plants.  His  formal  education,  such  as  it  was,  ended  in  February 
1831,  when  he  took  the  degree  of  M.D.  His  first  contribution  to 
descriptive  botany  appeared  in  1835,  and  thereafter  an  un- 
interrupted series  of  contributions  to  systematic  botany  flowed 
from  his  pen  for  fifty-three  years.  In  1836  his  first  botanical 
text-book  appeared  under  the  title  Elements  of  Botany,  followed 
in  1839  by  his  Botanical  Text-Book  for  Colleges,  Schools,  and 
Private  Students  which  developed  into  his  Structural  Botany. 
He  published  later  First  Lessons  in  Botany  and  Vegetable  Physi- 
ology (1857);  How  Plants  Grow  (1858);  Field,  Forest,  and  Garden 
Botany  (1869);  How  Plants  Behave  (1872).  These  books  served 
the  purpose  of  developing  popular  interest  in  botanical  studies. 
His  most  important  work,  however,  was  his  Manual  of  the  Botany 
of  the  Northern  United  States,  the  first  edition  of  which  appeared 
in  1847.  This  manual  has  passed  through  a  large  number  of 
editions,  is  clear,  accurate  and  compact  to  an  extraordinary 
degree,  and  within  its  geographical  limits  is  an  indispensable 
book  for  the  student  of  American  botany. 

Throughout  his  life  Gray  was  a  diligent  writer  of  reviews  of 
books  on  natural  history  subjects.  Often  these  reviews  were 
elaborate  essays,  for  which  the  books  served  merely  as  texts; 
often  they  were  clear  and  just  summaries  of  extensive  works; 
sometimes  they  were  sharply  critical,  though  never  ill-natured 
or  unfair;  always  they  were  interesting,  lively  and  of  literary  as 
well  as  scientific  excellence.  The  greater  part  of  Gray's  strictly 
scientific  labour  was  devoted  to  a  Flora  of  North  America,  the 
plan  of  which  originated  with  his  early  teacher  and  associate, 
John  Torrey  of  New  York.  The  second  volume  of  Torrey  and 
Gray's  Flora  was  completed  in  1843;  but  for  forty  years  there- 
after Gray  gave  up  a  large  part  of  his  time  to  the  preparation  of 
his  Synoptical  Flora  (1878).  He  lived  at  the  period  when  the  flora 
of  North  America  was  being  discovered,  described  and  systemat- 
ized; and  his  enthusiastic  labours  in  this  fresh  field  placed 
him  at  the  head  of  American  botanists  and  on  a  level  with  the 
1  most  famous  botanists  of  the  world.  In  1856  he  published  a 
paper  on  the  distribution  of  plants  under  the  title  Statistics  of 
the  Flora  of  the  Northern  United  States;  and  this  paper  was 
followed  in  1859  by  a  memoir  on  the  botany  of  Japan  and  its 
relations  to  that  of  North  America,  a  paper  of  which  Sir  J.  D. 
Hooker  said  that  "  in  point  of  originality  and  far-reaching  results 
[it]  was  its  author's  opus  magnum."  It  was  Gray's  study  of 
plant  distribution  which  led  to  his  intimate  correspondence  with 
Charles  Darwin  during  the  years  in  which  Darwin  was  elaborating 
the  doctrines  that  later  became  known  as  Darwinism.  From 
1855  to  1875  Gray  was  both  a  keen  critic  and  a  sympathetic 
exponent  of  the  Darwinian  principles.  His  religious  views  were 
those  of  the  Evangelical  bodies  in  the  Protestant  Church;  so 
that,  when  Darwinism  was  attacked  as  equivalent  to  atheism, 
he  was  in  position  to  answer  effectively  the  unfounded  allegation 
that  it  was  fatal  to  the  doctrine  of  design.  He  taught  that  "  the 
most  puzzling  things  of  all  to  the  old-school  teleologists  are  the 
principia  of  the  Darwinian."  He  openly  avowed  his  conviction 
that  the  present  species  are  not  special  creations,  but  rather 
derived  from  previously  existing  species;  and  he  made  his 
avowal  with  frank  courage,  when  this  truth  was  scarcely  recog- 
nized by  any  naturalists,  and  when  to  the  clerical  mind  evolution 
meant  atheism. 

In  1842  Gray  accepted  the  Fisher  professorship  of  natural 
history  in  Harvard  University.  On  his  accession  to  this  chair 
the  university  had  no  herbarium,  no  botanical  library,  few  plants 
of  any  value,  and  but  a  small  garden,  which  for  lack  of  money 
had  never  been  well  stocked  or  well  arranged.  He  soon  brought 


together,  chiefly  by  widespread  exchanges,  a  valuable  herbarium 
and  library,  and  arranged  the  garden;  and  thereafter  the 
development  of  these  botanical  resources  was  part  of  his  regular 
labours.  The  herbarium  soon  became  the  largest  and  most 
valuable  in  America,  and  on  account  of  the  numerous  type 
specimens  it  contains  it  is  likely  to  remain  a  collection  of  national 
importance.  Nothing  of  what  Gray  did  for  the  botanical 
department  of  the  university  has  been  lost;  on  the  contrary, 
his  labours  were  so  well  directed  that  everything  he  originated 
and  developed  has  been  enlarged,  improved  and  placed  on  stable 
foundations.  He  himself  made  large  contributions  to  the 
establishment  by  giving  it  all  his  own  specimens,  many  books 
and  no  little  money,  and  by  his  will  he  gave  it  the  royalties  on 
his  books.  During  his  long  connexion  with  the  university  he 
brought  up  two  generations  of  botanists  and  he  always  took  a 
strong  personal  interest  in  the  researches  and  the  personal 
prospects  of  the  young  men  who  had  studied  under  him.  His 
scientific  life  was  mainly  spent  in  the  herbarium  and  garden  in 
Cambridge;  but  his  labours  there  were  relieved  by  numerous 
journeys  to  different  parts  of  the  United  States  and  to  Europe, 
all  of  which  contributed  to  his  work  on  the  Synoptical  Flora. 
He  lived  to  a  good  age — long  enough,  indeed,  to  receive  from 
learned  societies  at  home  and  abroad  abundant  evidence  of  their 
profound  respect  for  his  attainments  and  services.  He  died 
at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  on  the  3oth  of  January  1888. 

His  Letters  (1893)  were  edited  by  his  wife;  and  his  Scientific 
Papers  (1888)  by  C.  S.  Sargent.  (C.  W.  E.) 

GRAY,  DAVID  (1838-1861),  Scottish  poet,  the  son  of  a  hand- 
loom  weaver,  was  born  at  Merkland,  near  Glasgow,  on  the  2gth 
of  January  1838.  His  parents  resolved  to  educate  him  for  the 
church,  and  through  their  self-denial  and  his  own  exertions  as  a 
pupil  teacher  and  private  tutor  he  was  able  to  complete  a  course 
of  four  sessions  at  the  university  of  Glasgow.  He  began  to  write 
poetry  for  The  Glasgow  Citizen  and  began  his  idyll  on  the  Luggie, 
the  little  stream  that  ran  through  Merkland.  His  most  intimate 
companion  at  this  time  was  Robert  Buchanan,  the  poet;  and  in 
May  1860  the  two  agreed  to  proceed  to  London,  with  the  idea 
of  finding  literary  employment.  Shortly  after  his  arrival  in 
London  Gray  introduced  himself  to  Monckton  Milnes,  after- 
wards Lord  Houghton,  with  whom  he  had  previously  corre- 
sponded. Lord  Houghton  tried  to  persuade  him  to  return  to 
Scotland,  but  Gray  insisted  on  staying  in  London.  He  was 
unsuccessful  in  his  efforts  to  place  Gray's  poem,  "  The  Luggie," 
in  The  Cornhill  Magazine,  but  gave  him  some  light  literary  work. 
He  also  showed  him  great  kindness  when  a  cold  which  had  seized 
him  assumed  the  serious  form  of  consumption,  and  sent  him  •  to 
Torquay;  but  as  the  disease  made  rapid  progress,  an  irresistible 
longing  seized  Gray  to  return  to  Merkland,  where  he  arrived  in 
January  1861,  and  died  on  the  3rd  of  December  following,  having 
the  day  before  had  the  gratification  of  seeing  a  printed  specimen 
copy  of  his  poem  "  The  Luggie,"  published  eventually  by  the 
exertions  of  Sydney  Dobell.  He  was  buried  in  the  Auld  Aisle 
Churchyard,  Kirkintilloch,  where  in  1865  a  monument  was 
erected  by  "  friends  far  and  near  "  to  his  memory. 

"  The  Luggie,"  the  principal  poem  of  Gray,  is  a  kind  of  reverie 
in  which  the  scenes  and  events  of  his  childhood  and  his  early 
aspirations  are  mingled  with  the  music  of  the  stream  which 
he  celebrates.  The  series  of  sonnets,  "  In  the  Shadows,"  was 
composed  during  the  latter  part  of  his  illness.  Most  of  his  poems 
necessarily  bear  traces  of  immaturity,  and  lines  may  frequently 
be  found  in  them  which  are  mere  echoes  from  Thomson,  Words- 
worth or  Tennyson,  but  they  possess,  nevertheless,  distinct 
individuality,  and  show  a  real  appreciation  of  natural  beauty. 

The  Luggie  and  other  Poems,  with  an  introduction  by  R.  Monckton 
Milnes,  and  a  brief  memoir  by  James  Hedderwick,  was  published 
in  1862;  and  a  new  and  enlarged  edition  of  Gray's  Poetical  Works, 
edited  by  Henry  Glassford  Bell,  appeared  in  1874.  See  also  David 
Gray  and  oilier  Essays,  by  Robert  Buchanan  (1868),  and  the  same 
writer's  poem  on  David  Gray,  in  Idyls  and  Legends  of  Inverburn. 

GRAY,  ELISHA  (1835-1901),  American  electrician,  was  born 
in  Barnesville,  Belmont  county,  Ohio,  on  the  2nd  of  August 
1835.  He  worked  as  a  carpenter  and  in  a  machine  shop,  reading 


GRAY,  H.  P.— GRAY,  LORD 


391 


in  physical  science  at  the  same  time,  and  for  five  years  studied 
at  Oberlin  College,  where  he  taught  for  a  time.  He  then  in- 
vestigated the  subject  of  telegraphy,  and  in  1867  patented  a 
telegraphic  switch  and  annunciator.  Experimenting  in  the 
transmittal  of  electro-tones  and  of  musical  tones  by  wire,  he 
utilized  in  1874  animal  tissues  in  his  receivers,  and  filed,  on 
the  i4th  of  February  1876,  a  caveat  for  the  invention  of  a 
telephone,  only  a  few  hours  after  the  filing  of  an  application  for  a 
patent  by  Alexander  Graham  Bell.  (See  TELEPHONE.)  The  caveat 
was  disregarded;  letters  patent  No.  174, 465  were  granted  to  Bell, 
whose  priority  of  invention  was  upheld  in  1888  by  the  United 
States  Supreme  Court  (see  Molecular  Telephone  Co.  v.  American 
Bell  Telephone  Co.,  126  U.S.  i).  Gray's  experiments  won  for  him 
high  praise  and  the  decoration  of  the  Legion  of  Honour  at  the 
Paris  Exposition  of  1878.  He  was  for  a  time  a  manufacturer  of 
electrical  apparatus,  particularly  of  his  own  inventions;  and 
was  chief  electrical  expert  of  the  Western  Electric  Company  of 
Chicago.  At  the  Columbian  Exposition  of  1893  Gray  was  chair- 
man of  the  International  Congress  of  Electricians.  He  died  at 
Newtonville,  Massachusetts,  on  the  2ist  of  January  1901. 
Among  his  later  inventions  were  appliances  for  multiplex 
telegraphy  and  the  telautograph,  a  machine  for  the  electric 
transmission  of  handwriting.  He  experimented  in  the  submarine 
use  of  electric  bells  for  signalling. 

Gray  wrote,  besides  scientific  addresses  and  many  monographs, 
Telegraphy  and  Telephony  (1878)  and  Electricity  and  Magnetism 
(1900). 

GRAY,  HENRY  PETERS  (1819-1877),  American  portrait 
and  genre  painter,  was  born  in  New  York  on  the  23rd  of  June 
1819.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Daniel  Huntington  there,  and  sub- 
sequently studied  in  Rome  and  Florence.  Elected  a  member  of 
the  National  Academy  of  Design  in  1842,  he  succeeded 
Huntington  as  president  in  1870,  holding  the  position  until  1871. 
The  later  years  of  his  life  were  devoted  to  portrait  work.  He 
was  strongly  influenced  by  the  old  Italian  masters,  painting  in 
mellow  colour  with  a  classical  tendency.  One  of  his  notable 
canvases  was  an  allegorical  composition  called  "  The  Birth  of 
our  Flag  "  (1875).  He  died  in  New  York  City  on  the  I2th  of 
November  1877. 

GRAY,  HORACE  (1828-1902),  American  jurist,  was  born  in 
Boston,  Massachusetts,  onthe24th of  Marchi828.  Hegraduated 
at  Harvard  in  1845;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1851,  and  in 
1854-1861  was  reporter  to  the  Supreme  Court  of  Massachusetts. 
He  practised  law,  first  in  partnership  with  Ebenezer  Rockwood 
Hoar,  and  later  with  Wilder  Dwight  (1823-1862)  and  Charles  F. 
Blake;  was  appointed  associate  justice  of  the  state  Supreme 
Court  on  the  23rd  of  August  1864,  becoming  chief-justice  on  the 
5th  of  September  1873;  and  was  associate  justice  of  the  Supreme 
Court  of  the  United  States  from  December  1881  to  August  1902, 
resigning  only  a  few  weeks  before  his  death  at  Nahant,  Mass., 
on  the  1 5th  of  September  1902.  Gray  had  a  fine  sense  of  the 
dignity  of  the  bench,  and  a  taste  for  historical  study.  His 
judgments  were  unmistakably  clear  and  contained  the  essence 
of  earlier  opinions.  A  great  case  lawyer,  he  was  a  much  greater 
judge,  the  variety  of  his  knowledge  and  his  contributions  to 
admiralty  and  prize  law  and  to  testamentary  law  being  particu- 
larly striking;  in  constitutional  law  he  was  a  "  loose  "  rather 
than  a  "  strict  "  constructionist. 

See  Francis  C.  Lowell,  "  Horace  Gray,"  in  Proceedings  of  the 
American  Academy,  vol.  39,  pp.  627-637  (Boston,  1904). 

GRAY,  JOHN  DE  (d.  1214),  bishop  of  Norwich,  entered 
Prince  John's  service,  and  at  his  accession  (1199)  was  rapidly 
promoted  in  the  church  till  he  became  bishop  of  Norwich  in 
September  1200.  King  John's  attempt  to  force  him  into  the 
primacy  in  1205  started  the  king's  long  and  fatal  quarrel  with 
Pope  Innocent  III.  De  Gray  was  a  hard-working  royal  official, 
in  finance,  in  justice,  in  action,  using  his  position  to  enrich  himself 
and  his  family.  In  1209  he  went  to  Ireland  to  govern  it  as 
justiciar.  He  adopted  a  forward  policy,  attempting  to  extend 
the  English  frontier  northward  and  westward,  and  fought  a 
number  of  campaigns  on  the  Shannon  and  in  Fermanagh.  But 
in  1 21 2  he  suffered  a  great  defeat.  He  assimilated  the  coinage  of 


Ireland  to  that  of  England,  and  tried  to  effect  a  similar  reform 
in  Irish  law.  De  Gray  was  a  good  financier,  and  could  always 
raise  money:  this  probably  explains  the  favour  he  enjoyed  from 
King  John.  In  1213  he  is  found  with  500  knights  at  the  great 
muster  at  Barham  Downs,  when  Philip  Augustus  was  threatening 
to  invade  England.  After  John's  reconciliation  with  Innocent 
he  was  one  of  those  exempted  from  the  general  pardon,  and  was 
forced  to  go  in  person  to  Rome  to  obtain  it.  At  Rome  he  so 
completely  gained  over  Innocent  that  the  pope  sent  him  back 
with  papal  letters  recommending  his  election  to  the  bishopric  of 
Durham  (1213);  but  he  died  at  St  Jean  d'Audely  in  Poitou 
on  his  homeward  journey  (October  1214). 

GRAY,  JOHN  EDWARD  (1800-1875),  English  naturalist, 
born  at  Wals^.11,  Staffordshire,  in  1800,  was  the  eldest  of  the 
three  sons  of  S.  F.  Gray,  of  that  town,  druggist  and  writer  on 
botany,  and  author  of  the  Supplement  to  the  Pharmacopoeia,  &c., 
his  grandfather  being  S.  F.  Gray,  who  translated  the  Philosophia 
Botanica  of  Linnaeus  for  the  Introduction  to  Botany  of  James 
Lee  (1715-1795).  Gray  studied  at  St  Bartholomew's  and  other 
hospitals  for  the  medical  profession,  but  at  an  early  age  was 
attracted  to  the  pursuit  of  botany.  He  assisted  his  father  by 
collecting  notes  on  botany  and  comparative  anatomy  and 
zoology  in  Sir  Joseph  Banks's  library  at  the  British  Museum, 
aided  by  Dr  W.  E.  Leach,  assistant  keeper,  and  the  systematic 
synopsis  of  the  Natural  Arrangement  of  British  Plants,  2  vols., 
1821,  was  prepared  by  him,  his  father  writing  the  preface  and 
introduction  only.  In  consequence  of  his  application  for  member- 
ship of  the  Linnaean  Society  being  rejected  in  1822,  he  turned 
to  the  study  of  zoology,  writing  on  zoophytes,  shells,  Mollusca 
and  Papilionidae,  still  aided  by  Dr  Leach  at  the  British  Museum. 
In  December  1824  he  obtained  the  post  of  assistant  in  that 
institution;  and  from  that  date  to  December  1839,  when  J.  G. 
Children  retired  from  the  keepership,  he  had  so  zealously  applied 
himself  to  the  study,  classification  and  improvement  of  the 
national  collection  of  zoology  that  he  was  selected  as  the  fittest 
person  to  be  entrusted  with  its  charge.  Immediately  on  his 
appointment  as  keeper,  he  took  in  hand  the  revision  of  the 
systematic  arrangement  of  the  collections;  scientific  catalogues 
followed  in  rapid  succession;  the  department  was  raised  in 
importance;  its  poverty  as  well  as  its  wealth  became  known, 
and  whilst  increased  grants,  donations  and  exchanges  made 
good  many  deficiencies,  great  numbers  of  students,  foreign  as 
well  as  English,  availed  themselves  of  its  resources  to  enlarge  the 
knowledge  of  zoology  in  all  its  branches.  In  spite  of  numerous 
obstacles,  he  worked  up  the  department,  within  a  few  years  of 
his  appointment  as  keeper,  to  such  a  state  of  excellence  as  to 
make  it  the  rival  of  the  cabinets  of  Leiden,  Paris  and  Berlin; 
and  later  on  it  was  raised  under  his  management  to  the  dignity 
of  the  largest  and  most  complete  zoological  collection  in  the 
world.  Although  seized  with  paralysis  in  1870,  he  continued  to 
discharge  the  functions  of  keeper  of  zoology,  and  to  contribute 
papers  to  the  A  nnals  of  Natural  History,  his  favourite  journal,and 
to  the  transactions  of  a  few  of  the  learned  societies;  but  at 
Christmas  1874,  having  completed  half  a  century  of  official 
work,  he  resigned  office,  and  died  in  London  on  the  7th  of  March 
1875- 

Gray  was  an  exceedingly  voluminous  writer,  and  his 
interests  were  not  confined  to  natural  history  only,  for  he  took 
an  active  part  in  questions  of  public  importance  of  his  day,  such 
as  slave  emancipation,  prison  discipline,  abolition  of  imprison- 
ment for  debt,  sanitary  and  municipal  organizations,  the  decimal 
system,  public  education,  extension  of  the  opening  of  museums, 
&c.  He  began  to  publish  in  1820,  and  continued  till  the  year 
of  his  death. 

The  titles  of  the  books,  memoirs  and  miscellaneous  papers  written 
by  him,  accompanied  by  a  few  notes,  fill  a  privately  printed  list  of  56 
octavo  pages  with  1162  entries. 

GRAY,  PATRICK  GRAY,  6xn  BARON  (d.  1612),  was  descended 
from  Sir  Andrew  Gray  (c.  1390-1469)  of  Broxmouth  and  Foulis, 
who  was  created  a  Scottish  peer  as  Lord  Gray,  probably  in  1445. 
Andrew  was  a  leading  figure  in  Scottish  politics  during  the  reigns 
of  James  I.  and  his  two  successors,  and  visited  England  as  a 


392 


GRAY,  R.— GRAY,  THOMAS 


hostage,  a  diplomatist  and  a  pilgrim.  The  2nd  Lord  Gray  was 
his  grandson  Andrew  (d.  1514),  and  the  4th  lord  was  the  latter's 
grandson  Patrick  (d.  1582),  a  participant  in  Scottish  politics 
during  the  stormy  time  of  Mary,  queen  of  Scots.  Patrick's  son, 
Patrick,  the  sth  lord  (d.  1609),  married  Barbara,  daughter  of 
William,  2nd  Lord  Ruthven,  and  their  son  Patrick,  known  as 
the  "  Master  of  Gray,"  is  the  subject  of  this  article.  Educated 
at  Glasgow  University  and  brought  up  as  a  Protestant,  young 
Patrick  was  married  early  in  life  to  Elizabeth  Lyon,  daughter 
of  Lord  Glamis,  whom  he  repudiated  almost  directly;  and 
afterwards  went  to  France,  where  he  joined  the  friends  of  Mary, 
queen  of  Scots,  became  a  Roman  Catholic,  and  assisted  the 
French  policy  of  the  Guises  in  Scotland.  He  returned  and  took 
up  his  residence  again  in  Scotland  in  1583,  and,  immediately 
began  a  career  of  treachery  and  intrigue,  gaining  James's  favour 
by  disclosing  to  him  his  mother's  secrets,  and  acting  in  agreement 
with  James  Stewart,  earl  of  Arran,  in  order  to  keep  Mary  a 
prisoner  in  England.  In  1584  he  was  sent  as  ambassador  to 
England,  to  effect  a  treaty  between  James  and  Elizabeth 
and  to  exclude  Mary.  His  ambition  incited  him  at  the  same 
time  to  promote  a  plot  to  secure  the  downfall  of  Arran. 
This  was  supported  by  Elizabeth,  and  was  finally  accomplished 
by  letting  loose  the  lords  banished  from  Scotland  for  their 
participation  in  the  rebellion  called  the  Raid  of  Ruthven,  who, 
joining  Gray,  took  possession  of  the  king's  person  at  Stirling  in 
1585,  the  league  with  England  being  ratified  by  the  parliament 
in  December.  Gray  now  became  the  intermediary  between  the 
English  government  and  James  on  the  great  question  of  Mary's 
execution,  and  in  1587  he  was  despatched  on  an  embassy  to 
Elizabeth,  ostensibly  to  save  Mary's  life.  Gray  had,  however, 
previously  advised  her  secret  assassination  and  had  endeavoured 
to  overcome  all  James's  scruples;  and  though  he  does  not  appear 
to  have  carried  treachery  so  far  as  to  advise  her  death  on  this 
occasion,  no  representations  made  by  him  could  have  had  any 
force  or  weight.  The  execution  of  Mary  caused  his  own  downfall 
and  loss  of  political  power  in  Scotland;  and  after  his  return  he 
was  imprisoned  on  charges  of  plots  against  Protestantism,  of 
endeavouring  to  prevent  the  king's  marriage,  and  of  having  been 
bribed  to  consent  to  Mary's  death.  He  pleaded  guilty  of  sedition 
and  of  having  obstructed  the  king's  marriage,  and  was  declared 
a  traitor;  but  his  life  was  spared  by  James  and  he  was  banished 
from  the  country,  but  permitted  to  return  in  1589,  when  he  was 
restored  to  his  office  of  master  of  the  wardrobe  to  which  he  had 
been  appointed  in  1585.  His  further  career  was  marked  by 
lawlessness  and  misconduct.  In  1592,  together  with  the  5th 
Lord  Bothwell,  he  made  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  seize  the 
king  at  Falkland,  and  the  same  year  earned  considerable  dis- 
credit by  bringing  groundless  accusations  against  the  Presby- 
terian minister,  Robert  Bruce;  while  after  the  king's  accession 
to  the  English  throne  he  was  frequently  summoned  before 
the  authorities  on  account  of  his  conduct.  Notwithstanding, 
he  never  lost  James's  favour.  In  1609  he  succeeded  his  father  as 
6th  Baron  Gray,  and  died  in  1612. 

Gray  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Sir  Philip  Sidney,  but,  if  one 
of  the  ablest,  handsomest  and  most  fascinating,  he  was  beyond 
doubt  one  of  the  most  unscrupulous  men  of  his  day.  He  married 
as  his  second  wife  in  1585  Mary  Stewart,  daughter  of  Robert, 
earl  of  Orkney,  and  had  by  her,  besides  six  daughters,  a  son, 
Andrew  (d.  1663),  who  succeeded  him  as  7th  Baron  Gray. 
Andrew,  who  served  for  a  long  time  in  the  French  army,  was  a 
supporter,  although  not  a  very  prominent  one,  of  Charles  I.  and 
afterwards  of  Charles  II.  He  was  succeeded  as  Sth  Lord  Gray 
by  Patrick  (d.  1711),  a  son  of  his  daughter  Anne,  and  Patrick's 
successor  was  his  kinsman  and  son-in-law  John  (d.  1724).  On 
the  extinction  of  John's  direct  line  in  1878  the  title  of  Lord  Gray 
passed  to  George  Stuart,  earl  of  Moray.  In  1606  Gray  had  been 
ranked  sixth  among  the  Scottish  baronies. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Article  in  Diet,  of  Nat.  Biog.,  and  authorities 
there  quoted;  Gray's  relation  concerning  the  surprise  at  Stirling 
(Bannatyne  Club  Publns.  i.  131,  1827);  Andrew  Lang,  History  of 
Scotland,  vol.  ii.  (1902) ;  Peter  Gray,  The  Descent  and  Kinship  of 
Patrick,  Master  of  Gray  (1903);  Gray  Papers  (Bannatyne  Club, 
1835);  Hist.  MSS.  Comm.,  M.arq.  of  Salisbury's  MSS. 


GRAY,  ROBERT  (1809-1872),  first  bishop  of  Cape  Town  and 
metropolitan  of  South  Africa,  was  born  at  Bishop  Wearmouth, 
Durham,  and  was  the  son  of  Robert  Gray,  bishop  of  Bristol. 
He  was  educated  at  Eton  and  Oxford,  and  took  orders  in  1833. 
After  holding  the  livings  of  Whitworth,  Durham,  1834-1845,  and 
Stockton-on-Tees  1845-1847,  he  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Cape 
Town  in  1847;  the  bishopric  having  been  endowed  through  the 
liberality  of  Miss  (afterwards  Baroness)  Burdett-Coutts.  Until 
1853  he  was  a  suffragan  of  Canterbury,  but  in  that  year  he 
formally  resigned  his  see  and  was  reappointed  by  letters  patent 
metropolitan  of  South  Africa  in  view  of  the  contemplated 
establishment  of  the  suffragan  dioceses  of  Graham's  Town  and 
Natal.  In  that  capacity  his  coercive  jurisdiction  was  twice 
called  in  question,  and  in  each  case  the  judicial  committee  of  the 
privy  council  decided  against  him.  The  best-known  case  is  that 
of  Bishop  Colenso,  whom  Gray  deposed  and  excommunicated  in 
1863.  The  spiritual  validity  of  the  sentence  was  upheld  by-the 
convocation  of  Canterbury  and  the  Pan-Anglican  synod  of  1867, 
but  legally  Colenso  remained  bishop  of  Natal.  The  privy  council 
decisions  declared,  in  effect,  that  the  Anglican  body  in  South 
Africa  was  on  the  footing  of  a  voluntary  religious  society.  Gray, 
accepting  this  position,  obtained  its  recognition  by  the  mother 
church  as  the  Church  of  the  Province  of  South  Africa,  in  full 
communion  with  the  Church  of  England.  The  first  provincial 
synod  was  held  in  1870.  During  his  episcopate  Bishop  Gray 
effected  a  much-needed  organization  of  the  South  African  church, 
to  which  he  added  five  new  bishoprics,  all  carved  out  of  the 
original  diocese  of  Cape  Town.  It  was  also  chiefly  owing  to  his 
suggestions  that  the  universities'  mission  to  Central  Africa  was 
founded. 

GRAY,  SIR  THOMAS  (d.  c.  1369),  English  chronicler,  was  a 
son  of  Sir  Thomas  Gray,  who  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  Scots 
at  Bannockburn  and  who  died  about  1344.  The  younger  Thomas 
was  present  at  the  battle  of  Neville's  Cross  in  1346;  in  1355, 
whilst  acting  as  warden  of  Norham  Castle,  he  was  made  a  prisoner, 
and  during  his  captivity  in  Edinburgh  Castle  he  devoted  his 
time  to  studying  the  English  chroniclers,  Gildas,  Bede,  Ranulf 
Higdon  and  others.  Released  in  1357  he  was  appointed  warden 
of  the  east  marches  towards  Scotland  in  1367,  and  he  died  about 
1369.  Gray's  work,  the  Scalacronica  (so  tailed,  perhaps,  from 
the  scaling-ladder  in  the  crest  of  the  Grays),  is  a  chronicle  of 
English  history  from  the  earliest  times  to  about  the  year  1362. 
It  is,  however,  only  valuable  for  the  reigns  of  Edward  I.  and 
Edward  II.  and  part  of  that  of  Edward  III.,  being  especially 
so  for  the  account  of  the  wars  between  England  and  Scotland,  in 
which  the  author's  father  and  the  author  himself  took  part. 
Writing  in  Norman-French,  Gray  tells  of  Wallace  and  Bruce, 
of  the  fights  at  Bannockburn,  Byland  and  Dupplin,  and  makes 
some  mention  of  the  troubles  in  England  during  the  reign  of 
Edward  II.  He  also  narrates  the  course  of  the  war  in  France 
between  1355  and  1361;  possibly  he  was  present  during  some 
of  these  campaigns. 

The  Scalacronica  was  summarized  by  John  Leland  in  the  i6th 
century;  the  part  dealing  with  the  period  from  1066  to  the  end, 
together  with  the  prologue,  was  edited  for  the  Maitland  Club  by 
J.  Stevenson  (1836) ;  and  the  part  from  1274  to  1362  was  translated 
into  English  by  Sir  Herbert  Maxwell  (Glasgow,  1907).  In  the 
extant  manuscript,  which  is  in  Corpus  Christi  College,  Cambridge, 
there  is  a  gap  extending  from  about  1340  to  1355,  and  Gray's 
account  of  this  period  is  only  known  from  Leland's  summary. 

GRAY,  THOMAS  (1716-1771),  English  poet,  the  fifth  and  sole 
surviving  child  of  Philip  and  Dorothy  Gray,  was  born  in  London 
on  the  26th  of  December  1716.  His  mother's  maiden  name  was 
Antrobus,  and  in  partnership  with  her  sister  Mary  she  kept  a 
millinery  shop  in  Cornhill.  This  and  the  house  connected  with 
it  were  the  property  of  Philip  Gray,  a  money-scrivener,  who 
married  Dorothy  in  1706  and  lived  with  her  in  the  house,  the 
sisters  renting  the  shop  from  him  and  supporting  themselves 
by  its  profits.  Philip  Gray  had  impaired  the  fortune  which  he 
inherited  from  his  father,  a  wealthy  London  merchant;  yet  he 
was  sufficiently  well-to-do,  and  at  the  close  of  his  life  was  building 
a  house  upon  some  property  of  his  own  at  Wanstead.  But  he 
was  selfish  and  brutal,  and  in  1735  his  wife  took  some  abortive 


GRAY,  THOMAS 


393 


steps  to  obtain  a  separation  from  him.  At  this  date  she  had 
given  birth  to  twelve  children,  of  whom  Thomas  was  the  only 
survivor.  He  owed  his  life  as  well  as  his  education  to  this 
"  careful,  tender  mother,"  as  he  calls  her.  The  child  was 
suffocating  when  she  opened  one  of  his  veins  with  her  own  hand. 
He  went  at  her  expense  to  Eton  in  1727,  and  was  confided 
to  the  care  of  her  brother,  William  Antrobus,  one  of  the  assistant- 
masters,  during  some  part  at  least  of  his  school-life. 

At  Eton  Gray's  closest  friends  were  Horace  Walpole,  Richard 
West  (son  of  the  lord  chancellor  of  Ireland  and  grandson  of  the 
famous  Bishop  Burnet),  and  Thomas  Ashton,  afterwards  fellow 
of  Eton.  This  little  coterie  was  dubbed  "  the  Quadruple 
Alliance  ";  its  members  were  studious  and  literary,  and  took 
little  part  in  the  amusements  of  their  fellows.  In  1734  Gray 
matriculated  at  Peterhouse,  Cambridge,  of  which  his  uncle, 
Robert  Antrobus,  had  been  a  fellow.  At  Cambridge  he  had  once 
more  the  companionship  of  Walpole  and  Ashton  who  were  at 
King's,  but  West  went  to  Christchurch,  Oxford.  Gray  made  at 
this  time  the  firmest  and  most  constant  friendship  of  his  life 
with  Thomas  Wharton  (not  the  poet  Warton)  of  Pembroke 
College.  He  was  maintained  by  his  mother,  and  his  straitened 
means  were  eked  out  by  certain  small  exhibitions  from  his 
college.  His  conspicuous  abilities  and  known  devotion  to  study 
perhaps  atoned  in  the  eyes  of  the  authorities  for  his  indifference 
to  the  regular  routine  of  study;  for  mathematics  in  particular 
he  had  an  aversion  which  was  the  one  exception  to  his  almost 
limitless  curiosity  in  other  directions.  During  his  first  Cambridge 
period  he  learnt  Italian  "  like  any  dragon,"  and  made  translations 
from  Guarini,  Dante  and  Tasso,  some  of  which  have  been  pre- 
served. In  September  1738  he  is  in  the  agony  of  leaving  college, 
nor  can  we  trace  his  movements  with  any  certainty  for  a  while, 
though  it  may  be  conjectured  that  he  spent  much  time  with 
Horace  Walpole,  and  made  in  his  company  some  fashionable 
acquaintances  in  London.  On  the  29th  of  March  1739,  he 
started  with  Walpole  for  a  long  continental  tour,  for  the  expenses 
of  which  it  is  probable  that  his  father,  for  once,  came  in  some 
measure  to  his  assistance.  In  Paris,  Gray  visited  the  great  with 
his  friend,  studied  the  picture-galleries,  -went  to  tragedies, 
comedies,  operas  and  cultivated  there  that  taste  for  the  French 
classical  dramatists,  especially  Racine,  whom  he  afterwards  tried 
to  imitate  in  the  fragmentary  "  Agrippina."  It  is  characteristic 
of  him  that  he  travels  through  France  with  Caesar  constantly 
in  his  hands,  ever  noting  and  transcribing.  In  the  same  way,  in 
crossing  the  Alps  and  in  Piedmont,  he  has  "  Livy  in  the  chaise 
with  him  and  Silius  Italicus  too."  In  Italy  he  made  a  long 
sojourn,  principally  at  Florence,  where  Walpole's  life-long 
correspondent,  Horace  Mann,  was  British  envoy,  and  received 
and  treated  the  travellers  most  hospitably.  But  Rome  and 
Naples  are  also  described  in  Gray's  letters,  sometimes  vividly, 
always  amusingly,  and  in  his  notes  are  almost  catalogued. 
Herculaneum,  an  object  of  intense  interest  to  the  young  poet 
and  antiquary,  had  been  discovered  the  year  before.  At 
length  in  April  1741  Gray  and  Walpole  set  out  northwards  for 
Reggio.  Here  they  quarrelled.  Gray,  "  never  a  boy,"  was  a 
student,  and  at  times  retiring;  Walpole,  in  his  way  a  student 
too,  was  at  this  time  a  very  social  being,  somewhat  too  frivolous, 
and,  what  was  worse,  too  patronizing.  He  good-humouredly 
said  at  a  later  date,  "  Gray  loves  to  find  fault,"  and  this  fault- 
finding was  expressed,  no  doubt  with  exaggeration,  in  a  letter 
to  Ashton,  who  violated  Gray's  confidence.  The  rupture 
followed,  and  with  two  friends,  John  Chute  of  the  Vyne,  Hamp- 
shire, and  the  young  Francis  Whithed,  Gray  went  to  Venice  to 
see  the  doge  wed  the  Adriatic  on  Ascension  Day.  Thence  he 
returned  home  attended  only  by  a  laquais  de  voyage,  visiting 
once  more  the  Grande  Chartreuse  where  he  left  in  the  album  of 
the  brotherhood  those  beautiful  alcaics,  O  Tu  severa  Religio 
loci,  which  reveal  his  characteristic  melancholy  (enhanced  by 
solitude  and  estrangement)  and  that  sense  of  the  glory  as  distinct 
from  the  horror  of  mountain  scenery  to  which  perhaps  he  was 
the  first  of  Englishmen  to  give  adequate  expression.  On  the 
i8th  of  September  1741  we  find  him  in  London,  astonishing  the 
street  boys  with  his  deep  ruffles,  large  bag-wig  and  long  sword, 


and  "  mortified  "  under  the  hands  of  the  English  barber.  On 
the  6th  of  November  his  father  died;  Philip  Gray  had,  it  is 
evident,  been  less  savage  and  niggardly  at  last  to  those  who 
were  dependent  upon  him,  and  his  death  left  his  wife  and  son 
some  measure  of  assured  peace  and  comfort. 

London  was  Gray's  headquarters  for  more  than  a  year,  with 
occasional  visits  to  Stoke  Poges,  to  which  his  mother  and  Mary 
Antrobus  had  retired  from  business  to  live  with  their  sister, 
Mrs  Rogers.  At  Stoke  he  heard  of  the  death  of  West,  to  whom 
he  had  sent  the  "  Ode  on  Spring,"  which  was  returned  to  him 
unopened.  It  was  an  unexpected  blow,  shocking  in  all  its 
circumstances,  especially  if  we  believe  the  story  that  his  friend's 
frail  life  was  brought  to  a  close  by  the  discovery  that  the  mother 
whom  he  tenderly  loved  had  been  an  unfaithful  wife,  and,  as 
some  say,  poisoned  her  husband.  About  this  tragedy  Gray 
preserved  a  mournful  silence,  broken  only  by  the  pathetic  sonnet, 
and  some  Latin  lines,  in  which  he  laments  his  loss.  The  year 
1742,  was,  for  him,  fruitful  in  poetic  effort,  of  which,  however, 
much  was  incomplete.  The  "Agrippina,"  the  De  principiis 
Cogitandi,  the  splenetic  "  Hymn  to  Ignorance  "  in  which  he 
contemplates  his  return  to  the  university,  remain  fragments; 
but  besides  the  two  poems  already  mentioned,  the  "  Ode  on  a 
Distant  Prospect  of  Eton  College  "  and  the  "  Hymn  to  Adver- 
sity," perhaps  the  most  faultless  of  his  poems,  were  written 
before  the  close  of  the  summer.  After  hesitating  between 
Trinity  Hall  and  Peterhouse,  he  returned  to  the  latter,  probably 
as  a  fellow-commoner.  He  had  hitherto  neglected  to  read  for  a 
degree;  he  proceeded  to  that  of  LL.B.  in  1744.  In  1745  a 
reconciliation  with  Walpole,  long  desired  probably  on  both  sides, 
was  effected  through  the  kind  offices  of  Chute's  sister.  In  1746 
he  spent  his  time  between  Cambridge,  Stoke  and  London;  was 
much  with  Walpole;  graphically  describes  the  trial  of  the 
Scottish  rebel  lords,  and  studied  Greek  with  avidity;  but  "  the 
muse,"  which  by  this  time  perhaps  had  stimulated  him  to  begin 
the  "  Elegy,"  "  has  gone,  and  left  him  in  much  worse  company." 
In  town  he  finds  his  friends  Chute  and  Whithed  returned  to 
England,  and  "  flaunts  about  "  in  public  places  with  them. 
The  year  1747  produced  only  the  ode  on  Walpole's  cat,  and  we 
gather  that  he  is  mainly  engaged  in  reading  with  a  very  critical 
eye,  and  interesting  himself  more  in  the  troubles  of  Pembroke 
College,  in  which  he  almost  seems  to  live,  than  in  the  affairs  of 
Peterhouse.  In  this  year  also  he  made  the  acquaintance  of 
Mason,  his  future  biographer.  In  1748  he  first  came  before  the 
public,  but  anonymously,  in  Dodsley's  Miscellany,  in  which 
appeared  the  Eton  ode,  the  ode  on  spring,  and  that  on  the  cat. 
In  the  same  year  he  sent  to  Wharton  the  beginning  of  the  didactic 
poem,  "  The  Alliance  of  Education  and  Government,"  which 
remains  a  fragment.  His  aunt,  Mary  Antrobus,  died  in  1749. 

There  is  little  to  break  the  monotony  of  his  days  till  1750, 
when  from  Stoke  he  sent  Walpole  "  a  thing  to  which  he  had  at 
last  put  an  end."  The  "  thing  "  was  the  "  Elegy."  It  was 
shoWn  about  in  manuscript  by  his  admiring  friend;  it  was 
impudently  pirated,  and  Gray  had  it  printed  by  Dodsley  in 
self-defence.  Even  thus  it  had  "  a  pinch  or  two  in  its  cradle," 
of  which  it  long  bore  the  marks.  The  publication  led  to  the  one 
incident  in  Gray's  life  which  has  a  touch  of  romance.  At  Stoke- 
house  had  come  to  live  the  widowed  Lady  Cobham,  who  learnt 
that  the  author  of  the  "  Elegy  "  was  her  neighbour.  At  her 
instance,  Lady  Schaub,  her  visitor,  and  Miss  Speed,  her  protegee, 
paid  him  a  call;  the  poet  was  out,  and  his  quiet  mother  and 
aunts  were  somewhat  flustered  at  the  apparition  of  these  women 
of  fashion,  whose  acquaintance  Gray  had  already  made  in  town. 
Hence  the  humorous  "  Long  Story."  A  platonic  affection 
sprang  up  between  Gray  and  Miss  Speed;  rumour,  upon  the 
death  of  Lady  Cobham,  said  that  they  were  to  be  married,  but 
the  lady  escaped  this  mild  destiny  to  become  the  Baroness  de  la 
Pcyriere,  afterwards  Countess  Viry,  and  a  dangerous  political 
intriguante. 

In  1753  all  Gray's  completed  poems,  except  the  sonnet  on  the 
death  of  West,  were  published  by  Dodsley  in  a  handsome  volume 
illustrated  by  Richard  Bentley,  the  son  of  the  celebrated  master 
of  Trinity.  To  these  designs  we  owe  the  verses  to  the  artist 


394 


GRAY,  THOMAS 


which  were  posthumously  published  from  a  MS.  torn  at  the  end. 
In  the  same  year  Gray's  mother  died  and  was  buried  in  the 
churchyard  at  Stoke  Poges,  the  scene  of  the  "  Elegy,"  in  the 
same  grave  with  Mary  Antrobus.  A  visit  to  his  friend  Dr 
Wharton  at  Durham  later  in  the  year  revives  his  earlier  impres- 
sions of  that  bolder  scenery  which  is  henceforth  to  be  in  the 
main  the  framework  of  his  muse.  Already  in  1752  he  had 
almost  completed  "  The  Progress  of  Poesy,"  in  which,  and  in 
"  The  Bard,"  the  imagery  Is  largely  furnished  forth  by  mountain 
and  torrent.  The  latter  poem  long  held  fire;  Gray  was  stimu- 
lated to  finish  it  by  hearing  the  blind  Welsh  harper  Parry  at 
Cambridge.  Both  odes  were  the  first-fruits  of  the  press  which 
Walpole  had  set  up  at  Strawberry  Hill,  and  were  printed  together 
there  in  1757.  They  are  genuinely  Pindaric,  that  is,  with  corre- 
sponding strophes,  antistrophes  and  epodes.  As  the  Greek 
motto  prefixed  to  them  implies,  they  were  vooil  to  the  intelligent 
only;  and  these  at  first  were  few.  But  the  odes,  if  they  did  not 
attain  the  popularity  of  the  "  Elegy,"  marked  an  epoch  in 
the  history  of  English  poetry,  and  the  influence  of  "  The  Bard  " 
may  be  traced  even  in  that  great  but  very  fruitful  imposture, 
the  pseudo-Ossian  of  Macpherson.  Gray  yields  to  the  impulse 
of  the  Romantic  movement;  he  has  long  been  an  admirer  of 
ballad  poetry;  before  he  wrote  "  The  Bard  "  he  had  begun  to 
study  Scandinavian  literature,  and  the  two  "  Norse  Odes," 
written  in  1761,  were  in  style  and  metrical  form  strangely 
anticipative  of  Coleridge  and  Scott.  Meanwhile  his  Cambridge 
life  had  been  vexed  by  the  freaks  of  the  fellow-commoners  of 
Peterhouse,  a  peculiarly  riotous  set.  He  had  suffered  great 
inconvenience  for  a  time  by  the  burning  of  his  property  in 
Cornhill,  and  so  nervous  was  he  on  the  subject  of  fire  that  he 
had  provided  himself  with  a  rope-ladder  by  which  he  might 
descend  from  his  college  window.  Under  this  window  a  hunting- 
party  of  these  rude  lads  raised  in  the  early  morning  the  cry 
of  fire;  the  poet's  night-capped  head  appeared  and  was  at 
once  withdrawn.  This,  or  little  more  than  this,  was  the  simple 
fact  out  of  which  arose  the  legend  still  current  at  Cambridge. 
The  servile  authorities  of  Peterhouse  treated  Gray's  complaints 
with  scant  respect,  and  he  migrated  to  Pembroke  College.  "  I 
left  my  lodgings,"  he  said,  "because  the  rooms  were  noisy,  and 
the  people  of  the  house  dirty." 

In  1758  died  Mrs  Rogers,  and  Gray  describes  himself  as 
employed  at  Stoke  in  "  dividing  nothing  "  between  himself  and 
the  surviving  aunt,  Mrs  Oliffe,  whom  he  calls  "  the  spawn  of 
Cerberus  and  the  Dragon  of  Wantley."  In  1759  he  availed 
himself  of  the  MS.  treasures  of  the  British  Museum,  then  for  the 
first  time  open  to  the  public,  made  a  very  long  sojourn  in  town, 
and  in  1761  witnessed  the  coronation  of  George  III.,  of  which 
to  his  friend  Brown  of  Pembroke  he  wrote  a  very  vivacious 
account.  In  his  last  years  he  revealed  a  craving  for  a  life  less 
sedentary  than  heretofore.  He  visited  various  picturesque 
districts  of  Great  Britain,  exploring  great  houses  and  ruined 
abbeys;  he  was  the  pioneer  of  the  modern  tourist,  noting  and 
describing  in  the  spirit  now  of  the  poet,  now  of  the  art-critic, 
now  of  the  antiquary.  In  1762  he  travelled  in  Yorkshire  and 
Derbyshire;  in  1764  in  the  Lowlands  of  Scotland,  and  thence 
went  to  Southampton  and  its  neighbourhood.  In  1765  he 
revisits  Scotland;  he  is  the  guest  of  Lord  Strathmore  at  Glamis; 
and  revels  in  "  those  monstrous  creatures  of  God,"  the  Highland 
mountains.  His  most  notable  achievement  in  this  direction 
was  his  journey  among  the  English  lakes,  of  which  he  wrote  an 
interesting  account  to  Wharton;  and  even  in  1770,  the  year 
before  his  death,  he  visited  with  his  young  friend  Norton  Nicholls 
"five  of  the  most  beautiful  counties  of  the  kingdom,"  and 
descended  the  Wye  for  40  m.  In  all  these  quests  he  displays  a 
physical  energy  which  surprises  and  even  perplexes  us.  His 
true  academic  status  was  worthily  secured  in  1768,  when  the 
duke  of  Grafton  offered  him  the  professorship  of  modern  history 
which  in  1762  he  had  vainly  endeavoured  to  obtain  from  Bute. 
He  wrote  in  1769  the  "  Installation  Ode  "  upon  the  appointment 
of  Grafton  as  chancellor  of  the  university.  It  was  almost  the 
only  instance  in  which  he  successfully  executed  a  task,  not,  in 
the  strictest  sense,  self-imposed;  the  great  founders  of  the 


university  are  tactfully  memorized  and  pass  before  us  in  a  kind 
of  heraldic  splendour.  He  bore  with  indifference  the  taunts 
to  which,  from  Junius  and  others,  he  was  exposed  for  this 
tribute  to  his  patron.  He  was  contemplating  a  journey  to 
Switzerland  to  visit  his  youthful  friend  de  Bonstetten  when,  in 
the  summer  of  1771,  he  was  conscious  Of  a  great  decline  in  his 
physical  powers.  He  was  seized  with  a  sudden  illness  when 
dining  in  his  college  hall,  and  died  of  gout  .in  the  stomach  on  the 
3oth  of  July  1771.  His  last  moments  were  attended  by  his 
cousin  Mary  Antrobus,  postmistress  through  his  influence  at 
Cambridge  and  daughter  of  his  Eton  tutor;  and  he  was  laid 
beside  his  beloved  mother  in  the  churchyard  of  Stoke  Poges. 

Owing  to  his  shyness  and  reserve  he  had  few  intimate  friends, 
but  to  these  his  loss  was  irreparable;  for  to  them  he  revealed 
himself  either  in  boyish  levity  and  banter,  or  wise  and  sympa- 
thetic counsel  and  tender  and  yet  manly  consolation;  to  them 
he  imparted  his  quiet  but  keen  observation  of  passing  events 
or  the  stores  of  his  extensive  reading  in  literature  ancient, 
medieval  or  modern;  and  with  Proteus-like  variety  he  writes 
at  one  time  as  a  speculative  philosopher,  at  another  as  a  critic 
in  art  or  music,  at  another  as  a  meteorologist  and  nature-lover. 
His  friendship  with  the  young,  after  his  migration  to  Pembroke 
College,  is  a  noteworthy  trait  in  his  character.  With  Lord 
Strathmore  and  the  Lyons  and  with  William  Palgrave  he  con- 
versed as  an  elder  brother,  and  Norton  Nicholls  of  Trinity  Hall 
lost  in  him  a  second  father,  who  had  taught  him  to  think  and  feel. 
The  brilliant  young  foreigner,  de  Bonstetten,  looked  back  after 
a  long  and  chequered  career  with  remembrance  still  vivid  to  the 
days  in  which  the  poet  so  soon  to  die  taught  him  to  read  Shake- 
speare and  Milton  in  the  monastic  gloom  of  Cambridge.  With 
the  elderly  "  Levites  "  of  the  place  he  was  less  in  sympathy; 
they  dreaded  his  sarcastic  vein;  they  were  conscious  that  he 
laughed  at  them,  and  in  the  polemics  of  the  university  he  was 
somewhat  of  a  free  lance,  fighting  for  his  own  hand.  Lampoons 
of  his  were  privately  circulated  with  effect,  and  that  he  could  be 
the  fiercest  of  satirists  the  "  Cambridge  Courtship  "  on  the 
candidature  of  Lord  Sandwich  for  the  office  of  high  steward,  and 
the  verses  on  Lord  Holland's  mimic  ruins  at  Westgate,  sufficiently 
prove.  The  faculty  which  he  displayed  in  humour  and  satire 
was  denied  to  his  more  serious  muse;  there  all  was  the  fruit  of 
long  delay;  of  that  higher  inspiration  he  had  a  thin  but  very 
precious  vein,  and  the  sublimity  which  he  undoubtedly  attained 
was  reached  by  an  effort  of  which  captious  and  even  sympathetic 
criticism  can  discover  the  traces.  In  his  own  time  he  was 
regarded  as  an  innovator,  for  like  Collins  he  revived  the  poetic 
diction  of  the  past,  and  the  adverse  judgments  of  Johnson  and 
others  upon  his  work  are  in  fact  a  defence  of  the  current  literary 
traditions.  Few  men  have  published  so  little  to  so  much  effect; 
few  have  attained  to  fame  with  so  little  ambition.  His  favourite 
maxim  was  "  to  be  employed  is  to  be  happy,"  but  he  was  always 
employed  in  the  first  instance  for  the  satisfaction  of  his  own  soul, 
and  to  this  end  and  no  other  he  made  himself  one  of  the  best 
Greek  scholars  at  Cambridge  in  the  interval  between  Bentley 
and  Porson.  His  genius  was  receptive  rather  than  creative, 
and  it  is  to  be  regretted  that  he  lacked  energy  to  achieve  that 
history  of  English  poetry  which  he  once  projected,  and  for  which 
he  possessed  far  more  knowledge  and  insight  than  the  poet 
Thomas  Warton,  to  whom  he  resigned  the  task.  He  had  a  fine 
taste  in  music,  painting  and  architecture;  and  his  correspondence 
includes  a  wide  survey  of  such  European  literature  as  was 
accessible  to  him,  with  criticisms,  sometimes  indeed  a  little 
limited  and  insular,  yet  of  a  singularly  fresh  and  modern  cast. 
In  person  he  was  below  the  middle  height,  but  well-made,  and 
his  face,  in  which  the  primness  of  his  features  was  redeemed 
by  his  flashing  eyes,  was  the  index  of  his  character.  There  was 
a  touch  of  affectation  in  his  demeanour,  and  he  was  sometimes 
reticent  and  secretive  even  to  his  best  friends.  He  was  a  refined 
Epicurean  in  his  habits,  and  a  deist  rather  than  a  Christian  in 
his  religious  beliefs;  but  his  friend,  Mrs  Bonfoy,  had  "  taught 
him  to  pray  "  and  he  was  keenly  alive  to  the  dangers  of  a  flippant 
scepticism.  In  a  beautiful  alcaic  stanza  he  pronounces  the  man 
supremely  happy  who  in  the  depths  of  the  heart  is  conscious 


GRAY,  W.  DE— GRAZ 


395 


of  the  "  fount  of  tears,"  and  his  characteristic  melancholy, 
except  in  the  few  hours  when  it  was  indeed  black,  was  not  a 
pitiable  state;  rather,  it  was  one  secret  of  the  charm  both  of 
the  man  and  of  the  poet. 

A  very  complete  bibliography  of  Gray  will  be  found  in  Dr.  Brad- 
shaw's  edition  of  the  poems  in  the  Aldine  series.  Dodsley  published 
ten  of  the  poems,  exclusive  of  the  "  Long  Story,"  in  1768.  Mason's 
Life  of  Gray  (1778)  included  the  poems  and  some  hitherto  unpub- 
lished fragments,  with  a  selection  from  his  letters,  much  garbled. 
Mathias  in  1814  reprinted  Mason's  edition  and  added  much  from 
Gray's  MS.  commentaries  together  with  some  more  of  his  transla- 
tions. The  most  exhaustive  edition  of  Gray's  writings  was  achieved 
by  the  Rev.  John  Mitford,  who  first  did  justice  to  the  correspondence 
with  Wharton  and  Norton  Nicholls  (5  vols.,  Pickering,  1836-1843; 
correspondence  of  Gray  and  Mason,  Bentley,  1853);  see  also  the 
edition  of  the  works  by  Edmund  Gosse  (4  vols.  1884);  the  Life 
by  the  same  in  Eng.  Men  of  Letters  (2nd  ed.,  1889) ;  some  further 
relics  are  given  in  Cray  and  His  Friends  by  D.  C.  Tovey  (Cambridge, 
1890);  and  a  new  edition  of  the  letters  copiously  annotated  by  D. 
C.  Tovey  is  in  the  Standard  Library  (1900-1907).  Nicholl's 
Illustrations,  vol.  vi.  p.  805,  quoted  by  Professor  Kittredge  in  the 
Nation,  Sept.  I2th,  1900,  gives  the  true  story  of  Gray's  migration 
to  Pembroke  College.  Matthew  Arnold's  essay  on  Gray  in  Ward's 
English  Poets  is  one  of  the  minor  classics  of  literary  criticism. 

(D.  C.  To.) 

GRAY  (or  GREY),  WALTER  DE  (d.  1255),  English  prelate  and 
statesman,  was  a  nephew  of  John  de  Gray,  bishop  of  Norwich, 
and  was  educated  at  Oxford.  He  owed  his  early  and  rapid 
preferment  in  church  and  state  to  the  favour  of  King  John, 
becoming  the  king's  chancellor  in  1205,  and  being  chosen  bishop 
of  Lichfield  in  1210.  He  was,  however,  not  allowed  to  keep  this 
bishopric,  but  he  became  bishop  of  Worcester  in  1214,  resigning 
his  office  as  chancellor  in  the  same  year.  Gray  was  with  John 
when  the  king  signed  Magna  Carta  in  June  1215;  soon  after 
this  event  he  left  England  on  the  king's  business,  and  it  was 
during  his  absence  that  he  was  forced  into  the  archbishopric 
of  York,  owing  his  election  to  the  good  offices  of  John  and  of 
Pope  Innocent  III.  He  took  a  leading  part  in  public  affairs 
during  the  minority  of  Henry  III.,  and  was  regarded  with  much 
favour  by  this  king,  who  employed  him  on  important  errands 
to  foreign  potentates,  and  left  him  as  guardian  of  England  when 
he  went  to  France  in  1242.  Afterwards  the  archbishop  seems 
to  have  been  less  favourably  disposed  towards  Henry,  and  for  a 
time  he  absented  himself  from  public  business;  however,  in 
1255,  he  visited  London  to  attend  a  meeting  of  parliament,  and 
died  at  Fulham  on  the  ist  of  May  1255.  Gray  was  always 
anxious  to  assert  his  archiepiscopal  authority  over  Scotland, 
and  to  maintain  it  against  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  but 
in  neither  case  was  he  very  successful.  He  built  the  south 
transept  of  the  minster  at  York  and  bought  for  his  see  the 
village,  afterwards  called  Bishopthorpe,  which  is  still  the  residence 
of  the  archbishop  of  York.  He  was  also  generous  to  the  church 
at  Ripon.  Gray  was  regarded  by  his  contemporaries  as  an 
avaricious,  but  patriotic  man. 

GRAY,  a  town  of  eastern  France,  capital  of  an  arrondissement 
in  the  department  of  Haute-Saone,  situated  on  the  declivity  of 
a  hill  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Sa6ne,  36  m.  S.W.  of  Vesoul  by  the 
Eastern  railway.  Pop.  (1906)  5742.  The  streets  of  the  town  are 
narrow  and  steep,  but  it  possesses  broad  and  beautiful  quays 
and  has  a  busy  port.  Three  bridges,  one  dating  from  the  i8th 
century,  unite  it  to  suburbs  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river,  on 
which  is  the  railway-station  from  which  lines  branch  off  to 
Auxonne,  Dijon,  Besanfon  and  Culmont-Chalindrey.  The 
principal  buildings  are  the  Gothic  church,  restored  in  the  style 
of  the  Renaissance  but  with  a  modern  portal,  and  the  hfitel  de 
ville,  built  by  the  Spaniards  in  1568.  The  latter  building  has  a 
handsome  facade  decorated  with  columns  of  red  granite.  Gray 
is  the  seat  of  a  subprefect  and  has  tribunals  of  first  instance 
and  of  commerce,  a  chamber  of  commerce,  a  communal  college 
and  a  small  museum.  It  has  large  flour-mills;  among  the  other 
industries  is  the  manufacture  of  machinery  and  iron  goods. 
There  is  also  a  considerable  transit  traffic  in  goods  from  the 
south  of  France  and  the  colonies,  and  trade  in  iron,  corn,  pro- 
visions, vegetables,  wine,  wood,  &c.,  much  of  which  is  carried 
by  river.  Gray  was  founded  in  the  7th  century.  Its  fortifications 
were  destroyed  by  Louis  XIV.  During  the  Franco-German  War 


General  von  Werder  concentrated  his  army  corps  in  the  town 
and  held  it  for  a  month,  making  it  the  point  d'appui  of  move- 
ments towards  Dijon  and  Langres,  as  well  as  towards  Besanjon. 

Gray  gave  its  name  to  the  distinguished  English  family  of 
de  Gray,  Gray  or  Grey,  Anschitel  de  Gray  being  mentioned  as 
an  Oxfordshire  tenant  in  Domesday. 

GRAYLING  (Thymallus),  fishes  belonging  to  the  family 
Salmonidae.  The  best  known  are  the  "  poisson  bleu  "  of  the 
Canadian  voyageurs,  and  the  European  species,  Thymallus 
vulgaris  (the  Asch  or  Asche  of  Germany,  ombre  of  France,  and 
temola  of  Upper  Italy).  This  latter  species  is  esteemed  on 
account  of  its  agreeable  colours  (especially  of  the  dorsal  fin),  its 
well-flavoured  flesh,  and  the  sport  it  affords  to  anglers.  The 
grayling  differ  from  the  genus  Salmo  in  the  smaller  mouth  with 
comparatively  feeble  dentition,  in  the  larger  scales,  and  especially 
in  the  much  greater  development  of  the  dorsal  fin,  which  contains 
20  to  24  rays.  These  beautiful  fishes,  of  which  five  or  six  species 
are  known,  inhabit  the  fresh  waters  of  Europe,  Siberia  and  the 
northern  parts  of  North  America.  The  European  species, 
T.  vulgaris  or  vexillifer,  attains,  though  rarely,  a  length  of  2  ft. 
The  colours  during  life  are  remarkably  changeable  and  iridescent ; 
small  dark  spots  are  sometimes  present  on  the  body;  the  very 
high  dorsal  fin  is  beautifully  marked  with  purplish  bands  and 
ocelli.  In  England  and  Scotland  the  grayling  appears  to  have 
had  originally  a  rather  irregular  distribution,  but  it  has  now 
been  introduced  into  a  great  number  of  rivers;  it  is  not  found  in 
Ireland.  It  is  more  generally  distributed  in  Scandinavia  and 
Russia,  and  the  mountain  streams  of  central  Europe  southwards 
to  the  Alpine  water  of  Upper  Italy.  Specimens  attaining  to  a 
weight  of  4  lb  are  very  scarce. 

GRAYS  THURROCK,  or  GRAYS,  an  urban  district  in  the  south- 
eastern parliamentary  division  of  Essex,  England,  on  the  Thames, 
20  m.  E.  by  S.  from  London  by  the  London,  Tilbury  &  Southend 
railway.  Pop.  (1901)  13,834.  The  church  of  St  Peter  and  St 
Paul,  wholly  rebuilt,  retains  some  Norman  work.  The  town 
takes  its  name  from  a  family  of  Gray  who  held  the  manor  for 
three  centuries  from  1149.  There  are  an  endowed  and  two 
training  ship  schools.  Roman  remains  have  been  found  in  the 
vicinity;  and  the  geological  formations  exhibiting  the  process 
of  silting  up  of  a  former  river  channel  are  exposed  in  the  quarries, 
and  contain  large  mammalian  remains.  The  town  has  trade  in 
bricks,  lime  and  cement. 

GRAZ  [GRATZ],  the  capital  of  the  Austrian  duchy  and  crown- 
land  of  Styria,  140  m.  S.W.  of  Vienna  by  rail.  Pop.  (1900) 
138,370.  It  is  picturesquely  situated  on  both  banks  of  the  Mur, 
just  where  this  river  enters  a  broad  and  fertile  valley,  and  the 
beauty  of  its  position  has  given  rise  to  the  punning  French 
description,  La  Ville  des  grdces  sur  la  riviere  de  I' amour.  The  main 
town  lies  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river  at  the  foot  of  the  Schloss- 
berg  (1545  ft.)  which  dominates  the  town.  The  beautiful  valley 
traversed  by  the  Mur,  known  as  the  Grazer  Feld  and  bounded 
by  the  Wildonerberge,  extends  to  the  south;  to  the  S.W.  rise 
the  Bacher  Gebirge  and  the  Koralpen;  to  the  N.  the  Schockel 
(4745  ft.),  and  to  the  N.W.  the  Alps  of  Upper  Styria.  On  the 
Schlossbcrg,  which  can  be  ascended  by  a  cable  tramway,  beautiful 
parks  have  been  laid  out,  and  on  its  top  is  the  bell-tower,  60  ft. 
high,  and  the  quaint  clock-tower,  52  ft.  high,  which  bears  a 
gigantic  clock-dial.  At  the  foot  of  the  Schlossberg  is  the  Stadt- 
Park. 

Among  the  numerous  churches  of  the  city  the  most  important 
is  the  cathedral  of  St  Aegidius,  a  Gothic  building  erected  by  the 
emperor  Frederick  III.  in  1450-1462  on  the  site  of  a  previous 
church  mentioned  as  early  as  1157.  It  has  been  several  times 
modified  and  redecorated,  more  particularly  in  1718.  The 
present  copper  spire  dates  from  1663.  The  interior  is  richly 
adorned  with  stained-glass  windows  of  modern  date,  costly 
shrines,  paintings  and  tombs.  In  the  immediate  neighbourhood 
of  the  cathedral  is  the  mausoleum  church  erected  by  the  emperor 
Ferdinand  II.  Worthy  of  mention  also  are  the  parish  church,  a 
Late  Gothic  building,  finished  in  1520,  and  restored  in  1875, 
which  possesses  an  altar  piece  by  Tintoretto;  the  Augustinian 
church,  appropriated  to  the  service  of  the  university  since  1827; 


396 


GRAZZINI— GREAT  AWAKENING 


the  small  Leech  Kirche,  an  interesting  building  in  Early  Gothic 
style,  dating  from  the  i3th  century,  and  the  Herz  Jesu-Kirche, 
a  building  in  Early  Gothic  style,  finished  in  1891,  with  a  tower 
360  ft.  high.  Of  the  secular  buildings  the  most  important  is  the 
Landhaus,  where  the  local  diet  holds  its  sittings,  erected  in  the 
i6th  century  in  the  Renaissance  style.  It  possesses  an  interesting 
portal  and  a  beautiful  arcaded  court,  and  amongst  the  curiosities 
preserved  here  is  the  Styrian  hat.  In  its  neighbourhood  is  the 
Zeughaus  or  arsenal,  built  in  1644,  which  contains  a  very  rich 
collection  of  weapons  of  the  isth-i7th  centuries,  and  which  is 
maintained  exactly  in  the  same  condition  as  it  was  250  years  ago. 
The  town  hall,  built  in  1807,  and  rebuilt  in  1892  in  the  German 
Renaissance  style,  and  the  imperial  castle,  dating  from  the  nth 
century,  now  used  as  government  offices,  are  also  worth  notice. 

At  the  head  of  the  educational  institutions  is  the  university 
founded  in  1586  by  the  Austrian  archduke  Charles  Francis,  and 
restored  in  1817  after  an  interruption  of  45  years.  It  is  now 
housed 'in  a  magnificent  building,  finished  in  1895,  and  is  endowed 
with  numerous  scientific  laboratories  and  a  rich  library.  It 
had  in  1901  a  teaching  staff  of  161  professors  and  lecturers, 
and  1652  students,  including  many  Italians  from  the  Kiistenland 
and  Dalmatia.  The  Joanneum  Museum,  founded  in  1811  by  the 
archduke  John  Baptist,  has  become  very  rich  in  many  depart- 
ments, and  an  additional  huge  building  in  the  rococo  style  was 
erected  in  1895  for  its  accommodation.  The  technical  college, 
founded  in  1814  by  the  archduke  John  Baptist,  had  in  1901 
about  400  pupils. 

An  active  trade,  fostered  by  abundant  railway  communications, 
is  combined  with  manufactures  of  iron  and  steel  wares,  paper, 
chemicals,  vinegar,  physical  and  optical  instruments,  besides 
artistic  printing  and  lithography.  The  extensive  workshops 
of  the  Southern  railway  are  at  Graz,  and  since  the  opening  of  the 
railway  to  the  rich  coal-fields  of  Koflach  the  number  of  industrial 
establishments  has  greatly  increased. 

Amongst  the  numerous  interesting  places  in  the  neighbourhood 
are:  the  Hilmteich,  with  the  Hilmwarte,  about  100  ft.  high; 
and  the  Rosenberg  (1570  ft.),  whence  the  ascent  of  the  Platte 
(2136  ft.)  with  extensive  view  is  made.  At  the  foot  of  the 
Rosenberg  is  Maria  Griin,  with  a  large  sanatorium.  All  these 
places  are  situated  to  the  N.  of  Graz.  On  the  left  bank  of  the 
Mur  is  the  pilgrimage  church  of  Maria  Trost,  built  in  1714; 
on  the  right  bank  is  the  castle  of  Eggenberg,  built  in  the  i7th 
century.  To  the  S.W.  is  the  Buchkogel  (2150  ft.),  with  a  magnifi- 
cent view,  and  a  little  farther  south  is  the  watering-place  of 
Tobelbad. 

History. — Graz  may  possibly  have  been  a  Roman  site,  but 
the  first  mention  of  it  under  its  present  name  is  in  a  document 
of  A.D.  881,  after  which  it  became  the  residence  of  the  rulers 
of  the  surrounding  district,  known  later  as  Styria.  Its  privileges 
were  confirmed  by  King  Rudolph  I.  in  1281.  Surrounded  with 
walls  and  fosses  in  1435,  it  was  able  in  1481  to  defend  itself 
against  the  Hungarians  under  Matthias  Corvinus,  and  in  1529 
and  1532  the  Turks  attacked  it  with  as  little  success.  As  early 
as  1530  the  Lutheran  doctrine  was  preached  in  Graz  by  Seifried 
and  Jacob  von  Eggenberg,  and  in  1540  Eggenberg  founded  the 
Paradies  or  Lutheran  school,  in  which  Kepler  afterwards  taught. 
But  the  archduke  Charles  burned  20,000  Protestant  books  in 
the  square  of  the  present  lunatic  asylum,  and  succeeded  by  his 
oppressive  measures  in  bringing  the  city  again  under  the  authority 
of  Rome.  From  the  earlier  part  of  the  isth  century  Graz  was 
the  residence  of  one  branch  of  the  family  of  Habsburg,  a  branch 
which  succeeded  to  the  imperial  throne  in  1619  in  the  person 
of  Ferdinand  II.  New  fortifications  were  constructed  in  the  end 
of  the  1 6th  century  by  Franz  von  Poppendorf,  and  in  1644  the 
town  afforded  an  asylum  to  the  family  of  Ferdinand  III.  The 
French  were  in  possession  of  the  place  in  1797  and  again  in  1805 ; 
and  in  1809  Marshal  Macdonald  having,  in  accordance  with  the 
terms  of  the  peace  of  Vienna,  entered  the  citadel  which  he  had 
vainly  besieged,  blew  it  all  up  with  the  exception  of  the  bell- 
tower  and  the  citizens'  or  clock  tower.  It  benefited  greatly 
during  the  igth  century  from  the  care  of  the  archduke  John  and 
received  extended  civic  privileges  in  1860. 


See  Ilwof  and  Peters,  Graz,  Geschichte  und  Topographic  der  Stadt 
(Graz,  1875);  G.  Fels,  Graz  und  seine  Umgebung  (Graz,  1898);  L. 
Mayer,  Die  Stadt  der  Grazien  (Graz,  1897),  and  Hofrichter,  Riickblicke 
in  die  Vergangenheit  von  Graz  (Graz,  1885). 

GRAZZINI,  ANTONIO  FRANCESCO  (1503-1583),  Italian 
author,  was  born  at  Florence  on  the  22nd  of  March  1 503,  of  good 
family  both  by  his  father's  and  mother's  side.  Of  his  youth 
and  education  all  record  appears  to  be  lost,  but  he  probably 
began  early  to  practise  as  an  apothecary.  In  1540  he  was  one 
of  the  founders  of  the  Academy  of  the  Humid  (degli  Umidi) 
afterwards  called  "  della  Fiorentina,"  and  later  took  a  prominent 
part  in  the  establishment  of  the  more  famous  Accademia  della 
Crusca.  In  both  societies  he  was  known  as  //  Lasca  or  Leuciscus, 
and  this  pseudonym  is  still  frequently  substituted  for  his  proper 
name.  His  temper  was  what  the  French  happily  call  a  difficult 
one,  and  his  life  was  consequently  enlivened  or  disturbed  by 
various  literary  quarrels.  His  Humid  brethren  went  so  far  as 
to  expel  him  for  a  time  from  the  society — the  chief  ground 
of  offence  being  apparently  his  ruthless  criticism  of  the 
"  Arameans,"  a  party  of  the  academicians  who  maintained 
that  the  Florentine  or  Tuscan  tongue  was  derived  from  the 
Hebrew,  the  Chaldee,  or  some  other  branch  of  the  Semitic. 
He  was  readmitted  in  1 566,  when  his  friend  Salviati  was"  consul  " 
of  the  academy.  His  death  took  place  on  the  i8th  of  February 
1583.  II  Lasca  ranks  as  one  of  the  great  masters  of  Tuscan 
prose.  His  style  is  copious  and  flexible;  abundantly  idiomatic, 
but  without  any  affectation  of  being  so,  it  carries  with  it  the 
force  and  freshness  of  popular  speech,  while  it  lacks  not  at  the 
same  time  a  flavour  of  academic  culture.  His  principal  works 
are  Le  Cene  (1756),  a  collection  of  stories  in  the  manner  of 
Boccaccio,  and  a  number  of  prose  comedies,  LaGelosia  (1568),  La 
Spiritata  (i  561),  /  Parentadi,  La  Arenga,  La  Sibilla,  LaPinzochera, 
L' Arzigogolo.  The  stories,  though  of  no  special  merit  as  far 
as  the  plots  are  concerned,  are  told  with  verve  and  interest. 
A  number  of  miscellaneous  poems,  a  few  letters  and  Four 
Orations  to  the  Cross  complete  the  list  of  Grazzini's  extant  works. 

He  also  edited  the  works  of  Berni,  and  collected  Tutti  i  trionfi, 
larri,  -mascherate,  e  canti  carnascialaschi,  andati  per  Firenze  dal 
tempo  del  magnifico  Lorenzo  de'  Medici  fino  all'  anno  1559.  In  1868 
Adamo  Rossi  published  in  his  Ricerche  per.  le  biblioteche  di  Perugia 
three  "  novelle"  by  Grazzini,  from  a  MS.  of  the  i6th  century  in  the 
"Comunale"  of  Perugia:  and  in  1870  a  small  collection  of  those 
poems  which  have  been  left  unpublished  by  previous  editors  appeared 
at  Poggibonsi,  Alcune  Poesie  inedite.  See  Pietro  Fanfani's  "Vita 
del  Lasca,"  prefixed  to  his  edition  of  the  Opere  di  A.  Grazzini 
(Florence,  1857). 

GREAT  AWAKENING,  the  name  given  to  a  remarkable 
religious  revival  centring  in  New  England  in  1740-1743,  but 
covering  all  the  American  colonies  in  1740-1750.  The  word 

awakening  "  in  this  sense  was  frequently  (and  possibly  first) 
used  by  Jonathan  Edwards  at  the  time  of  the  Northampton 
revival  of  1734-1735,  which  spread  through  the  Connecticut 
Valley  and  prepared  the  way  for  the  work  in  Rhode  Island, 
Massachusetts  and  Connecticut(i74o-i74i)of  George  Whitefield, 
who  had  previously  been  preaching  in  the  South,  especially 
at  Savannah,  Georgia.  He,  his  immediate  follower,  Gilbert 
Tennent  (i  703-1 764),  other  clergymen, such  as  James  Davenport, 
and  many  untrained  laymen  who  took  up  the  work,  agreed 
in  the  emotional  and  dramatic  character  of  their  preaching, 
in  rousing  their  hearers  to  a  high  pitch  of  excitement,  often 
amounting  to  frenzy,  in  the  undue  stress  they  put  upon  "  bodily 
effects  "  (the  physical  manifestations  of  an  abnormal  psychic 
state)  as  proofs  of  conversion,  and  in  their  unrestrained  attacks 
upon  the  many  clergymen  who  did  not  join  them  and  whom 
they  called  "  dead  men,"  unconverted,  unregenerate  and 
careless  of  the  spiritual  condition  of  their  parishes.  Jonathan 
Edwards,  Benjamin  Colman  (1673-1747),  and  Joseph  Bellamy, 
recognized  the  viciousness  of  so  extreme  a  position.  Edwards 
personally  reprimanded  Whitefield  for  presuming  to  say  of  any 
one  that  he  was  unconverted,  and  in  nis  Thoughts  Concerning 
the  Present  Revival  of  Religion  devoted  much  space  to  "  showing 
what  things  are  to  be  corrected,  or  avoided,  in  promoting  this 
work."  Edwards'  famous  sermon  at  Enfield  in  1741  so  affected 
his  audience  that  they  cried  and  groaned  aloud,  and  he  found 


GREAT  BARRIER  REEF— GREAT  BASIN 


397 


it  necessary  to  bid  them  be  still  that  he  might  go  on;  but 
Davenport  and  many  itinerants  provoked  and  invited  shouting 
and  even  writhing,  and  other  physical  manifestations.  At  its 
May  session  in  1742  the  General  Court  of  Massachusetts  forbade 
itinerant  preaching  save  with  full  consent  from  the  resident 
pastor;  in  May  1743  the  annual  ministerial  convention,  by  a 
small  plurality,  declared  against  "  several  errors  in  doctrine 
and  disorders  in  practice  which  have  of  late  obtained  in  various 
parts  of  the  land,"  against  lay  preachers  and  disorderly  revival 
meetings;  in  the  same  year  Charles  Chauncy,  who  disapproved 
of  the  revival,  published  Seasonable  Thoughts  on  the  Slate  of 
Religion  in  New  England;  and  in  1744-1745  Whitefield,  upon 
his  second  tour  in  New  England,  found  that  the  faculties  of 
Harvard  and  Yale  had  officially  "  testified  "  and  "  declared  " 
against  him  and  that  most  pulpits  were  closed  to  him.  Some 
separatist  churches  were  formed  as  a  result  of  the  Awakening; 
these  either  died  out  or  became  Baptist  congregations.  To 
the  reaction  against  the  gross  methods  of  the  revival  has  been 
ascribed  the  religious  apathy  of  New  England  during  the  last 
years  of  the  i8th  century;  but  the  martial  and  political  excite- 
ment, beginning  with  King  George's  War  (i.e.  the  American 
part  of  the  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession)  and  running  through 
the  American  War  of  Independence  and  the  founding  of  the 
American  government,  must  be  reckoned  at  the  least  as  contri- 
buting causes.  . 
See  Joseph  Tracy,  The  Great  Awakening  (Boston,  1842) ;  Samuel 
P.  Hayes,  "  An  Historical  Study  of  the  Edwardean  Revivals,"  in 
The  American  Journal  of  Psychology,  vol.  13  (Worcester,  Mass., 
1902);  and  Frederick  M.  Davenport,  Primitive  Traits  in  Religious 
Revivals  (New  York,  1905),  especially  chapter  viii.  pp.  94-131. 

(R.  WE.) 

GREAT  BARRIER  REEF,  a  vast  coral  reef  extending  for 
1200  m.  along  the  north-east  coast  of  Australia  (q.v.).  The 
channel  within  it  is  protected  from  heavy  seas  by  the  reef,  and 
is  a  valuable  route  of  communication  for  coasting  steamers. 
The  reef  itself  is  also  traversed  by  a  number  of  navigable  passages. 

GREAT  HARRINGTON,  a  township  of  Berkshire  county, 
Massachusetts,  U.S.A.,  on  the  Housatonic  river,  in  the  Berkshire 
hills,  about  25  m.  S.W.  of  Pittsfield.  Pop.  (1890)  4612;  (1900) 
5854.  of  whom  1187  were  foreign-born;  (1910  census)  5926. 
Its  area  is  about  45  sq.  m.  The  township  is  traversed  by 
a  branch  of  the  New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford  railroad,  and 
the  Berkshire  Street  railway  (controlled  by  the  N.Y.,  N.H.  &  H.) 
has  its  southern  terminus  here.  Within  the  township  are 
three  villages — Great  Barrington  (the  most  important),  Housa- 
tonic and  Van  Deusenville;  the  first  two  are  about  5  m.  apart. 
The  village  of  Great  Barrington,  among  the  hills,  is  well  known 
as  a  summer  resort.  The  Congregational  church  with  its  magnifi- 
cent organ  (3954  pipes)  is  worthy  of  mention.  There  is  a  public 
library  in  the  village  of  Great  Barrington  and  another  in  the 
village  of  Housatonic.  Monument  Mt.  (1710  ft.),  partly  in 
Stockbridge,  commands  a  fine  view  of  the  Berkshires  and  the 
Housatonic  Valley.  The  Sedgwick  School  (for  boys)  was  removed 
from  Hartford,  Connecticut,  to  Great  Barrington  in  1869. 
There  are  various  manufactures,  including  cotton-goods  (in  the 
village  of  Housatonic),  and  electric  meters,  paper,  knit  goods 
and  counterpanes  (in  the  village  of  Great  Barrington);  and 
marble  and  blue  stone  are  quarried  here;  but  the  township  is 
primarily  given  over  to  farming.  The  fair  of  the  Housatonic 
Agricultural  Society  is  held  here  annually  during  September; 
and  the  district  court  of  South  Berkshire  sits  here.  The  township 
was  incorporated  in  1761,  having  been,  since  1743,  the  "  North 
Parish  of  Sheffield  ";  the  township  of  Sheffield,  earlier  known 
as  the  "  Lower  Housatonic  Plantation  "  was  incorporated  in 
1733.  Great  Barrington  was  named  in  honour  of  John  Shute 
(1678-1734),  Viscount  Barrington  of  Ardglass  (the  adjective 
"  Great  "  being  added  to  distinguish  it  from  another  township 
of  the  same  name).  In  1761-1787  it  was  the  shire-town.  Great 
Barrington  was  a  centre  of  the  disaffection  during  Shays's 
rebellion,  and  on  the  I2th  of  September  1786  a  riot  here  pre- 
vented the  sitting  of  court.  Samuel  Hopkins,  one  of  the  most 
eminent  of  American  theologians,  was  pastor  here  in  1743-1769; 
Genera]  Joseph  Dwight  (1703-1765),  a  merchant,  lawyer  and 


brigadier-general  of  Massachusetts  militia,  who  took  part  in 
the  Louisburg  expedition  in  1745  and  later  in  the  French  and 
Indian  War,  lived  here  from  1758  until  his  death;  and  William 
Cullen  Bryant  lived  here  as  a  lawyer  and  town  clerk  in  1816-1825. 
See  C.  J.  Taylor,  History  of  Great  Barrington  (Great  Barrington, 
1882). 

GREAT  BASIN,  an  area  in  the  western  Cordilleran  region  of 
the  United  States  of  America,  about  200,000  sq.  m.  in  extent, 
characterized  by  wholly  interior  drainage,  a  peculiar  mountain 
system  and  extreme  aridity.  Its  form  is  approximately  that 
of  an  isosceles  triangle,  with  the  sharp  angle  extending  into 
Lower  California,  W.  of  the  Colorado  river;  the  northern  edge 
being  formed  by  the  divide  of  the  drainage  basin  of  the  Columbia 
river,  the  eastern  by  that  of  the  Colorado,  the  western  by  the 
central  part  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  crest,  and  by  other  high 
mountains.  The  N.  boundary  and  much  of  the  E.  is  not  con- 
spicuously uplifted,  being  plateau,  rather  than  mountain.  The 
W.  half  of  Utah,  the  S.W.  corner  of  Wyoming,  the  S.E.  corner 
of  Idaho,  a  large  area  in  S.E.  Oregon,  much  of  S.  California, 
a  strip  along  the  E.  border  of  the  last-named  state,  and  almost 
the  whole  of  Nevada  are  embraced  within  .the  limits  of  the 
Great  Basin. 

The  Great  Basin  is  not,  as  its  name  implies,  a  topographic  cup. 
Its  surface  is  of  varied  character,  with  many  independent  closed 
basins  draining  into  lakes  or  "playas,"  none  of  which,  however, 
has  outlet  to  the  sea.  The  mountain  chains,  which  from  their 
peculiar  geologic  character  are  known  as  of  the  "  Basin  Range 
type  "  (not  exactly  conterminous  in  distribution  with  the  Basin), 
are  echeloned  in  short  ranges  running  from  N.  to  S.  Many  of 
them  are  fault  block  mountains,  the  crust  having  been  broken 
and  the  blocks  tilted  so  that  there  is  a  steep  face  on  one  side 
and  a  gentle  slope  on  the  other.  This  is  the  Basin  Range  type  of 
mountain.  These  mountains  are  among  the  most  recent  in  the 
continent,  and  some  of  them,  at  least,  are  still  growing.  In 
numerous  instances  clear  evidence  of  recent  movements  along 
the  fault  planes  has  been  discovered;  and  frequent  earthquakes 
testify  with  equal  force  to  the  present  uplift  of  the  mountain 
blocks.  The  valleys  between  the  tilted  mountain  blocks  are 
smooth  and  often  trough-like,  and  are  often  the  sites  of  shallow 
salt  lakes  or  playas.  By  the  rain  wash  and  wind  action  detritus 
from  the  mountains  is  carried  to  these  valley  floors,  raising  their 
level,  and  often  burying  low  mountain  spurs,  so  as  to  cause 
neighbouring  valleys  to  coalesce.  The  plateau  "  lowlands  "  in 
the  centre  of  the  Basin  are  approximately  5000  ft.  in  altitude. 
Southward  the  altitude  falls,  Death  valley  and  Coahuila  valley 
being  in  part  below  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  whole  Basin  is 
marked  by  three  features  of  elevation — the  Utah  basin,  the 
Nevada  basin  and,  between  them,  the  Nevada  plateau. 

Over  the  lowlands  of  the  Basin,  taken  generally,  there  is  an 
average  precipitation  of  perhaps  6-7  in.,  while  in  the  Oregon 
region  it  is  twice  as  great,  and  in  the  southern  parts  even  less. 
The  mountains  receive  somewhat  more.  The  annual  evaporation 
from  water  surfaces  is  from  60  to  150  in.  (60  to  80  on  the  Great 
Salt  Lake).  The  reason  for  the  arid  climate  differs  in  different 
sections.  In  the  north  it  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  winds  from 
the  Pacific  lose  most  of  their  moisture,  especially  in  winter,  on 
the  western  slopes  of  the  Sierra  Nevada;  in  the  south  it  is  due 
to  the  fact  that  the  region  lies  in  a  zone  of  calms,  and  light, 
variable  winds.  Precipitation  is  largely  confined  to  local  showers, 
often  of  such  violence  as  to  warrant  the  name  "  cloud  bursts," 
commonly  applied  to  the  heavy  down-pours  of  this  desert 
region.  It  is  these  heavy  rains,  of  brief  duration,  when  great 
volumes  of  water  rapidly  run  off  from  the  barren  slopes,  that 
cause  the  deep  channels,  or  arroyas,  which  cross  the  desert. 
Permanent  streams  are  rare.  Many  mountains  are  quite  without 
perennial  streams,  and  some  lack  even  springs.  Few  of  the 
mountain  creeks  succeed  in  reaching  the  arid  plains,  and  those 
that  do  quickly  disappear  by  evaporation  or  by  seepage  into 
the  gravels.  In  the  N.W.  there  are  many  permanent  lakes 
without  outlet  fed  by  the  mountain  streams;  others,  snow  fed, 
occur  among  the  Sierra  Nevada;  and  some  in  the  larger  mountain 
masses  of  the  middle  region.  Almost  all  are  saline.  The  largest 


398 


GREAT  BEAR  LAKE— GREATHEAD 


of  all,  Great  Salt  Lake,  is  maintained  by  the  waters  of  the 
Wasatch  and  associated  plateaus.  No  lakes  occur  south  of 
Owens  in  the  W.  and  Sevier  in  the  E.  (39°) ;  evaporation  below 
these  limits  is  supreme.  Most  of  the  small  closed  basins,  how- 
ever, contain  "  playas,"  or  alkali  mud  flats,  that  are  overflowed 
when  the  tributary  streams  are  supplied  with  storm  water. 

Save  where  irrigation  has  reclaimed  small  areas,  the  whole 
region  is  a  vast  desert,  though  locally  only  some  of  the  interior 
plains  are  known  as  "  deserts."  Such  are  the  Great  Salt  Lake 
and  Carson  deserts  in  the  north,  the  Mohave  and  Colorado  and 
Amargosa  (Death  Valley)  deserts  of  the  south-west.  Straggling 
forests,  mainly  of  conifers,  characterize  the  high  plateaus  of 
central  Utah.  The  lowlands  and  the  lower  mountains,  especially 
southward,  are  generally  treeless.  Cottonwoods  line  the  streams, 
salt-loving  vegetation  margins  the  bare  playas,  low  bushes  and 
scattered  bunch-grass  grow  over  the  lowlands,  especially  in  the 
north.  Gray  desert  plants,  notably  cactuses  and  other  thorny 
plants,  partly  replace  in  the  south  the  bushes  of  the  north. 
Except  on  the  scattered  oases,  where  irrigation  from  springs  and 
mountain  streams  has  reclaimed  small  patches,  the  desert  is 
barren  and  forbidding  in  the  extreme.  There  are  broad  plains 
covered  with  salt  and  alkali,  and  others  supporting  only  scattered 
bunch  grass,  sage  bush,  cactus  and  other  arid  land  plants. 
There  are  stony  wastes,  or  alluvial  fans,  where  mountain  streams 
emerge  upon  the  plains,  in  time  of  flood,  bringing  detritus  in 
their  torrential  courses  from  the  mountain  canyons  and  depositing 
it  along  the  mountain  base.  The  barrenness  extends  into  the 
mountains  themselves,  where  there  are  bare  rock  cliffs,  stony 
slopes  and  a  general  absence  of  vegetation.  With  increasing 
altitude  vegetation  becomes  more  varied  and  abundant,  until  the 
tree  limit  is  reached;  then  follows  a  forest  belt,  which  in  the 
highest  mountains  is  limited  above  by  cold  as  it  is  below  by 
aridity. 

The  successive  explorations  of  B.  L.  E.  Bonneville,  J.  C. 
Fremont  and  Howard  Stansbury  (1806-1863)  furnished  a 
general  knowledge  of  the  hydrographic  features  and  geological 
lacustrine  history  of  the  Great  Basin,  and  this  knowledge  was 
rounded  out  by  the  field  work  of  the  U.S.  Geological  Survey  from 
1879  to  1883,  under  the  direction  of  Grove  Karl  Gilbert.  The 
mountains  are  composed  in  great  part  of  Paleozoic  strata, 
often  modified  by  vulcanism  and  greatly  denuded  and  sculptured 
by  wind  and  water  erosion.  The  climate  in  late  geologic  time 
was  very  different  from  that  which  prevails  to-day.  In  the 
Pleistocene  period  many  large  lakes  were  formed  within  the  Great 
Basin;  especially,  by  the  fusion  of  small  catchment  basins, 
two  great  confluent  bodies  of  water — Lake  Lahontan  (in  the 
Nevada  basin)  and  Lake  Bonneville  (in  the  Utah  basin).  The 
latter,  the  remnants  of  which  are  represented  to-day  by  Great 
Salt,  Sevier  and  Utah  Lakes,  had  a  drainage  basin  of  some 
54,000  sq.  m. 

See  G.  K.  Gilbert  in  Wheeler  Survey,  U.S.  Geographical  Survey 
West  of  the  Hundredth  Meridian,  vol.  iii. ;  Clarence  King  and  others 
in  the  Report  of  the  Fortieth  Parallel  Survey  (U.S.  Geol.  Exploration 
of  the  Fortieth  Parallel);  G.  K.  Gilbert's  Lake  Bonneville  (U.S. 
Geological  Survey,  Monographs,  No.  I,  1890),  also  I.  C.  Russell's 
Lake  Lahontan  (Same,  No.  1 1,  1885),  with  references  to  other  publica- 
tions of  the  Survey.  For  reference  to  later  geological  literature,  and 
discussion  of  the  Basin  Ranges,  see  J.  E.  Spurr,  Bull.  Geol.  Soc.  Amer. 
vol.  12,  1901,  p.  217;  and  G.  D.  Louderback,  same,  vol.  15,  1904, 
p.  280;  also  general  bibliographies  issued  by  the  U.S.  Geol.  Survey 
(e.g.  Bull.  301,  372  and  409). 

GREAT  BEAR  LAKE,  an  extensive  sheet  of  fresh  water  in 
the  north-west  of  Canada,  between  65°  and  67°  N.,  and  117°  and 
123°  W.  It  is  of  very  irregular  shape,  has  an  estimated  area 
of  11,200  sq.  m.,  a  depth  of  270  ft.,  and  is  upwards  of  200  ft. 
above  the  sea.  It  is  175  m.  in  length,  and  from  25  to  45  in 
breadth,  though  the  greatest  distance  between  its  northern  and 
southern  arms  is  about  180  m.  The  Great  Bear  river  discharges 
its  waters  into  the  Mackenzie  river.  It  is  full  of  fish,  and  the 
neighbouring  country,  though  barren  and  uncultivated,  contains 
quantities  of  game. 

GREAT  CIRCLE.  The  circle  in  which  a  sphere  is  cut  by  a 
plane  is  called  a  "  great  circle,"  when  the  cutting  plane  passes 
through  the  centre  of  sphere.  Treating  the  earth  as  a  sphere, 


the  meridians  of  longitude  are  all  great  circles.  Of  the  parallels 
of  latitude,  the  equator  only  is  a  great  circle.  The  shortest  line 
joining  any  two  points  is  an  arc  of  a  great  circle.  For  "  great 
circle  sailing  "  see  NAVIGATION. 

GREAT  FALLS,  a  city  and  the  county-seat  of  Cascade  county, 
Montana,  U.S.A.,  99  m.  (by  rail)  N.E.  of  Helena,  on  the  S.  bank 
of  the  Missouri  river,  opposite  the  mouth  of  the  Sun  river,  at  an 
altitude  of  about  3300  ft.  It  is  10  m.  above  the  Great  Falls 
of  the  Missouri,  from  which  it  derives  its  name.  Pop.  (1890) 
3979;  (1900)  14,930,  of  whom  4692  were  foreign-born;  (1910 
census)  13,948.  It  has  an  area  of  about  8  sq.  m.  It  is  served 
by  the  Great  Northern  and  the  Billings  &  Northern  (Chicago, 
Burlington  &  Quincy  system)  railways.  The  city  has  a  splendid 
park  system  of  seven  parks  (about  530  acres)  with  15  m.  of 
boulevards.1  Among  the  principal  buildings  are  a  city  hall, 
court  house,  high  school,  commercial  college,  Carnegie  library, 
the  Columbus  Hospital  and  Training  School  for  Nurses  (under 
the  supervision  of  the  Sisters  of  Charity),  and  the  Montana 
Deaconess  hospital.  There  is  a  Federal  land  office  in  the  city. 
Great  Falls  lies  in  the  midst  of  a  region  exceptionally  rich  in 
minerals — copper,  gold,  silver,  lead,  iron,  gypsum,  limestone, 
sapphires  and  bituminous  coal  being  mined  in  the  neighbourhood. 
Much  grain  is  grown  in  the  vicinity,  and  the  city  is  an  important 
shipping  point  for  wool,  live-stock  and  cereals.  Near  Great 
Falls  the  Missouri  river,  within  -]\  m.,  contracts  from  a  width  of 
about  900  to  300  yds.  and  falls  more  than  500  ft.,  the  principal 
falls  being  the  Black  Eagle  Falls  (50  ft.),  from  which  power  is 
derived  for  the  city's  street  railway  and  lighting  plant,  the 
beautiful  Rainbow  Falls  (48  ft.)  and  Great  Falls  (92  ft.).  Giant 
Spring  Fall,  about  20  ft.  high,  is  a  cascade  formed  by  a  spring 
on  the  bank  of  the  river  near  Rainbow  Falls.  The  river  furnishes 
very  valuable  water-power,  partly  utilized  by  large  manufactur- 
ing establishments,  including  flour  mills,  plaster  mills,  breweries, 
iron  works,  mining  machinery  shops,  and  smelting  and  reduction 
works.  The  Boston  &  Montana  copper  smelter  is  one  of  the 
largest  in  the  world;  it  has  a  chimney  stack  506  ft.  high,  and  in 
1908  employed  1200  men  in  the  smelter  and  2500  in  its  mining 
department.  Great  Falls  ranked  second  (to  Anaconda)  among 
the  cities  of  the  state  in  the  value  of  the  factory  product  of  1905, 
which  was  $13, 291,979,  showing  an  increase  of  42-4%  since  1900. 
The  city  owns  and  operates  its  water-supply  system.  Great  Falls 
was  settled  in  1884,  and  was  chartered  as  a  city  in  1888. 

GREAT  HARWOOD,  an  urban  district  in  the  Darwen  parlia- 
mentary division  of  Lancashire,  England,  45  m.  N.E.  of  Black- 
burn, on  the  Lancashire  and  Yorkshire  railway.  Pop.  (1901) 
12,015.  It  is  of  modern  growth,  a  township  of  cotton  operatives, 
with  large  collieries  in  the  vicinity.  An  agricultural  society 
is  also  maintained. 

GREATHEAD,  JAMES  HENRY  (1844-1896),  British  engineer, 
was  born  at  Grahamstown,  Cape  Colony,  on  the  6th  of  August 
1844.  He  migrated  to  England  in  1859,  and  in  1864  was  a  pupil 
of  P.  W.  Barlow,  from  whom  he  became  acquainted  with  the 
shield  system  of  tunnelling  with  which  his  name  is  especially 
associated.  Barlow,  indeed,  had  a  strong  belief  in  the  shield, 
and  was  the  author  of  a  scheme  for  facilitating  the  traffic  of 
London  by  the  construction  of  underground  railways  running 
in  cast-iron  tubes  constructed  by  its  aid.  To  show  what  the 
method  could  do,  it  was  resolved  to  make  a  subway  under 
the  Thames  near  the  Tower,  but  the  troubles  encountered 
by  Sir  M.  I.  Brunei  in  the  Thames  Tunnel,  where  also  a  shield  was 
employed,  made  engineers  hesitate  to  undertake  the  subway, 
even  though  it  was  of  very  much  smaller  dimensions  (6  ft.  7  in. 

1  Great  Falls  was  a  pioneer  among  the  cities  of  the  state  in  the 
development  of  a  park  system.  When  the  city  was  first  settled  its 
site  was  a  "  barren  tract  of  sand,  thinly  covered  with  buffalo-grass 
and  patches  of  sage  brush."  The  first  settler,  Paris  Gibson,  of 
Minneapolis,  began  the  planting  of  trees,  which,  though  not  indi- 
genous, grew  well.  The  city's  sidewalks  are  bordered  by  strips  of 
lawn,  in  which  there  is  a  row  of  trees,  and  the  city  maintains  a  large 
nursery  where  trees  are  grown  for  this  purpose.  A  general  state  law 
(1901)  placing  the  parking  of  cities  on  a  sound  financial  basis  is  due 
very  largely  to  the  impulse  furnished  by  Great  Falls.  See  an  article, 
"  Great  Falls,  the  Pioneer  Park  City  of  Montana,"  by  C.  H.  Forbes- 
Lindsay,  in  the  Craftsman  for  November  1908. 


GREAT  LAKES 


399 


internal  diameter)  than  the  tunnel.  At  this  juncture  Greathead 
came  forward  and  offered  to  take  up  the  contract;  and  he 
successfully  carried  it  through  in  1869  without  finding  any 
necessity  to  resort  to  the  use  of  compressed  air,  which  Barlow 
in  1867  had  suggested  might  be  employed  in  water-bearing  strata. 
After  this  he  began  to  practise  on  his  own  account,  and  mainly 
divided  his  time  between  railway  construction  and  taking  out 
patents  for  improvements  in  his  shield,  and  for  other  inventions 
such  as  the  "  Ejector  "  fire-hydrant.  Early  in  the  'eighties  he 
began  to  work  in  conjunction  with  a  company  whose  aim  was 
to  introduce  into  London  from  America  the  Hallidie  system  of 
cable  traction,  and  in  1884  an  act  of  Parliament  was  obtained 
authorizing  what  is  now  the  City  &  South  London  Railway — 
a  tube-railway  to  be  worked  by  cables.  This  was  begun  in  1886, 
and  the  tunnels  were  driven  by  means  of  the  Greathead  shield, 
compressed  air  being  used  at  those  points  where  water-bearing 
gravel  was  encountered.  During  the  progress  of  the  works 
electrical  traction  became  so  far  developed  as  to  be  superior 
to  cables;  the  idea  of  using  the  latter  was  therefore  abandoned, 
and  when  the  railway  was  opened  in  1890  it  was  as  an  electrical 
one.  Greathead  was  engaged  in  two  other  important  under- 
ground lines  in  London — the  Waterloo  &  City  and  the  Central 
London.  He  lived  to  see  the  tunnels  of  the  former  completed 
under  the  Thames,  but  the  latter  was  scarcely  begun  at  the  time 
of  his  death,  which  happened  at  Streatham,  in  the  south  of 
London,  on  the  2ist  of  October  1896. 

GREAT  LAKES  OF  NORTH  AMERICA,  THE.  The  connected 
string  of  five  fresh-water  inland  seas,  Lakes  Superior,  Michigan, 
Huron,  Erie  and  Ontario,  lying  in  the  interior  of  North  America, 
between  the  Dominion  of  Canada  on  the  north  and  the  United 
States  of  America  on  the  south,  and  forming  the  head-waters  of 
the  St  Lawrence  river  system,  are  collectively  and  generally 
known  as  "  The  Great  Lakes."  From  the  head  of  lake  Superior 
these  lakes  are  navigable  to  Buffalo,  at  the  foot  of  lake  Erie, 
a  distance  of  1023  m.,  for  vessels  having  a  draught  of  20  ft.; 
from  Buffalo  to  Kingston,  191  m.  farther,  the  draught  is  limited, 
by  the  depth  in  the  Welland  canal,  to  14  ft.;  lake  Superior,  the 
largest  and.most  westerly  of  the  lakes,  empties,  through  the  river 
St  Mary,  55  m.  long,  into  lake  Huron.  From  Point  Iroquois, 
which  may  be  considered  the  foot  of  the  lake,  to  Sault  Ste 
Marie,  St  Mary's  Falls,  St  Mary's  Rapids  or  the  Soo,  as  it  is 
variously  called,  a  distance  of  14  m.,  there  is  a  single  channel, 
which  has  been  dredged  by  the  United  States  government,  at 
points  which  required  deepening,  to  give  a  minimum  width 
of  800  ft.  and  a  depth  of  23  ft.  at  mean  stage  water.  Below  the 
Sault,  the  river,  on  its  course  to  lake  Huron,  expands  into  several 
lakes,  and  is  divided  by  islands  into  numerous  contracted 
passages.  There  are  two  navigated  channels;  the  older  one, 
following  the  international  boundary-line  by  way  of  lake  George, 


195  ft.,  the  height  varying  as  the  lakes  change  in  level.  The 
enormous  growth  of  inter-lake  freight  traffic  has  justified  the 
construction  of  three  separate  locks,  each  overcoming  the  rapids 
by  a  single  lift — two  side  by  side  on  the  United  States  and  one 
on  the  Canadian  side  of  the  river.  These  locks,  the  largest  in 
the  world,  are  all  open  to  Canadian  and  United  States  vessels 
alike,  and  are  operated  free  from  all  taxes  or  tolls  on  shipping. 
The  Canadian  ship  canal,  opened  to  traffic  on  the  gth  of 
September  1895,  was  constructed  through  St  Mary  Island,  on 
the  north  side  of  the  rapids,  by  the  Canadian  government,  at  a 
cost  of  $3,684,227,  to  facilitate  traffic  and  to  secure  to  Canadian 
vessels  an  entrance  to  lake  Superior  without  entering  United 
States  territory.  The  canal  is  5967  ft.  long  between  the  ex- 
tremities of  the  entrance  piers,  has  one  lock  900  ft.  long  and 
60  ft.  wide,  with  a  depth  on  the  sills  at  the  lowest  known  water- 
level  of  203  ft.  The  approaches  to  the  canal  are  dredged  to 
1 8  ft.  deep,  and  are  well  buoyed  and  lighted.  On  the  United 
States  side  of  the  river  the  length  of  the  canal  is  if  m.,  the 
channel  outside  the  locks  having  a  width  varying  from  108  to 
600  ft.  and  depth  of  25  ft.  The  locks  of  1855  were  closed  in  1886, 
to  give  place  to  the  Poe  lock.  The  Weitzel  lock,  opened  to 
navigation  on  the  ist  of  September  1881,  was  built  south  of  the 
old  locks,  the  approach  being  through  the  old  canal.  Its  chamber 
is  515  ft.  long  between  lock  gates,  and  80  ft.  wide,  narrowing 
to  60  ft.  at  the  gates.  The  length  of  the  masonry  walls  is  71 7  ft., 
height  395  ft.,  with  17  ft.  over  mitre  sills  at  mean  stage  of  water. 
The  Poe  lock,  built  because  the  Weitzel  lock,  large  and  fully 
equipped  as  it  is,  was  insufficient  for  the  rapidly  growing  traffic, 
was  opened  on  the  3rd  of  August  1896.  Its  length  between  gates 
is  800  ft.;  width  100  ft.;  length  of  masonry  walls  noo  ft.; 
height  435  to  45  ft.,  with  22  ft.  on  the  mitre  sill  at  mean  stage. 

The  expenditure  by  the  United  States  government  on  the 
canal,  with  its  several  locks,  and  on  improving  the  channel 
through  the  river,  aggregated  fourteen  million  dollars  up  to  the 
end  of  1906.'  Plans  were  prepared  in  1907  for  a  third  United 
States  lock  with  a  separate  canal  approach. 

The  canals  are  closed  every  winter,  the  average  date  of  opening 
up  to  1893  being  the  ist  of  May,  and  of  closing  the  ist  of 
December.  The  pressure  of  business  since  that  time,  aided 
possibly  by  some  slight  climatic  modification,  has  extended 
the  season,  so  that  the  average  date  of  opening  is  now  ten  days 
earlier  and  of  closing  twelve  days  later.  The  earliest  opening 
was  in  1902  on  the  ist  of  April,  and  the  latest  closing  in  1904  on 
the  2oth  of  December. 

The  table  below  gives  the  average  yearly  commerce  for  periods 
of  five  years,  and  serves  to  show  the  rapid  increase  in  freight  growth. 

Around  the  canals  have  grown  up  two  thriving  towns,  one 
on  the  Michigan,  the  other  on  the  Ontario  side  of  the  river,  with 
manufactories  driven  by  water-power  derived  from  the  Sault. 


Statement  of  the  commerce  through  the  several  Sault  Ste  Marie  canals,  averaged  for  every  five  years.2 


Years. 

Pass- 
ages. 

Registered 
Tonnage. 

Passen- 
gers. 

Coal. 
Net  Tons. 

Flour. 
Barrels. 

Wheat. 
Bushels. 

Other 
Grains. 
Bushels. 

General 
Merchan- 
dise. 
Net  Tons. 

Salt. 
Barrels. 

Iron  Ore. 
Net  Tons. 

Lumber. 
M.ft. 
B.M. 

Total 
Freight. 
Net  Tons. 

I855-I8593 
1880-1884 
1885-1889 
1890-1894 
1895-1899 
1900-1904 
1906  alone 

387 
4457 
7,908 
11,965 
18,352 
19-374 
22,155 

192,207 
2,267,166 
4,901,105 
9,912,589 
18,451,447 
26,199,795 
41,098,324 

6,206 
34,607 
29,434 
24,609 
40,289 
54,093 
63,033 

4,672 

463,431 
1,398,441 
2,678,805 
3,270,842 

5,457,019 
8,739,630 

19,555 
681,726 

1,838,325 
5,764,766 

8,319,699 
7,021,839 

6,495,35° 

None. 
5,435,601 
18,438,085 

34,875-971 
57,227,269 
56,269,265 
84,271,358 

34-612 
936,346 
1,213,815 
1,738,706 

23,349-134 
26,760,533 

54,343,155 

2,249 
81,966 
74,447 
87,540 
164,426 
646,277 
1,134,851 

1,248 
107,225 
175,725 
231-178 
282,156 
407,263 
468,162 

27,206 
867,999 
2,497,403 
4-939,909 
10,728,075 
20,020,487 
35-357-042 

320 

79,144 
197,605 
510,482 
832,968 

999,944 
900,631 

55,797 
2,184,731 
5,441,297 
10,627,349 
19,354.974 
31,245.565 
51,751,080 

has  a  width  of  150  to  300  ft.,  and  a  depth  of  17  ft.;  it  is  buoyed 
but  not  lighted,  and  is  not  capable  of  navigation  by  modern 
large  freighters;  the  other,  some  12  m.  shorter,  an  artificial 
channel  dredged  by  the  United  States  government  in  their  own 
territory,  has  a  minimum  width  of  300  ft.  and  depth  of  20  ft. 
It  is  elaborately  lighted  throughout  its  length.  A  third  channel, 
west  of  all  the  islands,  was  designed  for  steamers  bound  down, 
the  older  channel  being  reserved  for  upbound  boats. 

Between  lake  Superior  and  lake  Huron  there  is  a  fall  of  20  ft. 
of  which  the  Sault,  in  a  distance  of  %  m.,  absorbs  from  18  to 


The  outlet  of  lake  Michigan,  the  only  lake  of  the  series  lying 
wholly  in  United  States  territory,  is  at  the  Strait  of  Mackinac, 
near  the  point  where  the  river  St  Mary  reaches  lake  Huron. 
With  lake  Michigan  are  connected  the  Chicago  Sanitary  and 
Ship  canal,  the  Illinois  and  Michigan,  and  the  Illinois  and  Missis- 
sippi canals,  for  which  see  ILLINOIS.  With  lake  Huron  is  always 

1  Statistical  report  of  lake  commerce  passing  through  canals.  Col. 
Chas.  E.  L.  B.  Davis,  U.S.A.,  engineer  in  charge,  1907. 

1  Statistical  report  of  lake  commerce  passing  through  canals, 
published  annually  by  the  U.S.  engineer  officer  in  charge. 

3  The  first  five  years  of  operation. 


4-oo 


GREAT  LAKES 


included  Georgian  Bay  as  well  as  the  channel  north  of  Manitoulin 
Island.  As  it  is  principally  navigated  as  a  connecting  waterway 
between  lakes  Superior  and  Michigan  and  lake  Erie  it  has  no 
notable  harbours  on  it.  It  empties  into  lake  Erie  through  the 
river  St  Clair,  lake  St  Clair  and  the  river  Detroit.  On  these  con- 
necting waters  are-several  important  manufacturing  and  shipping 
towns,  and  through  this  chain  passes  nearly  all  the  traffic  of  the 
lakes,  both  that  to  and  from  lake  Michigan  ports,  and  also  that  of 
lake  Superior.  The  tonnage  of  a  single  short  season  of  navigation 
exceeds  in  the  aggregate  60,000,000  tons.  Extensive  dredging 
and  embankment  works  have  been  carried  on  by  the  United 
States  government  in  lake  St  Clair  and  the  river  Detroit,  and  a 
2o-ft.  channel  now  exists,  which  is  being  constantly  improved. 
Lake  St  Clair  is  nearly  circular,  25  m.  in  diameter,  with  the  north- 
east quadrant  filled  by  the  delta  of  the  river  St  Clair.  It  has  a 
very  flat  bottom  with  a  general  depth  of  only  21  ft.,  shoaling  very 
gradually,  usually  to  reed  beds  that  line  the  low  swampy  shores. 
To  enter  the  lake  from  river  St  Clair  two  channels  have  been 
provided,  with  retaining  walls  of  cribwork,  one  for  upward,  the 
other  for  downward  bound  vessels.  Much  dredging  has  also  been 
necessary  at  the  outlet  of  the  lake  into  river  Detroit.  A  critical 
point  in  that  river  is  at  Limekiln  crossing,  a  cut  dredged  through 
limestone  rock  above  the  Canadian  town  of  Amherstburg.  The 
normal  depth  here  before  improvement  was  125-15  ft.;  by  a 
project  of  1902  a  channel  600  ft.  wide  and  2 1  ft.  deep  was  planned; 
there  are  separate  channels  for  up-  and  down-bound  vessels.  To 
prevent  vessels  from  crowding  together  in  the  cut,  the  Canadian 
government  maintains  a  patrol  service  here,  while  the  United 
States  government  maintains  a  similar  patrol  in  the  St  Mary 
channel. 

The  Grand  Trunk  railway  opened  in  1891  a  single  track 
tunnel  under  the  river  St  Clair,  from  Sarnia  to  Port  Huron. 
It  is  6026  ft.  long,  a  cylinder  20  ft.  in  diameter,  lined  with 
cast  iron  in  flanged  sections.  A  second  tunnel  was  undertaken 
between  Detroit  and  Windsor,  under  the  river  Detroit. 

From  Buffalo,  at  the  foot  of  lake  Erie,  the  river  Niagara  runs 
northwards  36  m.  into  lake  Ontario.  To  overcome  the  difference 
of  327  ft.  in  level  between  lakes  Erie  and  Ontario,  the  Welland 
canal,  accommodating  vessels  of  255  ft.  in  length,  with  a  draught 
of  14  ft.,  was  built,  and  is  maintained  by  Canada.  The  Murray 
canal  extends  from  Presqu'ile  Bay,  on  the  north  shore  of  lake 
Ontario,  a  distance  of  65  m.,  to  the  headquarters  of  the  Bay  of 
Quinte.  Trent  canal  is  a  term  applied  to  a  series  of  water 
stretches  in  the  interior  of  Ontario  which  are  ultimately  designed 
to  connect  lake  Huron  and  lake  Ontario.  At  Peterboro  a 
hydraulic  balance-lock  with  a  lift  of  65  ft.,  140  ft.  in  length  and 
33  ft.  clear  in  width,  allowing  a  draught  of  8  ft.,  has  been  con- 
structed. The  ordinary  locks  are  134  by  33  ft.  with  a  draught 
of  6  ft.  When  the  whole  route  of  200  m.  is  completed,  there  will 
not  be  more  than  15  m.  of  actual  canal,  the  remaining  portion 
of  the  waterway  being  through  lakes  and  rivers.  For  the  Erie 
canal,  between  that  lake  and  the  Hudson  river,  see  ERIE  and 
NEW  YORK. 

The  population  of  the  states  and  provinces  bordering  on  the 
Great  Lakes  is  estimated  to  be  over  3  5,000,000.  In  Pennsylvania 
and  Ohio,  south  of  lake  Erie,  there  are  large  coal-fields.  Sur- 
rounding lake  Michigan  and  west  of  lake  Superior  are  vast 
grain-growing  plains,  and  the  prairies  of  the  Canadian  north- 
west are  rapidly  increasing  the  area  and  quantity  of  wheat 
grown;  while  both  north  and  south  of  lake  Superior  are  the 
most  extensive  iron  mines  in  the  world,  from  which  35  million 
tons  of  ore  were  shipped  in  1906.  The  natural  highway  for  the 
shipment  of  all  these  products  is  the  Great  Lakes,  and  over 
them  coal  is  distributed  westwards  and  grain  and  iron  ore  are 
concentrated  eastwards.  The  great  quantity  of  coarse  freights, 
that  could  only  be  profitably  carried  long  distances  by  water, 
has  revolutionized  the  type  of  vessel  used  for  its  transportation, 
making  large  steamers  imperative,  consolidating  interests  and 
cheapening  methods.  It  is  usual  for  the  vessels  in  the  grain 
trade  and  in  the  iron-ore  trade  to  make  their  up  trips  empty; 
but  in  consequence  of  the  admirable  facilities  provided  at 
terminal  points,  they  make  very  fast  time,  and  carry  freight  very 


cheaply.  The  cost  of  freight  per  ton-mile  fell  from  23/100  cent 
in  1887  to  8/100  cent  in  1898;  since  then  the  rate  has  slightly 
risen,  but  keeps  well  below  i/io  cent  per  ton-mile. 

The  traffic  on  the  lakes  may  be  divided  into  three  classes, 
passenger,  package  freight  and  bulk  freight.  Of  passenger 
boats  the  largest  are  380  ft.  long  by  44  ft.  beam,  having  a 
speed  of  over  20  m.  an  hour,  making  the  round  trip  between 
Buffalo  and  Chicago  1800  m.,  or  Buffalo  and  Duluth  2000  m., 
every  week.  They  carry  no  freight.  The  Canadian  Pacific 
railway  runs  a  line  of  fine  Tyne-built  passenger  and  freight 
steamers  between  Owen  Sound  and  Fort  William,  and  these 
two  lines  equal  in  accommodation  transatlantic  passenger 
steamers.  On  lake  Michigan  many  fine  passenger  boats  run  out 
of  Chicago,  and  on  lake  Ontario  there  are  several  large  and  fast 
Canadian  steamers  on  routes  radiating  from  Toronto.  The 
package  freight  business,  that  is,  the  transportation  of  goods 
in  enclosed  parcels,  is  principally  local;  all  the  through  business 
of  this  description  is  controlled  by  lines  run  by  the  great  trunk 
railways,  and  is  done  in  boats  limited  in  beam  to  50  ft.  to  admit 
them  through  bridges  over  the  rivers  at  Chicago  and  Buffalo. 
By  far  the  greatest  number  of  vessels  on  the  lakes  are  bulk 
freighters,  and  the  conditions  of  the  service  have  developed  a 
special  type  of  vessel.  Originally  sailing  vessels  were  largely 
used,  but  these  have  practically  disappeared,  giving  place  to 
steamers,  which  have  grown  steadily  in  size  with  every  increase 
in  available  draught.  In  1.894  there  was  no  vessel  on  the  lakes 
with  a  capacity  of  over  5000  tons;  in  1906  there  were  254  vessels 
of  a  greater  capacity,  12  of  them  carrying  over  12,000  tons  each. 
For  a  few  years  following  1890  many  large  barges  were  built, 
carrying  up  to  8000  tons  each,  intended  to  be  towed  by  a 
steamer.  It  was  found,  however,  that  the  time  lost  by  one  boat 
of  the  pair  having  to  wait  for  the  other  made  the  plan  unprofit- 
able and  no  more  were  built.  Following  1888  some  40  whale- 
back  steamers  and  barges,  having  oval  cross-sections  without 
frames  or  decks,  were  built,  but  experience  failed  to  demonstrate 
any  advantage  in  the  type,  and  their  construction  has  ceased. 
The  modern  bulk  freighter  is  a  vessel  600  ft.  long,  58  ft.  beam, 
capable  of  carrying  14,000  tons  on  20  ft.  draught,  built  with  a 
midship  section  practically. rectangular,  the  coefficient  frequently 
as  high  as  -08,  with  about  two-thirds  of  the  entire  length 
absolutely  straight,  giving  a  block  coefficient  up  to  -87.  The 
triple-expansion  machinery  and  boilers,  designed  to  drive  the 
boat  at  a  speed  of  12  m.  an  hour,  are  in  the  extreme  stern,  and 
the  pilot  house  and  quarters  in  the  extreme  bow,  leaving  all 
the  cargo  space  together.  Hatches  are  spaced  at  multiples 
of  12  ft.  throughout  the  length  and  are  made  as  wide  as  possible 
athwartships  to  facilitate  loading  and  unloading.  The  vessels 
are  built  on  girder  frames  and  fitted  with  double  bottoms  for 
strength  and  water  ballast.  This  type  of  vessel  can  be  loaded 
in  a  few  minutes,  and  unloaded  by  self-filling  grab  buckets  up  to 
ten  tons  capacity,  worked  hydraulically,  in  six  or  eight  hours. 
The  bulk  freight  generally  follows  certain  well-defined  routes; 
iron  ore  is  shipped  east  from  ports  on  both  sides  of  lake  Superior 
and  on  the  west  side  of  lake  Michigan  to  rail  shipping  points 
on  the  south  shore  of  lake  Erie.  Wheat  and  other  grains  from 
Duluth  find  their  way  to  Buffalo,  as  do  wheat,  corn  (maize) 
and  other  grains  from  Chicago.  Wheat  from  the  Canadian 
north-west  is  distributed  from  Fort  William  and  Port  Arthur 
to  railway  terminals  on  Georgian  Bay,  to  Buffalo,  and  to  Port 
Colborne  for  trans-shipment  to  canal  barges  for  Montreal, 
and  coal  is  distributed  from  lake  Erie  to  all  western  points.  The 
large  shipping  trade  is  assisted  by  both  governments  by  a  system 
of  aids  to  navigation  that  mark  every  channel  and  danger. 
There  are  also  life-saving  stations  at  all  dangerous  points. 

The  Great  Lakes  never  freeze  over  completely,  but  the  harbours 
and  often  the  connecting  rivers  are  closed  by  ice.  The  navigable 
season  at  the  Sault  is  about  75  months;  in  lake  Erie  it  is 
somewhat  longer.  The  season  of  navigation  has  been  slightly 
lengthened  since  1905,  by  using  powerful  tugs  as  ice-breakers 
in  the  spring  and  autumn,  the  Canadian  government  undertaking 
the  service  at  Canadian  terminal  ports,  chiefly  at  Fort  William 
and  Port  Arthur,  the  most  northerly  ports,  where  the  season 


GREAT  MOTHER  OF  THE  GODS 


401 


is  naturally  shortest,  and  the  Lake  Carriers'  Association,  a 
federation  of  the  freighting  steamship  owners,  acting  in  the  river 
St  Mary.  Car  ferries  run  through  the  winter  across  lake  Michigan 
and  the  Strait  of  Mackinac,  across  the  rivers  St  Clair  and  Detroit, 
and  across  the  middle  of  lakes  Erie  and  Ontario.  The  largest 
of  these  steamers  is  350  ft.  long  by  56  ft.  wide,  draught  14  ft., 
horse  power  3500,  speed  13  knots.  She  carries  on  four  tracks  30 
freight  cars,  with  i35otonsof  freight.  Certain  passenger  steamers 
run  on  lake  Michigan,  from  Chicago  north,  all  the  winter. 

The  level  of  the  lakes  varies  gradually,  and  is  affected  by  the 
general  character  of  the  season,  and  not  by  individual  rainfalls. 
The  variations  of  level  of  the  several  lakes  do  not  necessarily 
synchronize.  There  is  an  annual  fluctuation  of  about  i  ft.  in 
the  upper  lakes,  and  in  some  seasons  over  2  ft.  in  the  lower 
lakes;  the  lowest  point  being  at  the  end  of  winter  and  the  highest 
in  midsummer.  In  lake  Michigan  the  level  has  ranged  from  a 
maximum  in  the  years  1859,  1876  and  1886,  to  a  minimum 
nearly  5  ft.  lower  in  1896.  In  lake  Ontario  there  is  a  range  of 
Si  ft.  between  the  maximum  of  May  1870  and  the  minimum  of 
November  1895.  In  consequence  of  the  shallowness  of  lake  Erie, 
its  level  is  seriously  disturbed  by  a  persistent  storm;  a  westerly 
gale  lowers  the  water  at  its  upper  end  exceptionally  as  much 
as  7  ft.,  seriously  interfering  with  the  navigation  of  the  .river 
Detroit,  while  an  easterly  gale  produces  a  similar'effect  at  Buffalo. 
(For  physiographical  details  see  articles  on  the  several  lakes, 
and  UNITED  STATES.) 

There  is  geological  evidence  to  show  that  the  whole  basin  of 
the  lakes  has  in  recent  geological  times  gradually  changed  in 
level,  rising  to  the  north  and  subsiding  southwards;  and  it  is 
claimed  that  the  movement  is  still  in  gradual  progress,  the  rate 
assigned  being  -42  ft.  per  100  m.  per  century.  The  maintenance 
of  the  level  of  the  Great  Lakes  is  a  matter  of  great  importance 
to  the  large  freight  boats,  which  always  load  to  the  limit  of  depth 
at  critical  points  in  the  dredged  channels  or  in  the  harbours. 
Fears  have  been  entertained  that  the  water  power  canals  at 
Sault  Ste  Marie,  the  drainage  canal  at  Chicago  and  the  dredged 
channel  in  the  river  Detroit  will  permanently  lower  the  levels 
respectively  of  lake  Superior  and  of  the  Michigan-Huron-Erie 
group.  An  international  deep-waterway  commission  exists 
for  the  consideration  of  this  question,  and  army  engineers 
appointed  by  the  United  States  government  have  worked  on  the 
problem.1  Wing  dams  in  the  rivers  St  Mary  and  Niagara,  to 
retard  the  discharges,  have  been  proposed  as  remedial  measures. 
The  Great  Lakes  are  practically  tideless,  though  some  observers 
claim  to  find  true  tidal  pulsations,  said  to  amount  to  3!  in.  at 
spring  tide  at  Chicago.  Secondary  undulations  of  a  few  minutes 
in  period,  ranging  from  i  to  4  in.,  are  well  marked. 

The  Great  Lakes  are  well  stocked  with  fish  of  commercial 
value.  These  are  largely  gathered  from  the  fishermen  by 
steam  tenders,  and  taken  fresh  or  in  frozen  condition  to  railway 
distributing  points.  In  lakes  Superior  and  Huron  salmon-trout 
(Salvelinus  namaycush,  Walb)  are  commercially  most  important. 
They  ordinarily  range  from  10  to  50  Ib  in  weight,  and  are  often 
larger.  In  Georgian  Bay  the  catches  of  whitefish  (Coregonus 
dupeiformis,  Mitchill)  are  enormous.  In  lake  Erie  whitefish, 
lesser  whitefish,  erroneously  called  lake-herring  (C.  arledi,  Le 
Sueur),  and  sturgeon  (Acipenser  rubicundus,  Le  Sueur)  are  the 
most  common.  There  is  good  angling  at  numerous  points  on  the 
lakes  and  their  feeders.  The  river  Nipigon,  on  the  north  shore 
of  lake  Superior,  is  famous  as  a  stream  abounding  in  speckled 
trout  (Salvelinus  fonlinalis,  Mitchill)  of  unusual  size.  Black 
bass  (Micropterus)  are  found  from  Georgian  Bay  to  Montreal,  and 
the  maskinonge  (Esox  nobilior,  Le  Sueur),  plentiful  in  the  same 
waters,  is  a  very  game  fish  that  often  attains  a  weight  of  70  Ib. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.— E.  Channing  and  M.  F.  Lansing,  Story  of  the 
Great  Lakes  (New  York,  1909),  for  an  account  of  the  lakes  in  history; 
and  for  shipping,  &c.,  J.  O.  Curwood,  The  Great  Lakes  (New  York, 
1909);  U.S.  Hydrographic  office  publication,  No  108,  "Sailing 
directions  for  the  Great  Lakes,"  Navy  Department  (Washington, 
1901,  seqq.);  Bulletin  No.  17,  "Survey  of  Northern  and  North- 
wcstern  Lakes,"  Corps  of  Engineers,  U.S.  War  Department,  U.S. 

1  Report  of  the  Chief  of  Engineers,  U.S.  Army,  in  Report  of  War 
Department,  U.S.  1898,  p.  3776. 


Lake   Survey   Office    (Detroit,    Mich,    1907)-    Annual   reports   of 
Canadian  Department  of  Marine  and  Fisheries  (Ottawa,  1868  seqq.). 

(w..p.  Ay 

GREAT  MOTHER  OF  THE  GODS,  the  ancient  Oriental-Greek- 
Roman  deity  commonly  known  as  Cybele  (q.v.)  in  Greek  and 
Latin  literature  from  the  time  of  Pindar.  She  was  also  known 
under  many  other  names,  some  of  which  were  derived  from 
famous  places  of  worship:  as  Dindymene  from  Mt.  Dindymon, 
Mater  Idaea  from  Mt.  Ida,  Sipylene  from  Mt.  Sipylus,  Agdistis 
from  Mt.  Agdistis  or  Agdus,  Mater  Phrygia  from  the  greatest 
stronghold  of  her  cult;  while  others  were  reflections  of  her 
character  as  a  great  nature  goddess:  e.g.  Mountain  Mother, 
Great  Mother  of  the  Gods,  Mother  of  all  Gods  and  all  Men. 
As  the  great  Mother  deity  whose  worship  extended  throughout 
Asia  Minor  she  was  known  as  Ma  or  Ammas.  Cybele  is  her 
favourite  name  in  ancient  and  modern  literature,  while  Great 
Mother  of  the  Gods,  or  Great  Idaean  Mother  of  the  Gods  (Mater 
Deum  Magna,  Mater  Deum  Magna  Idaea),  the  most  frequently 
recurring  epigraphical  title,  was  her  ordinary  official  designation. 

The  legends  agree  in  locating  the  rise  of  the  worship  of  the 
Great  Mother  in  Asia  Minor,  in  the  region  of  loosely  defined 
geographical  limits  which  comprised  the  Phrygian  empire  of 
prehistoric  times,  and  was  more  extensive  than  the  Roman 
province  of  Phrygia  (Diod.  Sic.  iii.  58;  Paus.  vii.  17;  Arnob. 
v.  5;  Firm.  Mat.  De  error.,  3;  Ovid,  Fasti,  iv.  223  ff.;  Sallust. 
Phil.  De  diis  et  mundo,  4;  Jul.  Or.  v.  165  ff.).  Her  best-known 
early  seats  of  worship  were  Mt.  Ida,  Mt.  Sipylus,  Cyzicus,  Sardis 
and  Pessinus,  the  last-named  city,  in  Galatia  near  the  borders 
of  Roman  Phrygia,  finally  becoming  the  strongest  centre  of 
the  cult.  She  was  known  to  the  Romans  and  Greeks  as  essenti- 
ally Phrygian,  and  all  Phrygia  was  spoken  of  as  sacred  to  her 
(Schol.  Apollon.  Rhod.  Argonaulica,  i.  1126).  It  is  probable, 
however,  that  the  Phrygian  race,  which  invaded  Asia  Minor 
from  the  north  in  the  gth  century  B.C.,  found  a  great  nature 
goddess  already  universally  worshipped  there,  and  blended  her 
.with  a  deity  of  their  own.  The  Asiatic-Phrygian  worship  thus 
evolved  was  further  modified  by  contact  with  the  Syrians  and 
Phoenicians,  so  that  it  acquired  strong  Semitic  characteristics. 
The  Great  Mother  known  to  the  Greeks  and  Romans  was  thus 
merely  the  Phrygian  form  of  the  nature  deity  of  all  Asia  Minor. 

From  Asia  Minor  the  cult  of  the  Great  Mother  spread  first 
to  Greek  territory.  It  found  its  way  into  Thrace  at  an  early 
date,  was  known  in  Boeotia  by  Pindar  in  the  6th  century,  and 
entered  Attica  near  the  beginning  of  the  4th  century  (Grant 
Showerman,  The  Great  Mother  of  the  Gods,  Bulletin  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Wisconsin,  No.  43,  Madison,  1901).  At  Peiraeus,  where 
it  probably  arrived  by  way  of  the  Aegean  islands,  it  existed 
privately  in  a  fully  developed  state,  that  is,  accompanied  by  the 
worship  of  Attis,  at  the  beginning  of  the  4th  century,  and  publicly 
two  centuries  later  (D.  Comparetti,  Annales,  1862,  pp.  23  ff.). 
The  Greeks  from  the  first  saw  in  the  Great  Mother  a  resemblance 
to  their  own  Rhea,  and  finally  identified  the  two  completely, 
though  the  Asiatic  peculiarities  of  the  cult  were  never  universally 
popular  with  them  (Showerman,  p.  294).  In  her  less  Asiatic 
aspect,  i.e.  without  Attis,  she  was  sometimes  identified  with 
Gaia  and  Demeter.  It  was  in  this  phase  that  she  was  worshipped 
in  the  Metroon  at  Athens.  In  reality,  the  Mother  Goddess 
appears  under  three  aspects:  Rhea,  the  Homeric  and  Hesiodic 
goddess  of  Cretan  origin;  the  Phrygian  Mother,  with  Attis; 
and  the  Greek  Great  Mother,  a  modified  form  of  the  Phrygian 
Mother,  to  be  explained  as  the  original  goddess  of  the  Phrygians 
of  Europe,  communicated  to  the  Greek  stock  before  the  Phrygian 
invasion  of  Asia  Minor  and  consequent  mingling  with  Asiatic 
stocks  (cf.  Showerman,  p.  252). 

In  204  B.C.,  in  obedience  to  the  Sibyllirfe  prophecy  which  said 
that  whenever  an  enemy  from  abroad  should  make  war  on  Italy- 
he  could  be  expelled  and  conquered  if  the  Idaean  Mother  were 
brought  to  Rome  from  Pessinus,  the  cult  of  the  Great  Mother, 
together  with  her  sacred  symbol,  a  small  meteoric  stone  reputed 
to  have  fallen  from  the  heavens,  was  transferred  to  Rome  and 
established  in  a  temple  on  the  Palatine  (Livy  xxix.  10-14). 
Her  identification  by  the  Romans  with  Maia,  Ops,  Rhea,  Tellus 


402 


GREAT  MOTHER  OF  THE  GODS 


and  Ceres  contributed  to  the  establishment  of  her  worship  on  a 
firm  footing.  By  the  end  of  the  Republic  it  had  attained  promin- 
ence, and  under  the  Empire  it  became  one  of  the  three  most 
important  cults  in  the  Roman  world,  the  other  two  being  those 
of  Mithras  and  Isis.  Epigraphic  and  numismatic  evidence 
prove  it  to  have  penetrated  from  Rome  as  a  centre  to  the 
remotest  provinces  (Showerman,  pp.  291-293).  During  the  brief 
revival  of  paganism  under  Eugenius  in  A.D.  394,  occurred  the 
last  appearance  of  the  cult  in  history.  Besides  the  temple  on 
the  Palatine,  there  existed  minor  shrines  of  the  Great  Mother  near 
the  present  church  of  St  Peter,  on  the  Sacra  Via  on  the  north 
slope  of  the  Palatine,  near  the  junction  of  the  Almo  and  the 
Tiber,  south  of  the  city  (ibid.  311-314). 

In  all  her  aspects,  Roman,  Greek  and  Oriental,  the  Great 
Mother  was  characterized  by  essentially  the  same  qualities. 
Most  prominent  among  them  was  her  universal  motherhood. 
She  was  the  great  parent  of  gods  and  men,  as  well  as  of  the  lower 
orders  of  creation.  "  The  winds,  the  sea,  the  earth  and  the 
snowy  seat  of  Olympus  are  hers,  and  when  from  her  mountains 
she  ascends  into  the  great  heavens,  the  son  of  Cronus  himself 
gives  way  before  her"  (Apollon.  Rhod.  Argonautica,  i.  1098). 
She  was  known  as  the  All-begetter,  the  All-nourisher,  the  Mother 
of  all  the  Blest.  She  was  the  great,  fruitful,  kindly  earth  itself. 
Especial  emphasis  was  placed  upon  her  maternity  over  wild 
nature.  She  was  called  the  Mountain  Mother;  her  sanctuaries 
were  almost  invariably  upon  mountains,  and  frequently  in  caves, 
the  name  Cybele  itself  being  by  some  derived  from  the  latter; 
lions  were  her  faithful  companions.  Her  universal  power  over 
the  natural  world  finds  beautiful  expression  in  Apollonius 
Rhodius,  Argonautica,  i.  1140  ff.  She  was  also  a  chaste  and 
beautiful  deity.  Her  especial  affinity  with  wild  nature  was 
manifested  by  the  orgiastic  character  of  her  worship.  Her 
attendants,  the  Corybantes,  were  wild,  half  demonic  beings. 
Her  priests,  the  Galli,  were  eunuchs  attired  in  female  garb,  with 
long  hair  fragrant  with  ointment.  Together  with  priestesses, 
they  celebrated  her  rites  with  flutes,  horns,  castanets,  cymbals 
and  tambourines,  madly  yelling  and  dancing  until  their  frenzied 
excitement  found  its  culmination  in  self-scourging,  self -laceration 
or  exhaustion.  Self-emasculation  sometimes  accompanied  this 
delirium  of  worship  on  the  part  of  candidates  for  the  priesthood 
(Showerman,  pp.  234-239).  The  Atlis  of  Catullus  (Ixiii.)  is  a 
brilliant  treatment  of  such  an  episode. 

Though  her  cult  sometimes  existed  by  itself,  in  its  fully 
developed  state  the  worship  of  the  Great  Mother  was  accom- 
panied by  that  of  Attis  (q.v.).  The  cult  of  Attis  never  existed 
independently.  Like  Adonis  and  Aphrodite,  Baal  and  Astarte, 
&c. ,  the  two  formed  a  duality  representing  the  relations  of  Mother 
Nature  to  the  fruits  of  the  earth.  There  is  no  positive  evidence 
to  prove  the  existence  of  the  cult  publicly  in  this  phase  in  Greece 
before  the  2nd  century  B.C.,  nor  in  Rome  before  the  Empire, 
though  it  may  have  existed  in  private  (Showerman,  "  Was  Attis 
at  Rome  under  the  Republic  ?"  in  Transactions  of  the  American 
Philological  Association,  vol.  31,  1900,  pp.  46-59;  Cumont, 
s.v.  "Attis,"  De  Ruggiero's  Dizionario  epigrafico  and  Pauly- 
Wissowa's  Realencyclopiidie,  Supplement;  Hepding,  Attis,  seine 
Mythen  und  seine  Kult,  Giessen,  1903,  p.  142). 

The  philosophers  of  the  late  Roman  Empire  interpreted  the 
Attis  legend  as  symbolizing  the  relations  of  Mother  Earth  to  her 
children  the  fruits.  Porphyrius  says  that  Attis  signified  the 
flowers  of  spring  time,  and  was  cut  off  in  youth  because  the  flower 
falls  before  the  fruit  (Augustine,  De  civ.  Dei,  vii.  25).  Maternus 
(De  error.  3)  interprets  the  love  of  the  Great  Mother  for  Attis 
as  the  love  of  the  earth  for  her  fruits;  his  emasculation  as  the 
cutting  of  the  fruits;  his  death  as  their  preservation;  and  his 
resurrection  as  the  sowing  of  the  seed  again. 

At  Rome  the  immediate  direction  of  the  cult  of  the  Great 
Mother  devolved  upon  the  high  priest,  Archigallus,  called  Attis, 
a  high  priestess,  Sacerdos  Maxima,  and  its  support  was  derived, 
at  least  in  part,  from  a  popular  contribution,  the  slips.  Besides 
other  priests,  priestesses  and  minor  officials,  such  as  musicians, 
curator,  &c.,  there  were  certain  colleges  connected  with  the 
administration  of  the  cult,  called  cannophori  (reed-bearers)  and 


dendrophori  (branch-bearers).  The  Quindecimvirs  exercised  a 
general  supervision  over  this  cult,  as  over  all  other  authorized 
cults,  and  it  was,  at  least  originally,  under  the  special  patronage 
of  a  club  or  sodality  (Showerman,  pp.  269-276).  Roman  citizens 
were  at  first  forbidden  to  take  part  in  its  ceremonies,  and  the  ban 
was  not  removed  until  the  time  of  the  Empire. 

The  main  public  event  in  the  worship  of  the  Great  Mother  was 
the  annual  festival,  which  took  place  originally  on  the  4th  of 
April,  and  was  followed  on  the  5th  by  the  Megalesia,  games 
instituted  in  her  honour  on  the  introduction  of  the  cult.  Under 
the  Empire,  from  Claudius  on,  the  Megalesia  lasted  six  days, 
April  4-10,  and  the  original  one  day  of  the  religious  festival 
became  an  annual  cycle  of  festivals  extending  from  the  isth 
to  the  27th  of  March,  in  the  following  order,  (i)  The  isth  of 
March,  Canna  intral — the  sacrifice  of  a  six-year-old  bull  in 
behalf  of  the  mountain  fields,  the  high  priest,  a  priestess  and 
the  cannophori  officiating,  the  last  named  carrying  reeds  in 
procession  in  commemoration  of  the  exposure  of  the  infant 
Attis  on  the  reedy  banks  of  the  stream  Callus  in  Phrygia.  (This 
may  have  been  originally  a  phallic  procession.  Cf.  Showerman, 
American  Journal  of  Philol.  xxvii.  i;  Classical  Journal  i.  4.) 
(2)  The  22nd  of  March,  Arbor  inlrat — the  bearing  in  procession 
of  the  sacred  pine,  emblem  of  Attis'  self-mutilation,  death  and 
immortality,  to  the  temple  on  the  Palatine,  the  symbol  of  the 
Mother's  cave,  by  the  dendrophori,  a  gild  of  workmen  who  made 
the  Mother,  among  other  deities,  a  patron.  (3)  The  24th  of 
March,  Dies  sanguinis — a  day  of  mourning,  fasting  and  abstin- 
ence, especially  sexual,  commemorating  the  sorrow  of  the 
Mother  for  Attis,  her  abstinence  from  food  and  her  chastity. 
The  frenzied  dance  and  self-laceration  of  the  priests  in  com- 
memoration of  Attis'  deed,  and  the  submission  to  the  act  of 
consecration  by  candidates  for  the  priesthood,  was  a  special 
feature  of  the  day.  The  taurobolium  (q.v.)  was  often  performed 
on  this  day,  on  which  probably  took  place  the  initiation  of 
mystics.  (4)  The  25th  of  March,  Hilaria — one  of  the  great 
festal  days  of  Rome,  celebrated  by  all  the  people.  All  mourning 
was  put  off,  and  good  cheer  reigned  in  token  of  the  return  of  the 
sun  and  spring,  which  was  symbolized  by  the  renewal  of  Attis' 
life.  (5)  The  26th  of  March,  Requietio — a  day  of  rest  and  quiet. 
(6)  The  27th  of  March,  Lavatio — the  crowning  ceremony  of  the 
cycle.  The  silver  statue  of  the  goddess,  with  the  sacred  meteoric 
stone,  the  Acus,  set  in  its  head,  was  borne  in  gorgeous  procession 
and  bathed  in  the  Almo,  the  remainder  of  the  day  being  given 
up  to  rejoicing  and  entertainment,  especially  dramatic  repre- 
sentation of  the  legend  of  the  deities  of  the  day.  Other  cere- 
monies, not  necessarily  connected  with  the  annual  festival, 
were  the  taurobolium  (q.v.),  the  sacrifice  of  a  bull,  and  the  crio- 
bolium  (q.v.),  the  sacrifice  of  a  ram,  the  latter  being  the  analogue 
of  the  former,  instituted  for  the  purpose  of  giving  Attis  special 
recognition.  The  baptism  of  blood,  which  was  the  feature  of 
these  ceremonies,  was  regarded  as  purifying  and  regenerating 
(Showerman,  Great  Mother,  pp.  277-284). 

The  Great  Mother  figures  in  the  art  of  all  periods  both  in 
Asia  and  Europe,  but  is  especially  prominent  in  the  art  of  the 
Empire.  No  work  of  the  first  class,  however,  was  inspired  by 
her.  She  appears  on  coins,  in  painting  and  in  all  forms  of 
sculpture,  usually  with  mural  crown  and  veil,  well  draped,  seated 
on  a  throne,  and  accompanied  by  two  lions.  Other  attributes 
which  often  appear  are  the  patera,  tympanum,  cymbals,  sceptre, 
garlands  and  fruits.  Attis  and  his  attributes,  the  pine,  Phrygian 
cap,  pedum,  syrinx  and  torch,  also  appear.  The  Cybele  of 
Formia,  now  at  Copenhagen,  is  one  of  the  most  famous  repre- 
sentations of  the  goddess.  The  Niobe  of  Mt.  Sipylus  is  really  the 
Mother.  In  literature  she  is  the  subject  of  frequent  mention, 
but  no  work  of  importance,  with  the  exception  of  Catullus  Ixiii., 
is  due  to  her  inspiration.  Her  importance  in  the  history  of 
religion  is  very  great.  Together  with  Isis  and  Mithras,  she  was  a 
great  enemy,  and  yet  a  great  aid  to  Christianity.  The  gorgeous 
rites  of  her  worship,  its  mystic  doctrine  of  communion  with 
the  divine  through  enthusiasm,  its  promise  of  regeneration 
through  baptism  of  blood  in  the  taurobolium,  were  features 
which  attracted  the  masses  of  the  people  and  made  it  a  strong 


GREAT  REBELLION 


403 


rival  of  Christianity;  and  its  resemblance  to  the  new  religion, 
however  superficial,  made  it,  in  spite  of  the  scandalous  practices 
which  grew  up  around  it,  a  stepping-stone  to  Christianity  when 
the  tide  set  in  against  paganism. 

AUTHORITIES. — Grant  Showerman,  "  The  Great  Mother  of  the 
Gods,"  Bulletin  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin,  No.  43;  Philology 
and  Literature  Series,  vol.  i.  No.  3  (Madison,  1901);  Hugo  Hepding, 
Attis,  seine  Mythen  und  seine  Kult  (Giessen,  1903) ;  Rapp,  Roscher's 
Ausfuhrliches  Lexicon  der  griechischen  und  romischen  Mythologie 
s.v.  "  Kybele  " ;  Drexler,  ibid.  s.v.  "  Meter."  See  ROMAN  RELIGION, 
GREEK  RELIGION,  ATTIS,  CORYBANTES;  for  the  great  "  Hittite  " 
portrayal  of  the  Nature  Goddess  at  Pteria,  see  PTERIA.  (G.  SN.) 

GREAT  REBELLION  (1642-52),  a  generic  name  for  the  civil 
wars  in  England  and  Scotland,  which  began  with  the  raising  of 
King  Charles  I.'s  standard  at  Nottingham  on  the  22nd  of  August 
1642,  and  ended  with  the  surrender  of  Dunottar  Castle  to  the 
Parliament's  troops  in  May  1652.  It  is  usual  to  classify  these 
wars  into  the  First  Civil  War  of  1642-46,  and  the  Second  Civil 
War  of  1648-52.  During  most  of  this  time  another  civil  war 
was  raging  in  Ireland.  Its  incidents  had  little  or  no  connexion 
with  those  of  the  Great  Rebellion,  but  its  results  influenced  the 
struggle  in  England  to  a  considerable  extent . 

i.  First  Civil  War  (1642-46). — It  is  impossible  rightly  to  under- 
stand the  events  of  this  most  national  of  all  English  wars  without 
some  knowledge  of  the  motive  forces  on  both  sides.  On  the  side 
of  the  king  were  enlisted  the  deep-seated  loyalty  which  was  the 
result  of  two  centuries  of  effective  royal  protection,  the  pure 
cavalier  spirit  foreshadowing  the  courtier  era  of  Charles  II.,  but 
still  strongly  tinged  with  the  old  feudal  indiscipline,  the  militarism 
of  an  expert  soldier  nobility,  well  represented  by  Prince  Rupert, 
and  lastly  a  widespread  distrust  of  extreme  Puritanism,  which 
appeared  unreasonable  to  Lord  Falkland  and  other  philosophic 
statesmen  and  intolerable  to  every  other  class  of  Royalists. 
The  foot  of  the  Royal  armies  was  animated  in  the  main  by  the 
first  and  last  of  these  motives;  in  the  eyes  of  the  sturdy  rustics 
who  followed  their  squires  to  the  war  the  enemy  were  rebels  and 
fanatics.  To  the  cavalry,  which  was  composed  largely  of  the 
higher  social  orders,  the  rebels  were,  in  addition,  bourgeois,  while 
the  soldiers  of  fortune  from  the  German  wars  felt  all  the  regular's 
contempt  for  citizen  militia.  Thus  in  the  first  episodes  of  the 
First  Civil  War  moral  superiority  tended  to  be  on  the  side  of  the 
king.  On  the  other  side,  the  causes  of  the  quarrel  were  primarily 
and  apparently  political,  ultimately  and  really  religious,  and  thus 
the  elements  of  resistance  in  the  Parliament  and  the  nation  were 
at  first  confused,  and,  later,  strong  and  direct.  Democracy, 
moderate  republicanism  and  the  simple  desire  for  constitutional 
guarantees  could  hardly  make  head  of  themselves  against  the 
various  forces  of  royalism,  for  the  most  moderate  men  of  either 
party  were  sufficiently  in  sympathy  to  admit  compromise.  But 
the  backbone  of  resistance  was  the  Puritan  element,  and  this 
waging  war  at  first  with  the  rest  on  the  political  issue  soon  (as 
the  Royalists  anticipated)  brought  the  religious  issue  to  the  front. 
The  Presbyterian  system,  even  more  rigid  than  that  of  Laud  and 
the  bishops — whom  no  man  on  either  side  supported  save  Charles 
himself — was  destined  to  be  supplanted  by  the  Independents 
and  their  ideal  of  free  conscience,  but  for  a  generation  before  the 
war  broke  out  it  had  disciplined  and  trained  the  middle  classes  of 
the  nation  (who  furnished  the  bulk  of  the  rebel  infantry,  and  later 
of  the  cavalry  also)  to  centre  their  whole  will-power  on  the  attain- 
ment of  their  ideals.  The  ideals  changed  during  the  struggle,  but 
not  the  capacity  for  striving  for  them,  and  the  men  capable  of  the 
effort  finally  came  to  the  front  and  imposed  their  ideals  on  the 
rest  by  the  force  of  their  trained  wills. 

Material  force  was  throughout  on  the  side  of  the  Parliamentary 
party.  They  controlled  the  navy,  the  nucleus  of  an  army  which 
was  in  process  of  being  organized  for  the  Irish  war,  and  nearly  all 
the  financial  resources  of  the  country.  They  had  the  sympathies 
of  most  of  the  large  towns,  where  the  trained  bands,  drilled  once  a 
month,  provided  cadres  for  new  regiments.  Further,  by  recogniz- 
ing the  inevitable,  they  gained  a  start  in  war  preparations  which 
they  never  lost.  The  earls  of  Warwick,  Essex  and  Manchester 
and  other  nobles  and  gentry  of  their  party  possessed  great  wealth 
.and  territorial  influence.  Charles,  on  the  other  hand,  although  he 


could,  by  means  of  the  "  press  "  and  the  lords-lieutenant,  raise 
men  without  authority  from  Parliament,  could  not  raise  taxes  to 
support  them,  and  was  dependent  on  the  financial  support  of  his 
chief  adherents,  such  as  the  earls  of  Newcastle  and  Derby.  Both 
parties  raised  men  when  and  where  they  could,  each  claiming  that 
the  law  was  on  its  side — for  England  was  already  a  law-abiding 
nation — and  acting  in  virtue  of  legal  instruments.  These 
were,  on  the  side  of  the  Parliament,  its  own  recent  "  Militia 
Ordinance  " ;  on  that  of  the  king,  the  old-fashioned  "  Commissions 
of  Array."  In  Cornwall  the  Royalist  leader,  Sir  Ralph  Hopton, 
indicted  the  enemy  before  the  grand  jury  of  the  county  as 
disturbers  of  the  peace,  and  had  the  posse  comitatus  called  out  to 
expel  them.  The  local  forces  in  fact  were  everywhere  employed 
by  whichever  side  could,  by  producing  valid  written  authority, 
induce  them  to  assemble. 

2 .  The  Royalist  and  Parliamentarian  Armies. — This  thread 
of  local  feeling  and  respect  for  the  laws  runs  through   the 
earlier  operations  of  both  sides  almost  irrespective  of  the  main 
principles  at  stake.     Many  a  promising  scheme  failed  because 
of  the  reluctance  of  the  militiamen  to  serve  beyond  the  limits 
of  their    own    county,  and,   as    the    offensive    lay    with    the 
king,   his  cause  naturally  suffered   far  more   therefrom   than 
that  of  the  enemy.     But  the  real  spirit  of  the  struggle  was 
very  different.      Anything  which  tended  to  prolong  the  struggle, 
or  seemed  like  want  of  energy  and  avoidance  of  a  decision,  was 
bitterly  resented  by  the  men  of  both  sides,  who  had  their  hearts 
in  the  quarrel  and  had  not  as  yet  learned  by  the  severe  lesson 
of  Edgehill   that  raw  armies  cannot  bring  wars  to  a  speedy 
issue.     In  France  and  Germany  the  prolongation  of  a  war  meant 
continued  employment  for  the  soldiers,  but  in  England  "  we 
never  encamped  or  entrenched  ...  or  lay  fenced  with  rivers 
or  defiles.     Here  were  no  leaguers  in  the  field,  as  at  the  story  of 
Nuremberg,1  neither  had  our  soldiers  any  tents  or  what  they  call 
heavy  baggage.     'Twas  the  general  maxim  of  the  war — Where  is 
the  enemy?     Let  us  go  and  fight  them.     Or  ...  if  the  enemy 
was  coming  .  .  .  Why,  what  should  be  done !  Draw  out  into 
the  fields  and  fight  them."     This  passage  from  the  Memoirs  of  a 
Cavalier,  ascribed  to  Defoe,  though  not  contemporary  evidence, 
is  an  admirable  summary  of  the  character  of  the  Civil  War.  Even 
when  in  the  end  a  regular  professional  army  is  evolved — exactly 
as  in  the  case  of  Napoleon's  army — the  original  decision-compel- 
ling spirit  permeated  the  whole  organization.     From  the  first  the 
professional  soldiers  of  fortune,  be  their  advice  good  or  bad,  are 
looked  upon  with  suspicion,  and  nearly  all  those  Englishmen  who 
loved  war  for  its  own  sake  were  too  closely  concerned  for  the  wel- 
fare of  their  country  to  attempt  the  methods  of  the  Thirty  Years' 
War  in  England.     The  formal  organization  of  both  armies  was 
based  on  the  Swedish  model,  which  had  become  the  pattern  of 
Europe  after  the  victories  of  Gustavus  Adolphus,  and  gave  better 
scope  for  the  moral  of  the  individual  than  the  old-fashioned 
Spanish  and  Dutch  formations  in  which  the  man  in  the  ranks  was 
a  highly  finished  automaton. 

3.  Campaign  of  1642. — When  the  king  raised  his  standard  at 
Nottingham  on  the  2znd  of  August  1642,  war  was  already  in  pro- 
gress on  a  small  scale  in  many  districts,  each  side  endeavouring  to 
secure,  or  to  deny  to  the  enemy,  fortified  country-houses,  territory, 
and  above  all  arms  and  money.  Peace  negotiations  went  on  in  the 
midst  of  these  minor  events  until  there  came  from  the  Parliament 
an  ultimatum  so  aggressive  as  to  fix  the  warlike  purpose  of  the 
still  vacillating  court  at  Nottingham,  and,  in  the  country  at  large, 
to  convert  many  thousands  of   waverers  to  active  Royalism. 
Ere  long  Charles — who  had  hitherto  had  less  than  1500  men — was 
at  the  head  of  an  army  which,  though  very  deficient  in  arms  and 
equipment,  was  not  greatly  inferior  in  numbers  or  enthusiasm  to 
that  of  the  Parliament.     The  latter  (20,000  strong  exclusive  of 
detachments)  was  organized  during  July,  August  and  September 
about  London,  and  moved  thence  to  Northampton  under  the 
command  of  Robert,  earl  of  Essex. 

At  this  moment  the  military  situation  was  as  follows.     Lord 
Hertford  in  south  Wales,  Sir  Ralph  Hopton  in  Cornwall,  and  the 

1  Gustavus  Adolphus  before  the  battle  of  the  Alte  Veste   (see 
THIRTY  YEARS'  WAR). 


404 


GREAT  REBELLION 


young  earl  of  Derby  in  Lancashire,  and  small  parties  in  almost 
every  county  of  the  west  and  the  midlands,  were  in  arms  for  the 
king.  North  of  the  Tees,  the  earl  of  Newcastle,  a  great  territorial 
magnate ,  was  -raising  troops  and  supplies  for  the  king,  while 
Queen  Henrietta  Maria  was  busy  in  Holland  arranging  for  the 
importation  of  war  material  and  money.  In  Yorkshire  opinion 
was  divided,  the  royal  cause  being  strongest  in  York  and  the  North 
Riding,  that  of  the  Parliamentary  party  in  the  clothing  towns 
of  the  West  Riding  and  also  in  the  important  seaport  of  Hull. 
The  Yorkshire  gentry  made  an  attempt  to  neutralize  the  county, 
but  a  local  struggle  soon  began,  and  Newcastle  thereupon 
prepared  to  invade  Yorkshire.  The  whole  of  the  south  and  east 
as  well  as  parts  of  the  midlands  and  the  west  and  the  important 
townsof  Bristol  and  Gloucester  were  on  the  side  of  the  Parliament. 
A  small  Royalist  force  was  compelled  to  evacuate  Oxford  on  the 
loth  of  September. 

On  the  1 3th  of  September  the  main  campaign  opened.  The 
king — in  order  to  find  recruits  amongst  his  sympathizers  and 
arms  in  the  armouries  of  the  Derbyshire  and  Staffordshire 
trained  bands,  and  also  to  be  in  touch  with  his  disciplined 
regiments  in  Ireland  by  way  of  Chester — moved  westward  to 
Shrewsbury,  Essex  following  suit  by  marching  from  Northampton 
to  Worcester.  Near  the  last-named  town  a  sharp  cavalry 
engagement  (Powick  Bridge)  took  place  on  the  23rd  between  the 
advanced  cavalry  of  Essex's  army  and  a  force  under  Prince 
Rupert  which  was  engaged  in  protecting  the  retirement  of  the 
Oxford  detachment.  The  result  of  the  fight  was  the  in- 
stantaneous overthrow  of  the  rebel  cavalry,  and  this  gave  the 
Royalist  troopers  a  confidence  in  themselves  and  in  their  brilliant 
leader  which  was  not  destined  to  be  shaken  until  they  met 
Cromwell's  Ironsides.  Rupert  soon  withdrew  to  Shrewsbury, 
where  he  found  many  Royalist  officers  eager  to  attack  Essex's 
new  position  at  Worcester.  But  the  road  to  London  now  lay 
open  and  it  was  decided  to  take  it.  The  intention  was  not  to 
avoid  a  battle,  for  the  Royalist  generals  desired  to  fight  Essex 
before  he  grew  too  strong,  and  the  temper  of  both  sides  made  it 
impossible  to  postpone  the  decision;  in  Clarendon's  words, 
"  it  was  considered  more  counsellable  to  march  towards  London, 
it  being  morally  sure  that  the  earl-of  Essex  would  put  himself  in 
their  way,"  and  accordingly  the  army  left  Shrewsbury  on  the 
1 2th  of  October,  gaining  two  days'  start  of  the  enemy,  and 
moved  south-east  via  Bridgnorth,  Birmingham  and  Kenilworth. 
This  had  the  desired  effect.  Parliament,  alarmed  for  its  own 
safety,  sent  repeated  orders  to  Essex  to  find  the  king  and  bring 
him  to  battle.  Alarm  gave  place  to  determination  when  it  was 
discovered  that  Charles  was  enlisting  papists  and  seeking  foreign 
aid.  The  militia  of  the  home  counties  was  called  out,  a  second 
army  under  the  earl  of  Warwick  was  formed  round  the  nucleus 
of  the  London  trained  bands,  and  Essex,  straining  every  nerve 
to  regain  touch  with  the  enemy,  reached  Kineton,  where  he  was 
only  7  m.  from  the  king's  headquarters  at  Edgecote,  on  the  2 2nd. 

4.  Battle  of  Edgehill. — Rupert  promptly  reported  the  enemy's 
presence,  and  his  confidence  dominated  the  irresolution  of  the 
king  and  the  caution  of  Lord  Lindsey,  the  nominal  commander- 
in-chief.  Both  sides  had  marched  widely  dispersed  in  order  to 
live,  and  the  rapidity  with  which,  having  the  clearer  purpose, 
the  Royalists  drew  together  helped  considerably  to  neutralize 
Essex's  superior  numbers.  During  the  morning  of  the  23rd  the 
Royalists  formed  in  battle  order  on  the  brow  of  Edgehill  facing 
towards  Kineton.  Essex,  experienced  soldier  as  he  was,  had 
distrusted  his  own  raw  army  too  much  to  force  a  decision 
earlier  in  the  month,  when  the  king  was  weak;  he  now  found 
Charles  in  a  strong  position  with  an  equal  force  to  his  own 
14,000,  and  some  of  his  regiments  were  still  some  miles  distant. 
But  he  advanced  beyond  Kineton,  and  the  enemy  promptly 
left  their  strong  position  and  came  down  to  the  foot  of  the 
hill,  for,  situated  as  they  were,  they  had  either  to  fight  wherever 
they  could  induce  the  enemy  to  engage,  or  to  starve  in  the 
midst  of  hostile  garrisons.  Rupert  was  on  the  right  of  the 
king's  army  with  the  greater  part  of  the  horse,  Lord  Lindsey 
and  Sir  Jacob  Astley  in  the  centre  with  the  foot,  Lord  Wilmot 
(with  whom  rode  tht  earl  of  Forth,  the  principal  military  adviser 


of  the  king)  with  a  smaller  body  of  cavalry  on  the  left.  In  rear 
of  the  centre  were  the  king  and  a  small  reserve.  Essex's  order 
was  similar.  Rupert  charged  as  soon  as  his  wing  was  deployed, 
and  before  the  infantry  of  either  side  was  ready.  Taking  ground 
to  his  right  front  and  then  wheeling  inwards  at  full  speed  he 
instantly  rode  down  the  Parliamentary  horse  opposed  to  him. 
Some  infantry  regiments  of  Essex's  left  centre  snared  the  same 
fate  as  their  cavalry.  On  the  other  wing  Forth  and  Wilmot 
likewise  swept  .away  all  that  they  could  see  of  the  enemy's 
cavalry,  and  the  undisciplined  Royalists  of  both  wings  pursued 
the  fugitives  in  wild  disorder  up  to  Kineton,  where  they  were 
severely  handled  by  John  Hampden's  infantry  brigade  (which  was 
escorting  the  artillery  and  baggage  of  Essex's  army).  Rupert 
brought  back  only  a  few  rallied  squadrons  to  the  battlefield, 
and  in  the  meantime  affairs  there  had  gone  badly  for  the  king. 
The  right  and  centre  of  the  Parliamentary  foot  (the  left  having 
been  brought  to  a  halt  by  Rupert's  charge)  advanced  with  great 
resolution, and beingatleast as ardentas, and  much  better  armed 
than,  Lindsey's  men,  engaged  them  fiercely  and  slowly  gained 
ground.  Only  the  best  regiments  en  either  side,  however, 
maintained  their  order,  and  the  decision  of  the  infantry  battle 
was  achieved  mainly  by  a  few  Parliamentary  squadrons.  One 
regiment  of  Essex's  rightwing  onlyhad  been  the  target  of  Wilmot's 
charge,  the  other  two  had  been  at  the  moment  invisible,  and,  as 
every  Royalist  troop  on  the  ground,  even  the  king's  guards, 
had  joined  in  the  mad  ride  to  Kineton,  these,  Essex's  life-guard, 
and  some  troops  that  had  rallied  from  the  effect  of  Rupert's 
charge — amongst  them  Captain  Oliver  Cromwell's — were  the 
only  cavalry  still  present.  All  these  joined  with  decisive  effect 
in  the  attack  on  the  left  of  the  royal  infantry.  The  king's  line 
was  steadily  rolled  up  from  left  to  right,  the  Parliamentary 
troopers  captured  his  guns  and  regiment  after  regiment  broke  up. 
Charles  himself  stood  calmly  in  the  thick  of  the  fight,  but  he  had 
not  the  skill  to  direct  it.  The  royal  standard  was  taken  and 
retaken,  Lindsey  and  Sir  Edmund  Verney,  the  standard-bearer, 
being  killed.  By  the  time  that  Rupert  returned  both  sides  were 
incapable  of  further  effort  and  disillusioned  as  to  the  prospect 
of  ending  the  war  at  a  blow. 

On  the  24th  Essex  retired,  leaving  Charles  to  claim  the  victory 
and  to  reap  its  results.  Banbury  and  Oxford  were  reoccupied 
by  the  Royalists,  and  by  the  28th  Charles  was  marching  down 
the  Thames  valley  on  London.  Negotiations  were  reopened, 
and  a  peace  party  rapidly  formed  itself  in  London  and  West- 
minster .  Yet  field  fortifications  sprang  up  around  London, 
and  when  Rupert  stormed  and  sacked  Brentford  on  the  izth 
of  November  the  trained  bands  moved  out  at  once  and  took  up 
a  position  at  Turnham  Green,  barring  the  king's  advance. 
Hampden,  with  something  of  the  fire  and  energy  of  his  cousin 
Cromwell,  urged  Essex  to  turn  both  flanks  of  the  Royal  army 
via  Acton  and  Kingston,  but  experienced  professional  soldiers 
urged  him  not  to  trust  the  London  men  to  hold  their  ground 
while  the  rest  manoeuvred.  Hampden's  advice  was  undoubtedly 
premature.  A  Sedan  or  Worcester  was  not  within  the  power 
of  the  Parliamentarians  of  1642,  for,  in  Napoleon's  words,  "  one 
only  manoeuvres  around  a  fixed  point,"  and  the  city  levies  at 
that  time  were  certainly  not,  vis-d-vis  Rupert's  cavalry,  a  fixed 
point.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  after  a  slight  cannonade  at  Turnharn 
Green  on  the  i3th,  Essex's  two-to-one  numerical  superiority  of 
itself  compelled  the  king  to  retire  to  Reading.  Turnham  Green 
has  justly  been  called  the  Valmy  of  the  English  Civil  War.  Like 
Valmy,  without  being  a  battle,  it  was  a  victory,  and  the  tide  of 
invasion  came  thus  far,  ebbed,  and  never  returned 

5.  The  Winter  of  1642-43. — In  the  winter,  while  Essex  lay 
inactive  at  Windsor,  Charles  by  degrees  consolidated  his  position 
in  the  region  of  Oxford.  The  city  was  fortified  as  a  reduit  for 
the  whole  area,  and  Reading,  Wallingford,  Abingdon,  Brill, 
Banbury  and  Marlborough  constituted  a  complete  defensive 
ring  which  was  developed  by  the  creation  of  smaller  posts  from 
time  to  time.  In  the  north  and  west,  winter  campaigns  were 
actively  carried  on.  "  It  is  summer  in  Yorkshire,  summer  in 
Devon,  and  cold  winter  at  Windsor,"  said  one  of  Essex's  critics. 
At  the  beginning  of  December  Newcastle  crossed  the  Tees,  • 


GREAT  REBELLION 


405 


defeated  Hotham,  the  Parliamentary  commander  in  the  North 
Riding,  then  joining  hands  with  the  hard-pressed  Royalists  at 
York,  established  himself  between  that  city  and  Pontefract. 
Lord  Fairfax  and  his  son  Sir  Thomas,  who  commanded  for  the 
Parliament  in  Yorkshire,  had  to  retire  to  the  district  between 
Hull  and  Selby,  and  Newcastle  was  free  to  turn  his  attention 
to  the  Puritan  "  clothing  towns  "  of  the  West  Riding — Leeds, 
Halifax  and  Bradford.  The  townsmen,  however,  showed  a 
determined  front,  the  younger  Fairfax  with  a  picked  body  of 
cavalry  rode  through  Newcastle's  lines  into  the  West  Riding 
to  help  them,  and  about  the  end  of  January  1643  the  earl  gave 
up  the  attempt  to  reduce  the  towns.  He  continued  his  march 
southward,  however,  and  gained  ground  for  the  king  as  far  as 
Newark,  so  as  to  be  in  touch  with  the  Royalists  of  Nottingham- 
shire, Derbyshire  and  Leicestershire  (who,  especially  about 
Newark  and  Ashby-de-la-Zouch,  were  strong  enough  to  neutralize 
the  local  forces  of  the  Parliament),  and  to  prepare  the  way  for 
the  further  advance  of  the  army  of  the  north  when  the  queen's 
convoy  should  arrive  from  over-seas. 

'in  the  west  Sir  Ralph  Hopton  and  his  friends,  having  obtained 
a  true  bill  from  the  grand  jury  against  the  Parliamentary  dis- 
turbers of  the  peace,  placed  themselves  at  the  head  of  the  county 
militia  and  drove  the  rebels  from  Cornwall,  after  which  they 
raised  a  small  force  for  general  service  and  invaded  Devonshire 
(November  1642).  Subsequently  a  Parliamentary  army  under 
the  earl  of  Stamford  was  withdrawn  from  south  Wales  to  engage 
Hopton,  who  had  to  retire  into  Cornwall.  There,  however, 
the  Royalist  general  was  free  to  employ  the  militia  again,  and 
thus  reinforced  he  won  a  victory  over  a  part  of  Stamford's  forces 
at  Bradock  Down  near  Liskeard  (January  19,  1643)  and  resumed 
the  offensive.  About  the  same  time  Hertford,  no  longer  opposed 
by  Stamford,  brought  over  the  South  Wales  Royalists  to  Oxford, 
and  the  fortified  area  around  that  place  was  widened  by  the 
capture  of  Cirencester  on  the  2nd  of  February.  Gloucester  and 
Bristol  were  now  the  only  important  garrisons  of  the  Roundheads 
in  the  west.  In  the  midlands,  in  spite  of  a  Parliamentary 
victory  won  by  Sir  William  Brereton  at  Nantwich  on  the  28th  of 
January,  the  Royalists  of  Shropshire,  Staffordshire  and  Leicester- 
shire soon  extended  their  influence  through  Ashby-de-la-Zouch 
into  Nottinghamshire  and  joined  hands  with  their  friends  at 
Newark.  Further,  around  Chester  a  new  Royalist  army  was 
being  formed  under  Lord  Byron,  and  all  the  efforts  of  Brereton 
and  of  Sir  John  Cell,  the  leading  supporter  of  the  Parliament  in 
Derbyshire,  were  required  to  hold  their  own,  even  before  New- 
castle's army  was  added  to  the  list  of  their  enemies.  Lord 
Brooke,  who  commanded  for  the  Parliament  in  Warwickshire 
and  Staffordshire  and  was  looked  on  by  many  as  Essex's  eventual 
successor,  was  killed  in  besieging  Lichfield  cathedral  on  the 
2nd  of  March,  and,  though  the  cathedral  soon  capitulated,  Cell 
and  Brereton  were  severely  handled  in  the  indecisive  battle  of 
Hopton  Heath  near  Stafford  on  the  igth  of  March,  and  Prince 
Rupert,  after  an  abortive  raid  on  Bristol  (March  7),  marched 
rapidly  northward,  storming  Birmingham  en  route,  and  recap- 
tured Lichfield  cathedral.  He  was,  however,  soon  recalled 
to  Oxford  to  take  part  in  the  main  campaign.  The  position  of 
affairs  for  the  Parliament  was  perhaps  at  its  worst  in  January. 
The  Royalist  successes  of  November  and  December,  the  ever- 
'  present  dread  of  foreign  intervention,  and  the  burden  of  new 
taxation  which  the  Parliament  now  found  itself  compelled  to 
impose,  disheartened  its  supporters.  Disorders  broke  out  in 
London,  and,  while  the  more  determined  of  the  rebels  began 
thus  early  to  think  of  calling  in  the  military  assistance  of  the 
Scots,  the  majority  were  for  peace  on  any  conditions.  But  soon 
the  position  improved  somewhat;  Stamford  in  the  west  and 
Brereton  and  Cell  in  the  midlands,  though  hard  pressed,  were 
at  any  rate  in  arms  and  undefeated,  Newcastle  had  failed  to 
conquer  the  West  Riding,  and  Sir  William  Waller,  who  had 
cleared  Hampshire  and  Wiltshire  of  "  malignants,"  entered 
Gloucestershire  early  in  March,  destroyed  a  small  Royalist 
force  at  Highnam  (March  24),  and  secured  Bristol  and  Gloucester 
for  the  Parliament .  Finally,  some  of  Charles's  own  intrigues 
opportunely  coming  to  light,  the  waverers,  seeing  the  impossi- 


bility of  plain  dealing  with  the  court,  rallied  again  to  the  party 
of  resistance,  and  the  series  of  negotiations  called  by  the  name 
of  the  Treaty  of  Oxford  closed  in  April  with  no  more  result  than 
those  which  had  preceded  Edgehill  and  Turnham  Green.  About 
this  time  too,  following  and  improving  upon  the  example  of 
Newcastle  in  the  north,  Parliament  ordered  the  formation  of 
the  celebrated  "  associations  "  or  groups  of  counties  banded 
together  by  mutual  consent  for  defence.  The  most  powerful 
and  best  organized  of  these  was  that  of  the  eastern  counties 
(headquarters  Cambridge),  where  the  danger  of  attack  from  the 
north  was  near  enough  to  induce  great  energy  in  the  preparations 
for  meeting  it,  and  at  the  same  time  too  distant  effectively  to 
interfere  with  these  preparations.  Above  all,  the  Eastern 
Association  was  from  the  first  guided  and  inspired  by  Colonel 
Cromwell. 

6.  The  Plan  of  Campaign,  1643. — The  king's  plan  of  operations 
for  the  next  campaign,  which  was  perhaps  inspired  from  abroad, 
was  more  elaborate   than  the  simple    "point"  of  1642.     The 
king's  army,  based  on  the  fortified  area  around  Oxford,  was 
counted  sufficient  to  use  up  Essex's  forces.     On  either  hand, 
therefore,  in  Yorkshire  and  in  the  west,  the  Royalist  armies 
were  to  fight  their  way  inwards  towards  London,  after  which 
all  three  armies,  converging  on  that  place  in  due  season,  were 
to  cut  off  its  supplies  and  its  sea-borne  revenue  and  to  starve 
the  rebellion  into  surrender.     The  condition  of  this  threefold 
advance  was  of  course  that  the  enemy  should  not  be  able  to 
defeat  the  armies  in  detail,  i.e.  that  he  should  be  fixed  and  held 
in  the  Thames  valley;  this  secured,  there  was  no  purely  military 
objection  against  operating  in  separate  armies  from  the  cir- 
cumference towards  the  centre.      It  was  on  the  rock  of  local 
feeling  that  the  king's  plan  came  to  grief.     Even  after  the  arrival 
of  the  queen  and  her  convoy ,  Newcastle  had  to  allow  her  to 
proceed  with  a  small  force,  and  to  remain  behind  with  the  main 
body,  because  of  Lancashire  and  the  West  Riding,  and  above 
all  because  the  port  of  Hull,  in  the  hands  of  the  Fairfaxes, 
constituted  a  menace  that  the  Royalists  of  the   East  Riding 
refused  to  ignore.     Hopton's  advance  too,  undertaken  without 
the  Cornish  levies,  was  checked  in  the  action  of  Sourton  Down 
(Dartmoor)  on  the  2$th  of  April,  and  on  the  same  day  Waller 
captured  Hereford.     Essex  had  already  left  Windsor  to  under- 
take the  siege  of  Reading,  the  most  important  point  in  the  circle 
of  fortresses  round  Oxford,  which  after  a  vain  attempt  at  relief 
surrendered  to  him  on  the  26th  of  April.    Thus  the  opening 
operations  were  unfavourable,  not  indeed  so  far  as  to  require 
the  scheme  to  be  abandoned,  but  at  least  delaying  the  develop- 
ment until  the  campaigning  season  was  far  advanced. 

7.  Victories  of  Hopton. — But  affairs  improved  in  May.    The 
queen's  long-expected  convoy  arrived  at  Woodstock  on  the  I3th. 
The  earl  of  Stamford's  army,  which  had  again  entered  Cornwall, 
was  attacked  in  its  selected  position  at  Stratton  and  practically 
annihilated  by  Hopton  (May  16).     This  brilliant  victory  was 
due  above  all  to  Sir  Bevil  Grenville  and  the  lithe  Cornishmen, 
who,  though  but  2400  against  5400  and  destitute  of  artillery, 
stormed  "  Stamford  Hill,  "  killed  300  of  the  enemy,  and  captured 
1 700  more  with  all  their  guns,  colours  and  baggage .     Devon 
was  at  once  overrun  by  the  victors.     Essex's  army,  for  want  of 
material  resources,  had  had  to  be  content  with  the  capture  of 
Reading,   and   a   Royalist   force   under   Hertford   and   Prince 
Maurice  (Rupert's  brother)  moved  out  as  far  as  Salisbury  to 
hold  out  a  hand  to  their  friends  in  Devonshire,  while  Waller, 
the  only  Parliamentary  commander  left  in  the  field  in  the  west, 
had  to  abandon  his  conquests  in  the  Severn  valley  to  oppose 
the  further  progress  of  his  intimate  friend  and  present  enemy, 
Hopton.     Early  in  June  Hertford  and  Hopton  united  at  Chard 
and  rapidly  moved,  with  some  cavalry  skirmishing,  towards  Bath, 
where  Waller's  army  lay.     Avoiding  the  barrier  of  the  Mendips, 
they  moved  round  via  Frome  to  the  Avon.     But  Waller,  thus 
cut  off  from  London  and  threatened  with  investment,  acted 
with  great  skill,  and  some  days  of  manoeuvres  and  skirmishing 
followed,  after  which  Hertford  and  Hopton  found  themselves 
on  the  north  side  of  Bath  facing  Waller's  entrenched  position 
on  the  top  of  Lansdown  Hill.     This  position  the  Royalists 


406 


GREAT  REBELLION 


stormed  on  the  sth  of  July.  The  battle  of  Lansdown  was  a 
second  Stratton  for  the  Cornishmen,  but  this  time  the  enemy 
was  of  different  quality  and  far  differently  led,  and  they  had  to 
mourn  the  loss  of  Sir  Bevil  Grenville  and  the  greater  part  of 
their  whole  force.  At  dusk  both  sides  stood  on  the  flat  summit 
of  the  hill,  still  firing  into  one  another  with  such  energy  as  was 
not  yet  expended,  and  in  the  night  Waller  drew  off  his  men  into 
Bath.  "  We  were  glad  they  were  gone,"  wrote  a  Royalist 
officer,  "  for  if  they  had  not,  I  know  who  had  within  the  hour." 
Next  day  Hopton  was  severely  injured  by  the  explosion  of  a  wagon 
containing  the  reserve  ammunition,  and  the  Royalists,  finding 
their  victory  profitless,  moved  eastward  to  Devizes,  closely 
followed  by  the  enemy.  On  the  loth  of  July  Sir  William  Waller 
took  post  on  Roundway  Down,  overlooking  Devizes,  and  cap- 
tured a  Royalist  ammunition  column  from  Oxford.  On  the  nth 
he  came  down  and  invested  Hopton's  foot  in  Devizes  itself, 
while  the  Royalist  cavalry,  Hertford  and  Maurice  with  them, 
rode  away  towards  Salisbury.  But  although  the  siege  was  pressed 
with  such  vigour  that  an  assault  was  fixed  for  the  evening  of  the 
I3th,  the  Cornishmen,  Hopton  directing  the  defence  from  his 
bed,  held  out  stubbornly,  and  on  the  afternoon  of  July  I3th 
Prince  Maurice's  horsemen  appeared  on  Roundway  Down, 
having  ridden  to  Oxford,  picked  up  reinforcements  therej  and 
returned  at  full  speed  to  save  their  comrades.  Waller's  army 
tried  its  best,  but  some  of  its  elements  were  of  doubtful  quality 
and  the  ground  was  all  in  Maurice's  favour.  The  battle  did  not 
last  long.  The  combined  attack  of  the  Oxford  force  from 
Roundway  and  of  Hopton's  men  from  the  town  practically 
annihilated  Waller's  army.  Very  soon  afterwards  Rupert  came 
up  with  fresh  Royalist  forces,  and  the  combined  armies  moved 
westward.  Bristol,  the  second  port  of  the  kingdom,  was  their 
objective,  and  in  four  days  from  the  opening  of  the  siege  it  was 
in  their  hands  (July  26),  Waller  with  the  beaten  remnant  of  his 
army  at  Bath  being  powerless  to  intervene.  The  effect  of  this 
blow  was  felt  even  in  Dorsetshire.  Within  three  weeks  of  the 
surrender  Prince  Maurice  with  a  body  of  fast-moving  cavalry 
overran  that  county  almost  unopposed. 

8.  Adwalton  Moor. — Newcastle  meanwhile  had  resumed  opera- 
tions against  the  clothing  towns,  this  time  with  success.  The 
Fairfaxes  had  been  fighting  in  the  West  Riding  since  January 
with  such  troops  from  the  Hull  region  as  they  had  been  able  to 
bring  across  Newcastle's  lines.  They  and  the  townsmen  together 
were  too  weak  for  Newcastle's  increasing  forces,  and  an  attempt 
was  made  to  relieve  them  by  bringing  up  the  Parliament's 
forces  in  Nottinghamshire,  Derbyshire,  Lincolnshire  and  the 
Eastern  Association.  But  local  interests  prevailed  again,  in 
spite  of  Cromwell's  presence,  and  after  assembling  at  Notting- 
ham, the  midland  rebels  quietly  dispersed  to  their  several 
counties  (June  2).  The  Fairfaxes  were  left  to  their  fate,  and 
about  the  same  time  Hull  itself  narrowly  escaped  capture  by  the 
queen's  forces  through  the  treachery  of  Sir  John  Hotham,  the 
governor,  and  his  son,  the  commander  of  the  Lincolnshire  Parlia- 
mentarians. The  latter  had  been  placed  under  arrest  at  the 
instance  of  Cromwell  and  of  Colonel  Hutchinson,  the  governor 
of  Nottingham  Castle;  he  escaped  to  Hull,  but  both  father  and 
son  were  seized  by  the  citizens  and  afterwards  executed.  More 
serious  than  an  isolated  act  of  treachery  was  the  far-reaching 
Royalist  plot  that  had  been  detected  in  Parliament  itself,  for 
complicity  in  which  Lord  Conway,  Edmund  Waller  the  poet, 
and  several  members  of  both  Houses  were  arrested.  The  safety 
of  Hull  was  of  no  avail  for  the  West  Riding  towns,  and  the 
Fairfaxes  underwent  a  decisive  defeat  at  Adwalton  (Atherton) 
Moor  near  Bradford  on  the  3oth  of  June.  After  this,  by  way 
of  Lincolnshire,  they  escaped  to  Hull  and  reorganized  the 
defence  of  that  place.  The  West  Riding  perforce  submitted. 

The  queen  herself  with  a  second  convoy  and  a  small  army 
under  Henry  (Lord)  Jermyn  soon  moved  via  Newark,  Ashby- 
de-la-Zouch,  Lichfield  and  other  Royalist  garrisons  to  Oxford, 
where  she  joined  her  husband  on  the  I4th  of  July.  But  New- 
castle (now  a  marquis)  was  not  yet  ready  for  his  part  in  the 
programme.  The  Yorkshire  troops  would  not  march  on  London 
while  the  enemy  was  master  of  Hull,  and  by  this  time  there  was 


a  solid  barrier  between  the  royal  army  of  the  north  and  the 
capital.  Roundway  Down  and  Adwalton  Moor  were  not  after 
all  destined  to  be  fatal,  though  peace  riots  in  London,  dissensions 
in  the  Houses,  and  quarrels  amongst  the  generals  were  their 
immediate  consequences.  A  new  factor  had  arisen  in  the  war — 
the  Eastern  Association. 

9.  Cromwell  and  the  Eastern  Association. — This  had  already 
intervened  to  help  in  the  siege  of  Reading  and  had  sent  troops 
to  the  abortive  gathering  at  Nottingham,  besides  clearing  its 
own  ground  of  "  malignants."     From  the  first  Cromwell  was  the 
dominant  influence.     Fresh  from^Edgehill,  he  had  told Hampden, 
"You  must  get  men  of  a  spirit  that  is  likely  to  go  as  far  as 
gentlemen  will  go,"  not  "  old  decayed  serving-men,  tapsters 
and  such  kind  of  fellows  to  encounter  gentlemen  that  have 
honour  and  courage  and  resolution  in  them,"  and  in  January 
1643  he  had  gone  to  his  own  county  to  "  raise  such  men  as  had 
the  fear  of  God  before  them  and  made  some  conscience  of  what 
they  did."     These  men,  once  found,  were  willing,  for  the  cause, 
to  submit  to  a  rigorous  training  and  an  iron  discipline  such  as 
other  troops,  fighting  for  honour  only  or  for  profit  only,  coulcl 
not  be  brought  to  endure.1    The  result  was  soon  apparent. 
As  early  as  the  I3th  of  May,  Cromwell's  regiment  of  horse — 
recruited  from  the  horse-loving  yeomen  of  the  eastern  counties — 
demonstrated  its  superiority  in  the  field  in  a  skirmish  near 
Grantham,  and  in  the  irregular  fighting  in  Lincolnshire  during 
June  and  July  (which  was  on  the  whole  unfavourable  to  the 
Parliament),  as  previously  in  pacifying  the  Eastern  Association 
itself,  these  Puritan  troopers  distinguished  themselves  by  long 
and  rapid  marches  that  may  bear  comparison  with  almost  any 
in  the  history  of  the  mounted  arm.     When  Cromwell's  second 
opportunity  came  at  Gainsborough  on  the  28th  of  July,  the 
"  Lincolneer  "  horse  who  were  under  his  orders  were  fired  by 
theexampleof  Cromwell's  own  regiment,  and  Cromwell,  directing 
the  whole  with  skill,  and  above  all  with  energy,  utterly  routed 
the  Royalist  horse  and  killed  their  general,  Charles  Cavendish. 

In  the  meantime  the  army  of  Essex  had  been  inactive.  After 
the  fall  of  Reading  a  serious  epidemic  of  sickness  had  reduced 
it  to  impotence.  On  the  i8th  of  June  the  Parliamentary 
cavalry  was  routed  and  John  Hampden  mortally  wounded  at 
Chalgrove  Field  near  Chiselhampton ,  and  when  at  last  Essex, 
having  obtained  the  desired  reinforcements,  moved  against 
Oxford  from  the  Aylesbury  side,  he  found  his  men  demoralized 
by  inaction,  and  before  the  menace  of  Rupert's  cavalry,  to  which 
he  had  nothing  to  oppose,  he  withdrew  to  Bedfordshire  (July). 
He  made  no  attempt  to  intercept  the  march  of  the  queen's 
convoys,  he  had  permitted  the  Oxford  army,  which  he  should 
have  held  fast,  to  intervene  effectually  in  the  midlands,  the  west, 
and  the  south-west,  and  Waller  might  well  complain  that  Essex, 
who  still  held  Reading  and  the  Chilterns,  had  given  him  neither 
active  nor  passive  support  in  the  critical  days  preceding  Round- 
way  Down.  Still  only  a  few  voices  were  raised  to  demand  his 
removal,  and  he  was  shortly  to  have  an  opportunity  of  proving 
his  skill  and  devotion  in  a  great  campaign  and  a  great  battle. 
The  centre  and  the  right  of  the  three  Royalist  armies  had  for  a 
moment  (Roundway  to  Bristol)  united  to  crush  Waller,  but 
their  concentration  was  short-lived.  Plymouth  was  to  Hopton's 
men  what  Hull  was  to  Newcastle's — they  would  not  march  on 
London  until  the  menace  to  their  homes  was  removed.  Further, 
there  were  dissensions  among  the  generals  which  Charles  was  too 
weak  to  crush,  and  consequently  the  original  plan  reappears — 
the  main  Royalist  army  to  operate  in  the  centre,  Hopton's  (now 
Maurice's  )  on  the  right,  Newcastle  on  the  left  towards  London. 
While  waiting  for  the  fall  of  Hull  and  Plymouth,  Charles  naturally 
decided  to  make  the  best  use  of  his  time  by  reducing  Gloucester, 
the  one  great  fortress  of  the  Parliament  in  the  west. 

10.  Siege  and   Relief   of    Gloucester. — This   decision  quickly 
brought  on  a  crisis.     While  the  earl  of  Manchester  (with  Cromwell 
as  his  lieutenant-general)  was  appointed  to  head  the  forces  of 
the  Eastern  Association  against   Newcastle,   and  Waller  was 

1  "  Making  not  money  but  that  which  they  took  to  be  the  public 
felicity  to  be  their  end  they  were  the  more  engaged  to  be  valiant  " 
(Baxter). 


GREAT  REBELLION 


407 


given  a  new  army  wherewith  again  to  engage  Hopton  and 
Maurice,  the  task  of  saving  Gloucester  from  the  king's  army  fell 
to  Essex,  who  was  heavily  reinforced  and  drew  his  army  together 
for  action  in  the  last  days  of  August.  Resort  was  had  to  the 
press-gang  to  fill  the  ranks,  recruiting  for  Waller's  new  army 
was  stopped,  and  London  sent  six  regiments  of  trained  bands 
to  the  front,  closing  the  shops  so  that  every  man  should  be  free 
to  take  his  part  in  what  was  thought  to  be  the  supreme  trial 
of  strength. 

On  the  26th,  all  being  ready,  Essex  started.  Through  Ayles- 
bury  and  round  the  north  side  of  Oxford  to  Stow-on-the-Wold 
the  army  moved  resolutely,  not  deterred  by  want  of  food  and 
rest,  or  by  the  attacks  of  Rupert's  and  Wilmot's  horse  on  its 
flank.  On  the  5th  of  September,  just  as  Gloucester  was  at 
the  end  of  its  resources,  the  siege  was  suddenly  raised  and  the 
Royalists  drew  off  to  Painswick,  for  Essex  had  reached  Chelten- 
ham and  the  danger  was  over.  Then,  the  field  armies  being 
again  face  to  face  and  free  to  move,  there  followed  a  series  of 
skilful  manoeuvres  in  the  Severn  and  Avon  valleys,  at  the  end 
of  which  the  Parliamentary  army  gained  a  long  start  on  its 
homeward  road  via  Cricklade,  Hungerford  and  Reading.  But 
the  Royalist  cavalry  under  Rupert,  followed  rapidly  by  Charles 
and  the  main  body  from  Evesham,  strained  every  nerve  to 
head  off  Essex  at  Newbury,  and  after  a  sharp  skirmish  on 
Aldbourne  Chase  on  the  i8th  of  September  succeeded  in  doing 
so.  On  the  igth  the  whole  Royal  army  was  drawn  up,  facing 
west,  with  its  right  on  Newbury  and  its  left  on  Enborne  Heath. 
Essex's  men  knew  that  evening  that  they  would  have  to  break 
through  by  force — there  was  no  suggestion  of  surrender. 

11.  First  Bailie  of  Newbury,  September  20,  1643. — The  ground 
was  densely  intersected  by  hedges  except  in  front  of  the  Royalists' 
left  centre  (Newbury  Wash)  and  left  (Enborne  Heath),  and, 
practically,  Essex's  army  was  never  formed  in  line  of  battle, 
for  each  unit  was  thrown  into  the  fight  as  it  came  up  its  own 
road  or  lane.     On  the  left  wing,  in  spite  of  the  Royalist  counter- 
strokes,  the  attack  had  the  best  of  it,  capturing  field  after  field, 
and  thus  gradually  gaining  ground  to  the  front.     Here  Lord 
Falkland  was  killed.     On  the  Reading  road  itself  Essex  did  not 
succeed  in  deploying  on  to  the  open  ground  on  Newbury  Wash, 
but  victoriously  repelled  the  royal  horse  when  it  charged  up  to 
the  lanes  and  hedges  held  by  his  foot.     On  the  extreme  right 
of  the  Parliamentary  army,  which  stood  in  the  open  ground  of 
Enborne  Heath,  took  place  a  famous  incident.     Here  two  of  the 
London  regiments,  fresh  to  war  as  they  were,  were  exposed  to  a 
trial  as  severe  as  that  which  broke  down  the  veteran  Spanish 
infantry  at  Rocroi  in  this  same  year.     Rupert  and  the  Royalist 
horse  again  and  again  charged  up  to  the  squares  of  pikes,  and 
between  each  charge  his  guns  tried  to  disorder  the  Londoners,  but 
it  was  not  until  the  advance  of  the  royal  infantry  that  the  trained 
bands  retired,  slowly  and  in  magnificent  order,  to  the  edge  of  the 
heath .     The  result  of  it  all  was  that  Essex's  army  had  fought 
its  hardest  and  failed  to  break  the  opposing  line.     But  the 
Royalists  had  suffered  so  heavily,  and   above  all  the  valour 
displayed  by  the  rebels  had  so  profoundly  impressed  them,  that 
they  were  glad  to  give  up  the  disputed  road  and  withdraw  into 
Newbury.     Essex  thereupon  pursued  his  march,  Reading  was 
reached  on  the  22nd  after  a  small  rearguard  skirmish  at  Alder- 
maston,  and  so  ended  one  of  the  most  dramatic  episodes  of 
English  history. 

12.  Hull  and  Winceby. — Meanwhile  the  siege  of  Hull  had 
commenced.     The  Eastern  Association  forces  under  Manchester 
promptly  moved  up  into  Lincolnshire,  the  foot  besieging  Lynn 
(which  surrendered  on  the  i6th  of  September)  while  the  horse 
rode  into  the  northern  part  of  the  county  to  give  a  hand  to  the 
Fairfaxes.     Fortunately  the  sea  communications  of  Hull  were 
open.     On  the  i8th  of  September  part  of  the  cavalry  in  Hull 
was  ferried  over  to  Barton,  and  the  rest  under  Sir  Thomas 
Fairfax  went  by  sea  to  Saltfleet  a  few  days  later,  the  whole 
joining  Cromwell  near  Spilsby.     In  return  the  old  Lord  Fairfax, 
who  remained  in  Hull,  received  infantry  reinforcements  and 
a  quantity  of  ammunition  and  stores  from  the  Eastern  Associa- 
tion.    On  the  nth  of  October  Cromwell  and  Fairfax  together 


won  a  brilliant  cavalry  action  at  Winceby,  driving  the  Royalist 
horse  in  confusion  before  them  to  Newark,  and  on  the  same  day 
Newcastle's  army  around  Hull,  which  had  suffered  terribly 
from  the  hardships  of  continuous  siege  work,  was  attacked 
by  the  garrison  and  so  severely  handled  that  next  day  the 
siege  was  given  up.  Later,  Manchester  retook  Lincoln  and 
Gainsborough,  and  thus  Lincolnshire,  which  had  been  almost 
entirely  in  Newcastle's  hands  before  he  was  compelled  to  under- 
take the  siege  of  Hull,  was  added  in  fact  as  well  as  in  name  to  the 
Eastern  Association. 

Elsewhere,  in  the  reaction  after  the  crisis  of  Newbury,  the 
war  languished.  The  city  regiments  went  home,  leaving  Essex 
too  weak  to  hold  Reading,  which  the  Royalists  reoccupied  on  the 
3rd  of  October.  At  this  the  Londoners  offered  to  serve  again, 
and  actually  took  part  in  a  minor  campaign  around  Newport 
Pagnell,  which  town  Rupert  attempted  to  fortify  as  a  menace 
to  the  Eastern  Association  and  its  communications  with  London. 
Essex  was  successful  in  preventing  this,  but  his  London  regiments 
again  went  home,  and  Sir  William  Waller's  new  army  in 
Hampshire  failed  lamentably  in  an  attempt  on  Basing  House 
(November  7),  the  London  trained  bands  deserting  en  bloc. 
Shortly  afterwards  Arundel  surrendered  to  a  force  under  Sir 
Ralph,  now  Lord  Hopton  (December  9). 

13.  The  "  Irish  Cessation  "  and  the  Solemn  League  and 
Covenant. — Politically,  these  months  were  the  turning-point  of 
the  war.  In  Ireland,  the  king's  lieutenant,  by  order  of  his 
master,  made  a  truce  with  the  Irish  rebels  (Sept.  15).  Charles's 
chief  object  was  to  set  free  his  army  to  fight  in  England,  but  it 
was  believed  universally  that  Irish  regiments — in  plain  words, 
papists  in  arms— would  shortly  follow.  Under  these  cir- 
cumstances his  act  united  against  him  nearly  every  class  in 
Protestant  England,  above  all  brought  into  the  English  quarrel 
the  armed  strength  of  Presbyterian  Scotland.  Yet  Charles, 
still  trusting  to  intrigue  and  diplomacy  to  keep  Scotland  in 
check,  deliberately  rejected  the  advice  of  Montrose,  his  greatest 
and  most  faithful  lieutenant,  who  wished  to  give  the  Scots 
employment  for  their  army  at  home.  Only  ten  days  after  the 
"  Irish  cessation,"  the  Parliament  at  Westminster  swore  to  the 
Solemn  League  and  Covenant,  and  the  die  was  cast.  It  is  true 
that  even  a  semblance  of  Presbyterian  theocracy  put  the 
"  Independents  "  on  their  guard  and  definitely  raised  the  question 
of  freedom  of  conscience,  and  that  secret  negotiations  were 
opened  between  the  Independents  and  Charles  on  that  basis, 
but  they  soon  discovered  that  the  king  was  merely  using  them 
as  instruments  to  bring  about  the  betrayal  of  Aylesbury  and 
other  small  rebel  posts.  All  parties  found  it  convenient  to  inter- 
pret the  Covenant  liberally  for  the  present,  and  at  the  beginning 
of  1644  the  Parliamentary  party  showed  so  united  a  front  that 
even  Pym's  death  (December  8,  1643)  hardly  affected  its  resolu- 
tion to  continue  the  struggle. 

The  troops  from  Ireland,  thus  obtained  at  the  cost  of  an 
enormous  political  blunder,  proved  to  be  untrustworthy  after  all. 
Those  serving  in  Hopton's  army  were  "  mutinous  and  shrewdly 
infected  with  the  rebellious  humour  of  England."  When  Waller's 
Londoners  surprised l  and  routed  a  Royalist  detachment  at 
Alton  (December  13,  1643),  half  the  prisoners  took  the  Covenant. 
Hopton  had  to  retire,  and  on  the  6th  of  January  1644  Waller 
recaptured  Arundel.  Byron's  Cheshire  army  was  in  no  better 
case.  Newcastle's  retreat  from  Hull  and  the  loss  of  Gainsborough 
had  completely  changed  the  situation  in  the  midlands,  Brereton 
was  joined  by  the  younger  Fairfax  from  Lincolnshire,  and  the 
Royalists  were  severely  defeated  for  a  second  time  at  Nantwich 
(January  25).  As  at  Alton,  the  majority  of  the  prisoners 
(amongst  them  Colonel  George  Monk)  took  the  Covenant  and 
entered  the  Parliamentary  army.  In  Lancashire,  as  in  Cheshire. 
Staffordshire,  Nottinghamshire  and  Lincolnshire,  the  cause  ot 
the  Parliament  was  in  the  ascendant.  Resistance  revived  in  the 
West  Riding  towns,  Lord  Fairfax  was  again  in  the  field  in  the 

1  For  the  third  time  within  the  year  the  London  trained  bands 
turned  out  in  force.  It  was  characteristic  of  the  early  years  of  the 
war  that  imminent  danger  alone  called  forth  the  devotion  of  the 
citizen  soldier.  If  he  was  employed  in  ordinary  times  (e.g.  at  Basing 
House)  he  would  neither  fight  nor  march  with  spirit. 


4o8 


GREAT  REBELLION 


East  Riding,  and  even  Newark  was  closely  besieged  by  Sir 
John  Meldrum.  More  important  news  came  in  from  the  north. 
The  advanced  guard  of  the  Scottish  army  had  passed  the  Tweed 
on  the  ipth  of  January,  and  the  marquis  of  Newcastle  with  the 
remnant  of  his  army  would  soon  be  attacked  in  front  and  rear 
at  once. 

14.  Newark  and  Cheriton  (March  1644). — As  in  1643,  Rupert 
was  soon  on  his  way  to  the  north  to  retrieve  the  fortunes  of  his 
side.     Moving  by  the  Welsh  border,  and  gathering  up  garrisons 
and  recruits  snowball-wise  as  he  marched,  he  went  first  to 
Cheshire  to  give  a  hand  to  Byron,  and  then,  with  the  utmost 
speed,  he  made  for  Newark.     On  the  aoth  of  March  1644  he 
bivouacked  at  Bingham,  and  on  the  2ist  he  not  only  relieved 
Newark    but    routed    the    besiegers'    cavalry.     On    the    22nd 
Meldrum's  position  was  so  hopeless  that  he  capitulated  on  terms. 
But,  brilliant  soldier  as  he  was,  the  prince  was  unable  to  do  more 
than  raid  a  few  Parliamentary  posts  around   Lincoln,   after 
which  he  had  to  return  his  borrowed  forces  to  their  various 
garrisons  and  go  back  to  Wales — laden  indeed  with  captured 
pikes  and  muskets — to  raise  a  permanent  field  army.  'But 
Rupert  could  not  be  in  all  places  at  once.     Newcastle  was 
clamorous  for  aid.     In  Lancashire,  only  the  countess  of  Derby, 
in  Lathom  House,  held  out  for  the  king,  and  her  husband 
pressed  Rupert  to  go  to  her  relief.     Once,  too,  the  prince  was 
ordered  back  to  Oxford  to  furnish  a  travelling  escort  for  the 
queen,  who  shortly  after  this  gave  birth  to  her  youngest  child 
and  returned  to  France.     The  order  was  countermanded  within 
a  few  hours,  it  is  true,  but  Charles  had  good  reason  for  avoiding 
detachments  from  his  own  army.     On  the  apth  of  March,  Hopton 
had  undergone  a  severe  defeat  at  Cheriton  near  New  Alresford. 
In  the  preliminary  manoeuvres  and  in  the  opening  stages  of  the 
battle  the  advantage  lay  with  the  Royalists,  and  the  earl  of 
Forth,  who  was  present,was  satisfied  with  what  had  been  achieved 
and  tried  to  break  off  the  action.     But  Royalist  indiscipline 
ruined  everything.     A  young  cavalry  colonel  charged  in  defiance 
of  orders,  a  fresh  engagement  opened,  and  at  the  last  moment 
Waller  snatched  a  victory  out  of  defeat.     Worse  than  this  was 
the  news  from  Yorkshire  and  Scotland.     Charles  had  at  last 
assented  to  Montrose's  plan  and  promised  him  the  title   of 
marquis,  but  the  first  attempt  to  raise  the  Royalist  standard  in 
Scotland  gave  no  omen  of  its  later  triumphs.      In  Yorkshire 
Sir  Thomas  Fairfax,   advancing  from  Lancashire  through   the 
West  Riding,  joined  his  father.     Selby  was  stormed  on  the  nth 
of  April,  and  thereupon  Newcastle,  who  had  been  manoeuvring 
against  the  Scots  in  Durham,  hastily  drew  back,  sent  his  cavalry 
away,  and  shut  himself  up  with  his  foot  in  York.     Two  days 
later  the  Scottish  general,  Alexander  Leslie,  Lord  Leven,  joined 
the  Fairfaxes  and  prepared  to  invest  that  city. 

15.  Plans  of  Campaign  for  1644. — The  original  plan  of  the 
Parliamentary  "Committee  of  Both  Kingdoms,"  which  directed 
the  military  and  civil  policy  of  the  allies  after  the  fashion  of  a 
modern   cabinet,   was   to   combine   Essex's   and  Manchester's 
armies  in  an  attack  upon  the  king's  army,  Aylesbury  being 
appointed  as  the  place  of  concentration.     Waller's  troops  were 
to  continue  to  drive  back  Hopton  and  to  reconquer  the  west, 
Fairfax. and  the  Scots  to  invest  Newcastle's  army,  while  in  the 
midlands  Brereton  and  the  Lincolnshire  rebels  could  be  counted 
upon  to  neutralize,  the  one  Byron,  the  others  the  Newark 
Royalists.    But  Waller,  once  more  deserted  by  his  trained  bands, 
was  unable  to  profit  by  his  victory  of  Cheriton,  and  retired  to 
Farnham.     Manchester,  too,  was  delayed  because  the  Eastern 
Association   was   still   suffering   from  the   effects   of   Rupert's 
Newark  exploit — Lincoln,   abandoned  by  the  rebels  on  that 
occasion,  was  not  reoccupied  till  the  6th  of  May.     Moreover, 
Essex   found  himself  compelled   to   defend   his   conduct   and 
motives  to  the  Committee  of  Both  Kingdoms,  and  as  usual  was 
straitened  for  men  and  money.     But  though  there  were  grave 
elements  of  weakness  on  the  other  side,  the  Royalists  considered 
their  own  position  to  be  hopeless.     Prince  Maurice  was  engaged 
in  the  fruitless  siege  of  Lyme  Regis,  Gloucester  was  again  a 
centre  of  activity  and  counterbalanced  Newark,  and  the  situation 
in  the  north  was  practically  desperate.     Rupert  himself  came 


to  Oxford  (April  25)  to  urge  that  his  new  army  should  be  kept 
free  to  march  to  aid  Newcastle,  who  was  now  threatened — owing 
to  the  abandonment  of  the  enemy's  original  plan — by  Manchester 
as  well  as  Fairfax  and  Leven.  There  was  no  further  talk  of  the 
concentric  advance  of  three  armies  on  London.  The  fiery 
prince  and  the  methodical  earl  of  Brentford  (Forth)  were  at 
one  at  least  in  recommending  that  the  Oxford  area  with  its 
own  garrison  and  a  mobile  force  in  addition  should  be  the  pivot 
of  the  field  armies'  operations.  Rupert,  needing  above  all  ade- 
quate time  for  the  development  of  the  northern  offensive,  was  not 
in  favour  of  abandoning  any  of  the  barriers  to  Essex's  advance. 
Brentford,  on  the  other  hand,  thought  it  advisable  to  contract 
the  lines  of  defence,  and  Charles,  as  usual  undecided,  agreed 
to  Rupert's  scheme  and  executed  Brentford's.  Reading,  there- 
fore, was  dismantled  early  in  May,  and  Abingdon  given  up  shortly 
afterwards. 

16.  Cropredy  Bridge. — It  was  now  possible  for  the  enemy  to 
approach  Oxford,  and  Abingdon  was  no  sooner  evacuated  than 
(May  26)  Waller's  and  Essex's  armies  united  there — still,  un- 
fortunately for  their  cause,  under  separate  commanders.  From 
Abingdon    Essex    moved    direct   on    Oxford,    Waller   towards 
Wantage,  where  he  could  give  a  hand  to  Massey,  the  energetic 
governor  of  Gloucester.     Affairs  seemed  so  bad  in  the  west 
(Maurice  with  a  whole  army  was  still  vainly  besieging  the  single 
line  of  low  breastworks  that  constituted  the  fortress  of  Lyme) 
that  the  king  despatched  Hopton  to  take  charge  of  Bristol. 
Nor  were  things  much  better  at  Oxford;  the  barriers  of  time 
and  space  and  the  supply  area  had  been  deliberately  given  up 
to  the  enemy,  and  Charles  was  practically  forced  to  undertake 
extensive  field  operations  with  no  hope  of  success  save  in  con- 
sequence of  the  enemy's  mistakes.     The  enemy,  as  it  happened, 
did  not  disappoint  him.     The  king,  probably  advised  by  Brent- 
ford, conducted  a  skilful  war  of  manoeuvre  in  the  area  defined 
by  Stourbridge,  Gloucester,  Abingdon  and  Northampton,  at  the 
end  of  which  Essex,  leaving  Waller  to  the  secondary  work,  as  he 
conceived  it,  of  keeping  the  king  away  from  Oxford  and  reducing 
that  fortress,  marched  off  into  the  west  with  most  of  the  general 
service  troops  to  repeat  at  Lyme  Regis  his   Gloucester  exploit 
of  1643.     At  one  moment,  indeed,  Charles  (then  in  Bewdley) 
rose  to  the  idea  of  marching  north  to  join  Rupert  and  Newcastle, 
but  he  soon  made  up  his  mind  to  return  to    Oxford.     From 
Bewdley,   therefore,   he   moved   to   Buckingham — the    distant 
threat  on  London  producing  another  evanescent  citizen  army 
drawn  from  six  counties    under  Major-General  Browne — and 
Waller  followed   him   closely.     When   the   king  turned    upon 
Browne's  motley  host,  Waller  appeared  in  time  to  avert  disaster, 
and  the  two  armies  worked  away  to  the  upper  Cherwell.     Brent- 
ford and  Waller  were  excellent  strategists  of  the  I7th  century 
type,  and  neither  would  fight  a  pitched  battle  without  every 
chance  in  his  favour.      Eventually  on  the   2pth  of  June  the 
Royalists  were  successful  in  a  series  of  minor  fights  about 
Cropredy  Bridge,  and  the  result  was,  in  accordance  with  con- 
tinental custom,  admitted  to  be  an  important  victory,  though 
Waller's  main  army  drew  off  unharmed.     In  the  meantime, 
Essex  had  relieved  Lyme  (June  15)  and  occupied  Weymcuth, 
and  was  preparing  to  go  farther.     The  two  rebel  armies  were 
now  indeed  separate.     Waller  had  been  left  to  do  as  best  he  could, 
and  a  worse  fate  was  soon  to  overtake  the  cautious  earl. 

17.  Campaign  of  Marston  Moor. — During  these  manoeuvres 
the  northern  campaign  had  been  fought  to  an  issue.     Rupert's 
courage  and  energy  were  more  likely  to  command  success  in  the 
English  Civil  War  than  all  the  conscientious  caution  of  an  Essex 
or  a  Brentford.     On  the  i6th  of  May  he  left  Shrewsbury  to  fight 
his  way  through  hostile  country  to  Lancashire,  where  he  hoped 
to  re-establish  the  Derby  influence  and  raise  new  forces.     Stock- 
port  was  plundered  on  the  25th,  the  besiegers  of  Lathom  House 
utterly  defeated  at  Bolton  on  the  28th.     Soon  afterwards  he 
received  a  large  reinforcement  under  General  Goring,  which 
included   5000  of   Newcastle's   cavalry.     The   capture  of   the 
almost  defenceless  town  of  Liverpool — undertaken  as  usual  to 
allay  local  fears — did  not  delay  Rupert  more  than  three  or  four 
days ,  and  he  then  turned  towards  the  Yorkshire  border  with 


GREAT  REBELLION 


409 


greatly  augmented  forces.  On  the  i4th  of  June  he  received  a 
despatch  from  the  king,  the  gist  of  which  was  that  there  was  a 
time-limit  imposed  on  the  northern  enterprise.  If  York  were  lost 
or  did  not  need  his  help,  Rupert  was  to  make  all  haste  southward 
via  Worcester.  "  If  York  be  relieved  and  you  beat  the  rebels' 
armies  of  both  kingdoms,  then,  but  otherways  not,  I  may  possibly 
make  a  shift  upon  the  defensive  to  spin  out  time  until  you  come 
to  assist  me." 

Charles  did  manage  to  "  spin  out  time."  But  it  was  of  capital 
importance  that  Rupert  had  to  do  his  work  upon  York  and 
the  allied  army  in  the  shortest  possible  time,  and  that,  according 
to  the  despatch,  there  were  only  two  ways  of  saving  the  royal 
cause,  "  having  relieved  York  by  beating  the  Scots,"  or  marching 
with  all  speed  to  Worcester.  Rupert's  duty,  interpreted  through 
the  medium  of  his  temperament,  was  clear  enough.  Newcastle 
still  held  out,  his  men  having  been  encouraged  by  a  small  success 
on  the  1 7th  of  June,  and  Rupert  reached  Knaresborough  on 
the  3Oth.  At  once  Leven,  Fairfax  and  Manchester  broke  up 
the  siege  of  York  and  moved  out  to  meet  him.  But  the  prince, 
moving  still  at  high  speed,  rode  round  their  right  flank  via 
Boroughbridge  and  Thornton  Bridge  and  entered  York  on  the 
north  side.  Newcastle  tried  to  dissuade  Rupert  from  righting, 
but  his  record  as  a  general  was  scarcely  convincing  as  to  the 
value  of  his  advice.  Rupert  curtly  replied  that  he  had  orders  to 
fight,  and  the  Royalists  moved  out  towards  Marston  Moor 
(q.v.)  on  the  morning  of  July  2,  1644.  The  Parliamentary 
commanders,  fearing  a  fresh  manoeuvre,  had  already  begun  to 
retire  towards  Tadcaster,  but  as  soon  as  it  became  evident  that 
a  battle  was  impending  they  turned  back.  The  battle  of  Marston 
Moor  began  about  four  in  the  afternoon.  It  was  the  first  real 
trial  of  strength  between  the  best  elements  on  either  side,  and  it 
ended  before  night  with  the  complete  victory  of  the  Parliamentary 
armies.  The  Royalist  cause  in  the  north  collapsed  once  for  all, 
Newcastle  fled  to  the  continent,  and  only  Rupert,  resolute  as 
ever,  extricated  6000  cavalry  from  the  dtbdde  and  rode  away 
whence  he  had  come,  still  the  dominant  figure  of  the  war. 

18.  Independency. — The  victory  gave  the  Parliament  entire 
control  of  the  north,  but  it  did  not  lead  to  the  definitive  solution 
of  the  political  problem,  and  in  fact,  on  the  question  of  Charles's 
place  in  a  new  Constitution,  the  victorious  generals  quarrelled  even 
before  York  had  surrendered.  Within  three  weeks  of  the  battle 
the  great  army  was  broken  up.  The  Yorkshire  troops  proceeded 
to  conquer  the  isolated  Royalist  posts  in  their  county,  the  Scots 
marched  off  to  besiege  Newcastle-on-Tyne  and  to  hold  in  check 
a  nascent  Royalist  army  in  Westmorland.  Rupert  in  Lancashire 
they  neglected  entirely.  Manchester  and  Cromwell,  already 
estranged,  marched  away  into  the  Eastern  Association.  There, 
for  want  of  an  enemy  to  fight,  their  army  was  forced  to  be  idle, 
and  Cromwell  and  the  ever-growing  Independent  element 
quickly  came  to  suspect  their  commander  of  lukewarmness  in  the 
cause.  Waller's  army,  too,  was  spiritless  and  immobile.  On 
the  2nd  of  July,  despairing  of  the  existing  military  system,  he 
made  to  the  Committee  of  Both  Kingdoms  the  first  suggestion 
of  the  New  Model,—"  My  lords,"  he  wrote,  "  till  you  have  an 
army  merely  your  own,  that  you  may  command,  it  is.  .  . 
impossible  to  do  anything  of  importance."  Browne's  trained 
band  army  was  perhaps  the  most  ill-behaved  of  all — once  the 
soldiers  attempted  to  murder  their  own  general.  Parliament  in 
alarm  set  about  the  formation  of  a  new  general  service  force 
(July  12),  but  meantime  both  Waller's  and  Browne's  armies 
(at  Abingdon  and  Reading  respectively)  ignominiously  collapsed 
by  mutiny  and  desertion.  It  was  evident  that  the  people  at 
large,  with  their  respect  for  the  law  and  their  anxiety  for  their 
own  homes,  were  tired  of  the  war.  Only  those  men — such  as 
Cromwell — who  has  set  their  hearts  on  fighting  out  the  quarrel 
of  conscience,  kept  steadfastly  to  their  purpose.  Cromwell 
himself  had  already  decided  that  the  king  himself  must  be 
deprived  of  his  authority,  and  his  supporters  were  equally  con- 
vinced. But  they  were  relatively  few.  Even  the  Eastern 
Association  trained  bands  had  joined  in  the  disaffection  in 
Waller's  army,  and  that  unfortunate  general's  suggestion  of  a 
professional  army,  with  all  its  dangers,  indicated  the  only  means 


of  enforcing  a  peace  such  as  Cromwell  and  his  friends  desired. 
There  was  this  important  difference,  however,  between  Waller's 
idea  and  Cromwell's  achievement — that  the  professional  soldiers 
of  the  New  Model  were  disciplined,  led,  and  in  all  things  inspired 
by  "godly"  officers.  Godliness,  devotion  to  the  cause,  and 
efficiency  were  indeed  the  only  criteria  Cromwell  applied  in 
choosing  officers.  Long  before  this  he  had  warned  the  Scottish 
major-general  Lawrence  Crawford  that  the  precise  colour  of  a 
man's  religious  opinions  mattered  nothing  compared  with  his 
devotion  to  them,  and  had  told  the  committee  of  Suffolk,  "  I 
had  rather  have  a  plain  russet-coated  captain  that  knows  what 
he  fights  for  and  loves  what  he  knows  than  that  which  you  call 
a  '  gentleman  '  and  is  nothing  else.  I  honour  a  gentleman  that 
is  so  indeed  .  .  .  but  seeing  it  was  necessary  the  work  must 
go  on,  better  plain  men  than  none."  If  "  men  of  honour  and 
birth "  possessed  the  essentials  of  godliness,  devotion,  and 
capacity,  Cromwell  preferred  them,  and  as  a  fact  only  seven 
out  of  thirty-seven  of  the  superior  officers  of  the  original  New 
Model  were  not  of  gentle  birth. 

19.  Lostwithiel. — But  all  this  was  as  yet  in  the  future.     Essex's 
military  promenade  in  the  west  of  England  was  the  subject  of 
immediate  interest.     At  first  successful,  this  general  penetrated 
to  Plymouth,  whence,  securely  based  as  he  thought,  he  could 
overrun  Devon.     Unfortunately  for  him  he  was  persuaded  to 
overrun  Cornwall  as  well.     At  once  the  Cornishmen  rose,  as  they 
had  risen  under  Hopton,  and  the  king  was  soon  on  the  march 
from  the  Oxford  region,  disregarding  the  armed  mobs   under 
Waller  and  Browne.     Their  state  reflected  the  general  languishing 
of  the  war  spirit  on  both  sides,  not  on  one  only,  as  Charles  dis- 
covered when  he  learned  that  Lord  Wilmot,  the  lieutenant- 
general  of  his  horse,  was  in  correspondence  with  Essex.     Wilmot 
was  of  course  placed  under  arrest,  and  was  replaced  by  the 
dissolute   General   Goring.     But  it  was  unpleasantly  evident 
that  even  gay  cavaliers  of  the  type  of  Wilmot  had  lost  the  ideals 
for  which  they  fought,  and  had  come  to  believe  that  the  realm 
would  never  be  at  peace  while  Charles  was  king.     Henceforward 
it  will  be  found  that  the  Royalist  foot,  now  a  thoroughly  pro- 
fessional force,  is  superior  in  quality  to  the  once  superb  cavalry, 
and  that  not  merely  because  its  opportunities  for  plunder,  &c., 
are  more  limited.     Materially,  however,  the  immediate  victory 
was  undeniably  with  the  Royalists.     After  a  brief  period  of 
manreuvre,  the  Parliamentary  army,  now  far  from  Plymouth, 
found  itself  surrounded  and  starving  at  Lostwithiel,  on  the 
Fowey  river,  without  hope  of  assistance.     The  horse  cut  its  way 
out  through  the  investing  circle  of  posts,  Essex  himself  escaped 
by  sea,  but  Major-General  Skippon,  his  second  in  command,  had 
to  surrender  with  the  whole  of  the  foot  on  the  2nd  of  September. 
The  officers  and  men  were  allowed  to  go  free  to  Portsmouth, 
but  their  arms,  guns  and  munitions  were  the  spoil  of  the  victors. 
There  was  now  no  trustworthy  field  force  in  arms  for  the  Parlia- 
ment south  of  the  Humber,  for  even  the  Eastern  Association 
army  was  distracted  by  its  religious  differences,  which  had  now 
at  last  come  definitely  to  the  front  and  absorbed  the  political 
dispute  in  a  wider  issue.     Cromwell  already  proposed  to  abolish 
the  peerage,  the  members  of  which  were  inclined  to  make  a 
hollow  peace,  and  had  ceased  to  pay  the  least  respect  to  his 
general,  Manchester,  whose  scheme  for  the  solution  of  the  quarrel 
was  an  impossible  combination  of  Charles  and  Presbyterianism. 
Manchester  for  his  part  sank  into  a  state  of  mere  obstinacy, 
refusing  to  move  against  Rupert,  even  to  besiege  Newark,  and 
actually  threatened  to  hang  Colonel  Lilburne  for  capturing  a 
Royalist  castle  without  orders. 

20.  Operations  of  Essex's,  Waller's  and  Manchester's  Armies. — 
After  the  success  of  Lostwithiel  there  was  little  to  detain  Charles's 
main   army  in  the  extreme  west,  and  meanwhile  Banbury,  a 
most  important  point  in  the  Oxford  circle,  and  Basing  House 
(near  Basingstoke)  were  in  danger  of  capture.     Waller,  who  had 
organized  a  small  force  of  reliable  troops,  had  already  sent 
cavalry  into  Dorsetshire  with  the  idea  of  assisting  Essex,  and 
he  now  came  himself  with  reinforcements  to  prevent,  so  far  as 
lay  in  his  power,  the  king's  return  to  the  Thames  valley.    Charles 
was  accompanied  of  course  only  by  his  permanent  forces   and 


GREAT  REBELLION 


by  parts  of  Prince  Maurice's  and  Hopton's  armies — the  Cornish 
levies  had  as  usual  scattered  as  soon  as  the  war  receded  from 
their  borders.  Manchester  slowly  advanced  to  Reading,  Essex 
gradually  reorganized  his  broken  army  at  Portsmouth,  while 
Waller,  far  out  to  the  west  at  Shaftesbury,  endeavored  to  gain 
the  necessary  time  and  space  for  a  general  concentration  in 
Wiltshire,  where  Charles  would  be  far  from  Oxford  and  Basing 
and,  in  addition,  outnumbered  by  two  to  one.  But  the  work  of 
rearming  Essex's  troops  proceeded  slowly  for  want  of  money, 
and  Manchester  peevishly  refused  to  be  hurried  either  by  his 
more  vigorous  subordinates  or  by  the  Committee  of  Both 
Kingdoms,  saying  that  the  army  of  the  Eastern  Association 
was  for  the  guard  of  its  own  employers  and  not  for  general 
service.  He  pleaded  the  renewed  activity  of  the  Newark 
Royalists  as  his  excuse,  forgetting  that  Newark  would  have  been 
in  his  hands  ere  this  had  he  chosen  to  move  thither  instead  of 
lying  idle  for  two  months.  As  to  the  higher  command,  things 
had  come  to  such  a  pass  that,  when  the  three  armies  at  last 
united,  a  council  of  war,  consisting  of  three  army  commanders, 
several  senior  officers,  and  two  civilian  delegates  from  the 
Committee,  was  constituted.  When  the  vote  of  the  majority 
had  determined  what  was  to  be  done,  Essex,  as  lord  general 
of  the  Parliament's  first  army,  was  to  issue  the  necessary  orders 
for  the  whole.  Under  such  conditions  it  was  not  likely  that 
Waller's  hopes  of  a  great  battle  at  Shaftesbury  would  be  realized. 
On  the  8th  of  October  he  fell  back,  the  royal  army  following 
him  step  by  step  and  finally  reaching  Whitchurch  on  the  2oth 
of  October.  Manchester  arrived  at  Basingstoke  on  the  i7th, 
Waller  on  the  ipth,  and  Essex  on  the  2ist.  Charles  had  found 
that  he  could  not  relieve  Basing  (a  mile  or  two  from  Basingstoke) 
without  risking  a  battle  with  the  enemy  between  himself  and 
Oxford;1  he  therefore  took  the  Newbury  road  and  relieved 
Donnington  Castle  near  Newbury  on  the  22nd.  Three  days 
later  Banbury  too  was  relieved  by  a  force  which  could  now  be 
spared  from  the  Oxford  garrison.  But  for  once  the  council  of 
war  on  the  other  side  was  for  fighting  a  battle,  and  the  Parlia- 
mentary armies,  their  spirits  revived  by  the  prospect  of  action 
and  by  the  news  of  the  fall  of  Newcastle  and  the  defeat  of  a 
sally  from  Newark,  marched  briskly.  On  the  26th  they  appeared 
north  of  Newbury  on  the  Oxford  road.  Like  Essex  in  1643, 
Charles  found  himself  headed  off  from  the  shelter  of  friendly 
fortresses,  but  beyond  this  fact  there  is  little  similarity  between 
the  two  battles  of  Newbury,  for  the  Royalists  in  the  first  case 
merely  drew  a  barrier  across  Essex's  path.  On  the  present 
occasion  the  eager  Parliamentarians  made  no  attempt  to  force 
the  king  to  attack  them;  they  were  well  content  to  attack 
him  in  his  chosen  position  themselves,  especially  as  he  was  better 
off  for  supplies  and  quarters  than  they. 

21.  Second  Newbury. — The  second  battle  of  Newbury  is 
remarkable  as  being  the  first  great  manoeuvre-battle  (as  distinct 
from  "  pitched "  battle)  of  the  Civil  War.  A  preliminary 
reconnaissance  by  the  Parliamentary  >  leaders  (Essex  was  not 
present,  owing  to  illness)  established  the  fact  that  the  king's 
infantry  held  a  strong  line  of  defence  behind  the  Lambourn 
brook  from  Shaw  (inclusive)  to  Donnington  (exclusive),  Shaw 
House  and  adjacent  buildings  being  held  as  an  advanced 
post.  In  rear  of  the  centre,  in  open  ground  just  north  of 
Newbury,  lay  the  bulk  of  the  royal  cavalry.  In  the  left  rear 
of  the  main  line,  and  separated  from  it  by  more  than  a 
thousand  yards,  lay  Prince  Maurice's  corps  at  Speen,  advanced 
troops  on  the  high  ground  west  of  that  village,  but  Donnington 
Castle,  under  its  energetic  governor  Sir  John  Boys,  formed  a 
strong  post  covering  this  gap  with  artillery  fire.  The  Parlia- 
mentary leaders  had  no  intention  of  flinging  their  men  away 
in  a  frontal  attack  on  the  line  of  the  Lambourn,  and  a  flank 
attack  from  the  east  side  could  hardly  succeed  owing  to  the 
obstacle  presented  by  the  confluence  of  the  Lambourn  and  the 
Rennet,  hence  they  decided  on  a  wide  turning  movement  via 
Chieveley,  Winterbourne  and  Wickham  Heath,  against  Prince 
Maurice's  position — a  decision  which,  daring  and  energetic 

1  Charles's  policy  was  still,  as  before  Marston  Moor,  to  "  spin  out 
time  "  until  Rupert  came  back  from  the  north. 


as  it  was,  led  only  to  a  modified  success,  for  reasons  which  will 
appear.  The  flank  march,  out  of  range  of  the  castle,  was  con- 
ducted with  punctuality  and  precision.  The  troops  composing 
it  were  drawn  from  all  three  armies  and  led  by  the  best  fighting 
generals,  Waller,  Cromwell,  and  Essex's  subordinates  Balfour 
and  Skippon.  Manchester  at  Clay  Hill  was  to  stand  fast  until 
the  turning  movement  had  developed,  and  to  make  a  vigorous 
holding  attack  on  Shaw  House  as  soon  as  Waller's  guns  were 
heard  at  Speen.  But  there  was  no  commander-in-chief  to  co- 
ordinate the  movements  of  the  two  widely  separated  corps,  and 
consequently  no  co-operation.  Waller's  attack  was  not  unex- 
pected, and  Prince  Maurice  had  made  ready  to  meet  him.  Yet 
the  first  rush  of  the  rebels  carried  the  entrenchments  of  Speen 
Hill,  and  Speen  itself,  though  stoutly  defended,  fell  into  their 
hands  within  an  hour,  Essex's  infantry  recapturing  here  some 
of  the  guns  they  had  had  to  surrender  at  Lostwithiel.  But  mean- 
time Manchester,  in  spite  of  the  entreaties  of  his  staff,  had  not 
stirred  from  Clay  Hill.  He  had  made  one  false  attack  already 
early  in  the  morning,  and  been  severely  handled,  and  he  was 
aware  of  his  own  deficiencies  as  a  general.  A  year  before  this 
he  would  have  asked  for  and  acted  upon  the  advice  of  a  capable 
soldier,  such  as  Cromwell  or  Crawford,  but  now  his  mind  was 
warped  by  a  desire  for  peace  on  any  terms,  and  he  sought  only 
to  avoid  defeat  pending  a  happy  solution  of  the  quarrel.  Those 
who  sought  to  gain  peace  through  victory  were  meanwhile 
driving  Maurice  back  from  hedge  to  hedge  towards  the  open 
ground  at  Newbury,  but  every  attempt  to  emerge  from  the  lanes 
and  fields  was  repulsed  by  the  royal  cavalry,  and  indeed  by 
every  available  man  and  horse,  for  Charles's  officers  had  gauged 
Manchester's  intentions,  and  almost  stripped  the  front  of  its 
defenders  to  stop  Waller's  advance.  Nightfall  put  an  end  to 
the  struggle  around  Newbury,  and  then — too  late — Manchester 
ordered  the  attack  on  Shaw  House.  It  failed  completely  in  spite 
of  the  gallantry  of  his  men,  and  darkness  being  then  complete 
it  was  not  renewed.  In  its  general  course  the  battle  closely 
resembled  that  of  Freiburg  (<?.».),  fought  the  same  year  on  the 
Rhine.  But,  if  Waller's  part  in  the  battle  corresponded  in  a 
measure  to  Turenne's,  Manchester  was  unequal  to  playing  the 
part  of  Conde,  and  consequently  the  results,  in  the  case  of  the 
French  won  by  three  days'  hard  fighting,  and  even  then  com- 
paratively small,  were  in  the  case  of  the  English  practically  nil. 
During  the  night  the  royal  army  quietly  marched  away  through 
the  gap  between  Waller's  and  Manchester's  troops.  The  heavy 
artillery  and  stores  were  left  in  Donnington  Castle,  Charles  himself 
with  a  small  escort  rode  off  to  the  north-west  to  meet  Rupert, 
and  the  main  body  gained  Wallingford  unmolested.  An  attempt 
at  pursuit  was  made  by  Waller  and  Cromwell  with  all  the  cavalry 
they  could  lay  hands  on,  but  it  was  unsupported,  for  the  council 
of  war  had  decided  to  content  itself  with  besieging  Donnington 
Castle.  A  little  later,  after  a  brief  and  half-hearted  attempt  to 
move  towards  Oxford,  it  referred  to  the  Committee  for  further 
instructions.  Within  the  month  Charles,  having  joined  Rupert 
at  Oxford  and  made  him  general  of  the  Royalist  forces  vice 
Brentford,  reappeared  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Newbury. 
Donnington  Castle  was  again  relieved  (November  9)  under  the 
eyes  of  the  Parliamentary  army,  which  was  in  such  a  miserable 
condition  that  even  Cromwell  was  against  fighting,  and  some 
manoeuvres  followed,  in  the  course  of  which  Charles  relieved 
Basing  House  and  the  Parliamentary  armies  fell  back,  not  in 
the  best  order,  to  Reading.  The  season  for  field  warfare  was 
now  far  spent,  and  the  royal  army  retired  to  enjoy  good  quarters 
and  plentiful  supplies  around  Oxford. 

22.  The  Self-denying  Ordinance. — On  the  other  side,  the 
dissensions  between  the  generals  had  become  flagrant  and  public, 
and  it  was  no  longer  possible  for  the  Houses  of  Parliament  to 
ignore  the  fact  that  the  army  must  be  radically  reformed. 
Cromwell  and  Waller  from  their  places  in  parliament  attacked 
Manchester's  conduct,  and  their  attack  ultimately  became,  so 
far  as  Cromwell  was  concerned,  an  attack  on  the  Lords,  most 
of  whom  held  the  same  views  as  Manchester,  and  on  the  Scots, 
who  attempted  to  bring  Cromwell  to  trial  as  an  "  incendiary." 
At  the  crisis  of  their  bitter  controversy  Cromwell  suddenly 


GREAT  REBELLION 


411 


proposed  to  stifle  all  animosities  by  the  resignation  of  all  officers 
who  were  members  of  either  House,  a  proposal  which  affected 
himself  not  less  than  Essex  and  Manchester.  The  first  "  self- 
denying  ordinance  "  was  moved  on  the  pth  of  December,  and 
provided  that  "  no  member  of  either  house  shall  have  or  execute 
any  office  or  command  .  .  .,"  &c.  This  was  not  accepted  by 
the  Lords,  and  in  the  end  a  second  "  self-denying  ordinance  " 
was  agreed  to  (April  3,  1645),  whereby  all  the  persons  concerned 
were  to  resign,  but  without  prejudice  to  their  reappointment. 
Simultaneously  with  this,  the  formation  of  the  New  Model  was 
at  last  definitely  taken  into  consideration.  The  last  exploit  of 
Sir  William  Waller,  who  was  not  re-employed  after  the  passing  of 
the  ordinance,  was  the  relief  of  Taunton,  then  besieged  by  General 
Goring's  army.  Cromwell  served  as  his  lieutenant-general  on 
this  occasion,  and  we  have  Waller's  own  testimony  that  he  was 
in  all  things  a  wise,  capable  and  respectful  subordinate.  Under 
a  leader  of  the  stamp  of  Waller,  Cromwell  was  well  satisfied  to 
obey,  knowing  the  cause  to  be  in  good  hands. 

23.  Decline  of  Ike  Royalist  Cause. — A  raid  of  Goring's  horse 
from  the  west  into  Surrey  and  an  unsuccessful  attack  on  General 
Browne  at  Abingdon  were  the  chief  enterprises  undertaken  on 
the  side  of  the  Royalists  during  the  early  winter.     It  was  no 
longer  "  summer  in  Devon,  summer  in  Yorkshire  "  as  in  January 
1643.     An  ever-growing  section  of  Royalists,  amongst  whom 
Rupert  himself  was  soon  to  be  numbered,  were  for  peace;  many 
scores  of  loyalist  gentlemen,  impoverished  by  the  loss  of  three 
years'  rents  of  their  estates  and  hopeless  of  ultimate  victory, 
were  making  their  way  to  Westminster  to  give  in  their  sub- 
mission to  the  Parliament  and  to  pay  their  fines.     In  such 
circumstances  the  old  decision-seeking  strategy  was  impossible. 
The  new  plan,  suggested  probably  by  Rupert,  had  already  been 
tried  with  strategical  success  in  the  summer  campaign  of  1644. 
As  we  have  seen,  it  consisted  essentially  in  using  Oxford  as  the 
centre  of  a  circle  and  striking  out  radially  at  any  favourable 
target — "  manoeuvring  about  a  fixed  point,"  as  Napoleon  called 
it.     It  was  significant  of  the  decline  of  the  Royalist  cause  that 
the  "  fixed  point  "  had  been  in  1643  the  king's  field  army,  based 
indeed  on  its  great   entrenched  camp,   Banbury-Cirencester- 
Reading-Oxford,  but  free  to  move  and  to  hold  the  enemy  wherever 
met,  while  now  it  was  the  entrenched  camp  itself,  weakened 
by  the  loss  or  abandonment  of  its  outer  posts,  and  without  the 
power  of  binding  the  enemy  if  they  chose  to  ignore  its  existence, 
that  conditioned  the  scope  and  duration  of  the  single  remaining 
field   army's  enterprises. 

24.  The  New  Model  Ordinance. — For  the  present,  however, 
Charles's  cause  was  crumbling  more  from  internal  weakness 
than  from  the  blows  of  the  enemy.     Fresh  negotiations  for  peace 
which  opened  on  the  zpth  of  January  at  Uxbridge  (by  the  name 
of  which  place  they  are  known  to  history)  occupied  the  attention 
of  the  Scots  and  their  Presbyterian  friends,  the  rise  of  Inde- 
pendency and  of  Cromwell  was  a  further  distraction,  and  over 
the  new  army  and  the  Self-denying  Ordinance  the  Lords  and 
Commons  were  seriously  at  variance.     But  in  February  a  fresh 
mutiny  in  Waller's  command  struck  alarm  into  the  hearts  of 
the  disputants.     The  "treaty"  of  Uxbridge  came  to  the  same 
end  as  the  treaty  of  Oxford  in  1643,  and  a  settlement  as  to  army 
reform  was  achieved  on  the  isth  of  February.     Though  it  was 
only  on  the  2  5th  of  March  that  the  second  and  modified  form  of 
the  ordinance  was  agreed  to  by  both  Houses,  Sir  Thomas  Fairfax 
and  Philip  Skippon  (who  were  not  members  of  parliament) 
had  been  approved  as  lord  general  and  major-general  (of  the 
infantry)  respectively  of  the  new  army  as  early  as  the  aist  of 
January.     The  post  of  lieutenant-general  and  cavalry  commander 
was  for  the  moment  left  vacant,  but  there  was  little  doubt  as  to 
who    would    eventually   occupy   it. 

25.  Victories  of  Montrose. — In  Scotland,  meanwhile,  Montrose 
was  winning  victories  which  amazed  the  people  of  the  two 
kingdoms.     Montrose's  royalism  differed  from  that  of  English- 
men of  the  1 7th  century  less  than  from  that  of  their  forefathers 
under  Henry  VIII.  and  Elizabeth.     To  him  the  king  was  the 
protector  of  his  people  against  Presbyterian  theocracy,  scarcely 
less  offensive  to  him  than  the  Inquisition  itself,  and  the  feudal 


oppression  of  the  great  nobles.-  Little  as  this  ideal  corresponded 
to  the  Charles  of  reality,  it  inspired  in  Montrose  not  merely 
romantic  heroism  but  a  force  of  leadership  which  was  sufficient 
to  carry  to  victory  the  nobles  and  gentry,  the  wild  Highlanders 
and  the  experienced  professional  soldiers  who  at  various  times 
and  places  constituted  his  little  armies.  His  first  unsuccessful 
enterprise  has  been  mentioned  above.  It  seemed,  in  the  early 
stages  of  his  second  attempt  (August  1644),  as  if  failure  were  again 
inevitable,  for  the  gentry  of  the  northern  Lowlands  were  over- 
awed by  the  prevailing  party  and  resented  the  leadership  of  a 
lesser  noble,  even  though  he  were  the  king's  lieutenant  over  all 
Scotland.  Disappointed  of  support  where  he  most  expected  it, 
Montrose  then  turned  to  the  Highlands.  At  Blair  Athol  he 
gathered  his  first  army  of  Royalist  clansmen,  and  good  fortune 
gave  him  also  a  nucleus  of  trained  troops.  A  force  of  disciplined 
experienced  soldiers  (chiefly  Irish  Macdonalds  and  commanded 
by  Alastair  of  that  name)  had  been  sent  over  from  Ireland 
earlier  in  the  year,  and,  after  ravaging  the  glens  of  their  hereditary 
enemies  the  Campbells,  had  attempted  without  success,  now 
here,  now  there,  to  gather  the  other  clans  in  the  king's  name. 
Their  hand  was  against  every  man's,  and  when  he  finally  arrived 
in  Badenoch,  Alastair  Macdonald  was  glad  to  protect  himself 
by  submitting  to  the  authority  of  the  king's  lieutenant. 

There  were  three  hostile  armies  to  be  dealt  with,  besides — 
ultimately — the  main  covenanting  army  far  away  in  England. 
The  duke  of  Argyll,  the  head  of  the  Campbells,  had  an  army 
of  his  own  clan  and  of  Lowland  Covenanter  levies,  Lord  Elcho 
with  another  Lowland  army  lay  near  Perth,  and  Lord  Balfour 
of  Burleigh  was  collecting  a  third  (also  composed  of  Lowlanders) 
at  Aberdeen.  Montrose  turned  upon  Elcho  first,  and  found  him 
at  Tippermuir  near  Perth  on  the  ist  of  September  1644.  The 
Royalists  were  about  3000  strong  and  entirely  foot,  only  Montrose 
himself  and  two  others  being  mounted,  while  Elcho  had  about 
7000  of  all  arms.  But  Elcho's  townsmen  found  that  pike  and 
musket  were  clumsy  weapons  in  inexperienced  hands,  and, 
like  Mackay's  regulars  at  Killiecrankie  fifty  years  later,  they 
wholly  failed  to  stop  the  rush  of  the  Highland  swordsmen. 
Many  hundreds  were  killed  in  the  pursuit,  and  Montrose  slept  in 
Perth  that  night,  having  thus  accounted  for  one  of  his  enemies. 
Balfour  of  Burleigh  was  to  be  his  next  victim,  and  he  started  for 
Aberdeen  on  the  4th.  As  he  marched,  his  Highlanders  slipped 
away  to  place  their  booty  in  security.  But  the  Macdonald 
regulars  remained  with  him,  and  as  he  passed  along  the  coast 
some  of  the  gentry  came  in,  though  the  great  western  clan  of 
the  Gordons  was  at  present  too  far  divided  in  sentiment  to  take 
his  part.  Lord  Lewis  Gordon  and  some  Gordon  horse  were  even 
in  Balfour's  army.  On  the  other  hand,  the  earl  of  Airlie  brought 
in  forty-four  horsemen,  and  Montrose  was  thus  able  to  constitute 
two  wings  of  cavalry  on  the  day  of  battle.  The  Covenanters 
were  about  2500  strong  and  drawn  up  on  a  slope  above  the  How 
Burn1  just  outside  Aberdeen  (September  13,  1644).  Montrose, 
after  clearing  away  the  enemy's  skirmishers,  drew  up  his  army 
in  front  of  the  opposing  line,  the  foot  in  the  centre,  the  forty-four 
mounted  men,  with  musketeers  to  support  them,  on  either  flank. 
The  hostile  left-wing  cavalry  charged  piecemeal,  and  some  bodies 
of  troops  did  not  engage  at  all.  On  the  other  wing,  however, 
Montrose  was  for  a  moment  hard  pressed  by  a  force  of  the  enemy 
that  attempted  to  work  round  to  his  rear.  But  he  brought  over 
the  small  band  of  mounted  men  that  constituted  his  right  wing 
cavalry,  and  also  some  musketeers  from  the  centre,  and 
destroyed  the  assailants,  and  when  the  ill-led  left  wing  of  the 
Covenanters  charged  again,  during  the  absence  of  the  cavalry, 
they  were  mown  down  by  the  close-range  volleys  of  Macdonald's 
musketeers.  Shortly  afterwards  the  centre  of  Balfour's  army 
yielded  to  pressure  and  fled  in  disorder.  Aberdeen  was  sacked 
by  order  of  Montrose,  whose  drummer  had  been  murdered  while 
delivering  a  message  under  a  flag  of  truce  to  the  magistrates. 

26.  Inverlochy. — Only  Argyll  now  remained  to  be  dealt  with. 

The  Campbells  were  fighting  men  from  birth,  like  Montrose's 

own  men,  and  had  few  townsmen  serving  with  them.     Still  there 

were  enough  of  the  latter  and  of  the  impedimenta  of  regular 

1  The  ground  has  been  entirely  built  over  for  many  years. 


GREAT  REBELLION 


warfare  with  him  to  prevent  Argyll  from  overtaking  his  agile 
enemy,  and  ultimately  after  a  "  hide-and-seek  "  in  the  districts 
of  Rothiemurchus,  Blair  Athol,  Banchory  and  Strathbogie, 
Montrose  stood  to  fight  at  Fy vie  Castle,  repulsed  Argyll's  attack 
on  that  place  and  slipped  away  again  to  Rothiemurchus.  There 
he  was  joined  by  Camerons  and  Macdonalds  from  all  quarters 
for  a  grand  raid  on  the  Campbell  country;  he  himself  wished  to 
march  into  the  Lowlands,  well  knowing  that  he  could  not  achieve 
the  decision  in  the  Grampians,  but  he  had  to  bow,  not  for  the 
first  time  nor  the  last,  to  local  importunity.  The  raid  was  duly 
executed,  and  the  Campbells'  boast, "  It's  a  far  cry  to  Loch  Awe," 
availed  them  little.  In  December  and  January  the  Campbell 
lands  were  thoroughly  and  mercilessly  devastated,  and  Montrose 
then  retired  slowly  to  Loch  Ness,  where  the  bulk  of  his  army  as 
usual  dispersed  to  store  away  its  plunder.  Argyll,  with  such 
Highland  and  Lowland  forces  as  he  could  collect  after  the  disaster, 
followed  Montrose  towards  Lochaber,  while  the  Seaforths  and 
other  northern  clans  marched  to  Loch  Ness.  Caught  between 
them,  Montrose  attacked  the  nearest.  The  Royalists  crossed 
the  hills  into  Glen  Roy,  worked  thence  along  the  northern  face 
of  Ben  Nevis,  and  descended  like  an  avalanche  upon  Argyll's 
forces  at  Inverlochy  (February  2,  1645).  As  usual,  the  Lowland 
regiments  gave  way  at  once — Montrose  had  managed  in  all  this 
to  keep  with  him  a  few  cavalry — and  it  was  then  the  turn  of  the 
Campbells.  Argyll  escaped  in  a  boat,  but  his  clan,  as  a  fighting 
force,  was  practically  annihilated,  and  Montrose,  having  won  four 
victories  in  these  six  winter  months,  rested  his  men  and  exultingly 
promised  Charles  that  he  would  come  to  his  assistance  with  a 
brave  army  before  the  end  of  the  summer. 

27.  Organization  of  the  New  Model  Army. — To  return  to  the 
New  Model.     Its  first  necessity  was  regular  pay;  its  first  duty  to 
serve  wherever  it  might  be  sent.     Of  the  three  armies  that  had 
fought  at  Newbury  only  one,  Essex's,  was  in  a  true  sense  a  general 
service  force,  and  only  one,  Manchester's,  was  paid  with  any 
regularity.     Waller's  army  was  no  better  paid  than  Essex's  and 
no  more  free  from  local  ties  than  Manchester's.     It  was  therefore 
broken  up  early  in  April,  and  only  600  of  its  infantry  passed 
into  the  New  Model.   Essex's  men,  on  the  other  hand,  wanted  but 
regular  pay  and  strict  officers  to  make  them  excellent  soldiers, 
and  their  own  major-general,  Skippon,  managed  by  tact  and  his 
personal  popularity  to  persuade  the  bulk  of  the  men  to  rejoin. 
Manchester's  army,  in  which  Cromwell  had  been  the  guiding 
influence  from  first  to  last,  was  naturally  the  backbone  of  the 
New  Model.     Early  in  April  Essex,  Manchester,  and  Waller  re- 
signed their  commissions,  and  such  of  their  forces  as  were  not 
embodied  in  the  new  army  were  sent  to  do  local  duties,  for 
minor  armies  were  still  maintained,  General  Poyntz's  in  the  north 
midlands,  General  Massey's  in  the  Severn  valley,  a  large  force  in 
the  Eastern  Association,  General  Browne's  in  Buckinghamshire, 
&c.,  besides  the  Scots  in  the  north. 

The  New  Model  originally  consisted  of  14,400  foot  and  7700 
horse  and  dragoons.  Of  the  infantry  only  6000  came  from  the 
combined  armies,  the  rest  being  new  recruits  furnished  by  the 
press.1  Thus  there  was  considerable  trouble  during  the  first 
months  of  Fairfax's  command,  and  discipline  had  to  be  enforced 
with  unusual  sternness.  As  for  the  enemy,  Oxford  was  openly 
contemptuous  of  "  the  rebels'  new  brutish  general  "  and  his 
men,  who  seemed  hardly  likely  to  succeed  where  Essex  and  Waller 
had  failed.  But  the  effect  of  the  Parliament's  having  "  an  army 
all  its  own  "  was  soon  to  be  apparent. 

28.  First  Operations  of  1645. — On  the  Royalist  side  the  cam- 
paign of  1645  opened  in  the  west,  whither  the  young  prince  of 
Wales  (Charles  II.)  was  sent  with  Hyde  (later  earl  of  Clarendon), 
Hopton  and  others  as  his  advisers.     General  (Lord)   Goring, 
however,  now  in  command  of  the  Royalist  field  forces  in  this 
quarter,  was  truculent,  insubordinate  and  dissolute,  though  on 
the  rare  occasions  when  he  did  his  duty  he  displayed  a  certain 
degree  of  skill  and  leadership,  and  the  influence  of  the  prince's 

1  The  Puritans  had  by  now  disappeared  almost  entirely  from  the 
ranks  of  the  infantry.  Per  contra  the  officers  and  sergeants  and  the 
troopers  of  the  horse  were  the  sternest  Puritans  of  all,  the  survivors 
of  three  years  of  a  disheartening  war. 


counsellors  was  but  small.  As  usual,  operations  began  with 
the  sieges  necessary  to  conciliate  local  feeling.  Plymouth  and 
Lyme  were  blocked  up,  and  Taunton  again  invested.  The 
reinforcement  thrown  into  the  last  place  by  Waller  and  Cromwell 
was  dismissed  by  Blake  (then  a  colonel  in  command  of  the 
fortress  and  afterwards  the  great  admiral  of  the  Commonwealth), 
and  after  many  adventures  rejoined  Waller  and  Cromwell. 
The  latter  generals,  who  had  not  yet  laid  down  their  commissions, 
then  engaged  Goring  for  some  weeks,  but  neither  side  having 
infantry  or  artillery,  and  both  finding  subsistence  difficult  in 
February  and  March  and  in  country  that  had  been  fought  over 
for  two  years  past,  no  results  were  to  be  expected.  Taunton 
still  remained  unrelieved,  and  Goring's  horse  still  rode  all  over 
Dorsetshire  when  the  New  Model  at  last  took  the  field. 

29.  Rupert's  Northern  March. — In  the  midlands  and  Lanca- 
shire the  Royalist  horse,  as  ill-behaved  even  as  Goring's  men, 
were  directly  responsible  for  the  ignominious  failure  with  which 
the  king's  main  army  began  its  year's  work.     Prince  Maurice 
was  joined  at  Ludlow  by  Rupert  and  part  of  his  Oxford  army 
early  in  March,  and  the  brothers  drove  off  Brereton  from  the 
siege  of  Beeston  Castle  and  relieved  the  pressure  on  Lord  Byron 
in  Cheshire.     So  great  was  the  danger  of  Rupert's  again  invading 
Lancashire  and  Yorkshire  that  all  available  forces  in  the  north, 
English  and  Scots,  were  ordered  to  march  against  him.     But 
at  this  moment  the  prince  was  called  back  to  clear  his  line 
of  retreat  on  Oxford.     The  Herefordshire  and  Worcestershire 
peasantry,  weary  of  military  exactions,  were  in  arms,  and  though 
they  would  not  join  the  Parliament,  and  for  the  most  part 
dispersed  after  stating  their  grievances,  the  main  enterprise  was 
wrecked.     This  was  but  one  of  many  ill-armed  crowds — "  Club- 
men "  as  they  were  called — that  assembled  to  enforce  peace 
on  both  parties.     A  few  regular  soldiers  were  sufficient  to  disperse 
them  in  all  cases,  but  their  attempt  to  establish  a  third  party 
in  England  was  morally  as  significant  as  it  was  materially  futile. 
The  Royalists  were  now  fighting  with  the  courage  of  despair, 
those  who  still  fought  against  Charles  did  so  with  the  full  deter- 
mination to  ensure  the  triumph  of  their  cause,  and  with  the 
conviction  that  the  only  possible  way  was  the  annihilation  of  the 
enemy's  armed  forces,  but  the  majority  were  so  weary  of  the  war 
that  the  earl  of  Manchester's  Presbyterian  royalism — which  had 
contributed  so  materially  to  the  prolongation  of  the  struggle — 
would  probably  have  been  accepted  by  four-fifths  of  all  England 
as  the  basis  of  a  peace.     It  was,  in  fact,  in  the  face  of  almost 
universal  opposition  that  Fairfax  and  Cromwell  and  their  friends 
at  Westminster  guided  the  cause  of  their  weaker  comrades  to 
complete  victory. 

30.  Cromwell's  Raid. — Having  without  difficulty  rid  himself 
of  the  Clubmen,  Rupert  was  eager  to  resume  his  march  into  the 
north.     It  is  unlikely  that  he  wished  to  join  Montrose,  though 
Charles  himself  favoured  that  plan,  but  he  certainly  intended 
to  fight  the  Scottish  army,  more  especially  as  after  Inverlochy 
it  had  been  called  upon  to  detach  a  large  force  to  deal  with 
Montrose.     But  this  time  there  was  no  Royalist  army  in  the 
north  to  provide  infantry  and  guns  for  a  pitched  battle,  and 
Rupert  had  perforce  to  wait  near  Hereford  till  the  main  body, 
and  in  particular  the  artillery  train,  could  come  from  Oxford  and 
join  him.     It  was  on  the  march  of  the  artillery  train  to  Hereford 
that  the  first  operations  of  the  New  Model  centred.     The  infantry 
was  not  yet  ready  to  move,  in  spite  of  all  Fairfax's  and  Skippon's 
efforts,  and  it  became  necessary  to  send  the  cavalry  by  itself 
to  prevent  Rupert  from  gaining  a  start.     Cromwell,  then  under 
Waller's  command,  had  come  to  Windsor  to  resign  his  commission 
as  required  by  the  Self-denying  Ordinance.     Instead,  he  was 
placed  at  the  head  of  a  brigade  of  his  own  old  soldiers,  with  orders 
to  stop  the  march  of  the  artillery  train.     On  the  2$rd  of  April 
he  started  from  Watlington  north-westward.     At  dawn  on  the 
24th  he  routed  a  detachment  of  Royalist  horse  at  Islip.     On 
the  same  day,  though  he  had  no  guns  and  only  a  few  firearms 
in  the  whole  force,  he  terrified  the  governor  of  Bletchingdon 
House  into  surrender.     Riding  thence  to  Witney,   Cromwell 
won  another  cavalry. fight  at  Bampton-in-the-Bush  on  the  27th, 
and  attacked  Faringdon  House,  though  without  success,  on  the 


GREAT  REBELLION 


2pth.  Thence  he  marched  at  leisure  to  Newbury.  He  had  done 
his  work  thoroughly.  He  had  demoralized  the  Royalist  cavalry, 
and,  above  all,  had  carried  off  every  horse  on  the  country-side. 
To  all  Rupert's  entreaties  Charles  could  only  reply  that  the  guns 
could  not  be  moved  till  the  7th  of  May,  and  he  even  summoned 
Goring's  cavalry  from  the  west  to  make  good,  his  losses. 

31.  Civilian  Strategy. — Cromwell's  success  thus  forced   the 
king  to  concentrate  his  various  armies  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Oxford,  and  the  New  Model  had,  so  Fairfax  and  Cromwell 
hoped,  found  its  target.     But  the  Committee  of  Both  Kingdoms 
on  the  one  side,  and  Charles,  Rupert  and  Goring  on  the  other, 
held  different  views.     On  the  ist  of  May  Fairfax,  having  been 
ordered  to  relieve  Taunton,  set  out  from  Windsor  for  the  long 
march  to  that  place;  meeting  Cromwell  at  Newbury  on  the  2nd, 
he  directed  the  lieutenant-general  to  watch  the  movements  of 
the  king's  army,  and  himself  marched  on  to  Blandford,  which 
he  reached  on  the  7th  of  May.     Thus  Fairfax  and  the  main  army 
of  the  Parliament  were  marching  away  in  the  west  while  Crom- 
well's detachment  was  left,  as  Waller  had  been  left  the  previous 
year,  to  hold  the  king  as  best  he  could.     On  the  very  evening 
that   Cromwell's  raid  ended,   the  leading  troops  of   Goring's 
command  destroyed  part  of    Cromwell's  own  regiment  near 
Faringdon,  and  on  the  3rd  Rupert  and  Maurice  appeared  with 
a  force  of  all  arms  at  Burford.     Yet  the  Committee  "of  Both 
Kingdoms,  though  aware  on  the  spth  of  Goring's  move,  only 
made  up  its  mind  to  stop  Fairfax  on  the  3rd,  and  did  not  send 
off  orders  till  the  5th.     These  orders  were  to  the  effect  that  a 
detachment  was  to  be  sent  to  the  relief  of  Taunton,  and  that 
the  main  army  was  to  return.     Fairfax  gladly  obeyed,  even 
though  a  siege  of  Oxford  and  not  the  enemy's  field  army  was 
the  objective  assigned  him.     But  long  before  he  came  up  to  the 
Thames  valley  the  situation  was  again  changed.     Rupert,  now 
in  possession  of  the  guns  and  their  teams,  urged  upon  his  uncle 
the  resumption  of  the  northern  enterprise,  calculating  that  with 
Fairfax  in  Somersetshire,  Oxford  was  safe.     Charles  accordingly 
marched  out  of  Oxford  on  the  7th  towards  Stow-on-the-Wold, 
on  the  very  day,  as  it  chanced,  that  Fairfax  began  his  return 
march  from  Blandford.     But  Goring  and  most  of  the  other 
generals  were  for  a  march  into  the  west,  in  the  hope  of  dealing 
with  Fairfax  as  they  had  dealt  with  Essex  in  1644.     The  armies 
therefore  parted  as  Essex  and  Waller  had  parted  at  the  same 
place  in  1644,  Rupert  and  the  king  to  march  northward,  Goring 
to  return  to  his  independent  command  in  the  west.     Rupert, 
not  unnaturally  wishing  to  keep  his  influence  with  the  king  and 
his  authority  as  general  of  the  king's  army  unimpaired  by 
Goring's  notorious  indiscipline,  made  no  attempt  to  prevent  the 
separation,  which  in  the  event  proved  wholly  unprofitable.     The 
flying  column  from  Blandford  relieved  Taunton  long  before 
Goring's  return  to  the  west,  and  Colonel  Weldon  and  Colonel 
Graves,  its  commanders,  set  him  at  defiance  even  in  the  open 
country.     As  for  Fairfax,  he  was  out  of  Goring's  reach  preparing 
for  the  siege  of  Oxford. 

32.  Charles  in  the  Midlands. — On  the  other  side  also  the 
generals  were  working  by  data  that  had  ceased  to  have  any  value. 
Fairfax's  siege  of  Oxford,  ordered  by  the  Committee  on  the  loth 
of  May,  and  persisted  in  after  it  was  known  that  the  king  was  on 
the  move,  was  the  second  great  blunder  of  the  year  and  was 
hardly  redeemed,  as  a  military  measure,  by  the  visionary  scheme 
of  assembling  the  Scots,  the  Yorkshiremen,  and  the  midland 
forces  to  oppose  the  king.     It  is  hard  to  understand  how,  having 
created  a  new  model  army  "  all  its  own  "  for  general  service,  the 
Parliament  at  once  tied  it  down  to  a  local  enterprise,  and  trusted 
an  improvised  army  of  local  troops  to  fight  the  enemy's  main 
army.     In  reality  the  Committee  seems  to  have  been  misled  by 
false  information  to  the  effect  that  Goring  and  the  governor  of 
Oxford  were  about  to  declare  for  the  Parliament,  but  had  they  not 
despatched  Fairfax  to  the  relief  of  Taunton  in  the  first  instance 
the  necessity  for  such  intrigues  would  not  have  arisen.     However, 
Fairfax  obeyed  orders,  invested  Oxford,  and,  so  far  as  he  was  able 
without  a  proper  siege  train,  besieged  it  for  two  weeks,  while 
Charles  and  Rupert  ranged  the  midlands  unopposed.     At  the  end 
of  that  time  came  news  so  alarming  that  the  Committee  hastily 


abdicated  their  control  over  military  operations  and  gave 
Fairfax  a  free  hand.  "  Black  Tom  "  gladly  and  instantly 
abandoned  the  siege  and  marched  northward  to  give  battle  to  the 
king. 

Meanwhile  Charles  and  Rupert  were  moving  northward.  On 
the  i  ith  of  May  they  reached  Droitwich,  whence  after  two  days' 
rest  they  marched  against  Brereton.  The  latter  hurriedly  raised 
the  sieges  he  had  on  hand,  and  called  upon  Yorkshire  and  the 
Scottish  army  there  for  aid.  But  only  the  old  Lord  Fairfax 
and  the  Yorkshiremen  responded.  Leven  had  just  heard  of  new 
victories  won  by  Montrose,  and  could  do  no  more  than  draw  his 
army  and  his  guns  over  the  Pennine  chain  into  Westmorland  in 
the  hope  of  being  in  time  to  bar  the  king's  march  on  Scotland 
via  Carlisle. 

33.  Dundee. — After   the   destruction   of   the    Campbells   at 
Inverlochy,  Montrose  had  cleared  away  the  rest  of  his  enemies 
without  difficulty.     He  now  gained  a  respectable  force  of  cavalry 
by  the  adhesion  of  Lord  Gordon  and  many  of  his  clan,  and  this 
reinforcement  was  the  more  necessary  as  detachments  from 
Leven's  army  under  Baillie  and  Hurry — disciplined  infantry  and 
cavalry — were  on  the  march  to  meet  him.  The  Royalists  marched 
by  Elgin  and  through  the  Gordon  country  to  Aberdeen,  and 
thence  across  the  Esk  to  Coupar-Angus,  where  Baillie  and  Hurry 
were  encountered.     A  war  of  manoeuvre  followed,  in  which  they 
thwarted  every  effort  of  the  Royalists  to  break  through  into  the 
Lowlands,  but  in  the  end  retired  into  Fife.     Montrose  thereupon 
marched  into  the  hills  with  the  intention  of  reaching  the  upper 
Forth  and  thence  the  Lowlands,  for  he  did  not  disguise  from 
himself  the  fact  that  there,  and  not  in  the  Highlands,  would  the 
quarrel  be  decided,  and  was  sanguine — over-sanguine,  as   the 
event  proved — as  to  the  support  he  would  obtain  from  those  who 
hated  the  kirk  and  its  system.     But  he  had  called  to  his  aid  the 
semi-barbarous  Highlanders,  and  however  much  the  Lowlands 
resented  a  Presbyterian  inquisition,  they  hated  and  feared  the 
Highland  clans  beyond  all  else.     He  was  equally  disappointed  in 
his  own  army.  For  a  war  of  positions  the  Highlanders  had  neither 
aptitude  nor  inclination,  and  at  Dunkeld  the  greater  part  of  them 
went  home.     If  the  small  remnant  was  to  be  kept  to  its  duty, 
plunder  must  be  found,  and  the  best  objective  was  the  town  of 
Dundee.     With  a  small  force  of  750  foot  and  horse  Montrose 
brilliantly  surprised  that  place  on  the  4th  of  April,  but  Baillie  and 
Hurry  were  not  far  distant,  and  before  Montrose's  men  had  time 
to  plunder  the  prize  they  were  collected  to  face  the  enemy. 
His  retreat  from  Dundee  was  considered  a  model  operation  by 
foreign  students  of  the  art  of  war  (then  almost  as  numerous  as 
now),  and  what  surprised  them  most  was  that  Montrose  could 
rally  his  men  after  a  sack  had  begun.     The  retreat  itself  was 
remarkable  enough.     Baillie  moved  parallel  to  Montrose  on  his 
left  flank  towards  Arbroath,  constantly  heading  him  off  from  the 
hills  and  attempting  to  pin  him  against  the  sea.     Montrose, 
however,  halted  in  the  dark  so  as  to  let  Baillie  get  ahead  of  him 
and  then  turned  sharply  back,  crossed  Baillie's  track,  and  made 
for  the  hills.     Baillie  soon  realized  what  had  happened  and 
turned  back  also,  but  an  hour  too  late.     By  the  6th  the  Royalists 
were  again  safe  in  the  broken  country  of  the  Esk  valley.     But 
Montrose  cherished  no  illusions  as  to  joining  the  king  at  once; 
all  he  could  do,  he  now  wrote,  was  to  neutralize  as  many  of  the 
enemy's  forces  as  possible. 

34.  Auldearn. — For  a  time  he  wandered  in  the  Highlands 
seeking  recruits.     But  soon  he  learned  that  Baillie  and  Hurry  had 
divided  their  forces,   the  former  remaining  about  Perth   and 
Stirling  to  observe  him,  the  latter  going  north  to  suppress  the 
Gordons.     Strategy  and  policy  combined  to  make  Hurry  the 
objective  of  the  next  expedition.     But  the  soldier  of  fortune  who 
commanded    the    Covenanters    at    Aberdeen    was    no    mean 
antagonist.    Marching  at  once  with  a  large  army  (formed  on  the 
nucleus  of  his  own  trained  troops  and  for  the  rest  composed  of 
clansmen  and  volunteers)  Hurry  advanced  to  Elgin,  took  contact 
with  Montrose  there,  and,  gradually  and  skilfully  retiring,  drew 
him  into  the  hostile  country  round  Inverness.   Montrose  fell  into 
the  trap,  and  Hurry  took  his  measures  to  surprise  him  at  Auld- 
earn so  successfully  that  (May  9)  Montrose,  even  though  the 


GREAT  REBELLION 


indiscipline  of  some  of  Hurry's  young  soldiers  during  the  night 
march  gave  him  the  alarm,  had  barely  time  to  form  up  before  the 
enemy  was  upon  him.  But  the  best  strategy  is  of  no  avail  when 
the  battle  it  produces  goes  against  the  strategist,  and  Montrose's 
tactical  skill  was  never  more  conspicuous  than  at  Auldearn. 
Alastair  Macdonald  with  most  of  the  Royalist  infantry  and  the 
Royal  standard  was  posted  to  the  right  (north)  of  the  village  to 
draw  upon  himself  the  weight  of  Hurry's  attack;  only  enough 
men  were  posted  in  the  village  itself  to  show  that  it  was  occupied, 
and  on  the  south  side,  out  of  sight,  was  Montrose  himself  with  a 
body  of  foot  and  all  the  Gordon  horse.  It  was  the  prototype,  on  a 
small  scale,  of  Austerlitz.  Macdonald  resisted  sturdily  while 
Montrose  edged  away  from  the  scene  of  action,  and  at  the  right 
moment  and  not  before,  though  Macdonald  had  been  driven 
back  en  the  village  and  was  fighting  for  life  amongst  the  gardens 
and  enclosures,  Montrose  let  loose  Lord  Gordon's  cavalry.  These, 
abandoning  for  once  the  pistol  tactics  of  their  time,  charged 
home  with  the  sword.  The  enemy's  right  wing  cavalry  was 
scattered  in  an  instant,  the  nearest  infantry  was  promptly  ridden 
down,  and  soon  Hurry's  army  had  ceased  to  exist. 

35.  Campaign  of  Naseby. — If  the  news  of  Auldearn  brought 
Leven  to  the  region  of  Carlisle,  it  had  little  effect  on  his  English 
allies.  Fairfax  was  not  yet  released  from  the  siege  of  Oxford,  in 
spite  of  the  protests  of  the  Scottish  representatives  in  London. 
Massey,  the  active  and  successful  governor  of  Gloucester,  was 
placed  in  command  of  a  field  force  on  the  25th  of  May,  but  he  was 
to  lead  it  against,  not  the  king,  but  Goring.  At  that  moment  the 
military  situation  once  more  changed  abruptly.  Charles,  instead 
of  continuing  his  march  on  to  Lancashire,  turned  due  eastward 
towards  Derbyshire.  The  alarm  at  Westminster  when  this  new 
development  was  reported  was  such  that  Cromwell,  in  spite  of  the 
Self-Denying  Ordinance,  was  sent  to  raise  an  army  for  the 
defence  of  the  Eastern  Association.  Yet  the  Royalists  had  no 
intentions  in  that  direction.  Conflicting  reports  as  to  the 
condition  of  Oxford  reached  the  royal  headquarters  in  the  last 
week  of  May,  and  the  eastward  march  was  made  chiefly  to 
"  spin  out  time  "  until  it  could  be  known  whether  it  would  be 
necessary  to  return  to  Oxford,  or  whether  it  was  still  possible  to 
fight  Leven  in  Yorkshire — his  move  into  Westmorland  was  not 
yet  known — and  invade  Scotland  by  the  easy  east  coast  route. 

Goring's  return  to  the  west  had  already  been  countermanded 
and  he  had  been  directed  to  march  to  Harborough,  while  the 
South  Wales  Royalists  were  also  called  in  towards  Leicester. 
Later  orders  (May  26)  directed  him  to  Newbury,  whence  he  was 
to  feel  the  strength  of  the  enemy's  positions  around  Oxford. 
It  is  hardly  necessary  to  say  that  Goring  found  good  military 
reasons  for  continuing  his  independent  operations,  and  marched 
off  towards  Taunton  regardless  of  the  order.  He  redressed  the 
balance  there  for  the  moment  by  overawing  Massey's  weak  force, 
and  his  purse  profited  considerably  by  fresh  opportunities  for 
extortion,  but  he  and  his  men  were  not  at  Naseby.  Meanwhile 
the  king,  at  the  geographical  centre  of  England,  found  an  im- 
portant and  wealthy  town  at  his  mercy.  Rupert,  always  for 
action,  took  the  opportunity,  and  Leicester  was  stormed  and 
thoroughly  pillaged  on  the  night  of  the  3oth-3  ist  of  May.  There 
was  the  usual  panic  at  Westminster,  but,  unfortunately  for 
Charles,  it  resulted  in  Fairfax  being  directed  to  abandon  the 
siege  of  Oxford  and  given  carte  blanche  to  bring  the  Royal  army 
to  battle  wherever  it  was  met.  On  his  side  the  king  had,  after 
the  capture  of  Leicester,  accepted  the  advice  of  those  who  feared 
for  the  safety  of  Oxford— Rupert,  though  commander-in-chief, 
was  unable  to  insist  on  the  northern  enterprise — and  had  marched 
to  Daventry,  where  he  halted  to  throw  supplies  into  Oxford. 
Thus  Fairfax  in  his  turn  was  free  to  move,  thanks  to  the  in- 
subordination of  Goring,  who  would  neither  relieve  Oxford  nor 
join  the  king  for  an  attack  on  the  New  Model.  The  Parliamentary 
general  moved  from  Oxford  towards  Northampton  so  as  to 
cover  the  Eastern  Association.  On  the  i2th  of  June  the  two 
armies  were  only  a  few  miles  apart,  Fairfax  at  Kislingbury, 
Charles  at  Daventry,  and,  though  the  Royalists  turned  northward 
again  on  the  i3th  to  resume  the  Yorkshire  project  under  the  very 
eyes  of  the  enemy,  Fairfax  followed  close.  On  the  night  of 


the  i3th  Charles  slept  at  Lubenham,  Fairfax  at  Guilsborough. 
Cromwell,  just  appointed  lieutenant-general  of  the  New  Model, 
had  ridden  into  camp  on  the  morning  of  the  i3th  with  fresh 
cavalry  from  the  eastern  counties,  Colonel  Rossiter  came  up 
with  more  from  Lincolnshire  on  the  morning  of  the  battle, 
and  it  was  with  an  incontestable  superiority  of  numbers  and  an 
overwhelming  moral  advantage  that  Fairfax  fought  at  Naseby 
(q.i>.)  on  the  i4th  of  June.  The  result  of  the  battle,  this  time  a 
decisive  battle,  was  the  annihilation  of  the  Royal  army.  Part 
of  the  cavalry  escaped,  a  small  fraction  of  it  in  tolerable  order, 
but  the  guns  and  the  baggage  train  were  taken,  and,  above  all, 
the  splendid  Royal  infantry  were  killed  or  taken  prisoners  to  a 
man. 

36.  Effects  of  Naseby. — After  Naseby,  though  the  war  dragged 
on  for  another  year,  the  king  never  succeeded  in  raising  an  army 
as  good  as,  or  even  more  numerous  than,  that  which  Fairfax's 
army  had  so  heavily  outnumbered  on  the  I4th  of  June.     That 
the  fruits  of  the  victory  could  not  be  gathered  in  a  few  weeks 
was  due  to  a  variety  of  hindrances  rather  than  to  direct  opposi- 
tion— to  the  absence  of  rapid  means  of  communication,   the 
paucity  of  the  forces  engaged  on  both  sides  relatively  to  the  total 
numbers  under  arms,  and  from  time  to  time  to  the  political 
exigencies  of  the  growing  quarrel  between  Presbyterians  and 
Independents.     As  to  the  latter,  within  a  few  days  of  Naseby, 
the  Scots  rejoiced  that  the  "back  of  the  malignants  was  broken," 
and  demanded  reinforcements  as  a  precaution  against   "  the 
insolence  of  others,"  i.e.  Cromwell  and  the  Independents — "  to 
whom  alone  the  Lord  has  given  the  victory  of  that  day."     Leven 
had  by  now  returned  to  Yorkshire,  and  a  fortnight  after  Naseby, 
after  a  long  and  honourable  defence  by  Sir  Thomas  Glemham, 
Carlisle  fell  to  David  Leslie's  besieging  corps.      Leicester  was 
reoccupied  by  Fairfax  on  the  i8th,  and  on  the  2oth  Leven's 
army,  moving  slowly  southward,  reached  Mansfield.     This  move 
was  undertaken  largely  for  political  reasons,  i.e.  to  restore  the 
Presbyterian  balance  as  against  the  victorious  New  Model. 
Fairfax's  army  was  intended  by  its  founders  to  be  a  specifically 
English  army,  and  Cromwell  for  one  would  have  employed  it 
against   the   Scots   almost   as  readily  as  against   malignants. 
But  for  the  moment  the  advance  of  the  northern  army  was  of 
the  highest   military  importance,  for   Fairfax  was  thereby  set 
free  from  the  necessity  of  undertaking  sieges.   Moreover,  the 
publication  of  the  king's  papers  taken  at  Naseby  gave  Fairfax's 
troops  a  measure  of  official  and  popular  support  which  a  month 
before  they  could  not  have  been  said  to  possess,  for  it  was  now 
obvious  that  they  represented  the  armed  force  of  England  against 
the  Irish,  Danes,  French,  Lorrainers,  &c.,  whom  Charles  had  for 
three   years  been   endeavouring   to   let   loose  on  English  soil. 
Even  the  Presbyterians  abandoned  for  the  time  any  attempt 
to  negotiate  with  the  king,  and  advocated  a  vigorous  prosecution 
of  the  war. 

37.  Fairfax's  Western  Campaign. — This,  in  the  hands  of  Fairfax 
and  Cromwell,  was  likely  to  be  effective.    While  the  king  and 
Rupert,  with  the  remnant  of  their  cavalry,  hurried  into  South 
Wales  to  join  Sir  Charles  Gerard's  troops  and  to  raise  fresh  in- 
fantry, Fairfax  decided  that  Goring's  was  the  most  important 
Royalist  army  in  the  field,  and  turned  to  the  west,  reaching 
Lechlade  on  the  26th,  less  than  a  fortnight  after  the  battle  of 
Naseby.     One  last  attempt  was  made  to  dictate  the  plan  of 
campaign  from  Westminster,  but  the  Committee  refused  to  pass 
on  the  directions  of  the  Houses,  and  he  remained  free  to  deal 
with  Goring  as  he  desired.     Time  pressed ;  Charles  in  Monmouth- 
shire and  Rupert  at  Bristol  were  well  placed  for  a  junction  with 
Goring,  which  would  have  given  them  a  united  army  15,000 
strong.     Taunton,  in  spite  of  Massey's  efforts  to  keep  the  field, 
was  again  besieged,  and  in  Wilts  and  Dorset  numerous  bands 
of  Clubmen  were  on  foot  which  the  king's  officers  were  doing 
their  best  to  turn  into  troops  for  their  master.     But  the  process 
of  collecting  a  fresh  royal  army  was  slow,  and  Goring  and  his 
subordinate,  Sir  Richard  Grenville,  were  alienating  the  king's 
most   devoted  adherents  by  their  rapacity,   cruelty  and  de- 
bauchery.    Moreover,  Goring  had  no  desire  to  lose  the  inde- 
pendent command  he  had  extorted  at  Stow-on-the-Woldin  May. 


GREAT  REBELLION 


Still,  it  was  clear  that  he  must  be  disposed  of  as  quickly  as 
possible,  and  Fairfax  requested  the  Houses  to  take  other 
measures  against  the  king  (June  26).  This  they  did  by  paying  up 
the  arrears  due  to  Leven's  army  and  bringing  it  to  the  Severn 
valley.  On  the  8th  of  July  Leven  reached  Alcester,  bringing 
with  him  a  Parliamentarian  force  from  Derbyshire  under  Sir 
John  Cell.  The  design  was  to  besiege  Hereford. 

38.  Langport. — By  that  time  Fairfax  and  Goring  were  at 
close  quarters.     The  Royalist  general's  line  of  defence  faced  west 
along  the  Yeo  and  the  Parrett  between  Yeovil  and  Bridgwater, 
and  thus  barred  the  direct  route  to  Taunton.     Fairfax,  however, 
marched  from  Lechlade  via   Marlborough    and  Blandford — 
hindered  only  by  Clubmen — to  the  friendly  posts  of  Dorchester 
and  Lyme,  and  with  these  as  his  centre  of  operations  he  was 
able  to  turn  the  headwaters  of  Goring's  river-line  via  Beaminster 
and  Crewkerne.     The  Royalists  at  once  abandoned  the  south  and 
west  side  of  the  rivers — the  siege  of  Taunton  had  already  been 
given  up — and  passed  over  to  the  north  and  east  bank.     Bridg- 
water was  the  right  of  this  second  line  as  it  had  been  the  left  of 
the  first;  the  new  left  was  at  Ilchester.     Goring  could  thus 
remain  in  touch  with  Charles  in  south  Wales  through  Bristol, 
and  the  siege  of  Taunton  having  been  given  up  there  was  no 
longer  any  incentive  for  remaining  on  the  wrong  side  of  the 
water-line.     But  his  army  was  thoroughly  demoralized  by'  its 
own  licence  and  indiscipline,  and  the  swift,  handy  and  resolute 
regiments  of  the  New  Model  made  short  work  of  its  strong 
positions.     On  the  7th  of  July,  demonstrating  against  the  points 
of  passage  between  Ilchester  and  Langport,  Fairfax  secretly 
occupied  Yeovil.     The  post  at  that  place,  which  had  been  the 
right  of  Goring's  first  position,  had,  perhaps  rightly,  been  with- 
drawn to  Ilchester  when  the  second  position  was  taken  up,  and 
Fairfax    repaired    the    bridge    without  interruption.     Goring 
showed  himself  unequal  to  the  new  situation.     He  might,  if 
sober,  make  a  good  plan  when  the  enemy  was  not  present  to 
disturb  him,  and  he  certainly  led  cavalry  charges  with  boldness 
and  skill.     But  of  strategy  in  front  of  the  enemy  he  was  in- 
capable.    On  the  news  from  Yeovil  he  abandoned  the  line  of  the 
Yeo  as  far  as  Langport  without  striking  a  blow,  and  Fairfax, 
having  nothing  to  gain  by  continuing  his  detour  through  Yeovil, 
came  back  and  quietly  crossed  at  Long  Sutton,  west  of  Ilchester 
(July  9) .     Goring  had  by  now  formed  a  new  plan.     A  strong  rear- 
guard was  posted  at  Langport  and  on  high  ground  east  and  north- 
east of  it  to  hold  Fairfax,  and  he  himself  with  the  cavalry  rode 
off  early  on  the  8th  to  try  and  surprise  Taunton.     This  place 
was  no  longer  protected  by  Massey's  little  army,  which  Fairfax 
had  called  up  to  assist  his  own.    But  Fairfax,  who  was  not  yet 
across  Long  Sutton  bridge,  heard  of  Goring's  raid  in  good  time, 
and  sent  Massey  after  him  with  a  body  of  horse.     Massey  sur- 
prised a  large  party  of  the  Royalists  at  Ilminster  on  the  pth, 
wounded  Goring  himself,  and  pursued  the  fugitives  up  to  the 
south-eastern  edge  of  Langport.     On  the  roth    Fairfax's   ad- 
vanced guard,  led  by  Major  Bethel  of  Cromwell's  own  regiment, 
brilliantly  stormed  the  position  of  Goring's  rearguard  east  of 
Langport,  and  the  cavalry  of  the  New  Model,  led  by  Cromwell 
himself,  swept  in  pursuit  right  up  to  the  gates  of  Bridgwater, 
where  Goring's  army,  dismayed  and  on  the  point  of  collapse, 
was  more  or  less  rallied.     Thence  Goring  himself  retired  to 
Barnstaple.     His  army,  under  the  regimental  officers,  defended 
itself  in  Bridgwater  resolutely  till  the  2$rd  of  July,  when  it 
capitulated.     The  fall  of  Bridgwater  gave  Fairfax  complete  con- 
trol of  Somerset  and  Dorset  from  Lyme  to  the  Bristol  channel. 
Even  in  the  unlikely  event  of  Goring's  raising  a  fresh  army, 
he  would  now  have  to  break  through  towards  Bristol  by  open 
force,  and  a  battle  between  Goring  and  Fairfax  could  only  have 
one  result.     Thus  Charles  had  perforce  to  give  up  his  intention 
of  joining  Goring — his  recruiting  operations  in  south  Wales  had 
not  been  so  successful  as  he  hoped,  owing  to  the  apathy  of  the 
people  and  the  vigour  of  the  local  Parliamentary  leaders — 
and  to  resume  the  northern  enterprise  begun  in  the  spring. 

39.  Schemes  of  Lord  Digby. — This  time  Rupert  would  not  be 
with  him.     The  prince,  now  despairing  of  success  and  hoping 
only  for  a  peace  on  the  best  terms  procurable,  listlessly  returned 


to  his  governorship  of  Bristol  and  prepared  to  meet  Fairfax's 
impending  attack.  The  influence  of  Rupert  was  supplanted  by 
that  of  Lord  Digby.  As  sanguine  as  Charles  and  far  more 
energetic,  he  was  for  the  rest  of  the  campaign  the  guiding  spirit 
of  the  Royalists,  but  being  a  civilian  he  proved  incapable  of 
judging  the  military  factors  in  the  situation  from  a  military 
standpoint,  and  not  only  did  he  offend  the  officers  by  constituting 
himself  a  sort  of  confidential  military  secretary  to  the  king,  but 
he  was  distrusted  by  all  sections  of  Royalists  for  his  reckless 
optimism.  The  resumption  of  the  northern  enterprise,  opposed 
by  Rupert  and  directly  inspired  by  Digby,  led  to  nothing. 
Charles  marched  by  Bridgnorth,  Lichfield  and  Ashbourne  to 
Doncaster,  where  on  the  i8th  of  August  he  was  met  by  great 
numbers  of  Yorkshire  gentlemen  with  promises  of  fresh  recruits. 
For  a  moment  the  outlook  was  bright,  for  the  Derbyshire  men 
with  Cell  were  far  away  at  Worcester  with  Leven,  the  Yorkshire 
Parliamentarians  engaged  in  besieging  Scarborough  Castle, 
Pontefract  and  other  posts.  But  two  days  later  he  heard  that 
David  Leslie  with  the  cavalry  of  Leven's  army  was  coming 
up  behind  him,  and  that,  the  Yorkshire  sieges  being  now  ended, 
Major-General  Poyntz's  force  lay  in  his  front.  It  was  now  im- 
possible to  wait  for  the  new  levies,  and  reluctantly  the  king  turned 
back  to  Oxford,  raiding  Huntingdonshire  and  other  parts  of  the 
hated  Eastern  Association  en  route. 

40.  Montrose'sLast  Victories. —  David  Leslie  did  not  pursue  him. 
Montrose,  though  the  king  did  not  yet  know  it,  had  won  two 
more  battles,  and  was  practically  master  of  all  Scotland.  After 
Auldearn  he  had  turned  to  meet  Baillie's  army  in  Strathspey,  and 
by  superior  mobility  and  skill  forced  that  commander  to  keep  at 
a  respectful  distance.  He  then  turned  upon  a  new  army  which 
Lindsay,  titular  earl  of  Crawford,  was  forming  in  Forfarshire, 
but  that  commander  betook  himself  to  a  safe  distance,  and 
Montrose  withdrew  into  the  Highlands  to  find  recruits  (June). 
The  victors  of  Auldearn  had  mostly  dispersed  on  the  usual  errand, 
and  he  was  now  deserted  by  most  of  the  Gordons,  who  were  re- 
called by  the  chief  of  their  clan,  the  marquess  of  Huntly,  in  spite 
of  the  indignant  remonstrances  of  Huntly's  heir,  Lord  Gordon, 
who  was  Montrose's  warmest  admirer.  Baillie  now  approached 
again,  but  he  was  weakened  by  having  to  find  trained  troops 
to  stiffen  Lindsay's  levies,  and  a  strong  force  of  the  Gordons  had 
now  been  persuaded  to  rejoin  Montrose.  The  two  armies  met  in 
battle  near  Alford  on  the  Don;  little  can  be  said  of  the  engage- 
ment save  that  Montrose  had  to  fight  cautiously  and  tentatively 
as  at  Aberdeen,  not  in  the  decision-forcing  spirit  of  Auldearn, 
and  that  in  the  end  Baillie's  cavalry  gave  way  and  his  infantry 
was  cut  down  as  it  stood.  Lord  Gordon  was  amongst  the  Royalist 
dead  (July  2) .  The  plunder  was  put  away  in  the  glens  before  any 
attempt  was  made  to  go  forward,  and  thus  the  Covenanters  had 
leisure  to  form  a  numerous,  if  not  very  coherent,  army  on  the 
nucleus  of  Lindsay's  troops.  Baillie,  much  against  his  will,  was 
continued  in  the  command,  with  a  council  of  war  (chiefly  of  nobles 
whom  Montrose  had  already  defeated,  such  as  Argyll,  Elcho  and 
Balfour)  to  direct  his  every  movement.  Montrose,  when  rejoined 
by  the  Highlanders,  moved  to  meet  him,  and  in  the  last  week  of 
July  and  the  early  part  of  August  there  were  manoeuvres  and 
minor  engagements  round  Perth.  About  the  7th  of  August 
Montrose  suddenly  slipped  away  into  the  Lowlands,  heading 
for  Glasgow.  Thereupon  another  Covenanting  army  began  to 
assemble  in  Clydesdale.  But  it  was  clear  that  Montrose  could 
beat  mere  levies,  and  Baillie,  though  without  authority  and 
despairing  of  success,  hurried  after  him.  Montrose  then,  having 
drawn  Baillie's  Fifeshire  militia  far  enough  from  home  to  ensure 
their  being  discontented,  turned  upon  them  on  the  i4th  of  August 
near  Kilsyth.  Baillie  protested  against  fighting,  but  his  aristo- 
cratic masters  of  the  council  of  war  decided  to  cut  off  Montrose 
from  the  hills  by  turning  his  left  wing.  The  Royalist  general 
seized  the  opportunity,  and  his  advance  caught  them  in  the  very 
act  of  making  a  flank  march  (August  15).  The  head  of  the 
Covenanters'  column  was  met  and  stopped  by  the  furious  attack 
of  the  Gordon  infantry,  and  Alastair  Macdonald  led  the  men  of 
his  own  name  and  the  Macleans  against  its  flank.  A  breach  was 
made  in  the  centre  of  Baillie's  army  at  the  first  rush,  and  then 


416 


GREAT  REBELLION 


Montrose  sent  in  the  Gordon  and  Ogilvy  horse.  The  leading  half  of 
the  column  was  surrounded,  broken  up  and  annihilated.  The  rear 
half,  seeing  the  fate  of  its  comrades,  took  to  flight,  but  in  vain, 
for  the  Highlanders  pursued  d  entrance.  Only  about  one  hundred 
Covenanting  infantry  out  of  six  thousand  escaped.  Montrose 
was  now  indeed  the  king's  lieutenant  in  all  Scotland. 

41.  Fall  of  Bristol. — But  Charles  was  in  no  case  to  resume  his 
northern  march.     Fairfax  and  the  New  Model,  after  reducing 
Bridgwater,  had   turned  back  to   clear  away  the  Dorsetshire 
Clubmen  and  to  besiege  Sherborne  Castle.     On  the  completion 
of  this  task,  it  had  been  decided  to  besiege  Bristol,  and  on  the 
23rd  of  August — while  the  king's  army  was  still  in  Huntingdon, 
and  Goring  was  trying  to  raise  a  new  army  to  replace  the  one  he 
had  lost  at  Langport  and  Bridgwater — the  city  was  invested. 
In  these  urgent  circumstances  Charles  left  Oxford  for  the  west 
only  a  day  or  two  after  he  had  come  in  from  the  Eastern  Associa- 
tion raid.     Calculating  that  Rupert  could  hold  out  longest,  he 
first  moved  to  the  relief  of  Worcester,  around  which  place  Leven's 
Scots,  no  longer  having  Leslie's  cavalry  with  them  to  find  supplies, 
were  more  occupied  with  plundering  their  immediate  neighbour- 
hood for  food  than  with  the  siege  works.     Worcester  was  relieved 
on  the  ist  of  September  by  the  king.      David  Leslie  with  all  his 
cavalry  was  already  on  the  march  to  meet  Montrose,  and  Leven 
had  no  alternative  but  to  draw  off  his  infantry  without  fighting. 
Charles  entered  Worcester  on  the  8th,  but  he  found  that  he 
could  no  longer  expect   recruits   from   South   Wales.     Worse 
was  to  come.     A  few  hours  later,  on  the  night  of  the  gth-ioth, 
Fairfax's  army  stormed  Bristol.     Rupert  had  long  realized  the 
hopelessness  of  further  fighting — the  very  summons  to  surrender 
sent  in  by  Fairfax  placed  the  fate  of  Bristol  on  the  political  issue, 
— the  lines  of  defence  around  the  place  were  too  extensive  for 
his  small  force,  and  on  the  nth  he  surrendered  on  terms.     He 
was  escorted  to  Oxford  with  his  men,  conversing  as  he  rode  with 
the  officers  of  the  escort  about  peace  and  the  future  of  his  adopted 
country.     Charles,  almost  stunned  by  the  suddenness  of  the 
catastrophe,  dismissed  his  nephew  from  all  his  offices  and  ordered 
him  to  leave  England,  and  for  almost  the  last  time  called  upon 
Goring  to  rejoin  the  main  army — if  a  tiny  force  of  raw  infantry 
and  disheartened  cavalry  can  be  so  called — in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Raglan.     But  before  Goring  could  be  brought  to  withdraw 
his  objections   Charles  had  again  turned  northward  towards 
Montrose.     A  weary  march  through  the  Welsh  hills  brought  the 
Royal  army  on  the  22nd  of  September  to  the  neighbourhood  of 
Chester.     Charles  himself  with  one  body  entered  the  city,  which 
was  partially  invested  by  the  Parliamentarian  colonel  Michael 
Jones,  and  the  rest  under  Sir  Marmaduke  Langdale  was  sent  to 
take  Jones's  lines  in  reverse.     But  at  the  opportune  moment 
Poyntz's  forces,  which  had  followed  the  king's  movements  since 
he  left  Doncaster  in  the  middle  of  August,  appeared  in  rear  of 
Langdale,  and  defeated  him  in  the  battle  of  Rowton  Heath 
(September  24),  while  at  the  same  time  a  sortie  of  the  king's 
troops  from  Chester  was  repulsed  by  Jones.    Thereupon  the  Royal 
army  withdrew  to  Denbigh,  and  Chester,  the  only  important 
seaport  remaining  to  connect  Charles  with  Ireland,  was  again 
besieged. 

42.  Philiphaugh. — Nor  was  Montrose's  position,  even  after 
Kilsyth,   encouraging,  in  spite  of    the  persistent  rumours  of 
fighting    in    Westmorland    that    reached    Charles  and  Digby. 
Glasgow  and  Edinburgh  were  indeed  occupied,  and  a  parliament 
summoned  in  the  king's  name.     But  Montrose  had  now  to  choose 
between  Highlanders  and  Lowlanders.     The    former,   strictly 
kept  away  from  all  that  was  worth  plundering,  rapidly  vanished, 
even  Alastair  Macdonald  going  with  the  rest.     Without  the 
Macdonalds  and  the  Gordons,  Montrose's  military  and  political 
resettlement  of  Scotland  could  only  be  shadowy,  and  when  he 
demanded  support  from  the  sturdy  middle  classes  of  the  Low- 
lands, it  was  not  forgotten  that  he  had  led  Highlanders  to  the 
sack  of  Lowland  towns.     Thus  his  new  supporters  could  only 
come  from  amongst  the  discontented  and  undisciplined  Border 
lords  and  gentry,  and  long  before  these  moved  to  join  him  the 
romantic  conquest  of  Scotland  was  over.  On  the  6th  of  September 
David  Leslie  had  recrossed  the  frontier  with  his  cavalry  and  some 


infantry  he  had  picked  up  on  the  way  through  northern  England. 
Early  on  the  morning  of  the  I3th  he  surprised  Montrose  at 
Philiphaugh  near  Selkirk.  The  king's  lieutenant  had  only  650 
men  against  4000,  and  the  battle  did  not  last  long.  Montrose 
escaped  with  a  few  of  his  principal  adherents,  but  his  little  army 
was  annihilated.  Of  the  veteran  Macdonald  infantry,  500  strong 
that  morning,  250  were  killed  in  the  battle  and  the  remainder 
put  to  death  after  accepting  quarter.  The  Irish,  even  when  they 
bore  a  Scottish  name,  were,  by  Scotsmen  even  more  than  English- 
men, regarded  as  beasts  to  be  knocked  on  the  head.  After  Naseby 
the  Irishwomen  found  in  the  king's  camp  were  branded  by  order 
of  Fairfax;  after  Philiphaugh  more  than  300  women,  wives  or 
followers  of  Macdonald's  men,  were  butchered.  Montrose's 
Highlanders  at  their  worst  were  no  more  cruel  than  the  sober 
soldiers  of  the  kirk. 

43.  Digby's  Northern  Expedition. — Charles  received  the  news 
of  Philiphaugh  on  the  a8th  of  September,  and  gave  orders  that 
the  west  should  be  abandoned,  the  prince  of  Wales  should  be 
sent  to  France,  and  Goring  should  bring  up  what  forces  he  could 
to  the  Oxford  region.  On  the  4th  of  October  Charles  himself 
reached  Newark  (whither  he  had  marched  from  Denbigh  after 
revictualling  Chester  and  suffering  the  defeat  of  Rowton  Heath). 
The  intention  to  go  to  Montrose  was  of  course  given  up,  at  any 
rate  for  the  present,  and  he  was  merely  waiting  for  Goring  and 
the  Royalist  militia  of  the  west — each  in  its  own  way  a  broken 
reed  to  lean  upon.  A  hollow  reconciliation  was  patched  up 
between  Charles  and  Rupert,  and  the  court  remained  at  Newark 
for  over  a  month.  Before  it  set  out  to  return  to  Oxford  another 
Royalist  force  had  been  destroyed.  On  the  I4th  of  October, 
receiving  information  that  Montrose  had  raised  a  new  army, 
the  king  permitted  Langdale's  northern  troops  to  make  a  fresh 
attempt  to  reach  Scotland.  At  Langdale's  request  Digby  was 
appointed  to  command  in  this  enterprise,  and,  civilian  though  he 
was,  and  disastrous  though  his  influence  had  been  to  the  discipline 
of  the  army,  he  led  it  boldly  and  skilfully.  His  immediate 
opponent  was  Poyntz,  who  had  followed  the  king  step  by  step 
from  Doncaster  to  Chester  and  back  to  Welbeck  ,and  he  succeeded 
on  the  1 5th  in  surprising  Poyntz's  entire  force  of  foot  at  Sherburn. 
Poyntz's  cavalry  were  soon  after  this  reported  approaching 
from  the  south,  and  Digby  hoped  to  trap  them  also.  At  first 
all  went  well  and  body  after  body  of  the  rebels  was  routed. 
But  by  a  singular  mischance  the  Royalist  main  body  mistook  the 
Parliamentary  squadrons  in  flight  through  Sherburn  for  friends, 
and  believing  all  was  lost  took  to  flight  also.  Thus  Digby's 
cavalry  fled  as  fast  as  Poyntz's  and  in  the  same  direction,  and 
the  latter,  coming  to  their  senses  first,  drove  the  Royalist  horse  in 
wild  confusion  as  far  as  Skipton.  Lord  Digby  was  still  sanguine, 
and  from  Skipton  he  actually  penetrated  as  far  as  Dumfries. 
But  whether  Montrose's  new  army  was  or  was  not  in  the  Low- 
lands, it  was  certain  that  Leven  and  Leslie  were  on  the  Border, 
and  the  mad  adventure  soon  came  to  an  end.  Digby,  with  the 
mere  handful  of  men  remaining  to  him,  was  driven  back  into 
Cumberland,  and  on  the  24th  of  October,  his  army  having 
entirely  disappeared,  he  took  ship  with  his  officers  for  the  Isle  of 
Man.  Poyntz  had  not  followed  him  beyond  Skipton,  and  was 
now  watching  the  king  from  Nottingham,  while  Rossiter  with  the 
Lincoln  troops  was  posted  at  Grantham.  The  king's  chances  of 
escaping  from  Newark  were  becoming  smaller  day  by  day, 
and  they  were  not  improved  by  a  violent  dispute  between  him 
and  Rupert,  Maurice,  Lord  Gerard  and  Sir  Richard  Willis,  at 
the  end  of  which  these  officers  and  many  others  rode  away  to 
ask  the  Parliament  for  leave  to  go  over-seas.  The  pretext  of  the 
quarrel  mattered  little,  the  distinction  between  the  views  of 
Charles  and  Digby  on  the  one  hand  and  Rupert  and  his  friends 
on  the  other  was  fundamental — to  the  latter  peace  had  become 
a  political  as  well  as  a  military  necessity.  Meanwhile  south 
Wales,  with  the  single  exception  of  Raglan  Castle,  had  been 
overrun  by  the  Parliamentarians.  Everywhere  the  Royalist 
posts  were  falling.  The  New  Model,  no  longer  fearing  Goring, 
had  divided,  Fairfax  reducing  the  garrisons  of  Dorset  and 
Devon,  Cromwell  those  of  Hampshire.  Amongst  the  latter  was 
the  famous  Basing  House,  which  was  stormed  at  dawn  on  the 


GREAT  REBELLION 


j  4th  of  October  and  burnt  to  the  ground.  Cromwell,  his  work 
finished,  returned  to  headquarters,  and  the  army  wintered  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Crediton. 

44.  End  of  the  First  War. — The  military  events  of  1646  call 
for  no  comment.     The  only  field  army  remaining  to  the  king 
was  Goring's,  and  though  Hopton,  who  sorrowfully  accepted  the 
command  after  Goring's  departure,  tried  at  the  last  moment 
to  revive  the  memories  and  the  local  patriotism  of  1643,  it  was 
of  no  use  to  fight  against  the  New  Model  with  the  armed  rabble 
that  Goring  turned  over  to  him.     Dartmouth  surrendered  on 
January  18,  Hopton  was  defeated  at  Torrington  on  February 
16,  and  surrendered  the  remnant  of  his  worthless  army  on 
March  14.     Exeter  fell  on  April  13.     Elsewhere,  Hereford  was 
taken  on  December  17,  1645,  and  the  last  battle  of  the  war 
was  fought  and  lost  at  Stow-on-the-Wold  by  Lord  Astley  on 
March  2 1 ,  1646.     Newark  and  Oxford  fell  respectively  on  May  6 
and  June  24.  On  August3i  MontroseescapedfromtheHighlands. 
On  the  igth  of  the  same  month  Raglan  Castle  surrendered, 
and  the  last  Royalist  post  of  all,  Harlech  Castle,  maintained 
the  useless  struggle  until  March  13,  1647.     Charles  himself,  after 
leaving  Newark  in  November  1645,  had  spent  the  winter  in  and 
around  Oxford,  whence,  after  an  adventurous  journey,  he  came 
to  the  camp  of  the  Scottish  army  at  Southwell  on  May  5,  1646. 

45.  Second  Civil   War   (1648-52).— The  close  of  the   First 
Civil  War  left  England  and  Scotland  in  the  hands  potentially  of 
any  one  of  the  four  parties  or  any  combination  of  two  or  more 
that  should  prove  strong  enough  to  dominate  the  rest.     Armed 
political  Royalism  was  indeed  at  an  end,  but  Charles,  though 
practically  a  prisoner,  considered  himself  and  was,  almost  to 
the  last,  considered  by  the  rest  as  necessary  to  ensure  the  success 
of  whichever  amongst  the  other  three  parties  could  come  to  terms 
with  him.     Thus  he  passed  successively  into  the  hands  of  the 
Scots,  the  Parliament  and  the  New  Model,  trying  to  reverse  the 
verdict  of  arms  by  coquetting  with  each  in  turn.     The  Presby- 
terians and  the  Scots,  after  Cornet  Joyce  of  Fairfax's  horse 
seized  upon  the  person  of  the  king  for  the  army  (June  3,  1647), 
began  at  once  to  prepare  for  a  fresh  civil  war,  this  time  against 
Independency,  as  embodied  in  the  New  Model — henceforward 
called  the  Army — and  after  making  use  of  its  sword,  its  opponents 
attempted  to  disband  it,  to  send  it  on  foreign  service,  to  cut 
off  its  arrears  of  pay,  with  the  result  that  it  was  exasperated 
beyond  control,  and,  remembering  not  merely  its  grievances 
but  also  the  principle  for  which  it  had  fought,  soon  became  the 
most  powerful  political  party  in  the  realm.     From  1646  to  1648 
the  breach  between  army  and  parliament  widened  day  by  day 
until  finally  the  Presbyterian  party,  combined  with  the  Scots  and 
the  remaining  Royalists,  felt  itself  strong  enough  to  begin  a 
second  civil  war. 

46.  The  English  War. — In  February  1648  Colonel  Poyer,  the 
Parliamentary  governor  of  Pembroke  Castle,  refused  to  hand 
over  his  command  to  one  of  Fairfax's  officers,  and  he  was  soon 
joined  by  some  hundreds  of  officers  and  men,  who  mutinied, 
ostensibly  for  arrears  of  pay,  but  really  with  political  objects. 
At  the  end  of  March,  encouraged  by  minor  successes,   Poyer 
openly  declared  for  the  king.     Disbanded  soldiers  continued 
to  join  him  in  April,  all  South  Wales  revolted,  and  eventually 
he  was  joined  by  Major-General  Laugharne,  his  district  com- 
mander, and  Colonel  Powel.     In  April  also  news  came  that  the 
Scots  were  arming  and  that  Berwick  and  Carlisle  had  been 
seized  by  the  English  Royalists.     Cromwell  was  at  once  sent  off 
at  the  head  of  a  strong  detachment  to  deal  with  Laugharne  and 
Poyer.     But  before  he  arrived  Laugharne  had  been  severely 
defeated  by  Colonel  Horton  at  St  Fagans  (May  8).     The  English 
Presbyterians  found  it   difficult  to  reconcile  their  principles 
with  their  allies  when  it  appeared  that  the  prisoners  taken 
at  St  Fagans  bore  "  We  long  to  see  our  King  "  on  their  hats; 
very  soon  in  fact  the  English  war  became  almost  purely  a  Royalist 
revolt,  and  the  war  in  the  north  an  attempt  to  enforce  a  mixture 
of  Royalism  and  Presbyterianism  on  Englishmen  by  means  of  a 
Scottish  army.     The  former  were  disturbers  of  the  peace  and  no 
more.     Nearly  all  the  Royalists  who  had  fought  in  the  First 
Civil  War  had  given  their  parole  not  to  bear  arms  against  the 

xn.  14 


Parliament,  and  many  honourable  Royalists,  foremost  amongst 
them  the  old  Lord  Astley,  who  had  fought  the  last  battle  for  the 
king  in  1646,  refused  to  break  their  word  by  taking  any  part  in 
the  second  war.  Those  who  did  so,  and  by  implication  those 
who  abetted  them  in  doing  so,  were  likely  to  be  treated  with 
the  utmost  rigour  if  captured,  for  the  army  was  in  a  less  placable 
mood  in  1648  than  in  1645,  and  had  already  determined  to 
"  call  Charles  Stuart,  that  man  of  blood,  to  an  account  for  the 
blood  he  had  shed."  On  the  zist  of  May  Kent  rose  in  revolt  in 
the  king's  name.  A  few  days  later  a  most  serious  blow  to  the 
Independents  was  struck  by  the  defection  of  the  navy,  from  com- 
mand of  which  they  had  removed  Vice-Admiral  Batten,  as  being 
a  Presbyterian.  Though  a  former  lord  high  admiral,  the  earl  of 
Warwick,  also  a  Presbyterian,  was  brought  back  to  the  service, 
it  was  not  long  before  the  navy  made  a  purely  Royalist  declara- 
tion and  placed  itself  under  the  command  of  the  prince  of  Wales. 
But  Fairfax  had  a  clearer  view  and  a  clearer  purpose  than  the 
distracted  Parliament.  He  moved  quickly  into  Kent,  and  on  the 
evening  of  June  i  stormed  Maidstone  by  open  force,  after  which 
the  local  levies  dispersed  to  their  homes,  and  the  more  determined 
Royalists,  after  a  futile  attempt  to  induce  the  City  of  London  to 
declare  for  them,  fled  into  Essex.  In  Cornwall,  Northampton- 
shire, North  Wales  and  Lincolnshire  the  revolt  collapsed  as 
easily.  Only  in  South  Wales,  Essex  and  the  north  of  England 
was  there  serious  fighting.  In  the  first  of  these  districts  Cromwell 
rapidly  reduced  all  the  fortresses  except  Pembroke,  where 
Laugharne,  Poyer  and  Powel  held  out  with  the  desperate  courage 
of  deserters.  In  the  north,  Pontefract  was  surprised  by  the 
Royalists,  and  shortly  afterwards  Scarborough  Castle  declared 
for  the  king.  Fairfax,  after  his  success  at  Maidstone  and  the 
pacification  of  Kent,  turned  northward  to  reduce  Essex,  where, 
under  their  ardent,  experienced  and  popular  leader  Sir  Charles 
Lucas,  the  Royalists  were  in  arms  in  great  numbers.  He  soon 
drove  the  enemy  into  Colchester,  but  the  first  attack  on  the  town 
was  repulsed  and  he  had  to  settle  down  to  a  long  and  wearisome 
siege  en  regie.  A  Surrey  rising,  remembered  only  for  the  death 
of  the  young  and  gallant  Lord  Francis  Villiers  in  a  skirmish  at 
Kingston  (July  7),  collapsed  almost  as  soon  as  it  had  gathered 
force,  and  its  leaders,  the  duke  of  Buckingham  and  the  earl  of 
Holland,  escaped,  after  another  attempt  to  induce  London  to 
declare  for  them,  to  St  Albans  and  St  Neots,  where  Holland  was 
taken  prisoner.  Buckingham  escaped  over-seas. 

47.  Lambert  in  the  North.— By  the  loth  of  July  therefore  the 
military  situation  was  well  defined.  Cromwell  held  Pembroke, 
Fairfax  Colchester,  Lambert  Pontefract  under  siege;  elsewhere 
all  serious  local  risings  had  collapsed,  and  the  Scottish  army  had 
crossed  the  Border.  It  is  on  the  adventures  of  the  latter  that 
the  interest  of  the  war  centres.  It  was  by  no  means  the  veteran 
army  of  Leven,  which  had  long  been  disbanded.  For  the  most 
part  it  consisted  of  raw  levies,  and  as  the  kirk  had  refused  to 
sanction  the  enterprise  of  the  Scottish  parliament,  David  Leslie 
and  thousands  of  experienced  officers  and  men  declined  to  serve. 
The  duke  of  Hamilton  proved  to  be  a  poor  substitute  for  Leslie; 
his  army,  too,  was  so  ill  provided  that  as  soon  as  England  was 
invaded  it  began  to  plunder  the  countryside  for  the  bare 
means  of  sustenance.  Major-General  Lambert,  a  brilliant  young 
general  of  twenty-nine,  was  more  than  equal  to  the  situation. 
He  had  already  left  the  sieges  of  Pontefract  and  Scarborough 
to  Colonel  Rossiter,  and  hurried  into  Cumberland  to  deal  with  the 
English  Royalists  under  Sir  Marmaduke  Langdale.  With  his 
cavalry  he  got  into  touch  with  the  enemy  about  Carlisle  and 
slowly  fell  back,  fighting  small  rearguard  actions  to  annoy  the 
enemy  and  gain  time,  to  Bowes  and  Barnard  Castle.  Langdale 
did  not  follow  him  into  the  mountains,  but  occupied  himself 
in  gathering  recruits  and  supplies  of  material  and  food  for  the 
Scots.  Lambert,  reinforced  from  the  midlands,  reappeared 
early  in  June  and  drove  him  back  to  Carlisle  with  his  work  half 
finished.  About  the  same  time  the  local  horse  of  Durham  and 
Northumberland  were  put  into  the  field  by  Sir  A.  Hesilrige, 
governor  of  Newcastle,  and  under  the  command  of  Colonel 
Robert  Lilburne  won  a  considerable  success  (June  30)  at  the  river 
Coquet.  This  reverse,  coupled  with  the  existence  of  Langdale's 


GREAT  REBELLION 


force  on  the  Cumberland  side,  practically  compelled  Hamilton 
to  choose  the  west  coast  route  for  his  advance,  and  his  army 
began  slowly  to  move  down  the  long  couloir  between  the 
mountains  and  the  sea.  The  campaign  which  followed  is  one 
of  the  most  brilliant  in  English  history. 

48.  Campaign  of  Preston. — On  the  8th  of  July  the  Scots,  with 
Langdale  as  advanced  guard,  were  about  Carlisle,  and  reinforce- 
ments from  Ulster  were  expected  daily.     Lambert's  horse  were 
at  Penrith,  Hexham  and  Newcastle,  too  weak  to  fight  and  having 
only  skilful  leading  and  rapidity  of  movement  to  enable  them 
to  gain  time.     Far  away  to  the  south  Cromwell  was  still  tied 
down  before  Pembroke,  Fairfax  before  Colchester.     Elsewhere 
the  rebellion,  which  had  been  put  down  by  rapidity  of  action 
rather  than  sheer  weight  of  numbers,  smouldered,  and  Prince 
Charles  and  the  fleet  cruised  along  the  Essex  coast.     Cromwell 
and  Lambert,  however,  understood  each  other  perfectly,  while 
the  Scottish  commanders  quarrelled  with  Langdale  and  each 
other.     Appleby  Castle  surrendered  to  the  Scots  on  the  3ist 
of  July,  whereat  Lambert,  who  was  still  hanging  on  to  the  flank 
of  the  Scottish  advance,  fell  back  from  Barnard  Castle  to  Rich- 
mond so  as  to  close  Wensleydale  against  any  attempt  of  the 
invaders  to  march  on  Pontefract.     All  the  restless  energy  of 
Langdale's  horse  was  unable  to  dislodge  him  from  the  passes 
or  to  find  out  what   was  behind  that  impenetrable  cavalry 
screen.     The  crisis  was  now  at  hand.     Cromwell  had  received 
the  surrender  of  Pembroke  on  the  nth,  and  had  marched  off, 
with  his  men  unpaid,  ragged  and  shoeless,  at  full  speed  through 
the  midlands.     Rains  and  storms  delayed  his  march,  but  he 
knew  that  Hamilton  in  the  broken  ground  of  Westmorland  was 
still  worse  off.     Shoes  from  Northampton  and  stockings  from 
Coventry  met  him  at  Nottingham,  and,  gathering  up  the  local 
levies  as  he  went,  he  made  for  Doncaster,  where  he  arrived  on 
the  8th  of  August,  having  gained  six  days  in  advance  of  the  time 
he  had  allowed  himself  for  the  march.     He  then  called  up 
artillery  from  Hull,  exchanged  his  local  levies  for  the  regulars 
who  were  besieging  Pontefract,  and  set  off  to  meet  Lambert. 
On  the  1 2th  he  was  at  Wetherby,  Lambert  with  horse  and  foot 
at   Otley,   Langdale  at   Skipton  and   Gargrave,   Hamilton  at 
Lancaster,  and  Sir  George  Monro  with  the  Scots  from  Ulster  and 
the  Carlisle  Royalists  (organized  as  a  separate  command  owing 
to  friction  between  Monro  and  the  generals  of  the  main  army) 
at  Hornby.     On  the  i3th,  while  Cromwell  was  marching  to  join 
Lambert  at  Otley,  the  Scottish  leaders  were  still  disputing  as  to 
whether  they  should  make  for  Pontefract  or  continue  through 
Lancashire  so  as  to  join  Lord  Byron  and  the  Cheshire  Royalists. 

49.  Preston   Fight. — On   the    I4th   Cromwell   and   Lambert 
were  at  Skipton,  on  the  isth  at   Gisburn,  and  on  the   i6th 
they  marched  down  the  valley  of  the  Ribble  towards  Preston 
with  full  knowledge  of  the  enemy's  dispositions  and  full  deter- 
mination to  attack  him.     They  had  with  them  horse  and  foot 
not  only  of  the  army,  but  also  of  the  militia  of  Yorkshire, 
Durham,  Northumberland  and  Lancashire,  and  withal  were 
heavily  outnumbered,  having  only  8600  men  against  perhaps 
20,000  of  Hamilton's  command.     But  the  latter  were  scattered 
for   convenience   of   supply   along   the   road  from   Lancaster, 
through  Preston,  towards  Wigan,  Langdale's  corps  having  thus 
become  the  left  flank  guard  instead  of  the  advanced  guard. 
Langdale  called  in  his  advanced  parties,  perhaps  with  a  view 
to  resuming  the  duties  of  advanced  guard,  on  the  night  of 
the  i3th,  and  collected  them  near  Longridge.     It  is  nc-t  clear 
whether  he  reported  Cromwell's  advance,  but,  if  he  did,  Hamilton 
ignored  the  report,  for  on  the  i7th  Monro  was  half  a  day's  march 
to  the  north,  Langdale  east  of  Preston,  and  the  main  army 
strung  out  on  the  Wigan  road,  Major-General  Baillie  with  a  body 
of  foot,  the  rear  of  the  column,  being  still  in  Preston.     Hamilton, 
yielding  to  the  importunity  of  his  lieutenant-general,  the  earl  of 
Callendar,  sent  Baillie  across  the  Ribble  to  follow  the  main  body 
just  as  Langdale,  with  3000  foot  and  500  horse  only,  met  the 
first  shock  of  Cromwell's  attack  on  Preston  Moor.     Hamilton, 
like  Charles  at  Edgehill,  passively  shared  in,  without  directing, 
the  battle,  and,  though  Langdale's  men  fought  magnificently, 
they  were  after  four  hours'  struggle  driven  to  the  Ribble.     Baillie 


attempted  to  cover  the  Ribble  and  Darwen  bridges  on  the  Wigan 
road,  but  Cromwell  had  forced  his  way  across  both  before  night- 
fall. Pursuit  was  at  once  undertaken,  and  not  relaxed  until 
Hamilton  had  been  driven  through  Wigan  and  Winwick  to 
Uttoxeter  and  Ashbourne.  There,  pressed  furiously  in  rear  by 
Cromwell's  horse  and  held  up  in  front  by  the  militia  of  the  mid- 
lands, the  remnant  of  the  Scottish  army  laid  down  its  arms  on 
the  25th  of  August.  Various  attempts  were  made  to  raise  the 
Royalist  standard  in  Wales  and  elsewhere,  but  Preston  was  the 
death-blow.  On  the  z8th  of  August,  starving  and  hopeless  of 
relief,  the  Colchester  Royalists  surrendered  to  Lord  Fairfax. 
The  victors  in  the  Second  Civil  War  were  not  merciful  to  those 
who  had  brought  war  into  the  land  again.  On  the  evening  of 
the  surrender  of  Colchester,  Sir  Charles  Lucas  and  Sir  George 
Lisle  were  shot.  Laugharne,  Poyer  and  Powel  were  sentenced  to 
death,  but  Poyer  alone  was  executed  on  the  25th  of  April  1649, 
being  the  victim  selected  by  lot.  Of  five  prominent  Royalist 
peers  who  had  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  Parliament,  three, 
the  duke  of  Hamilton,  the  earl  of  Holland,  and  Lord  Capel, 
one  of  the  Colchester  prisoners  and  a  man  of  high  character, 
were  beheade  J  at  Westminster  on  the  9th  of  February.  Above 
all,  after  long  hesitations,  even  after  renewal  of  negotiations, 
the  army  and  'ie  Independents  "  purged  "  the  Houses  of  their 
ill-wishers,  and  created  a  court  for  the  trial  and  sentence  of  the 
king.  The  more  resolute  of  the  judges  nerved  the  rest  to  sign 
the  death-warrant,  and  Charles  was  beheaded  at  Whitehall  on 
the  30th  of  January. 

50.  Cromwell   in   Ireland. — The   campaign   of   Preston   was 
undertaken  under  the  direction  of  the  Scottish  parliament,  not 
the  kirk,  and  it  needed  the  execution  of  the  king  to  bring  about 
a  union  of  all  Scottish  parties  against  the  English  Independents. 
Even  so,  Charles  II.  in  exile  had  to  submit  to  long  negotiations 
and  hard  conditions  before  he  was  allowed  to  put  himself  at 
the  head  of  the  Scottish  armies.     The  marquis  of  Huntly  was 
executed  for  taking  up  arms  for  the  king  on  the  22nd  of  March 
1649.     Montrose,  under  Charles's  directions,  made  a  last  attempt 
to  rally  the  Scottish  Royalists  early  in  1650.     But  Charles  merely 
used  Montrose  as  a  threat  to  obtain  better  conditions  for  himself 
from  the  Covenanters,  and  when  the  noblest  of  all  the  Royalists 
was  defeated  (Carbisdale,  April  27),  delivered  up  to  his  pursuers 
(May  4),  and  executed  (May  21,  1650),  he  was  not  ashamed  to 
give  way  to  the  demands  of  the  Covenanters,  and  to  place  himself 
at  the  head  of  Montrose's  executioners.     His  father,  whatever 
his  faults,  had  at  least  chosen  to  die  for  an  ideal,  the  Church  of 
England.     Charles  II.  now  proposed  to  regain  the  throne  by 
allowing  Scotland  to  impose  Presbyterianism  on  England,  and 
dismissed  all  the  faithful  Cavaliers  who  had  followed  him  to 
exile.     Meanwhile,  Ireland,  in  which  a  fresh  war,  with  openly 
anti-English  and  anti-Protestant  objects,  had  broken  out  in 
1648,  was  thoroughly  reduced  to  order  by  Cromwell,  who  beat 
down  all  resistance  by  his  skill,  and  even  more  by  his  ruthless 
severity,  in  a  brief  campaign  of  nine  months  (battle  of  Rathmines 
near  Dublin,  won  by  Colonel  Michael  Jones,  August  2,  1649; 
storming  of  Drogheda,  September  n,  and  of  Wexford,  October 
ii,  by  Cromwell;  capture  of  Kilkenny,  March  28,  1650,  and  of 
Clonmel,  May  10).     Cromwell  returned  to  England  at  the  end 
of  May  1650,  and  on  June  26  Fairfax,  who  had  been  anxious 
and  uneasy  since  the  execution  of  the  king,  resigned  the  com- 
mand-in-chief   of    the    army    to    his    lieutenant-general.     The 
pretext,  rather  than  the  reason,  of  Fairfax's  resignation  was  his 
unwillingness  to  lead  an  English  army  to  reduce  Scotland. 

51.  The  Invasion  of  Scotland. — This  important  step  had  been 
resolved  upon  as  soon  as  it  was  clear  that  Charles  II.  would 
come  to  terms  with  the  Covenanters.     From  this  point  the 
Second  Civil  War  becomes  a  war  of  England  against  Scotland. 
Here  at  least  the  Independents  carried  the  whole  of  England 
with  them.     No  Englishman  cared  to  accept  a  settlement  at  the 
hands  of  a  victorious  foreign  army,  and  on  the  28th  of  June, 
five  days  after  Charles~II.  had  sworn  to  the  Covenant,  the  new 
lord-general  was  on  his  way  to  the  Border  to  take  command  of 
the  English  army.     About  the  same  time  a  new  militia  act  was 
passed  that  was  destined  to  give  full  and  decisive  effect  to  the 


GREAT  REBELLION 


419 


national  spirit  of  England  in  the  great  final  campaign  of  the  war. 
Meanwhile  the  motto  frappez  fort,  frappez  vile  was  carried  out 
at  once  by  the  regular  forces.  On  the  igth  of  July  1650  Cromwell 
made  the  final  arrangements  at  Berwick-on-Tweed.  Major- 
General  Harrison,  a  gallant  soldier  and  an  extreme  Independent, 
was  to  command  the  regular  and  auxiliary  forces  left  in  England, 
and  to  secure  the  Commonwealth  against  Royalists  and  Presby- 
terians. Cromwell  took  with  him  Fleetwood  as  lieutenant-general 
and  Lambert  as  major-general,  and  his  forces  numbered  about 
10,000  foot  and  5000  horse.  His  opponent  David  Leslie  (his 
comrade  of  Marston  Moor)  had  a  much  larger  force,  but  its  degree 
of  training  was  inferior,  it  was  more  than  tainted  by  the  political 
dissensions  of  the  people  at  large,  and  it  was,  in  great  part  at 
any  rate,  raised  by  forced  enlistment.  On  the  22nd  of  July 
Cromwell  crossed  the  Tweed.  He  marched  on  Edinburgh  by 
the  sea  coast,  through  Dunbar,  Haddington  and  Musselburgh, 
living  almost  entirely  on  supplies  landed  by  the  fleet  which 
accompanied  him — for  the  country  itself  was  incapable  of 
supporting  even  a  small  army — and  on  the  2pth  he  found 
Leslie's  army  drawn  up  and  entrenched  in  a  position  extending 
from  Leith  to  Edinburgh. 

52.  Operations  around  Edinburgh. — The  same  day  a  sharp  but 
indecisive  fight  took  place  on  the  lower  slopes  of  Arthur's  Seat, 
after  which  Cromwell,  having  felt  the  strength  of  Leslie's  line, 
drew  back  to  Musselburgh.     Leslie's  horse  followed  him  up 
sharply,  and  another  action  was  fought,  after  which  the  Scots 
assaulted  Musselburgh  without  success.     Militarily  Leslie  had 
the  best  of  it  in  these  affairs,  but  it  was  precisely  this  moment 
that  the  kirk  party  chose  to  institute  a  searching  three  days' 
examination  of  the  political  and  religious  sentiments  of  his  army. 
The  result  was  that  the  army  was  "  purged  "  of  80  officers  and 
3000  soldiers  as  it  lay  within  musket  shot  of  the  enemy.     Crom- 
well was  more  concerned,  however,  with  the  supply  question 
than  with  the  distracted  army  of  the  Scots.     On  the  6th  of 
August  he  had  to  fall  back  as  far  as  Dunbar  to  enable  the  fleet 
to  land  supplies  in  safety,  the  port  of  Musselburgh  being  unsafe 
in  the  violent  and  stormy  weather  which  prevailed.     He  soon 
returned  to  Musselburgh  and  prepared  to  force  Leslie  to  battle. 
In  preparation  for  an  extended  manoeuvre  three  days'  rations 
were  served  out.     Tents  were  also  issued,  perhaps  for  the  first 
time  in  the  civil  wars,  for  it  was  a  regular  professional  army, 
which  had  to  be  cared  for,  made  comfortable  and  economized, 
that  was  now  carrying  on  the  work  of  the  volunteers  of  the  first 
war.     Even  after  Cromwell  started  on  his  manoeuvre,  the  Scottish 
army  was  still  in  the  midst  of  its  political  troubles,  and,  certain 
though  he  was  that  nothing  but  victory  in  the  field  would  give 
an  assured  peace,  he  was  obliged  to  intervene  in  the  confused 
negotiations  of  the  various  Scottish  parties.     At  last,  however, 
Charles  II.  made  a  show  of  agreeing  to  the  demands  of  his 
strange  supporters,  and  Leslie  was  free  to  move.     Cromwell 
had  now  entered  the  hill  country,  with  a  view  to  occupying 
Queensferry  and  thus  blocking  up  Edinburgh.     Leslie  had  the 
shorter  road  and  barred  the  way  at  Corstorphine  Hill  (August 
21).     Cromwell,  though  now  far  from   his   base,  manoeuvred 
again  to  his  right,   Leslie  meeting  him  once  more  at  Gogar 
(August  27).     The  Scottish  lines  at  that  point  were  strong  enough 
to  dismay  even  Cromwell,  and  the  manoeuvre  on   Queensferry 
was  at  last  given  up.     It  had  cost  the  English  army  severe  losses 
in  sick,  and  much  suffering  in  the  autumn  nights  on  the  bleak 
hillsides. 

53.  Dunbar. — On  the  28th  Cromwell  fell  back  on  Musselburgh, 
and  on  the  3ist,  after  embarking  his  non-effective  men,  to  Dun- 
bar.     Leslie  followed  him  up,  and  wished  to  fight  a  battle  at 
Dunbar  on  Sunday,  the  ist  of  September.     But  again  the  kirk 
intervened,  this  time  to  forbid  Leslie  to  break  the  Sabbath,  and 
the  unfortunate  Scottish  commander  could  only  establish  himself 
on  Doon  Hill  (see  DUNBAR)  and  send  a  force  to  Cockburnspath 
to  bar  the  Berwick  road.     He  had  now  23,000  men  to  Cromwell's 
11,000,  and  proposed,  faute  de  mieux,  to  starve  Cromwell  into 
surrender.     But  the  English  army  was  composed  of  "  ragged 
soldiers  with  bright  muskets,"  and  had  a  great  captain  of  un- 
disputed authority  at  their  head.     Leslie's,  on  the  other  hand, 


had  lost  such  discipline  as  it  had  ever  possessed,  and  was  now, 
under  outside  influences,  thoroughly  disintegrated.  Cromwell 
wrote  home,  indeed,  that  he  was  "  upon  an  engagement  very 
difficult,"  but,  desperate  as  his  position  seemed,  he  felt  the 
pulse  of  his  opponent  and  steadily  refused  to  take  his  army  away 
by  sea.  He  had  not  to  wait  long.  It  was  now  the  turn  of  Leslie's 
men  on  the  hillside  to  endure  patiently  privation  and  exposure, 
and  after  one  night's  bivouac,  Leslie,  too  readily  inferring  that 
the  enemy  was  about  to  escape  by  sea,  came  down  to  fight.  The 
battle  of  Dunbar  (q.v.)  opened  in  the  early  morning  of  the  3rd  of 
September.  It  was  the  most  brilliant  of  all  Oliver's  victories. 
Before  the  sun  was  high  in  the  heavens  the  Scottish  army  had 
ceased  to  exist. 

54.  Royalism  in  Scotland. — After  Dunbar  it  was  easy  for  the 
victorious  army  to  overrun  southern  Scotland,  more  especially 
as  the  dissensions  of  the  enemy  were  embittered  by  the  defeat 
of  which  they  had  been  the  prime  cause.     The  kirk  indeed  put 
Dunbar  to  the  account  of  its  own  remissness  in  not  purging  their 
army  more  thoroughly,  but,  as  Cromwell  wrote  on  the  4th  of 
September,  the  kirk  had  "  done  its  do."     "  I  believe  their  king 
will  set  up  on  his  own  score,"  he  continued,  and  indeed,  now  that 
the  army  of  the  kirk  was  destroyed  and  they  themselves  were 
secure  behind  the  Forth  and  based  on  the  friendly  Highlands, 
Charles  and  the  Cavaliers  were  in  a  position  not  only  to  defy 
Cromwell,  but  also  to  force  the  Scottish  national  spirit  of  resist- 
ance to  the  invader  into  a  purely  Royalist  channel.     Cromwell 
had  only  received  a  few  drafts  and  reinforcements  from  England, 
and  for  the  present  he  could  but  block  up  Edinburgh  Castle 
(which  surrendered  on  Christmas  eve),  and  try  to  bring  up 
adequate  forces  and  material  for  the  siege  of  Stirling — an  attempt 
which  was  frustrated  by  the  badness  of  the  roads  and  the  violence 
of  the  weather.     The  rest  of  the  early  winter  of  1650  was  thus 
occupied   in   semi-military,   semi-political   operations   between 
detachments  of  the  English  army  and  certain  armed  forces  of  the 
kirk  party  which  still  maintained  a  precarious  existence  in  the 
western  Lowlands,  and  in  police  work  against  the  moss-troopers 
of  the  Border  counties.     Early  in  February  1651,  still  in  the 
midst  of  terrible  weather,  Cromwell  made  another  resolute  but 
futile  attempt  to  reach  Stirling.     This  time  he  himself  fell  sick, 
and  his  losses  had  to  be  made  good  by  drafts  of  recruits  from 
England,  many  of  whom  came  most  unwillingly  to  serve  in  the 
cold  wet  bivouacs  that  the  newspapers  had  graphically  reported.1 

55.  The  English  Militia. — About  this  time  there  occurred 
in  England  two  events  which  had  a  most  important  bearing  on 
the  campaign.     The  first  was  the  detection  of  a  widespread 
Royalist-Presbyterian  conspiracy — how  widespread  no  one  knew, 
for  those  of  its  promoters  who  were  captured  and  executed  cer- 
tainly formed  but  a  small  fraction  of  the  whole  number.  Harrison 
was  ordered  to  Lancashire  in  April  to  watch  the  north  Welsh, 
Isle  of  Man  and  Border  Royalists,  and  military  precautions  were 
taken  in  various  parts  of  England.     The  second  was  the  revival 
of  the  militia.     Since  1644  there  had  been  no  general  employment 
of  local  forces,  the  quarrel  having  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the 
regular  armies  by  force  of  circumstances.     The  New  Model, 
though   a   national  army,   resembled   Wellington's   Peninsular 
army  more  than  the  soldiers  of  the  French  Revolution  and  the 
American  Civil  War.     It  was  now  engaged  in  prosecuting  a 
war  of  aggression  against  the  hereditary  foe  over  the  Border — 
strictly  the  task  of  a  professional  army  with  a  national  basis. 
The  militia  was  indeed  raw  and  untrained.     Some  of  the  Essex 
men  "  fell  flat  on  their  faces  on  the  sound  of  a  cannon."     In  the 
north  of  England  Harrison  complained  to   Cromwell  of  the 
"  badness  "  of  his  men,  and  the  lord  general  sympathized, 
having  "  had  much  such  stuff  "  sent  him  to  make  good  the 
losses  in  trained  men.     Even  he  for  a  moment  lost  touch  with  the 
spirit  of  the  people.     His  recruits  were  unwilling  drafts  for  foreign 
service,  but  in  England  the  new  levies  were  trusted  to  defend 

1  The  tents  were  evidently  issued  for  regular  marches,  not  for 
cross-country  manoeuvres  against  the  enemy.  These  manoeuvres, 
as  we  have  seen,  often  took  several  days.  The  ban  gtntral  ordinaire 
of  the  I7th  and  i8th  centuries  framed  his  manoeuvres  on  a  smaller 
scale  so  as  not  to  expose  his  expensive  and  highly  trained  soldiers 
to  discomfort  and  the  consequent  temptation  to  desert. 


420 


GREAT  REBELLION 


their  homes,  and  the  militia  was  soon  triumphantly  to  justify  its 
existence  on  the  day  of  Worcester. 

56.  Inverkeithing. — While  David  Leslie  organized  and  drilled 
the  king's  new  army  beyond  the  Forth,  Cromwell  was,  slowly 
and  with  frequent  relapses,  recovering  from  his  illness.     The 
English  army  marched  to  Glasgow  in  April,  then  returned  to 
Edinburgh.     The  motives  of  the  march  and  that  of  the  return 
are  alike  obscure, -but  it  may  be  conjectured  that,  the  forces  in 
England  under  Harrison  having  now  assembled  in  Lancashire, 
the  Edinburgh-Newcastle-York  road  had  to  be  covered  by  the 
main  army.     Be  this  as  it  may,  Cromwell's  health  again  broke 
down  and  his  life  was  despaired  of.     Only  late  in  June  were 
operations  actively  resumed  between  Stirling  and  Linlithgow. 
At  first  Cromwell  sought  without  success  to  bring  Leslie  to 
battle,  but  he  stormed  Callendar  House  near  Falkirk  on  July  13, 
and  on  the  i6th  of  July  he  began  the  execution  of  a  brilliant 
and  successful  manoeuvre.    A  force  from  Queensferry,  covered  by 
the  English  fleet,  was  thrown  across  the  Firth  of  Forth  to  North- 
ferry.     Lambert  followed  with  reinforcements,  and  defeated  a 
detachment  of  Leslie's  army  at  Inverkeithing  on  the   2oth. 
Leslie  drew  back  at  once,  but  managed  to  find  a  fresh  strong 
position  in  front  of  Stirling,  whence  he  defied  Cromwell  again. 
At  this  juncture  Cromwell  prepared  to  pass  his  whole  army  across 
the  firth.     His  contemplated  manoeuvre  of  course  gave  up  to  the 
enemy  all  the  roads  into  England,  and  before  undertaking  it  the 
lord  general  held  a  consultation  with  Harrison,  as  the  result  of 
which  that  officer  took  over  the  direct  defence  of  the  whole 
Border.     But  his  mind  was  made  up  even  before  this,  for  on  the 
day  he  met  Harrison  at  Linlithgow  three-quarters  of  his  whole 
army  had  already  crossed  into  Fife.     Burntisland,  surrendered 
to  Lambert  on  the  29th,  gave  Cromwell  a  good  harbour  upon 
which  to  base  his  subsequent  movements.     On  the  3oth  of  July 
the  English  marched  upon  Perth,  and  the  investment  of  this 
place,  the  key  to  Leslie's  supply  area,  forced  the  crisis  at  once. 
Whether  Leslie  would  have   preferred  to  manoeuvre  Cromwell 
from  his  vantage-ground  or  not  is  immaterial;  the  young  king 
and  the  now  predominant  Royalist  element  at  headquarters 
seized  the  long-awaited  opportunity  at  once,  and  on  the  3ist, 
leaving  Cromwell  to  his  own  devices,  the  Royal  army  marched 
southward  to  raise  the  Royal  standard  in  England. 

57.  The  Third  Scottish  Invasion  of  England. — Then  began  the 
last  and  most  thrilling  campaign  of  the  Great  Rebellion.     Charles 
II.  expected  complete  success.     In  Scotland,  vis-a-vis  the  extreme 
Covenanters,  he  was  a  king  on  conditions,  and  he  was  glad  enough 
to  find  himself  in  England  with  some  thirty  solidly  organized  regi- 
ments under  Royalist  officers  and  with  no  regular  army  in  front 
of  him.     He  hoped,  too,  to  rally  not  merely  the  old  faithful 
Royalists,  but  also  the  overwhelming  numerical  strength  of  the 
English  Presbyterians  to  his  standard.     His  army  was  kept  well 
in  hand,  no  excesses  were  allowed,  and  in  a  week  the  Royalists 
covered  150  m. — in  marked  contrast  to  the  duke  of  Hamilton's 
ill-fated  expedition  of  1648.     On  the  8th  of  August  the  troops 
were  given  a  well-earned  rest  between  Penrith  and  Kendal. 

But  the  Royalists  were  mistaken  in  supposing  that  the  enemy 
was  taken  aback  by  their  new  move.  Everything  had  been 
foreseen  both  by  Cromwell  and  by  the  Council  of  State  in  West- 
minster. The  latter  had  called  out  the  greater  part  of  the 
militia  on  the  yth.  Lieutenant-General  Fleetwood  began  to 
draw  together  the  midland  contingents  at  Banbury,  the  London 
trained  bands  turned  out  for  field  service  no  fewer  than  14,000 
strong.  Every  suspected  Royalist  was  closely  watched,  and  the 
magazines  of  arms  in  the  country-houses  of  the  gentry  were  for 
the  most  part  removed  into  the  strong  places.  On  his  part 
Cromwell  had  quietly  made  his  preparations.  Perth  passed  into 
his  hands  on  the  2nd  of  August,  and  he  brought  back  his  army  to 
Leith  by  the  sth.  Thence  he  despatched  Lambert  with  a  cavalry 
corps  to  harass  the  invaders.  Harrison  was  already  at  Newcastle 
picking  the  best  of  the  county  mounted  troops  to  add  to  his  own 
regulars.  On  the  pth  Charles  was  at  Kendal,  Lambert  hovering  in 
his  rear,  and  Harrison  marching  swiftly  to  bar  his  way  at  the 
Mersey.  Fairfax  emerged  for  a  moment  from  his  retirement  to 
organize  the  Yorkshire  levies,  and  the  best  of  these  as  well  as  of 


the  Lancashire,  Cheshire  and  Staffordshire  militias  were  directed 
upon  Warrington,  which  point  Harrison  reached  on  the  isth,  a 
few  hours  in  front  of  Charles's  advanced  guard.  Lambert  too, 
slipping  round  the  left  flank  of  the  enemy,  joined  Harrison,  and 
the  English  fell  back  (i6th),  slowly  and  without  letting  themselves 
be  drawn  into  a  fight,  along  the  London  road. 

58.  Campaign  of  Worcester. — Cromwell  meanwhile,  leaving 
Monk  with  the  least  efficient  regiments  to  carry  on  the  war  in 
Scotland,  had  reached  the  Tyne  in  seven  days,  and  thence, 
marching  20  m.  a  day  in  extreme  heat — with  the  country  people 
carrying    their    arms    and    equipment — the-  regulars    entered 
Ferrybridge  on  the  igth,  at  which  date  Lambert,  Harrison  and 
the  north-western  militia  were  about  Congleton.1    It  seemed 
probable  that  a  great  battle  would  take  place  between  Lichfield 
and  Coventry  about  the  25th  or  26th  of  August,  and  that  Crom- 
well, Harrison,  Lambert  and  Fleetwood  would  all  take  part  in  it. 
But  the  scene  and  the  date  of  the  denouement  were  changed  by 
the  enemy's  movements.     Shortly  after  leaving  Warrington  the 
young  king  had  resolved  to  abandon  the  direct  march  on  London 
and  to  make  for  the  Severn  valley,  where  his  father  had  found  the 
most  constant  and  the  most  numerous  adherents  in  the  first  war, 
and  which  had  been  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  English  Royalist 
movement  of  1648.     Sir  Edward  Massey,  formerly  the  Parlia- 
mentary governor  of  Gloucester,  was  now  with  Charles,  and  it  was 
hoped  that  he  would  induce  his  fellow-Presbyterians  to  take  arms. 
The  military  quality  of  the  Welsh  border  Royalists  was  well 
proved,  that  of  the  Gloucestershire  Presbyterians  not  less  so,  and, 
based  on  Gloucester  and  Worcester  as  his  father  had  been  based 
on  Oxford,  Charles  II.  hoped,  not  unnaturally,  to  deal  with  an 
Independent  minority  more  effectually  than  Charles  I.  had  done 
with  a  Parliamentary  majority  of  the  people  of  England.     But 
even  the  pure  Royalism  which  now  ruled  in  the  invading  army 
could  not  alter  the  fact  that  it  was  a  Scottish  army,  and  it  was 
not  an  Independent  faction  but  all  England  that  took  arms 
against  it.     Charles  arrived  at  Worcester  on  the  22nd  of  August, 
and  spent  five  days  in  resting  the  troops,  preparing  for  further 
operations,  and  gathering  and  arming  the  few  recruits  who  came 
in.     It  is  unnecessary  to  argue  that  the  delay  was  fatal;  it  was  a 
necessity  of  the  case  foreseen  and  accepted  when  the  march  to 
Worcester  had  been  decided  upon,  and  had  the  other  course, 
that  of  marching  on  London  via  Lichfield,  been  taken  the  battle 
would  have  been  fought  three  days  earlier  with  the  same  result. 
As  affairs  turned  out  Cromwell  merely  shifted  the  area  of  his 
concentration  two  marches  to  the  south-west,   to  Evesham. 
Early  on  the  28th  Lambert  surprised  the  passage  of  the  Severn 
at  Upton,  6  m.  below  Worcester,  and  in  the  action  which  followed 
Massey  was  severely  wounded.     Fleetwood  followed  Lambert. 
The  enemy  was  now  only  16,000  strong  and  disheartened  by  the 
apathy  with  which  they  had  been  received  in  districts  formerly  all 
their  own.     Cromwell,  for  the  first  and  last  time  in  his  military 
career,  had  a  two-to-one  numerical  superiority. 

59.  The  "  Crowning  Mercy."— He  took  his  measures  deliber- 
ately.    Lilburne  from  Lancashire  and  Major  Mercer  with  the 
Worcestershire  horse  were  to  secure  Bewdley  Bridge  on  the 
enemy's  line  of  retreat.     Lambert  and  Fleetwood  were  to  force 
their  way  across  the  Teme  (a  little  river  on  which  Rupert  had  won 
his  first  victory  in  1642)  and  attack  St  John's,  the  western  suburb 
of  Worcester.     Cromwell  himself  and  the  main  army  were  to 
attack  the  town  itself.     On  the  3rd  of  September,  the  anniversary 
of  Dunbar,  the  programme  was  carried  out  exactly.     Fleetwood 
forced  the  passage  of  the  Teme,  and  the  bridging  train  (which  had 
been  carefully  organized  for  the  purpose)  bridged  both  the  Teme 
and  the  Severn.     Then  Cromwell  on  the  left  bank  and  Fleetwood 
on  the  right  swept  in  a  semicircle  4  m.  long  up  to  Worcester. 
Every  hedgerow  was  contested  by  the  stubborn  Royalists,  but 
Fleetwood's  men  would  not  be  denied,  and  Cromwell's  extreme 
right  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  town  repelled,  after  three  hours' 
hard  fighting,  the  last  desperate  attempt  of  the  Royalists  to  break 

1  The  lord  general  had  during  his  march  thrown  out  successively 
two  flying  columns  under  Colonel  Lilburne  to  deal  with  the  Lanca- 
shire Royalists  under  the  earl  of  Derby.  Lilburne  entirely  routed 
the  enemy  at  Wigan  on  the  25th  of  August. 


GREAT  SALT  LAKE 


421 


out.  It  was  indeed,  as  a  German  critic1  has  pointed  out,  the 
prototype  of  Sedan.  Everywhere  the  defences  were  stormed  as 
darkness  came  on,  regulars  and  militia  fighting  with  equal 
gallantry,  and  the  few  thousands  of  the  Royalists  who  escaped 
during  the  night  were  easily  captured  by  Lilburne  and  Mercer,  or 
by  the  militia  which  watched  every  road  in  Yorkshire  and  Lanca- 
shire. Even  the  country  people  brought  in  scores  of  prisoners, 
for  officers  and  men  alike,  stunned  by  the  suddenness  of  the 
disaster,  offered  no  resistance.  Charles  escaped  after  many 
adventures,  but  he  was  one  of  the  few  men  in  his  army  who 
regained  a  place  of  safety.  The  Parliamentary  militia  were  sent 
home  within  a  week.  Cromwell,  who  had  ridiculed  "  such  stuff  " 
six  months  ago,  knew  them  better  now.  "  Your  new  raised 
forces,"  he  wrote  to  the  House,  "  did  perform  singular  good 
service,  for  which  they  deserve  a  very  high  estimation  and 
acknowledgment."  Worcester  resembled  Sedan  in  much  more 
than  outward  form.  Both  were  fought  by  "  nations  in  arms,"  by 
citizen  soldiers  who  had  their  hearts  in  the  struggle,  and  could  be 
trusted  not  only  to  fight  their  hardest  but  to  march  their  best. 
Only  with  such  troops  would  a  general  dare  to  place  a  deep  river 
between  the  two  halves  of  his  army  or  to  send  away  detachments 
beforehand  to  reap  the  fruits  of  victory,  in  certain  anticipation 
of  winning  the  victory  with  the  remainder.  The  sense  of  duty, 
which  the  raw  militia  possessed  in  so  high  a  degree,  ensured  the 
arrival  and  the  action  of  every  column  at  the  appointed  time  and 
place.  The  result  was,  in  brief,  one  of  those  rare  victories  in 
which  a  pursuit  is  superfluous — a  "  crowning  mercy,"  as  Cromwell 
called  it.  There  is  little  of  note  in  the  closing  operations.  Monk 
had  completed  his  task  by  May  1652;  and  Scotland,  which  had 
twice  attempted  to  impose  its  will  on  England,  found  itself 
reduced  to  the  position  of  an  English  province  under  martial 
law.  The  details  of  its  subjection  are  uninteresting  after  the 
tremendous  climax  of  Worcester. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Earl  of  Clarendon,  The  History  of  the  Rebellion 
(Oxford,  1702-1704,  ed.  W.  D.  Macray,  Oxford,  1888);  R.  Baillie, 
Letters  and  Journals  (Bannatyne  Society,  1841);  T.  Carlyle,  Crom- 
well's Letters  and  Speeches  (new  edition,  S.  C.  Lomas,  London,  1904) ; 
Fairfax  Correspondence  (ed.  R.  Bell,  London,  1849);  E.  Borlace, 
History  of  the  Irish  Rebellion  (London,  1675) ;  R.  Sellings,  Frag- 
mentum  historicum,  or  the  .  .  .  War  in  Ireland  (London,  1772);  J. 
Heath,  Chronicle  of  the  late  Intestine  War  (London,  1676) ;  Military 
Memoir  of  Colonel  Birch  (Camden  Society,  new  series,  vol.  vii.,  1873) ; 
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on  the  earl  of  Manchester,  Camden  Society,  vol.  viii.,  and  English 
Historical  Review,  vol.  iii.;  J.  Ricraft,  Survey  of  England's  Champions 
(1647,  reprinted,  London,  1818);  ed.  E.  Warburton,  Memoirs  of 
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Colonel  Hutchinson  (ed.  C.  H.  Firth,  Oxford,  1896);  Memoirs  of 
Edward  Ludlow  (ed.  C.  H.  Firth,  Oxford,  1892);  S.  Ashe  and  W. 
Goode,  The  Services  of  the  Earl  of  Manchester's  Army  (London,  1644); 
H.  Gary,  Memorials  of  the  Great  Civil  War  (London,  1842);  Patrick 
Gordon,  Passages  from  the  Diary  of  Patrick  Gordon  (Spalding  Club, 
Aberdeen,  1859);  J.  Gwynne,  Military  Memoirs  of  the  Civil  War 
(ed.  Sir  W.  Scott,  Edinburgh,  1822) ;  Narratives  of  Hamilton's 
Expedition,  1648  (C.  H.  Firth,  Scottish  Historical  Society,  Edinburgh, 
1904);  Lord  Hopton,  Bellum  Civile  (Somerset  Record  Society, 
London,  1902) ;  Irish  War  of  1641  (Camden  Society,  old  series,  vol. 
xiv.,  1841) ;  Iter  Carolinum,  Marches  of  Charles  1. 1641-1649  (London, 
1660) ;  Hugh  Peters,  Reports  from  the  Armies  of  Fairfax  and  Cromwell 
(London,  164^5-1646) ;  "  Journal  of  the  Marches  of  Prince  Rupert  " 
(ed.  C.  H.  Firth,  Engl.  Historical  Review,  1898);  J.  Sprigge,  Anglia 
Rediviva  (London,  1847,  reprinted  Oxford,  1854) ;  R.  Symonds, 
Diary  of  the  Marches  of  the  Royal  Army,  1644-1645  (ed.  C.  E.  Long, 
Camden  Society,  old  series,  1859);  J.  Corbet,  The  Military  Govern- 
ment of  Gloucester  (London,  1645);  M.  Carter,  Expeditions  of  Kent, 
Essex  and  Colchester  (London,  1650);  Tracts  relating  to  the  Civil 
War  in  Lancashire  (ed.  G.  Ormerod,  Chetham  Society,  London, 
1844) ;  Discourse  of  the  War  in  Lancashire  (ed.  W.  Beament,  Chetham 
Society,  London,  1864);  Sir  M.  Langdale,  The  late  Fight  at  Preston 
(London,  1648) ;  Journal  of  the  Siege  of  Latham  House  (London,  1823) ; 
J.  Rushworth,  The  Storming  of  Bristol  (London,  1645) ;  S.  R.  Gardiner 
History  of  the  Great  Civil  War  (London,  1886);  and  History  of  the 
Commonwealth  and  Protectorate  (London,  1903);  C.  H.  Firth,  Oliver 
Cromwell  (New  York  and  London,  1900) ;  Cromwell's  Army  (London, 
1902) ;  "  The  Raising  of  the  Ironsides,"  Transactions  R.  Hist. 

1  Fritz  Hoenig,  Cromwell. 


Society,  1899  and  igoi ;  papers  in  English  Historical  Review,  and 
memoirs  of  the  leading  personages  of  the  period  in  Dictionary  of 
National  Biography;  T.  S.  Baldock,  Cromwell  as  a  Soldier  (London, 
1899);  F.  Hoenig,  Oliver  Cromwell  (Berlin,  1887-1889);  Sir  J. 
Maclean,  Memoirs  of  the  Family  of  Poyntz  (Exeter,  1886) ;  Sir  C. 
Markham,  Life  of  Fairfax  (London,  1870);  M.  Napier,  Life  and 
Times  of  Montrose  (Edinburgh,  1840);  W.  B.  Devereux,  Lives  of 
the  Earls  of  Essex  (London,  1853);  W.  G.  Ross,  Mil.  Engineering 
in  the  Civil  War  (R.E.  Professional  Papers,  1887) ;  "  The  Battle  of 
Naseby,"  English  Historical  Review,  1888;  Oliver  Cromwell  and 
his  Ironsides  (Chatham,  1869);  F.  N.  Maude,  Cavalry,  its  Past  and 
Future  (London,  1903) ;  E.  Scott,  Rupert,  Prince  Palatine  (London, 
1899) ;  M.  Stace,  Cromwelliana  (London,  1870) ;  C.  S.  Terry,  Life 
and  Campaigns  of  Alexander  Leslie,  Earl  of  Leven  (London,  1899); 
Madame  H.  de  Witt,  The  Lady  of  Latham  (London,  1869);  F. 
Maseres,  Tracts  relating  to  the  Civil  War  (London,  1815);  P.  A. 
Charrier,  Cromwell  (London,  1905),  also  paper  in  Royal  United  Service 
Institution  Journal,  1906;  T.  Arnold  and  W.  G.  Ross,  "  Edgehill," 
English  Historical  Review,  1887;  The  History  of  Basing  House 
(Basingstoke,  1869) ;  E.  Broxap,  "  The  Sieges  of  Hull,"  English 
Historical  Review,  1905;  J.  Willis  Bund,  The  Civil  War  in  Worcester- 
shire (Birmingham,  1905) ;  C.  Cpates,  History  of  Reading  (London, 
1802) ;  F.  Drake,  Eboracum:  History  of  the  City  of  York  (London, 
1736);  N.  Drake,  Siege  of  Pontefract  Castle  (Surtees  Society  Miscel- 
lanea, London,  1861);  G.  N.  Godwin,  The  Civil  War  in  Hampshire 
(2nd  ed.,  London,  1904) ;  J.  F.  Hollings,  Leicester  during  the  Civil 
War  (Leicester,  1840);  R.  Holmes,  Sieges  of  Pontefract  Castle 
< Pontefract,  1887);  A.  Kingston,  East  Anglia  and  the  Civil  War 
(London,  1897);  H.  E.  Maiden,  "  Maidstone,  1648,"  English  Hist. 
Review,  1892;  W.  Money,  Battles  of  Newbury  (Newbury,  1884); 
J.  R.  Phillips,  The  Civil  War  in  Wales  and  the  Marches  (London, 
1874);  G.  Rigaud,  Lines  round  Oxford  (1880);  G.  Roberts,  History 
of  Lyme  (London,  1834) ;  [R.  Robinson]  Sieges  of  Bristol  (Bristol, 
1868);  [J.  H.  Round]  History  of  Colchester  Castle  (Colchester,  1882) 
and  "  The  Case  of  Lucas  and  Lisle,"  Transactions  of  R.  Historical 
Society,  1894;  R.  R.  Sharpe,  London  and  the  Kingdom  (London, 
1894);  I.  Tullie,  Siege  of  Carlisle  (1840);  E.  A.  Walford,  "  Edge- 
hill,  English  Hist.  Review,  1905;  J.  Washbourne,  Bibliotheca 
Gloucestrensis  (Gloucester,  1825);  J.  Webb,  Civil 


shire  (London,  1879). 


War  in  Hereford- 
(C.  F.  A.) 


GREAT  SALT  LAKE,  a  shallow  body  of  highly  concentrated 
brine  in  the  N.W.  part  of  Utah,  U.S.A.,  lying  between  118-8° 
and  113-2°  W.  long,  and  between  40-7°  and  41-8°  lat.  Great 
Salt  Lake  is  4218  ft.  above  sea-level.  It  has  no  outlet,  and  is 
fed  chiefly  by  the  Jordan,  the  Weber  and  the  Bear  rivers,  all 
draining  the  mountainous  country  to  the  E.  and  S.E.  The 
irregular  outline  of  the  lake  has  been  compared  to  the  roughly 
drawn  hand,  palm  at  the  S.,  thumb  (exaggerated  in  breadth) 
pointing  N.E.,  and  the  fingers  (crowded  together  and  drawn 
too  small)  reaching  N. 

No  bathymetric  survey  of  the  lake  has  been  made,  but  the 
maximum  depth  is  60  ft.  and  the  mean  depth  less  than  20  ft., 
possibly  as  little  as  13  ft.  The  lake  in  1906  was  approximately 
75  m.  long.,  from  N.W.  to  S.E.,  and  had  a  maximum  width  of 
50  m.  and  an  area  of  1 7  50  sq.  m.  This  area  is  not  constant,  as  the 
water  is  very  shallow  at  the  margins,  and  the  relation  between 
supply  from  precipitation,  &c.,  and  loss  by  evaporation  is 
variable,  there  being  an  annual  difference  in  the  height  of  the 
water  of  15-18  in.  between  June  (highest)  and  November  (lowest), 
and  besides  a  difference  running  through  longer  cycles:  in  1850 
the  water  was  lower  and  the  lake  smaller  than  by  any  previous 
observations  (the  area  and  general  outline  were  nearly  the  same 
again  in  1906);  then  the  water  rose  until  1873;  and  between 
1886  and  1902  the  fall  in  level  was  n -6  ft.  The  range  of  rise  and 
fall  from  1845  to  1886  was  13  ft.,  this  being  the  rise  in  1865-1886. 
With  the  fall  of  water  there  is  an  increase  in  the  specific  gravity, 
which  in  1850  was  1-17,  and  in  September  1901  was  1-179; 
in  1850  the  proportion  of  solids  by  weight  was  22-282%,  in 
September  1901  it  was  25-221;  at  the  earlier  of  these  dates 
the  solids  in  a  litre  of  water  weighed  260-69  grams,  at  the  latter 
date  302-122  grams.  The  exact  cause  of  this  cyclic  variation 
is  unknown:  the  low  level  of  1906  is  usually  regarded  as  the 
result  of  extensive  irrigation  and  ploughing  in  the  surrounding 
country,  which  have  robbed  the  lake,  in  part,  of  its  normal 
supply  of  water.  It  is  also  to  be  noted  that  the  rise  and  fall 
of  the  lake  level  have  been  coincident,  respectively,  with  con- 
tinued wet  and  dry  cycles.  That  the  lake  will  soon  dry  up 
entirely  seems  unlikely,  as  there  is  a  central  trough,  25  to  30  m. 
wide,  about  40  ft.  deep,  running  N.W.  and  S.E.  The  area  and 


422 


GREAT  SLAVE  LAKE— GREAVES 


shore-line  of  the  lake  are  evidently  affected  by  a  slight  surface 
tilt,  for  during  the  same  generation  that  has  seen  the  recent 
fall  of  the  lake  level  the  shore-line  is  in  many  cases  2  m.  from  the 
old,  and  fences  may  be  seen  a  mile  or  more  out  in  the  lake.  The 
lake  bed  is  for  the  most  part  clear  sand  along  the  margin,  and  in 
deeper  water  is  largely  coated  with  crusts  of  salt,  soda  and 
gypsum. 

The  lake  is  a  novel  and  popular  bathing  resort,  the  specific 
gravity  of  the  water  being  so  great  that  one  cannot  sink  or 
entirely  submerge  oneself.  There  are  well-equipped  bathing 
pavilions  at  Garfield  and  Saltair  on  the  S.  shore  of  the  lake  about 
20  m.  from  Salt  Lake  City.  The  bathing  is  invigorating;  it 
must  be  followed  by  a  freshwater  bath  because  of  the  incrusta- 
tion of  the  body  from  the  briny  water.  The  large  amount  of 
salt  in  the  water  makes  both  fauna  and  flora  of  the  lake  scanty; 
there  are  a  few  algae,  the  larvae  of  an  Ephydra  and  of  a  Tipula 
fly,  specimens  of  what  seems  to  be  Corixa  decolor,  and  in  great 
quantities,  so  as  to  tint  the  surface  of  the  water,  the  brine 
shrimp,  Arlemia  salina  (or  gracilis  or  fertilis),  notable  biologically 
for  the  rarity  of  males,  for  the  high  degree  of  parthenogenesis  and 
for  apparent  interchangeableness  with  the  Branchipus. 

The  lake  is  of  interest  for  its  generally  mountainous  surround- 
ings, save  to  the  N.W.,  where  it  skirts  the  Great  Salt  Lake  Desert, 
for  the  mountainous  peninsula,  the  Promontory,  lying  between 
thumb  and  fingers  of  the  hand,  shaped  like  and  resembling  in 
geological  structure  the  two  islands  S.  of  it,  Fremont  and  Antelope,1 
and  the  Oquirrh  range  S.  of  the  lake.  The  physiography  of  the 
surrounding  country  shows  clearly  that  the  basin  occupied  by 
Great  Salt  Lake  is  one  of  many  left  by  the  drying  up  of  a  large 
Pleistocene  lake,  which  has  been  called  lake  Bonneville.  Well- 
defined  wave-cut  cliffs  and  terraces  show  two  distinct  shore-lines 
of  this  early  lake,  one.  the  "  Bonneville  Shore-line,"  about  1000 
ft.  above  Great  Salt  Lake,  and  the  other,  the  "  Provo  Shore- 
line," about  625  ft.  higher  than  the  present  lake.  These  shore- 
lines and  the  presence  of  two  alluvial  deposits,  the  lower  and  the 
larger  of  yellow  clay  90  ft.  deep,  and,  separated  from  it  by  a  plane 
of  erosion,  the  other,  a  deposit  of  white  marl,  10-20  ft.  deep, 
clearly  prove  the  main  facts  as  to  lake  Bonneville:  a  dry  basin 
was  first  occupied  by  the  shallow  waters  of  a  small  lake;  then, 
during  a  long  period  of  excessive  moisture  (or  cold),  the  waters 
rose  and  spread  over  an  area  nearly  as  large  as  lake  Huron  with 
a  maximum  depth  of  1000  ft.;  a  period  of  great  dryness  followed, 
in  which  the  lake  disappeared;  then  came  a  second,  shorter, 
but  more  intense  period  of  moisture,  and  in  this  time  the  lake 
rose,  covered  a  larger  area  than  before,  including  W.  Utah  and 
a  little  of  S.  Idaho  and  of  E.  Nevada,  about  19,750  sq.  m.,  had 
a  very  much  broken  shore-line  of  2550  m.  and  a  maximum 
depth  of  1050  ft.  and  a  mean  depth  of  800  ft.,  overflowed  the 
basin  at  the  N.,  and  by  a  tributary  stream  through  Red  Rock 
Pass  at  the  N.  end  of  the  Cache  valley  poured  its  waters  into 
the  Columbia  river  system.  The  great  lake  was  then  gradually 
reduced  by  evaporation,  leaving  only  shallow  bodies  of  salt  water, 
of  which  Great  Salt  Lake  is  the  largest.  The  cause  of  the 
climatic  variations  which  brought  about  this  complex  history 
of  the  Salt  Lake  region  is  not  known;  but  it  is  worthy  of 
note  that  the  periods  of  highest  water  levels  were  coincident 
with  a  great  expansion  of  local  valley  glaciers,  some  of  which 
terminated  in  the  waters  of  lake  Bonneville. 

Industrially  Great  Salt  Lake  is  of  a  certain  importance.  In 
early  days  it  was  the  source  of  the  salt  supply  of  the  surrounding 
country;  and  the  manufacture  of  salt  is  now  an  important 
industry.  The  brine  is  pumped  into  conduits,  carried  to  large 
ponds  and  there  evaporated  by  the  sun;  during  late  years  the 
salt  has  been  refined  here,  being  purified  of  the  sulphates  and 
magnesium  compounds  which  formerly  rendered  it  efflorescent 
and  of  a  low  commercial  grade.  Mirabilite,  or  Glauber's  salt, 
is  commercially  valuable,  occurring  in  such  quantities  in  parts 
of  the  lake  that  one  may  wade  knee-deep  in  it;  it  separates 

1  Besides  these  islands  there  are  a  few  small  islands  farther  N., 
and  W.  of  Antelope,  Stansbury  Island,  which,  like  Antelope  and 
Fremont  Islands,  is  connected  with  the  mainland  by  a  bar  sometimes 
uncovered  and  rarely  in  more  than  a  foot  of  water. 


from  the  brine  at  a  temperature  between  30°  and  20°  F.  The 
lake  is  crossed  E.  and  W.  by  the  Southern  Pacific  railway's 
so-called  "  Lucin  Cut-off,"  which  runs  from  Ogden  to  Lucin 
on  a  trestle  with  more  than  20  m.  of  "  fill  ";  the  former  route 
around  the  N.  end  of  the  lake  was  43  m.  long. 

Great  Salt  Lake  was  first  described  in  1689  by  Baron  La 
Hontan,  who  had  merely  heard  of  it  from  the  Indians.  "  Jim  " 
Bridger,  a  famous  mountaineer  and  scout,  saw  the  lake  in  1824, 
apparently  before  any  other  white  man.  Captain  Bonneville 
described  the  lake  and  named  it  after  himself,  but  the  name 
was  transferred  to  the  great  Pleistocene  lake.  John  C.  Fremont 
gave  the  first  description  of  any  accuracy  in  his  Report  of  1845. 
But  comparatively  little  was  known  of  it  before  the  Mormon 
settlement  in  1847.  In  1850  Captain  Howard  Stansbury  com- 
pleted a  survey,  whose  results  were  published  in  1852.  The 
most  extensive  and  important  studies  of  the  region,  however, 
are  those  by  Grove  Karl  Gilbert  of  the  United  States  Geological 
Survey,  who  in  1879-1890  studied  especially  the  earlier  and 
greater  lake. 

See  J.  E.  Talmage,  The  Great  Salt  Lake,  Present  and  Past  (Salt 
Lake  City,  1900) ;  and  Grove  Karl  Gilbert,  Lake  Bonneville,  mono- 
graph i  of  United  States  Geological  Survey  (Washington,  1890), 
containing  (pp.  12-19)  references  to  the  earlier  literature. 

GREAT  SLAVE  LAKE  (ATHAPUSCOW),  a  lake  of  Mackenzie 
district,  Canada.  It  is  situated  between  60°  50'  and  62°  55' 
N.  and  108°  40'  and  117°  W.,  at  an  altitude  of  391  ft.  above 
the  sea.  It  is  325  m.  long,  from  15  to  50  m.  wide,  and  includes 
an  area  of  9770  sq.  m.  The  water  is  very  clear  and  deep.  Its 
coast  line  is  irregular  and  deeply  indented  by  large  bays,  and  its 
north-eastern  shores  are  rugged  and  mountainous.  The  western 
shores  are  well  wooded,  chiefly  with  spruce,  but  the  northern 
and  eastern  are  dreary  and  barren.  It  is  navigable  from  about 
the  ist  of  July  to  the  end  of  October.  The  Yellow-knife,  Hoar- 
frost, Lockhart  (discharging  the  waters  of  Aylmer,  Clinton- 
Golden  and  Artillery  Lakes),  Tchzudezeth,  Du  Rocher,  Hay 
(400  m.  in  length),  and  Slave  rivers  empty  into  Great  Slave 
Lake.  The  bulk  of  its  water  empties  by  the  Mackenzie  river 
into  the  Arctic  Ocean,  but  a  small  portion  finds  its  way  by  the 
Ark-i-linik  river  into  Hudson's  Bay.  It  was  discovered  in  1771 
by  Samuel  Hearne. 

GREAT  SOUTHERN  OCEAN,  the  name  given  to  the  belt  of 
water  which  extends  almost  continuously  round  the  globe 
between  the  parallel  of  40°  S.  and  the  Antarctic  Circle  (665°  S.). 
The  fact  that  the  southern  extremity  of  South  America  is  the 
only  land  extending  into  this  belt  gives  it  special  physical 
importance  in  relation  to  tides  and  currents,  and  its  position 
with  reference  to  the  Antarctic  Ocean  and  continent  makes  it 
convenient  to  regard  it  as  a  separate  ocean  from  which  the 
Atlantic,  Pacific  and  Indian  Oceans  may  be  said  to  radiate. 
(See  OCEAN.) 

GREAVES,  JOHN  (1602-1652),  English  mathematician  and 
antiquary,  was  the  eldest  son  of  John  Greaves,  rector  of  Cole- 
more,  near  Alresford  in  Hampshire.  He  was  educated  at  Balliol 
College,  Oxford,  and  in  1630  was  chosen  professor  of  geometry 
in  Gresham  College,  London.  After  travelling  in  Europe, 
he  visited  the  East  in  1637,  where  he  collected  a  considerable 
number  of  Arabic,  Persian  and  Greek  manuscripts,  and  made  a 
more  accurate  survey  of  the  pyramids  of  Egypt  than  any  traveller 
who  had  preceded  him.  On  his  return  to  Europe  he  visited  a 
second  time  several  parts  of  Italy,  and  during  his  stay  at  Rome 
instituted  inquiries  into  the  ancient  weights  and  measures.  In 
1643  he  was  appointed  to  the  Savilian  professorship  of  astronomy 
at  Oxford,  but  he  was  deprived  of  his  Gresham  professorship 
for  having  neglected  its  duties.  In  1645  ne  essayed  a  reforma- 
tion of  the  calendar,  but  his  plan  was  not  adopted.  In  1648  he 
lost  both  his  fellowship  and  his  Savilian  chair  on  account  of  his 
adherence  to  the  royalist  party.  But  his  private  fortune  more 
than  sufficed  for  all  his  wants  till  his  death  on  the  8th  of  October 
1652. 

Besides  his  papers  in  the  Philosophical  Transactions,  the  principal 
works  of  Greaves  are  Pyramidographia,  or  a  Description  of  the 
Pyramids  in  Egypt  (1646) ;  A  Discourse  on  the  Roman  Foot  and 


GREBE— GRECO,  EL 


423 


Denarius  (1649);  and  Elementa  linguae  Persicae  (1649).  His 
miscellaneous  works  were  published  in  1737  by  Dr  Thomas  Birch, 
with  a  biographical  notice  of  the  author.  See  also  Smith's  Vita 
quorundam  eriidit.  virorum  and  Ward's  Gresham  Professors. 

GREBE  (Fr.  grebe),  the  generally  accepted  name  for  all  the 
birds  of  the  family  Podicipedidae,1  belonging  to  the  group 
Pygopodes  of  Illiger,  members  of  which  inhabit  almost  all  parts 
ol  the  world.  Some  systematic  writers  have  distributed  them 
into  several  so-called  genera,  but,  with  one  exception,  these 
seem  to  be  insufficiently  defined,  and  here  it  will  be  enough  to 
allow  but  two — Latham's  Podiceps  and  the  Centropelma  of 
Sclater  and  Salvin.  Grebes  are  at  once  distinguishable  from 


Great  Crested  Grebe. 

all  other  water-birds  by  their  rudimentary  tail  and  the  peculiar 
structure  of  their  feet,  which  are  not  only  placed  far  behind,  but 
have  the  tarsi  flattened  and  elongated  toes  furnished  with  broad 
lobes  of  skin  and  flat  blunt  nails. 

In  Europe  are  five  well-marked  species  of  Podiceps,  the 
commonest  and  smallest  of  which  is  the  very  well-known  dab- 
chick  of  English  ponds,  P.  fluviatilis  or  minor,  the  little  grebe 
of  ornithologists,  found  throughout  the  British  Islands,  and 
with  a  wide  range  in  the  old  world.  Next  in  size  are  two  species 
known  as  the  eared  and  horned  grebes,  the  former  of  which, 
P.  nigricollis,  is  a  visitor  from  the  south,  only  occasionally 
showing  itself  in  Britain  and  very  rarely  breeding,  while  the 
latter,  P.  aurilus,  has  a  more  northern  range,  breeding  plentifully 
in  Iceland,  and  is  a  not  uncommon  winter-visitant.  Then  there 
is  the  larger  red-necked  grebe,  P.  griseigena,  also  a  northern  bird, 
and  a  native  of  the  subarctic  parts  of  both  Europe  and  America, 
while  lastly  the  great  crested  grebe,  P.  cristatus  or  gaunt — known 
as  the  loon  on  the  meres  and  broads  of  East  Anglia  and  some 
other  parts  of  England,  is  also  widely  spread  over  the  old  world. 
North  America  is  credited  with  seven  species  of  grebes,  of  which 
two  (P.  griseigena  and  P.  auritus)  are  admitted  to  be  specifically 
inseparable  from  those  already  named,  and  two  (P.  occidentalis 
and  P.  calif ornicus)  appear  to  be  but  local  forms;  the  remaining 
two  (P.  dominicus  and  P.  ludovicianus)  may,  however,  be 
accounted  good  species,  and  the  last  differs  so  much  from  other 
grebes  that  many  systematists  make  it  the  type  of  a  distinct 
genus,  Podttymbus.  South  America  seems  to  possess  four  or 
five  more  species,  one  of  which,  the  P.  micropterus  of  Gould 
(Proc.  Zool.  Society,  1858,  p.  220),  has  been  deservedly  separated 

|  Often,  but  erroneously,  written  Podicipidae.  The  word  Podiceps 
being  a  contracted  form  of  Podicipes  (cf .  Gloger,  Journal  fur  Orni- 
thologie,  1854,  p.  430,  note),  a  combination  of  podex,  podicis  and  pes, 
pedis,  its  further  compounds  must  be  in  accordance  with  its  derivation. 


from  the  genus  Podiceps  under  the  name  Cenlropdma  by  Sclater 
and  Salvin  (Exot.  Ornithology,  p.  189,  pi.  xcv.),  owing  to  the  form 
of  its  bill,  and  the  small  size  of  its  wings,  which  renders  it 
absolutely  flightless.  Lake  Titicaca  in  Bolivia  is,  so  far  as  is 
known  at  present,  its  only  habitat.  Grebes  in  general,  though 
averse  from  taking  wing,  have  much  greater  power  of  flight 
than  would  seem  possible  on  examination  of  their  alar  organs, 
and  are  capable  of  prolonged  aerial  journeys.  Their  plumage  is 
short  and  close.  Above  it  is  commonly  of  some  shade  of  brown, 
but  beneath  it  is  usually  white,  and  so  glossy  as  to  be  in  much 
request  for  muffs  and  the  trimming  of  ladies'  dresses.  Some 
species  are  remarkable  for  the  crests  or  tippets,  generally  of  a 
golden-chestnut  colour,  they  assume  in  the  breeding  season. 
P.  auritus  is  particularly  remarkable  in  this  respect,  and  when 
in  its  full  nuptial  attire  presents  an  extraordinary  aspect,  the 
head  (being  surrounded,  as  it  were,  by  a  nimbus  or  aureole,  such 
as  that  with  which  painters  adorn  saintly  characters),  reflecting 
the  rays  of  light,  glitters  with  a  glory  that  passes  description. 
All  the  species  seem  to  have  similar  habits  of  nidification. 
Water-weeds  are  pulled  from  the  bottom  of  the  pool,  and  piled 
on  a  convenient  foundation,  often  a  seminatant  growth  of  bog- 
bean  (Menyanthes),  till  they  form  a  large  mass,  in  the  centre  of 
which  a  shallow  cup  is  formed,  aijd  the  eggs,  with  a  chalky 
white  shell  almost  equally  pointed  at  each  end,  are  laid — the 
parent  covering  them,  whenever  she  has  time  to  do  so,  before 
leaving  the  nest.  Young  grebes  are  beautiful  objects,  clothed 
with  black,  white  and  brown  down,  disposed  in  streaks  and 
their  bill  often  brilliantly  tinted.  When  taken  from  the  nest 
and  placed  on  dry  ground,  it  is  curious  to  observe  the  way  in 
which  they  progress — using  the  wings  almost  as  fore-feet,  and 
suggesting  the  notion  that  they  must  be  quadrupeds  instead  of 
birds.  (A.  N.) 

GRECO,  EL,  the  name  commonly  given  to  Dominico  Theoto- 
copuli  (d.  1614),  Cretan  painter,  architect  and  sculptor.  He 
was  born  in  Crete,  between  1545  and  1550,  and  announces  his 
Cretan  origin  by  his  signature  in  Greek  letters  on  his  most  im- 
portant pictures,  especially  on  the  "  St  Maurice  "  in  the  Escorial. 
He  appears  to  have  studied  art  first  of  all  in  Venice,  and  on 
arriving  in  Rome  in  1570  is  described  as  having  been  a  pupil 
of  Titian,  in  a  letter  written  by  the  miniaturist,  Giulio  Clovio, 
addressed  to  Cardinal  Alessandro  Farnesi,  dated  the  I5th  of 
November  1570. 

Although  a  student  under  Titian,  he  was  at  no  time  an  ex- 
ponent of  his  master's  spirit,  and  his  early  historical  pictures 
were  attributed  to  many  other  artists,  but  never  to  Titian. 
Of  his  early  works,  two  pictures  of  "  The  Healing  of  the  Blind 
Man  "  at  Dresden  and  Palma,  and  the  four  of  "  Christ  driving 
the  money-changers  out  of  the  Temple  "  in  the  Yarborough 
collection,  the  Cork  collection,  the  National  Gallery,  and  the 
Beruete  collection  at  Madrid,  are  the  chief.  His  first  authentic 
portrait  is  that  of  his  fellow-countryman,  Giulio  Clovio.  It  was 
painted  between  1570  and  1578,  is  signed  in  Greek  characters, 
and  preserved  at  Naples,  and  the  last  portrait  he  painted  under 
the  influence  of  the  Italian  school  app?ars  to  be  that  of  a  cardinal 
now  in  the  National  Gallery,  of  which  four  replicas  painted  in 
Spain  are  known.  He  appears  to  have  come  to  Spain  in  1577, 
but,  on  being  questioned  two  years  later  in  connexion  with  a 
judicial  suit,  as  to  when  he  arrived  in  the  country,  and  for  what 
purpose  he  came,  declined  to  give  any  information.  He  was 
probably  attracted  by  the  prospect  of  participating  in  the 
decoration  of  the  Escorial,  and  he  appears  to  have  settled  down 
in  Toledo,  where  his  first  works  were  the  paintings  for  the  high 
altar  of  Santo  Domingo,  and  his  famous  picture  of  "  The  Dis- 
robing of  Christ  "  in  the  sacristy  of  the  cathedral.  It  was  in 
connexion  with  this  last-named  work  that  he  proved  refractory, 
and  the  records  of  a  law-suit  respecting  the  price  to  be  paid  to 
him  give  us  the  earliest  information  of  the  artist's  sojourn  in 
Spain.  In  1590,  he  painted  the  "  History  of  St  Maurice  "  for 
Philip  II.,  and  in  1578,  his  masterpiece,  entitled  "  The  Burial 
of  the  Count  Orgaz."  This  magnificent  picture,  one  of  the  finest 
in  Spain,  is  at  last  being  appreciated,  and  can  only  be  put  a 
little  below  the  masterpieces  of  Velazquez.  It  is  a  strangely 


424 


GRECO-TURKISH  WAR 


individual  work,  representing  Spanish  character  even  more 
truthfully  than  did  any  Spanish  artist,  and  it  gathers  up  all 
the  fugitive  moods,  the  grace  and  charm,  the  devices  and  defects 
of  a  single  race,  and  gives  them  complete  stability  in  their 
wavering  expressions. 

Between  1595  and  1600,  El  Greco  executed  two  groups  of 
paintings  in  the  church  of  San  Jose  at  Toledo,  and  in  the  hospital 
of  La  Caridad,  at  Illescas.  Besides  these,  he  is  known  to  have 
painted  thirty-two  portraits,  several  manuscripts,  and  many 
paintings  for  altar-pieces  in  Toledo  and  the  neighbourhood. 
As  an  architect  he  was  responsible  for  more  than  one  of  the 
churches  of  Toledo,  and  as  a  sculptor  for  carvings  both  in  wood 
and  in  marble,  and  he  can  only  be  properly  understood  in  all 
his  varied  excellences  after  a  visit  to  the  city  where  most  of 
his  work  was  executed. 

He  died  on  the  7th  of  April  1614,  and  the  date  of  his  death 
is  one  of  the  very  few  certain  facts  which  we  have  respecting  him. 
The  record  informs  us  that  he  made  no  will,  that  he  received  the 
sacraments,  and  was  buried  in  the  church  of  Santo  Domingo. 
The  popular  legend  of  his  having  gone  mad  towards  the  latter 
part  of  his  career  has  no  foundation  in  fact,  but  his  painting 
became  more  and  more  eccentric  as  his  life  went  on,  and  his 
natural  perversity  and  love  of  strange,  cold  colouring,  increased 
towards  the  end  of  his  life.  As  has  been  well  said,  "  Light  with 
him  was  only  used  for  emotional  appeal,  and  was  focussed  or 
scattered  at  will."  He  was  haughtily  certain  of  the  value  of  his 
own  art,  and  was  determined  to  paint  in  cold,  ashen  colouring, 
with  livid,  startling  effect,  the  gaunt  and  extraordinary  figures 
that  he  beheld  with  his  eccentric  genius.  His  pictures  have 
wonderful  visionary  quality,  admirable  invention,  and  are  full 
of  passionate  fervency.  They  may  be  considered  extravagant, 
but  are  never  commonplace,  and  are  exceedingly  attractive  in 
their  intense  emotion,  marvellous  sincerity,  and  strange,  chilly 
colour. 

El  Greco's  work  is  typically  modern,  and  from  it  the  portrait- 
painter,  J.  S.  Sargent,  claims  to  have  learnt  more  than  from  that 
of  any  other  artist.  It  immortalizes  the  character  of  the  people 
amongst  whom  he  dwelt,  and  he  may  be  considered  as  the  initiator 
of  truth  and  realism  in  art,  a  precursor  and  inspirer  of  Velazquez. 

In  his  own  time  he  was  exceedingly  popular,  and  held  in 
great  repute.  Sonnets  were  written  in  his  honour,  and  he  is 
himself  said  to  have  written  several  treatises,  but  these  have  not 
come  down  to  our  time.  For  more  than  a  generation  his  work 
was  hardly  known,  but  it  is  now  gaining  rapidly  in  importance, 
and  its  true  position  is  more  and  more  recognized.  Some 
examples  of  the  artist's  own  handwriting  have  been  discovered 
in  Toledo,  and  Senor  Don  Manuel  Cossia  of  Madrid  has  spent 
many  years  collecting  information  for  a  work  dealing  with  the 
artist.  (G.  C.  W.) 

GRECO-TURKISH  WAR,  1897.  This  war  between  Greece 
and  Turkey  (see  GREECE:  Modern  History)  involved  two  prac- 
tically distinct  campaigns,  in  Thessaly  and  in  Epirus.  Upon  the 
Thessalian  frontier  the  Turks,  early  in  March,  had  concentrated 
six  divisions  (about  58,000  men),  1500  sabres  and  156  guns, 
under  Edhem  Pasha.  A  seventh  division  was  rendered  available 
a  little  later.  The  Greeks  numbered  about  45,000  infantry, 
800  cavalry  and  96  guns,  under  the  crown  prince.  On  both 
sides  there  was  a  considerable  dispersion  of  forces  along  the 
frontier.  The  Turkish  navy,  an  important  factor  in  the  war  of 
1877-78,  had  become  paralytic  ten  years  later,  and  the  Greek 
squadron  held  complete  command  of  the  sea.  Expeditionary 
forces  directed  against  the  Turkish  line  of  communications 
might  have  influenced  the  course  of  the  campaign;  but  for 
such  work  the  Greeks  were  quite  unprepared,  and  beyond 
bombarding  one  or  two  insignificant  ports  on  the  coast-line,  and 
aiding  the  transport  of  troops  from  Athens  to  Volo,  the  navy 
practically  accomplished  nothing.  On  the  9th  and  loth  April 
Greek  irregulars  crossed  the  frontier,  either  with  a  view  to 
provoke  hostilities  or  in  the  hope  of  fomenting  a  rising  in  Mace- 
donia. On  the  1 6th  and  I7th  some  fighting  occurred,  in  which 
Greek  regulars  took  part;  and  on  the  i8th  Edhem  Pasha, 
whose  headquarters  had  for  some  time  been  established  at 


Elassona,  ordered  a  general  advance.  The  Turkish  plan  was  to 
turn  the  Greek  left  and  to  bring  on  a  decisive  action,  but  this 
was  not  carried  out.  In  the  centre  the  Turks  occupied  the  Meluna 
Pass  on  the  igth,  and  the  way  was  practically  open  to  Larissa. 
The  Turkish  right  wing,  however,  moving  on  Damani  and  the 
Reveni  Pass,  encountered  resistance,  and  the  left  wing  was 
temporarily  checked  by  the  Greeks  among  the  mountains  near 
Nezeros.  At  Mati,  covering  the  road  to  Tyrnavo,  the  Greeks 
entrenched  themselves.  Here  sharp  fighting  occurred  on  the 
2ist  and  22nd,  during  which  the  Greeks  sought  to  turn  the  right 
flank  of  the  superior  Turkish  central  column.  On  the  23rd 
fighting  was  renewed,  and  the  advance  guard  of  the  Turkish  left 
column,  which  had  been  reinforced,  and  had  pressed  back  the 
Greeks,  reached  Deliler.  The  Turkish  forces  had  now  drawn 
together,  and  the  Greeks  were  threatened  on  both  flanks.  In 
the  evening  a  general  retreat  was  ordered,  and  the  loose  discipline 
of  the  Greek  army  was  at  once  manifested.  Rumours  of  disaster 
spread  among  the  ranks,  and  wild  panic  supervened.  There 
was  nothing  to  prevent  an  orderly  retirement  upon  Larissa, 
which  had  been  fortified  and  provisioned,  and  which  offered  a 
good  defensive  position.  The  general  debdcle  could  not,  however, 
be  arrested,  and  in  great  disorder  the  mass  of  the  Greek  army 
fled  southwards  to  Pharsala.  There  was  no  pursuit,  and  the 
Turkish  commander-in-chief  did  not  reach  Larissa  till  the  27th. 
Thus  ended  the  first  phase  of  the  war,  in  which  the  Greeks 
showed  tenacity  in  defence,  which  proved  fruitless  by  reason  of 
initially  bad  strategic  dispositions  entailing  far  too  great  disper- 
sion, and  also  because  there  was  no  plan  of  action  beyond  a 
general  desire  to  avoid  risking  a  defeat  which  might  prevent  the 
expected  risings  in  Macedonia  and  elsewhere.  The  handling  of 
the  Turkish  army  showed  little  skill  or  enterprise;  but  on  both 
sides  political  considerations  tended  to  prevent  the  application 
of  sound  military  principles.  *„  *• 

Larissa  being  abandoned  by  the  Greeks,  Velestino,  the  junction 
of  the  Thessalian  railways,  where  there  was  a  strong  position 
covering  Volo,  seemed  to  be  the  natural  rallying  point  for  the 
Greek  army.  Here  the  support  of  the  fleet  would  have  been 
secured,  and  a  Turkish  advance  across  the  Othrys  range  upon 
Athens  could  not  have  taken  place  until  the  flanking  position 
had  been  captured.  Whether  by  direction  or  by  natural  impulse, 
however,  the  mass  of  the  Greek  troops  made  for  Pharsala,  where 
some  order  was  re-established,  and  preparations  were  made  to 
resist  attack.  The  importance  of  Velestino  was  recognized  by 
sending  a  brigade  thither  by  railway  from  Pharsala,  and  the 
inferior  Greek  army  was  thus  split  into  two  portions,  separated 
by  nearly  40  m.  On  27th  April  a  Turkish  reconnaissance  on 
Velestino  was  repulsed,  and  further  fighting  occurred  on  the 
29th  and  3oth,  in  which  the  Greeks  under  Colonel  Smolenski  held 
their  own.  Meanwhile  the  Turks  made  preparations  to  attack 
Pharsala,  and  on  5th  May  the  Greeks  were  driven  from  their 
positions  in  front  of  the  town  by  three  divisions.  Further 
fighting  followed  on  the  6th,  and  in  the  evening  the  Greek  army 
retired  in  fair  order  upon  Domokos.  It  was  intended  to  turn 
the  Greek  left  with  the  first  division  under  Hairi  Pasha,  but  the 
flanking  force  did  not  arrive  in  time  to  bring  about  a  decisive 
result.  The  abandonment  of  Pharsala  involved  that  of  Velestino, 
where  the  Turks  had  obtained  no  advantage,  and  on  the  evening 
of  the  5th  Colonel  Smolenski  began  a  retirement  upon  Halmyros. 
Again  delaying,  Edhem  Pasha  did  not  attack  Domokos  till  the 
1 7th,  giving  the  Greeks  time  to  entrench  their  positions.  The 
attack  was  delivered  in  three  columns,  of  which  the  right  was 
checked  and  the  centre  failed  to  take  the  Greek  trenches  and 
suffered  much  loss.  The  left  column,  however,  menaced  the 
line  of  retreat,  and  the  Greek  army  abandoned  the  whole  position 
during  the  night.  No  effective  stand  was  made  at  the  Furka 
Pass,  which  was  evacuated  on  the  following  night.  Colonel 
Smolenski,  who  arrived  on  the  i8th  from  Halmyros,  was  directed 
to  hold  the  pass  of  Thermopylae.  The  Greek  forces  being  much 
demoralized,  the  intervention  of  the  tsar  was  invoked  by 
telegraph;  and  the  latter  sent  a  personal  appeal  to  the  Sultan, 
who  directed  a  suspension  of  hostilities.  On  the  2oth  an  armistice 
was  arranged. 


GEOGRAPHY] 


GREECE 


425 


In  Epirus  at  the  outbreak  of  war  about  15,000  Greeks,  including 
a  cavalry  regiment  and  five  batteries,  the  whole  under  Colonel 
Manos,  occupied  a  line  of  defence  from  Arta  to  Peta.  The 
Turks,  about  28,000  strong,  with  forty-eight  guns,  under  Achmet 
Hifsi  Pasha,  were  distributed  mainly  at  lannina,  Pentepagadia, 
and  in  front  of  Arta.  On  i8th  April  the  Turks  commenced  a 
three  days'  bombardment  of  Arta;  but  successive  attempts 
to  take  the  bridge  were  repulsed,  and  during  the  night  of  the 
zist  they  retired  on  Philippiada,  26  m.  distant,  which  was 
attacked  and  occupied  by  Colonel  Manos  on  the  23rd.  The 
Greeks  then  advanced  to  Pentepagadia,  meeting  with  little 
resistance.  Their  difficulties  now  began.  After  some  skirmishing 
on  the  2yth,  the  position  held  by  their  advanced  force  near 
Homopulos  was  attacked  on  the  28th.  The  attack  was  renewed 
on  the  29th,  and  no  Greek  reinforcements  were  forthcoming 
when  needed.  The  Euzones  made  a  good  defence,  but  were 
driven  back  by  superior  force,  and  a  retreat  was  ordered,  which 
quickly  degenerated  into  panic-stricken  flight  to  and  across 
the  Arta.  Reinforcements,  including  2500  Epirote  volunteers, 
were  sent  to  Arta  from  Athens,  and  on  1 2th  May  another  incursion 
into  Turkish  territory  began,  the  apparent  object  being  to 
occupy  a  portion  of  the  country  in  view  of  the  breakdown  in 
Thessaly  and  the  probability  that  hostilities  would  shortly  end. 
The  advance  was  made  in  three  columns,  while  the  Epirote 
volunteers  were  landed  near  the  mouth  of  the  Luro  river  with 
the  idea  of  cutting  off  the  Turkish  garrison  of  Prevesa.  The 
centre  column,  consisting  of  a  brigade,  three  squadrons  and 
two  batteries,  which  were  intended  to  take  up  and  hold  a  defensive 
position,  attacked  the  Turks  near  Strevina  on  the  i3th.  The 
Greeks  fought  well,  and  being  reinforced  by  a  battalion  from 
the  left  column,  resumed  the  offensive  on  the  following  day,  and 
fairly  held  their  own.  On  the  night  of  the  isth  a  retreat  was 
ordered  and  well  carried  out.  The  volunteers  landed  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Luro,  were  attacked  and  routed  with  heavy  loss. 

The  campaign  in  Epirus  thus  failed  as  completely  as  that  in 
Thessaly.  Under  the  terms  of  the  treaty  of  peace,  signed  on 
20th  September,  and  arranged  by  the  European  powers,  Turkey 
obtained  an  indemnity  of  £T4,ooo,ooo,  and  a  rectification  of 
the  Thessalian  frontier,  carrying  with  it  some  strategic  advantage. 
History  records  few  more  unjustifiable  wars  than  that  which 
Greece  gratuitously  provoked.  The  Greek  troops  on  several 
occasions  showed  tenacity  and  endurance,  but  discipline  and 
cohesion  were  manifestly  wanting.  Many  of  the  officers  were 
incapable;  the  campaign  was  gravely  mismanaged ;  and 
politics,  which  led  to  the  war,  impeded  its  operations.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  fruits  of  the  German  tuition,  which  began  in 
1880,  and  received  a  powerful  stimulus  by  the  appointment 
of  General  von  der  Goltz  in  1883,  were  shown  in  the  Turkish 
army.  The  mobilization  was  on  the  whole  smoothly  carried  out, 
and  the  newly  completed  railways  greatly  facilitated  the  con- 
centration on  the  frontier.  The  young  school  of  officers  trained 
by  General  von  der  Goltz  displayed  ability,  and  the  artillery  at 
Pharsala  and  Domokos  was  well  handled.  The  superior  leading 
was,  however,  not  conspicuously  successful;  and  while  the  rank 
and  file  again  showed  excellent  military  qualities,  political 
conditions  and  the  Oriental  predilection  for  half-measures  and 
for  denying  full  responsibility  and  full  powers  to  commanders 
in  the  field  enfeebled  the  conduct  of  the  campaign.  On  account 
of  the  total  want  of  careful  and  systematic  peace  training  on  both 
sides,  a  war  which  presented  several  interesting  strategic  problems 
provided  warnings  in  place  of  military  lessons.  (G.  S.  C.) 

GREECE,1  an  ancient  geographical  area,  and  a  modern 
kingdom  more  or  less  corresponding  thereto,  situated  at  the 
south-eastern  extremity  of  Europe  and  forming  the  most 
southerly  portion  of  the  Balkan  Peninsula.  The  modern  kingdom 
is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  European  Turkey  and  on  the  E.,  S.  and 
W.  by  the  Aegean,  Mediterranean  and  Ionian  seas.  The  name 
Graecia,  which  was  more  or  less  vaguely  given  to  the  ancient 
country  by  the  Romans,  seems  not  to  have  been  employed  by 
any  native  writer  before  Aristotle;  it  was  apparently  derived 

1  See  also  GREEK  ART,  GREEK  LANGUAGE,  GREEK' LAW,  GREEK 
LITERATURE,  GREEK  RELIGION. 


by  the  Romans  from  the  Illyrians,  who  applied  the  name  of  an 
Epirote  tribe  (Fpat/cot,  Graeci)  to  all  their  southern  neighbours. 
The  names  Hellas,  Hellenes  ("EXXas,  "EXXi/cts),  by  which  the 
ancient  Greeks  called  their  country  and  their  race,  and  which  are 
still  employed  by  the  modern  Greeks,  originally  designated  a  small 
district  in  Phthiotis  in  Thessaly  and  its  inhabitants,  who  gradu- 
ally spread  over  the  lands  south  of  the  Cambunian  mountains. 
The  name  Hellenes  was  not  universally  applied  to  the  Greek 
race  until  the  post-Homeric  epoch  (Thucyd.  i.  3). 

i.  GEOGRAPHY  AND  STATISTICS 

The  ancient  Greeks  had  a  somewhat  vague  conception  of  the 
northern  limits  of  Hellas.  Thessaly  was  generally  included  and 
Epirus  excluded;  some  writers  included  some  of  the 
southern  cantons  of  Epirus,  while  others  excluded  not 
only  all  that  country  but  Aetolia  and  Acarnania.  Greece. 
Generally  speaking,  the  confines  of  Hellas  in  the  age 
of  its  greatest  distinction  were  represented  by  a  line  drawn  from 
the  northern  shore  of  the  Ambracian  Gulf  on  the  W.  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Peneus  on  the  E.  Macedonia  and  Thrace  were 
regarded  as  outside  the  pale  of  Hellenic  civilization  till  386  B.C., 
when  after  his  conquest  of  Thessaly  and  Phocis,  Philip  of  Macedon 
obtained  a  seat  in  the  Amphictyonic  Council.  In  another  sense, 
however,  the  name  Hellas  expressed  an  ethnological  rather  than 
a  geographical  unity;  it  denoted  every  country  inhabited  by 
Hellenes.  It  thus  embraced  all  the  Greek  settlements  on  the 
coasts  and  islands  of  the  Mediterranean,  on  the  shores  of  the 
Hellespont,  the  Bosporus  and  the  Black  Sea.  Nevertheless, 
the  Greek  peninsula  within  the  limits  described  above,  together 
with  the  adjacent  islands,  was  always  regarded  as  Hellas  par 
excellence.  The  continental  area  of  Hellas  proper  was  no  greater 
than  that  of  the  modern  Greek  kingdom,  which  comprises  but 
a  small  portion  of  the  territories  actually  occupied  by  the  Greek 
race.  The  Greeks  have  always  been  a  maritime  people,  and  the 
real  centre  of  the  national  life  is  now,  as  in  antiquity,  the  Aegean 
Sea  or  Archipelago.  Thickly  studded  with  islands  and  bordered 
by  deeply  indented  coasts  with  sheltered  creeks  and  harbours, 
the  Aegean  in  the  earliest  days  of  navigation  invited  the  enter- 
prise of  the  mariner;  its  shores,  both  European  and  Asiatic, 
became  covered  with  Greek  settlements  and  its  islands,  together 
with  Crete  and  Cyprus,  became  Greek.  True  to  their  maritime 
instincts,  the  Greeks  rarely  advanced  inland  to  any  distance 
from  the  sea;  the  coasts  of  Macedonia,  Thrace  and  Asia  Minor 
are  still  mainly  Greek,  but,  except  for  some  isolated  colonies,  the 
hinterland  in  each  case  lies  outside  the  limits  of  the  race.  Con- 
tinental Greece  is  divided  by  its  mountain  ranges  into  a  number 
of  natural  cantons;  the  existence  of  physical  barriers  tended 
in  the  earliest  times  to  the  growth  of  isolated  political  com- 
munities, and  in  the  epoch  of  its  ancient  independence  the 
country  was  occupied  by  seventeen  separate  states,  none  of 
them  larger  than  an  ordinary  English  county.  These  states,  which 
are  noticed  separately,  were:  Thessaly,  in  northern  Greece; 
Acarnania,  Aetolia,  Locris,  Doris,  Phocis,  Megaris,  Boeotia  and 
Attica  in  central  Greece;  and  Corinthia,  Sicyonia,  Achaea,  Elis, 
Messenia,  Laconia,  Argolis  and  Arcadia  in  the  Peloponnesus.  . 

Modern  Greece,  which  (including  the  adjacent  islands)  extends 
from  35°  50'  to  39°  54'  N.  and  from  19°  20'  to  26°  15'  E.,  com- 
prises all  the  area  formerly  occupied  by  these  states. 
Under  the  arrangement  concluded  at  Constantinople 
on  the   2ist  of  July   1832    between   Great  Britain,     Greece. 
France,  Russia  and  Turkey,  the  northern  boundary 
of  Greece  was  drawn  from  the  Gulf  of  Arta  (Sinus  Ambracius) 
to  the  Gulf  of  Volo  (S.  Pagasaeus),  the  line  keeping  to  the  crest 
of  the  Othrys  range.     Thessaly  and  part  of  Acarnania  were  thus 
left  to  Turkey.    The  island  of  Euboea,  the  Cyclades  and  the 
northern  Sporades  were  added  to  the  new  kingdom.     In  1864 
the  Ionian  Islands  (q.v.)  were  ceded  by  Great  Britain  to  Greece, 
In  1880  the  Conference  of  Berlin  proposed  a  new  frontier,  which 
transferred  to  Greece  not    only  Thessaly  but  a  considerable 
portion  of  southern  Epirus,  extending  to  the  river   Kalamas. 
This,  however,  was  rejected  by  Turkey,  and  the  existing  boundary 
was  traced  in  1881.     Starting  ffom  the  Aegean  coast  at  a  point 


426 


GREECE 


[GEOGRAPHY 


near  Platamona,  between  Mount  Olympus  and  the  mouth  of  the 
Salambria  (Peneus),  the  line  passes  over  the  heights  of  Kritiri 
and  Zygos  (Pindus)  and  descends  the  course  of  the  river  Arta 
to  its  mouth.  After  the  war  of  1897  Greece  restored  to  Turkey 
some  strategical  points  on  the  frontier  possessing  no  geographical 
importance.  The  greatest  length  of  Greece  is  about  250  m., 
the  greatest  breadth  180  m.  The  country  is  generally  divided 
into  five  parts,  which  are  indicated  by  its  natural  features: — 
(i.)  Northern  Greece,  which  extends  northwards  from  Mount 
Othrys  and  the  gulfs  of  Zeitun(Lamia)and  Arta  to  the  Cambunian 
Mountains,  and  comprises  Thessaly  and  a  small  portion  of 
Epirus;  (ii.)  Central  Greece,  extending  from  the  southern  limits 
of  Northern  Greece  to  the  gulfs  of  Corinth  and  Aegina;  (iii.) 
the  peninsula  of  the  Peloponnesus  or  Morea,  attached  to  the 
mainland  by  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth;  (iv.)  the  Ionian  Islands 
on  the  west  coasts  of  Epirus  and  Greece;  (v.)  The  islands  of  the 
Aegean  Sea,  including  Euboea,  the  Cyclades  and  the  northern 
Sporades. 

In  the  complexity  of  its  contour  and  the  variety  of  its  natural 
features  Greece  surpasses  every  country  in  Europe,  as  Europe  sur- 
passes  every  continent  in  the  world.  The  broken  character 
p  ys  ca  Qj  jtg  coast_iine  is  unique;  except  a  few  districts  in  Thes- 
saly no  part  of  the  country  is  more  than  50  m.  from  the 
sea.  Although  the  area  of  Greece  is  considerably  smaller  than  that 
of  Portugal,  its  coast-line  is  greater  than  that  of  Spain  and  Portugal 
together.  The  mainland  is  penetrated  by  numerous  gulfs  and  inlets, 
and  the  adjoining  seas  are  studded  with  islands.  Another  character- 
istic is  the  number  and  complexity  of  the  mountain  chains,  which 
traverse  every  part  of  the  country  and  which,  together  with  their 
ramifications,  cover  four-fifths  of  its  surface.  The  mountain-chains 
interlace,  the  interstices  forming  small  enclosed  basins,  such  as  the 
plain  of  Boeotia  and  the  plateau  of  Arcadia ;  the  only  plain  of  any 
extent  is  that  of  Thessaly.  The  mountains  project  into  the  sea, 
forming  peninsulas,  and  sometimes  reappearing  in  rows  or  groups 
of  islands;  they  descend  abruptly  to  the  coast  or  are  separated 
from  it  by  small  alluvial  plains.  The  portions  of  the  country  suitable 
for  human  colonization  were  thus  isolated  one  from  the  other,  but 
as  a  rule  possessed  easy  access  to  the  sea.  The  earliest  settlements 
were  generally  situated  on  or  around  some  rocky  elevation,  which 
dominated  the  surrounding  plain  and  was  suitable  for  fortification 
as  a  citadel  or  acropolis;  owing  to  the  danger  of  piratical  attacks 
they  were  usually  at  some  little  distance  from  the  sea,  but  in  the 
vicinity  of  a  natural  harbour.  The  physical  features  of  the  country 
played  an  important  part  in  moulding  the  character  of  its  inhabitants. 
Protected  against  foreign  invasion  by  the  mountain  barriers  and  to 
a  great  extent  cut  off  from  mutual  intercourse  except  by  sea,  the 
ancient  Greek  communities  developed  a  marked  individuality  and  a 
strong  sentiment  of  local  patriotism;  their  inhabitants  were  both 
mountaineers  and  mariners;  they  possessed  the  love  of  country, 
the  vigour  and  the  courage  which  are  always  found  in  Highlanders, 
together  with  the  spirit  of  adventure,  the  versatility  and  the  passion 
for  freedom  characteristic  of  a  seafaring  people.  The  great  variety 
of  natural  products  as  well  as  the  facility  of  maritime  communication 
tended  to  the  early  growth  of  commercial  enterprise,  while  the 
peculiar  beauty  of  the  scenery,  though  little  dwelt  upon  in  ancient 
literature,  undoubtedly  quickened  the  poetic  and  artistic  instincts 
of  the  race.  The  effects  of  physical  environment  are  no  less  notice- 
able among  the  modern  Greeks.  The  rural  populations  of  Attica 
and  Boeotia,  though  descended  from  Albanian  colonists  in  the 
middle  ages,  display  the  same  contrast  in  character  which  marked 
the  inhabitants  of  those  regions  in  ancient  times. 

In  its  general  aspect  the  country  presents  a  series  of  striking  and 
interesting  contrasts.  Fertile  tracts  covered  with  vineyards,  olive 
groves,  corn-fields  or  forests  display  themselves  in  close  proximity 
with  rugged  heights  and  rocky  precipices;  the  landscape  is  never 
monotonous;  its  outlines  are  graceful,  and  its  colouring,  owing  to 
the  clearness  of  the  air,  is  at  once  brilliant  and  delicate,  while  the 
sea,  in  most  instances,  adds  a  picturesque  feature,  enhancing  the 
charm  and  variety  of  the  scenery. 

The  ruling  feature  in  the  mountain  system  of  northern  Greece  is 
the  great  chain  of  Pindus,  which,  extending  southwards  from  the 
lofty  Shar  Dagh  (Skardos)  near  Uskub,  forms  the  back- 
bone of  the  Balkan  peninsula.  Reaching  the  frontier 
of  Greece  a  little  S.  of  lat.  40°,  the  Pindus  range  is  inter- 
sected by  the  Cambunian  Mountains  running  E.  and  W. ;  the 
eastern  branch,  which  forms  the  northern  boundary  of  Thessaly, 
extends  to  the  Gulf  of  Salonica  and  culminates  in  Mount  Olympus 
(9754  ft.)  a  little  to  the  N.  of  the  Greek  frontier;  then  bending  to 
the  S.E.  it  follows  the  coast-line,  forming  a  rampart  between  the 
Thessalian  plain  and  the  sea;  the  barrier  is  severed  at  one  point 
only  where  the  river  Salambria  (anc.  Peneus)  finds  an  exit  through 
the  narrow  defile  of  Tempe.  South  of  Tempe  the  mountain  ridge, 
known  as  the  Mavro  Vouno,  connects  the  pyramidal  Kissovo  (anc. 
Ossa,  6400  ft.)  with  Plessidi  (anc.  Pelion,  5310  ft.);  it  is  prolonged 
in  the  Magnesian  peninsula,  which  separates  the  Gulf  of  Volo  from 


Moun- 
tains. 


the  Aegean,  and  is  continued  by  the  mountains  of  Euboea  (highest 
summits,  Dirphys,  5725  ft.,  and  Ocha,  4830  ft.)  and  by  the  islands 
of  Andros  and  Tenos.  West  of  Pindus,  the  Cambunian  Mountains 
are  continued  by  several  ridges  which  traverse  Epirus  from  north 
to  south,  enclosing  the  plain  and  lake  of  lannina ;  the  most  westerly 
of  these,  projecting  into  the  Adriatic,  forms  the  Acroceraunian 
promontory  terminating  in  Cape  Glossa.  The  principal  pass  through 
the  Cambunian  Mountains  is  that  of  Meluna,  through  which  runs 
the  carriage-road  connecting  the  town  of  Elassona  in  Macedonia 
with  Larissa,  the  capital  of  Thessaly;  there  are  horse-paths  at 
Reveni  and  elsewhere.  The  central  chain  of  Pindus  at  the  point 
where  it  is  intersected  by  the  Cambunian  Mountains  forms  the  mass 
of  Zygos  (anc.  Locmon,  7113  ft.)  through  which  a  horse-path  con- 
nects the  town  of  Metzovo  with  Kalabaka  in  Thessaly;  on 
the  declivity  immediately  N.  of  Kalabaka  are  a  series  of  rocky 
pinnacles  on  which  a  number  of  monasteries  are  perched.  Trending 
to  the  S.,  the  Pindus  chain  terminates  in  the  conical  Mount  Velouchi 
(anc.  Tymphrestus,  7609  ft.)  in  the  heart  of  the  mountainous  region  of 
northern  Greece.  From  this  centre-point  a  number  of  mountains 
radiate  in  all  directions.  To  the  E.  runs  the  chain  of  Helloro  (anc. 
Othrys;  highest  summit,  Hagios  Elias,  5558  ft.)  separating  the  plain 
of  Thessaly  from  the  valley  of  the  Spercheios  and  traversed  by  the 
Phourka  pass  (2789  ft.);  to  the  S.E.  is  Mount  Katavothra  (anc. 
Oeta,  7080  ft.)  extending  to  the  southern  shore  of  the  Gulf  of  Lamia 
at  Thermopylae;  to  the  S.E.,  S.  and  S.W.  are  the  mountains  of 
Aetolia  and  Acarnania.  The  Aetolian  group,  which  may  be  regarded 
as  the  direct  continuation  of  the  Pindus  range,  includes  Kiona 
(8240  ft.),  the  highest  mountain  in  Greece,  and  Vardusi  (anc.  Korax, 
8190  ft.).  The  mountains  of  Acarnania  with  'T^TjXiJ  r.opv<t>ri  (5215  ft.) 
rise  to  theW.  of  the  valley  of  the  Aspropotamo  (anc.  Achelous).  The 
Aetolian  Mountains  are  prolonged  to  the  S.E.  by  the  double-crested 
Liakoura  (anc.  Parnassus;  8064  ft.)  in  Phocis;  by  Palaeo  Vouno 
(anc.  Helicon,  5738  ft.)  and  Elateas  (anc.  Cithaeron,  4626  ft.)  respect- 
ively W.  and  S.  of  the  Boeotian  plain;  and  by  the  mountains  of 
Attica, — Ozea  (anc.  Parnes,  4626  ft.),  Mendeli  (anc.  Pentelicus  or 
Brilessos,  3639  ft.),  Trellovouno  (anc.  Hymettus,  3369  ft.),  and 
Keratia  (2136  ft.) — terminating  in  the  promontory  of  Sunium,  but 
reappearing  in  the  islands  of  Ceos,  Cytnnos,  Seriphos  and  Siphnos. 
South  of  Cithaeron  are  Patera  in  Megaris  (3583  ft.)  and  Makri 
Plagi  (anc.  Geraneia,  4495  ft.)  overlooking  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth. 

The  mountains  of  the  Morea,  grouped  around  the  elevated  central 
plateau  of  Arcadia,  form  an  independent  system  with  ramifications 
extending  through  the  Argolid  peninsula  on  the  E.  and  the  three 
southern  promontories  of  Malea,  Taenaron  and  Acritas.  At  the 
eastern  end  of  the  northern  chain,  separating  Arcadia  from  the  Gulf 
of  Corinth,  is  Ziria  (anc.  Cyllene,  7789  ft.) ;  it  forms  a  counterpart  to 
Parnassus  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  gulf.  A  little  to  the  W. 
is  Chelmos  (anc.  Aroania,  7725  ft.);  farther  W.,  Olonos  (anc. 
Erymanthus,  7297  ft.)  and  Voi'dia  (anc.  Panachaicon,  6322  ft.) 
overlooking  the  Gulf  of  Patras.  The  highest  summit  in  the 
Argolid  peninsula  is  Hagios  Elias  (anc.  Arachnaeon,  3930  ft.).  The 
series  of  heights  forming  the  eastern  rampart  of  Arcadia,  including 
Artemision  (5814  ft.)  and  Ktenia  (5246  ft.)  is  continued  to  the  S.  by 
the  Malevo  range  (anc.  Parnon,  highest  summit  6365  ft.)  which  ex- 
tends into  the  peninsula  of  Malea  and  reappears  in  the  island  of 
Cerigo.  Separated  from  Parnon  by  the  Eurqtas  valley  to  the  W., 
the  chain  of  Taygetus  (mod.  Pentedaktylon ;  highest  summit  Hagios 
Elias,  7874  ft.,  the  culminating  point  of  the  Morea)  forms  a  barrier 
between  the  plains  of  Laconia  and  Messenia ;  it  is  traversed  by  the 
Langada  pass  leading  from  Sparta  to  Kalamata.  The  range  is 
prolonged  to  the  S.  through  the  arid  district  of  Maina  and  terminates 
in  Cape  Matapan  (anc.  Taenarum).  The  mountains  of  western 
Arcadia  are  less  lofty  and  of  a  less  marked  type;  they  include 
Hagios  Petros  (4777  ft.)  and  Palaeocastro  (anc.  Pholoe,  2257  ft.) 
N.  of  the  Alpheus  valley,  Diaphorti  (anc.  Lycaeus,  4660  ft.),  the 
haunt  of  Pan,  and  Nomia  (4554  ft.)  VV.  of  the  plain  of  Megalopolis. 
Farther  south,  the  mountains  of  western  Messenia  form  a  detached 
group  (Varvara,  4003  ft.;  Mathia,  3140  ft.)  extending  to  Cape  Gallo 
(anc.  Acritas)  _ and  the  Oenussae  Islands.  In.central  Arcadia  are 
Apanokrapa  (anc.  Maenalus,  also  sacred  to  Pan)  and  Roudia  (5072 
ft.) ;  the  Taygetus  chain  forms  the  southern  continuation  of  these 
mountains. 

The  more  noteworthy  fortified  heights  of  ancient  Greece  were  the 
Acrocorinthus,  the  citadel  of  Corinth  (1885  ft.) ;  Ithome  (2631  ft.)  at 
Messene;  Larissa  (950  ft.)  at  Argps;  the  Acropolis  of  Mycenae 
(910  ft.) ;  Tiryns  (60  ft.)  near  Nauplia,  which  also  possessed  its  own 
citadel,  the  Palamidhi  or  Acro-nauplia  (705  ft.) ;  the  Acropolis  of 
Athens  (300  ft.  above  the  mean  level  of  the  city  and  512  ft.  above 
the  sea),  and  the  Cadmea  of  Thebes  (715  ft.). 

Greece  has  few  rivers;  most  of  these  are  small,  rapid  and  turbid,  as 
might  be  expected  from  the  mountainousconfiguration  of  the  country. 
They  are  either  perennial  rivers  or  torrents,  the  white  beds  „. 
of  the  latter  being  dry  in  summer,  and  only  filled  with  water 
after  the  autumn  rains.  The  chief  rivers  (none  of  which  is  navigable) 
are  the  Salambria  (Peneus)  in  Thessaly,  theMavropotamo(CepAjjMi) 
in  Phocis,  the  Hellada  (Spercheios)  in  Phthiotis,  the  Aspropotamo 
(Achelous)  in  Aetolia,  and  the  Ruphia  (Alpheus)  and  Vasiliko 
(Eurotas)  in  the  Morea.  Of  the  famous  rivers  of  Athens,  the  one, 
the  Ilissus,  is  only  a  chain  of  pools  all  summer,  and  the  other,  the 
Cephisus,  though  never  absolutely  dry,  does  not  reach  the  sea, 


FAUNA,  FLORA] 


GREECE 


427 


being  drawn  off  in  numerous  artificial  channels  to  irrigate  the  neigh- 
bouring olive  groves.  A  frequent  peculiarity  of  the  Greek  rivers  is 
their  sudden  disappearance  in  subterranean  chasms  and  reappear- 
ance on  the  surface  again,  such  as  gave  rise  to  the  fabled  course  of 
the  Alpheus  under  the  sea,  and  its  emergence  in  the  fountain^  of 
Arethusa  in  Syracuse.  Some  of  these  chasms — "  Katavothras  "- 
are  merely  sieves  with  herbage  and  gravel  in  the  bottom,  but  others 
are  large  caverns  through  which  the  course  of  the  river  may  some- 
times be  followed.  Floods  are  frequent,  especially  in  autumn,  and 
natural  fountains  abound  and  gush  out  even  from  the  tops  of  the 
hills.  Aganippe  rises  high  up  among  the  peaks  of  Helicon,  and 
Peirene  flows  from  the  summit  of  Acrocorinthus.  The  only  note- 
worthy cascade,  however,  is  that  of  the  Styx  in  Arcadia,  which  has  a 
fall  of  500  ft.  During  part  of  the  year  it  is  lost  in  snow,  and  it 
is  at  all  times  almost  inaccessible.  Lakes  are  numerous,  but  few  are 
of  considerable  size,  and  many  merely  marshes  in  summer.  The 
largest  are  Karla  (Boebe'isl  in  Thessaly,  Trichonis  in  Aetolia,  Copai's 
in  Boeotia,  Pheneus  and  Stymphalus  in  Arcadia. 

The  valleys  are  generally  narrow,  and  the  plains  small  in  extent, 
deep  basins  walled  in  among  the  hills  or  more  free  at  the  mouths 
of  the  rivers.  The  principal  plains  are  those  of  Thessaly, 
Plains.  Boeotia,  Messenia,  Argos,  Elis  and  Marathon.  The  bottom 
of  these  plains  consists  of  an  alluvial  soil,  the  most  fertile  in  Greece. 
In  some  of  the  mountainous  regions,  especially  in  the  Morea,  are 
extensive  table-lands.  The  plain  of  Mantinea  is  2000  ft.  high,  and 
the  upland  district  of  Sciritis,  between  Sparta  and  Tegea,  is  in  some 
parts  3000  ft. 

Strabo  said  that  the  guiding  thing  in  the  geography  of  Greece 
was  the  sea,  which  presses  in  upon  it  at  all  parts  with  a  thousand 
arms.  From  the  Gulf  of  Arta  on  the  one  side  to  the  Gulf 
Coast-  of  Volo  on  the  other  the  coast  is  indented  with  a  succession 
of  natural  bays  and  gulfs.  The  most  important  are  the  Gulfs  of 
Aegina  (Saronicus)  and  Lepanto  (Corinthiacus) ,  which  separate 
the  Morea  from  the  northern  mainland  of  Greece, — the  first  an  inlet 
of  the  Aegean,  the  second  of  the  Ionian  Sea, — and  are  now  connected 
by  a  canalcut  through  the  high  land  of  the  narrow  Isthmus  of  Corinth 
(3^  m.  wide).  The  outer  portion  of  the  Gulf  of  Lepanto  is  called  the 
Gulf  of  Patras,  and  the  inner  part  the  Bay  of  Corinth;  a  narrow 
inlet  on  the  north  side  of  the  same  gulf,  called  the  Bay  of  Salona  or 
Itea,  penetrates  northwards  into  Phocis  so  far  that  it  is  within 
24  geographical  miles  of  the  Gulf  of  Zeitun  on  the  north-east  coast. 
The  width  of  the  entrance  to  the  gulf  of  Lepanto  is  subject  to  singular 
changes,  which  are  ascribed  to  the  formation  of  alluvial  deposits  by 
certain  marine  currents,  and  their  removal  again  by  others.  At 
the  time  of  the  Peloponnesian  war  this  channel  was  1200  yds.  broad ; 
in  the  time  of  Strabo  it  was  only  850;  and  in  our  own  day  it  has 
again  increased  to  2200.  On  the  coast  of  the  Morea  there  are  several 
large  gulfs,  that  of  Arcadia  (Cyparissius)  on  the  west,  Kalamata 
(Messeniacus)  and  Kolokythia  (Laconicus)  on  the  south  and  Nauplia 
(Argolicus)  on  the  east.  Between  Euboea  and  the  mainland  lie  the 
channels  of  Trikeri,  Talanti  (Euboicum  Mare)  and  Egripo;  the  latter 
two  are  connected  by  the  strait  of  Egripo  (Euripus).  This  strait, 
which  is  spanned  by  a  swing-bridge,  is  about  180  ft.  wide,  and  is 
remarkable  for  the  unexplained  eccentricity  of  its  tide,  which  has 
puzzled  ancients  and  moderns  alike.  The  current  runs  at  the 
average  speed  of  5m.  an  hour,  but  continues  only  for  a  short  time  in 
one  direction,  changing  its  course,  it  is  said,  ten  or  twelve  times  in  a 
day;  it  is  sometimes  very  violent. 

There  are  no  volcanoes  on  the  mainland  of  Greece,  but  every- 
where traces  of  volcanic  action  and  frequently  visitations  of  earth- 
quakes, for  it  lies  near  a  centre  of  volcanic  agency,  the 
Volcanic  islancl  of  Santorin,  which  has  been  within  recent  years  in 
action.  a  state  of  eruption.  There  is  an  extinct  crater  at  Mount 
Laphystium  (Granitso)  in  Boeotia.  The  mountain  of  Methane,  on 
the  coast  of  Argolis,  was  produced  by  a  volcanic  eruption  in  282  B.C. 
Earthquakes  laid  Thebes  in  ruins  in  1853,  destroyed  every  house  in 
Corinth  in  1858,  filled  up  the  Castalian  spring  in  1870,  devastated 
Zante  in  1893  and  the  district  of  Atalanta  in  1894.  There  are  hot 
springs  at  Thermopylae  and  other  places,  which  are  used  for  sanitary 
purposes.  Various  parts  of  the  coast  exhibit  indications  of  up- 
heaval within  historical  times.  On  the  coast  of  Elis  four  rocky 
islets  are  now  joined  to  the  land,  which  were  separate  from  it  in  the 
days  of  ancient  Greece.  There  are  traces  ol  earlier  sea-beaches 
at  Corinth,  and  on  the  coast  of  the  Morea,  and  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Hellada.  The  land  has  gained  so  much  that  the  pass  of  Ther- 
mopylae which  was  extremely  narrow  in  the  time  of  Leonidas  and 
his  three  hundred,  is  now  wide  enough  for  the  motions  of  a  whole 
army.  (J.  D.  B.) 

Structurally,  Greece  may  be  divided  into  two  regions,  an  eastern 

and  a  western.     The  former  includes  Thessaly,  Boeotia,  the  island 

of  Euboea,  the  isthmus  of  Corinth,  and  the  peninsula  of 

ology.  Argolis,  and,  throughout,  the  strike  of  the  beds  is  nearly 
from  west  to  east.  The  western  region  includes  the  Pindus  and  all 
the  parallel  ranees,  and  the  whole  of  the  Peloponnesus  excepting 
Argolis.  Here  the  folds  which  affect  the  Mesozoic  and  early  Tertiary 
strata  run  approximately  from  N.N.W.  to  S.S.E. 

Up  to  the  close  of  the  loth  century  the  greater  part  of  Greece  was 
believed  to  be  formed  of  Cretaceous  rocks,  but  later  researches  have 
shown  that  the  supposed  Cretaceous  beds  include  a  variety  of  geo- 
logical horizons.  The  geological  sequence  begins  with  crystalline 


schists  and  limestones,  followed  by  Palaeozoic,  Triassic  and  Liassic 
rocks.  The  oldest  beds  which  hitherto  have  yielded  fossils  belong 
to  the  Carboniferous  System  (Fusulina  limestone  of  Euboea). 
Following  upon  these  older  beds  are  the  great  limestone  masses  which 
cover  most  of  the  eastern  region,  and  which  are  now  known  to  include 
Jurassic,  Tithonian,  Lower  and  Upper  Cretaceous  and  Eocene  beds. 
In  the  Pindus  and  the  Peloponnesus  these  beds  are  overlaid  by  a 
series  of  shales  and  platy  limestones  (Olonos  Limestone  of  the 
Peloponnesus),  which  were  formerly  supposed  to  be  of  Tertiary 
age.  It  has  now  been  shown,  however,  that  the  upper  series  of 
limestones  has  been  brought  upon  the  top  of  the  lower  by  a  great 
overthrust.  Triassic  fossils  have  been  found  in  the  Olonos  Lime- 
stone and  it  is  almost  certain  that  other  Mesozoic  horizons  are 
represented. 

The  earth  movements  which  produced  the  mountain  chains  of 
western  Greece  have  folded  the  Eocene  beds  and  must  therefore 
be  of  post-Eocene  date.  The  Neogene  beds,  on  the  other  hand,  are 
not  affected  by  the  folds,  although  by  faulting  without  folding  they 
have  in  some  places  been  raised  to  a  height  of  nearly  6000  ft.  They 
lie,  however,  chiefly  along  the  coast  and  in  the  valleys,  and  consist 
of  marls,  conglomerates  and  sands,  sometimes  with  seams  of  lignite. 
The  Pikermi  deposits,  of  late  Miocene  age,  are  famous  for  their  rich 
mammalian  fauna. 

Although  the  folding  which  formed  the  mountain  chains  appears 
to  have  ceased,  Greece  is  still  continually  shaken  by  earthquakes, 
and  these  earthquakes  are  closely  connected  with  the  great  lines 
of  fracture  to  which  the  country  owes  its  outline.  Around  the 
narrow  gulf  which  separates  the  Peloponnesus  from  the  mainland, 
earthquakes  are  particularly  frequent,  and  another  region  which  is 
often  shaken  is  the  south-western  corner  of  Greece,  the  peninsula  of 
Messene.1  (P.  LA.) 

The  vegetation  of  Greece  in  general  resembles  that  of  southern 
Italy  while  presenting  many  types  common  to  that  of  Asia  Minor. 
Owing   to   the   geographical    configuration    of   the   peninsula   and 
its   mountainous  surface  the  characteristic  flora   of  the 
Mediterranean  regions  is  often  found  in  juxtaposition  with  Flora. 

that  of  central  Europe.  In  respect  to  its  vegetation  the  country 
may  be  regarded  as  divided  into  four  zones.  In  the  first,  extending 
from  the  sea-level  to  the  height  of  1500  ft.,  oranges,  olives,  dates, 
almonds,  pomegranates,  figs  and  vines  flourish,  and  cotton  and 
tobacco  are  grown.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  streams  are  found 
the  laurel,  myrtle,  oleander  and  lentisk,  together  with  the  plane  and 
white  poplar;  the  cypress  is  often  a  picturesque  feature  in  the 
landscape,  and  there  is  a  variety  of  aromatic  plants.  The  second 
zone,  from  1500  to  3500  ft.,  is  the  region  of  the  oak,  chestnut  and 
other  British  trees.  In  the  third,  from  3500  to  5500  ft.,  the  beech 
is  the  characteristic  forest  tree;  the  Abies  cephalonica  and  Pinus 
pinea  now  take  the  place  of  the  Pinus  halepensis,  which  grows 
everywhere  in  the  lower  regions.  Above  5500  ft.  is  the  Alpine 
region,  marked  by  small  plants,  lichens  and  mosses.  During  the 
short  period  of  spring  anemones  and'  other  wild  flowers  enrich 
the  hillsides  with  magnificent  colouring;  in  June  all  verdure  dis- 
appears except  in  the  watered  districts  and  elevated  plateaus. 
The  asphodel  grows  abundantly  in  the  dry  rocky  soil ;  aloes,  planted 
in  rows,  form  impenetrable  hedges.  Medicinal  plants  are  numerous, 
such  as  the  Inula  Helenium,  the  Mandragora  Officinarum,  the 
Colchicum  napolitanum  and  the  Helleborus  orientalis,  which  still 
grows  abundantly  near  Aspraspitia,  the  ancient  Anticyra,  at  the 
foot  of  Parnassus. 

The  fauna  is  similar  to  that  of  the  other  Mediterranean  peninsulas, 
and  includes  some  species  found  in  Asia  Minor  but  not  elsewhere  in 
Europe.  The  lion  existed  in  northern  Greece  in  the  time  of 
Aristotle  and  at  an  earlier  period  in  the  Morea.  The  bear  Fauna. 
is  still  found  in  the  Pindus  range.  Wolves  are  common  in  all  the 
mountainous  regions  and  jackals  are  numerous  in  the  Morea.  Foxes 
are  abundant  in  all  parts  of  the  country;  the  polecat  is  found  in  the 
woods  of  Attica  and  the  Morea;  the  lynx  is  now  rare.  The  wild 
boar  is  common  in  the  mountains  of  northern  Greece,  but  is  almost 
extinct  in  the  Peloponnesus.  The  badger,  the  marten  and  the 
weasel  are  found  on  the  mainland  and  in  the  islands.  The  red 
deer,  the  fallow  deer  and  the  roe  exist  in  northern  Greece,  but  are 
becoming  scarce.  The  otter  is  rare.  Hares  and  rabbits  are  abund- 
ant in  many  parts  of  the  country,  especially  in  the  Cyclades;  the 
two  species  never  occupy  the  same  district,  and  in  the  Cyclades 
some  islands  (Naxos,  Melos,  Tenos,  &c.)  form  the  exclusive  domain 
of  the  hares,  others  (Seriphos,  Kimolos,  Mykonos,  &c.)  of  the  rabbits. 
In  Andros  alone  a  demarcation  has  been  arrived  at,  the  hares  retain- 
ing the  northern  and  the  rabbits  the  southern  portion  of  the  island. 


'For  the  Geology  of  Greece  see:  M.  Neumayr,  &c.,  Denks.  k. 
Akod.Wiss.  Wien,  math.-nat.  Cl.  vol.  xl.  (1880);  A.  Philippson,  Dtr 


Geologic 

charnage  dans  la  M6diterranee  orientale,"  C.  R.  A  cad.  Sci.  Paris, 
vol.  cxxxvi.  (1903)  pp.  474-476;  J.  Deprat,  "  Note  pr&iminaire  sur  la 
e6ologie  de  1'lle  d'Eubei,"  Bull.  Soc.  Geol.  France,  ser.  4,  vol.  iii. 
U9°3)  PP-  229-243,  p.  vii.  and  "  Note  sur  la  g6ologie  du  massif 
du  Pdlion  et  sur  ('influence  exercee  par  les  massifs  archeens  sur  la 
tectonique  de  I'Eg&de,"  ib.  vol.  iv.  (1904),  pp.  299-338. 


428 


GREECE 


[POPULATION 


The  chamois  is  found  in  the  higher  mountains,  such  as  Pindus 
Parnassus  and  Tymphrestus.  The  Cretan  agrimi,  or  wild  goa 
(Capra  nubiana,  C.  aegagrus),  found  in  Antimelos  and  said  to  exis 
in  Taygetus,  the  jackal,  the  stellion,  and  the  chameleon  are  amonj 
the_Asiatic  species  not  found  westward  of  Greece.  There  is  a  grea 
variety  of  birds;  of  358  species  catalogued  two-thirds  are  migratory 
Among  the  birds  of  prey,  which  are  very  numerous,  are  the  golden 
and  imperial  eagle,  the  yellow  vulture,  the  Gypaetus  barbatus,  anc 
several  species  of  falcons.  The  celebrated  owl  of  Athena  (Athene 
noclua)  is  becoming  rare  at  Athens,  but  still  haunts  the  Acropolis 
and  the  royal  garden;  itisa  small  species,  found  every  where  in  Greece 
The  wild  goose  and  duck,  the  bustard,  partridge,  woodcock,  snipe 
wood-pigeon  and  turtle-dove  are  numerous.  Immense  flocks  ol 
quails  visit  the  southern  coast  of  the  Morea,  where  they  are  cap 
tured  in  great  numbers  and  exported  alive.  The  stork,  which  was 
common  in  the  Turkish  epoch,  has  now  become  scarce.  There  is  a 
great  variety  of  reptiles,  of  which  sixty-one  species  have  been 
catalogued.  The  saurians  are  all  harmless;  among  them  the 
steltion  (Stellio  vulgaris),  commonly  called  (cponoSeiXos  in  Mykonos 
and  Crete,  is  believed  by  Heldreich  to  have  furnished  a  name  to  the 
crocodile  of  the  Nile  (Herod,  ii.  69).  There  are  five  species  ol 
tortoise  and  nine  of  Amphibia.  Of  the  serpents,  which  are  numerous, 
there  are  only  two  dangerous  species,  the  Vipera  ammodytes  and  the 
Vipera  aspis;  the  first-named  is  common.  Among  the  marine 
fauna  are  the  dolphins,  familiar  in  the  legends  and  sculpture  ol 
antiquity;  in  the  clear  water  of  the  Aegean  they  often  afford  a 
beautiful  spectacle  as  they  play  round  ships;  porpoises  and  whales 
are  sometimes  seen.  Sea-fish,  of  which  246  species  have  been 
ascertained,  are  very  abundant. 

The  climate  of  Greece,  like  that  of  the  other  countries  of  the  Balkan 
peninsula,  is  liable  to  greater  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  than  prevail 
Climate  m  ^pain  and  Italy;  the  difference  is  due  to  the  general 
contour  of  the  peninsula,  which  assimilates  its  climatic 
conditions  to  those  of  the  European  mainland.  Another  distinctive 
feature  is  the  great  variety  of  local  contrasts;  the  rapid  transitions 
are  the  natural  effect  of  diversity  in  the  geographical  configuration  of 
the  country.  Within  a  few  hours  it  is  possible  to  pass  from  winter  to 
spring  and  from  spring  to  summer.  The  spring  is  short;  the  sun 
is  already  powerful  in  March,  but  the  increasing  warmth  is  often 
checked  by  cold  northerly  winds;  in  many  places  the  corn  harvest 
is  cut  in  May,  when  southerly  winds  prevail  and  the  temperature 
rises  rapidly.  The  great  heat  of  summer  is  tempered  throughout  the 
whole  region  of  the  archipelago  by  the  Etesian  winds,  which  blow 
regularly  from  the  N.E.  for  forty  to  fifty  days  in  July  and  August. 
This  current  of  cool  dry  air  from  the  north  is  due  to  the  vacuum 
resulting  from  intense  heat  in  the  region  of  the  Sahara.  The  healthy 
Etesian  winds  are  generally  replaced  towards  the  end  of  summer  by 
the  southerly  Libas  or  sirocco,  which,  when  blowing  strongly, 
resembles  the  blast  from  a  furnace  and  is  most  injurious  to  health. 
The  sirocco  affects,  though  in  a  less  degree,  the  other  countries  of 
the  Balkan  peninsula  and  even  Rumania.  The  mean  summer 
temperature  is  about  79°  Fahr.  The  autumn  is  the  least  healthy 
season  of  the  year  owing  to  the  great  increase  of  humidity,  especially 
in  October  and  November.  At  the  end  of  October  snow  reappears  on 
the  higher  mountains,  remaining  on  the  summits  till  June.  The 
winter  is  mild,  and  even  in  January  there  are,  as  a  rule,  many  warm 
clear  days;  but  the  recurrence  of  biting  northerly  winds  and  cold 
blasts  from  the  mountains,  as  well  as  the  rapid  transitions  from  heat 
to  cold  and  the  difference  in  the  temperature  of  sunshine  and  shade, 
render  the  climate  somewhat  treacherous  and  unsuitable  for  invalids. 
Snow  seldom  falls  in  the  maritime  and  lowland  districts  and  frost  is 
rare.  The  mean  wintertemperature  isfrom  48°to55°Fahr.  Therain- 
fall  varies  greatly  according  to  localities;  it  is  greatest  in  the  Ionian 
Islands  (53-34  ins.  at  Corfu),  in  Arcadia  and  in  the  other  mountainous 
districts,  and  least  on  the  Aegean  littoral  and  in  the  Cyclades;  in 
Attica,  the  driest  region  in  Greece,  it  is  16-1  ins.  The  wettest 
months  are  November,  December  and  January;  the  driest  July 
and  August,  when,  except  for  a  few  thunder-storms,  there  is  practi- 
cally no  rainfall.  The  rain  generally  accompanies  southerly  or  south- 
westerly winds.  In  all  the  maritime  districts  the  sea  breeze  greatly 
modifies  thetemperature;it  beginsaboutg  A.M.,  attains  its  maximum 
force  soon  after  noon,  and  ceases  about  an  hour  after  sunset.  Greece 
is  renowned  for  the  clearness  of  its  climate;  fogs  and  mists  are 
almost  unknown.  In  most  years,  however,  only  four  or  five  days 
are  recorded  in  which  the  sky  is  perfectly  cloudless.  The  natural 
healthiness  of  the  climate  is  counteracted  in  the  towns,  especially 
in  Athens,  by  deficient  sanitation  and  by  stifling  clouds  of  dust, 
which  propagate  infection  and  are  peculiarly  hurtful  in  cases  of 
ophthalmia  and  pulmonary  disease.  Malarial  fever  is  endemic  in 
the  marshy  districts,  especially  in  the  autumn. 

The  area  of  the  country  was  18,341  sq.  m.  before  the  acquisition 
of  the  Ionian  Islands  in  1864,  19,381  sq.  m.  prior  to  the  annexa- 
tion of  Thessaly  and  part  of  Epirus  in  1881,  and 

p^utof     24'552  sq'  m>  at  the  census  in  l89°.     If  we  deduct  152 

tioa.  S1-  m->  the  extent  of  territory  ceded  to  Turkey  after 

the  war  of  1897,  the  area  of  Greece  in  1908  would  be 

24,400  sq.  m.     Other  authorities  give  25,164  and  25,136  sq.  m. 


as  the  area  prior  to  the  rectification  of  the  frontier  in  I898.1 
The  population  in  1896  was  2,433,806,  or  99-110  the  sq.  m., 
the  population  of  the  territories  annexed  in  1881  being  approxi- 
mately 350,000;  and  2,631,952  in  1907,  or  107-8  to  the  sq.  m. 
(according  to  the  official  estimate  of  the  area),  showing  an 
increase  of  198,146  or  0-81%  per  annum,  as  compared  with 
1-61  %  during  the  period  between  1896  and  1889;  the  diminished 
increase  is  mainly  due  to  emigration.  The  population  by  sex 
in  1907  is  given  as  1,324,942  males  and  1,307,010  females  (or 
50-3%  males  to  49-6  females).  The  preponderance  of  males, 
which  was  52%  to  48%  females  in  1896,  has  also  been  reduced 
by  emigration;  it  is  most  marked  in  the  northern  departments, 
especially  in  Larissa.  Only  in  the  departments  of  Arcadia, 
Eurytania,  Corinth,  Cephalonia,  Lacedaemon,  Laconia,  Phocis, 
Argolis  and  in  the  Cyclades,  is  the  female  population  in  excess 
of  the  male. 

Neither  the  census  of  1896  nor  that  of  1889  gave  any  classification 
by  professions,  religion  or  language.  The  following  figures,  which 
are  only  approximate,  were  derived  from  unofficial  sources  in  1901 : — 
agricultural  and  pastoral  employments  444,000;  industries  64,200; 
traders  and  their  employes  118,000;  labourers  and  servants  31,300; 
various  professions  15,700;  officials  12,000;  clergy  about  6000; 
lawyers  4000;  physicians  2500.  In  1879,  1,635,698  of  the  popula- 
tion were  returned  as  Orthodox  Christians,  14,677  as  Catholics  and 
Protestants,  2652  as  Jews,  and  740  as  of  other  religions.  The 
annexation  of  Thessaly  and  part  of  Epirus  is  stated  to  have  added 
24, 165  Mahommedan  subjects  to  the  Hellenic  kingdom.  A  consider- 
able portion  of  these,  however,  emigrated  immediately  after  the 
annexation,  and,  although  a  certain  number  subsequently  returned, 
the  total  Mahommedan  population  in  Greece  was  estimated  to  be 
under  5000  in  1908.  A  number  of  the  Christian  inhabitants  of  these 
regions,  estimated  at  about  50,000,  retained  Turkish  nationality  with 
the  object  of  escaping  military  service.  The  Albanian  population, 
estimated  at  200,000  by  Finlay  in  1851,  still  probably  exceeds 
120,000.  It  is  gradually  being  absorbed  in  the  Hellenic  population. 
In  1870,  37,598  persons  (an  obviously  untrustworthy  figure)  were 
returned  as  speaking  Albanian  only.  In  1879  the  number  is  given  as 
58,858.  The  Vlach  population,  which  has  been  increased  by  the 
annexation  of  Thessaly,  numbers  about  60,000.  The  number  of 
foreign  residents  is  unknown.  The  Italians  are  the  most  numerous, 
numbering  about  11,000.  Some  1500  persons,  mostly  Maltese, 
possess  British  nationality. 

By  a  law  of  27  November  1899,  Greece,  which  had  hitherto  been 
divided  into  sixteen  departments  (v6/ioi)  was  redivided  into  twenty- 
six  departments,  as  follows: — 

Departments.  Pop.  Departments.                  Pop. 

[l  Attica.      .      .      .  341,247  14  Corinth      ....    71,229 

2  Boeotia     .      .      .  65,816  15  Arcadia      ....  162,324 

'3  Phthiotis.      .      .  112,328  16  Achaea      ....  150,918 

4  Phocis      .      .      .  62,246     17  Elis 103,810 

5  Aetolia  and  Acar-  18  Triphylia         .      .      .    90,523 

nania    .      .      .  141,405  19  Messenia   ....  127,991 

6  Eurytania      .      .  47,192  20  Laconia      ....    61,522 

7  Arta    ....  41,280  21  Lacedaemon         .      .    87,106 

8  Trikkala  .      .      .  90,548     22  Corfu 99,571 

9  Karditsa  .      .      .  92,941  23  Cephalonia      .      .      .    71,235 

10  Larissa     .  .  .  95,066  24  Leucas  (with  Ithaca)     41,186 

11  Magnesia.  .  .  102,742  25  Zante 42,502 

12  Euboea     .  .  .  116,903  26  Cyclades    .      .               130378 

13  Argolis     .  .  .  81,943 

The  population  is  densest  in  the  Ionian  Islands,  exceeding  307  per 
sq.  m.  The  departments  of  Acarnania,  Phocis  and  Euboea  are  the 
most  thinly  inhabited  (about  58,  61  and  66  per  sq.  m.  respectively). 

Very  little  information  is  obtainable  with  regard  to  the  movement 
)f  the  population;  no  register  of  births,  deaths  and  marriages  is 
cept  in  Greece.  The  only  official  statistics  are  found  in  the  periodical 
returns  of  the  mortality  in  the  twelve  principal  towns,  according  to 
which  the  yearly  average  of  deaths  in  these  towns  for  the  five  years 
1903-1907  was  approximately  10,253,  or  23-8  per  looo;  of  these 
nore  than  a  quarter  are  ascribed  to  pulmonary  consumption,  due  in 
:he  main  to  defective  sanitation.  Both  the  birth-rate  and  death-rate 
ire  low,  being  27-6  and  20-7  per  1000  respectively.  Infant  mortality 
s  slight,  and  in  point  of  longevity  Greece  compares  favourably  with 
nost  other  European  countries.  The  number  of  illegitimate  births 
s  12-25  Per  looo;  these  are  almost  exclusively  in  the  towns. 

Of  the  total  population  28-5%  are  stated  to  live  in  towas.  The 
>opulation  of  the  principal  towns  is: — 


Athens  . 
Peiraeus 
Patras  . 


1896. 

111,486 

43,848 

37.985 


1907. 

167,479 

73,579 

37,724 


1  No  state  survey  of  Greece  was  available  in  1908,  though  a 
urvey  had  been  undertaken  by  the  ministry  of  war. 


ETHNOLOGY] 


GREECE 


429 


Hthno- 
logy. 


1896.  1907. 

Trikkala         ....  .21,149  17.809 

Hcrmopolis  (Syra)   .      .  18,760  18,132 

Corfu 18,581  78,254 l 

Volo         16,788  23,563 

Larissa 15.373  18,001 

Zante 14,906  I3.58° 

Kalamata      ....  14,298  15.397 

Pyrgos 12,708  13,690 

Tripolis 10,465  10,789 

Chalcis 8,661  10,958 

Laurium        ....  7,926  10,007 

No  trustworthy  information  is  obtainable  with  regard  to  immigra- 
tion and  emigration,  of  which  no  statistics  have  ever  been  kept. 
Emigration,  which  was  formerly  in  the  main  to  Egypt  and  Rumania, 
is  now  almost  exclusively  to  the  United  States  of  America.  The 
principal  exodus  is  from  Arcadia,  Laconia  and  Maina;  the  emigrants 
from  these  districts,  estimated  at  about  14,000  annually,  are  for  the 
most  part  you  ng  men  approaching  the  age  of  military  service.  Accord- 
ing to  American  statistics  12,431  Greeks  arrived  in  the  United 
States  from  Greece  during  the  period  1869-1898  and  130,154  in 
1899-1907;  a  considerable  number,  however,  have  returned  to 
Greece,  and  those  remaining  in  the  United  States  at  the  end  of  1907 
were  estimated  at  between  136,000  and  138,000;  this  number  was 
considerably  reduced  in  1908  by  remigration.  Since  1896  the 
tendency  to  emigration  has  received  a  notable  and  somewhat 
alarming  impulse.  There  is  an  increasing  immigration  into  the 
towns  from  the  rural  districts,  which  are  gradually  becoming  depopu- 
lated. Both  movements  are  due  in  part  to  the  preference  of  the 
Greeks  for  a  town  life  and  in  part  to  distaste  for  military  service, 
but  in  the  main  to  the  poverty  of  the  peasant  population,  whose 
condition  and  interests  have  been  neglected  by  the  government. 

Greece  is  inhabited  by  three  races — the  Greeks,  the  Albanians 
and  the  Vlachs.  The  Greeks  who  are  by  far  the  most  numerous, 
have  to  a  large  extent  absorbed  the  other  races;  the 
process  of  assimilation  has  been  especially  rapid  since 
the  foundation  of  the  Greek  kingdom.  Like  most 
European  nations,  the  modern  Greeks  are  a  mixed  race.  The 
question  of  their  origin  has  been  the  subject  of  much  learned 
controversy;  their  presumed  descent  from  the  Greeks  of  the 
classical  epoch  has  proved  a  national  asset  of  great  value; 
during  the  period  of  their  struggle  for  independence  it  won 
them  the  devoted  zeal  of  the  Philhellenes,  it  inspired  the 
enthusiasm  of  Byron,  Victor  Hugo,  and  a  host  of  minor  poets, 
and  it  has  furnished  a  pleasing  illusion  to  generations  of  scholarly 
tourists  who  delight  to  discover  in  the  present  inhabitants  of  the 
country  the  mental  and  physical  characteristics  with  which  they 
have  been  familiarized  by  the  literature  and  art  of  antiquity. 
This  amiable  tendency  is  encouraged  by  the  modern  Greeks, 
who  possess  an  implicit  faith  in  their  illustrious  ancestry.  The 
discussion  of  the  question  entered  a  very  acrimonious  stage  with 
the  appearance  in  1830  of  Fallmerayer's  History  of  the  Morea 
during  the  Middle  Ages.  Fallmerayer  maintained  that  after 
the  great  Slavonic  immigration  at  the  close  of  the  8th  century  the 
original  population  of  northern  Greece  and  the  Morea,  which 
had  already  been  much  reduced  during  the  Roman  period,  was 
practically  supplanted  by  the  Slavonic  element  and  that  the 
Greeks  of  modern  times  are  in  fact  Byzantinized  Slavs.  This 
theory  was  subjected  to  exhaustive  criticism  by  Ross,  Hopf, 
Finlay  and  other  scholars,  and  although  many  of  Fallmerayer's 
conclusions  remain  unshaken,  the  view  is  now  generally  held  that 
the  base  of  the  population  both  in  the  mainland  and  the  Morea 
is  Hellenic,  not  Slavonic.  During  the  sth  and  6th  centuries 
Greece  had  been  subjected  to  Slavonic  incursions  which  resulted 
in  no  permanent  settlements.  After  the  great  plague  of  746-747 , 
however,  large  tracts  of  depopulated  country  were  colonized 
by  Slavonic  immigrants;  the  towns  remained  in  the  hands  of 
the  Greeks,  many  of  whom  emigrated  to  Constantinople.  In 
the  Morea  the  Slavs  established  themselves  principally  in 
Arcadia  and  the  region  of  Taygetus,  extending  their  settlements 
into  Achaia,  Elis,  Laconia  and  the  promontory  of  Taenaron 
on  the  mainland  they  occupied  portions  of  Acarnania,  Aetolia, 
Doris  and  Phocis.  Slavonic  place-names  occurring  in  all  these 
districts  confirm  the  evidence  of  history  with  regard  to  this 
immigration.  The  Slavs,  who  were  not  a  maritime  race,  did 
not  colonize  the  Aegean  Islands,  but  a  few  Slavonic  place-names 
1  Including  suburbs. 


in  Crete  seem  to  indicate  that  some  of  the  invaders  reached  that 
island.     The  Slavonic  settlements  in  the  Morea  proved  more 
permanent  than  those  in  northern  Greece,  which  were  attacked 
ay  the  armies  of  the  Byzantine  emperors.     But  even  in  the 
Morea  the  Greeks,  or  "  Romans  "  as  they  called  themselves 
wjuatot),  who  had  been  left  undisturbed  on  the  eastern  side  of 
the  peninsula,  eventually  absorbed  the  alien  element,  which 
disappeared  after  the  isth  century.  In  addition  to  the  place- 
names  the  only  remaining  traces  of  the  Slav  immigration  are  the 
Slavonic  type  of  features,  which  occasionally  recurs,  especially 
among  the  Arcadian  peasants,  and  a  few  customs  and  traditions. 
Even  when  allowance  is  made  for  the  remarkable  power  of 
assimilation   which   the   Greeks   possessed   in   virtue   of   their 
superior  civilization,  it  is  difficult  to  resist  the  conclusion  that  the 
Hellenic  element  must  always  have  been  the  most  numerous  in 
order  to  effect  so  complete  an  absorption.     This  element  has 
apparently  undergone  no  essential  change  since  the  epoch  of 
Roman  domination.     The  destructive  invasions  of  the  Goths  in 
A.D.  267  and  395  introduced  no  new  ethnic  feature;  the  various 
races  which  during  the  middle  ages  obtained  partial  or  complete 
mastery  in  Greece — the  Franks,  the  Venetians, .  the  Turks- 
contributed  no  appreciable  ingredient  to  the  mass  of  the  popula- 
tion.    The  modern  Greeks  may  therefore  be  regarded  as  in  the 
main  the  descendants  of  the  population  which  inhabited  Greece 
in  the  earlier  centuries  of  Byzantine  rule.     Owing  to  the  opera- 
tion of  various  causes,  historical,  social  and  economic,   that 
population  was  composed  of  many  heterogeneous  elements  and 
represented  in  a  very  limited  degree  the  race  which  repulsed 
the  Persians  and  built  the  Parthenon.     The  internecine  conflicts 
of  the  Greek  communities,  wars  with  foreign  powers  and  the 
deadly  struggles  of  factions  in  the  various  cities,  had  to  a  large 
extent  obliterated  the  old  race  of  free  citizens  by  the  beginning 
of  the  Roman  period.     The  extermination  of  the  Plataeans  by 
the  Spartans  and  of  the  Melians  by  the  Athenians  during  the 
Peloponnesian  war,  the  proscription  of  Athenian  citizens  after 
the  war,  the  massacre  of   the    Corcyraean   oligarchs   by   the 
democratic  party,  the  slaughter  of  the  Thebans  by  Alexander 
and  of  the  Corinthians  by  Mummius,  are  among  the  more 
familiar  instances  of  the  catastrophes  which  overtook  the  civic 
element  in  the  Greek  cities;  the  void  can  only  have  been  filled 
from  the  ranks  of  the  metics  or  resident  aliens  and  of  the  descend- 
ants of  the  far  more  numerous  slave  population.     Of  the  latter 
a  portion  was  of  Hellenic  origin;  when  a  city  was  taken  the 
males  of  military  age  were  frequently  put  to  the  sword,  but  the 
women  and  children  were  sold  as  slaves;  in  Laconia  and  Thessaly 
there  was  a  serf  population  of  indigenous  descent.     In  the  classical 
period  four-fifths  of  the  population  of  Attica  were  slaves  and  of 
the  remainder  half  were  metics.     In  the  Roman  period  the  number 
of  slaves  enormously  increased,  the  supply  being  maintained  from 
the  regions  on  the  borders  of  the  empire;  the  same  influences 
which  in  Italy  extinguished  the  small  landed  proprietors  and 
created  the  latifundia  prevailed  also  in   Greece.     The  purely 
Hellenic  population,  now  greatly  diminished,  congregated  in  the 
towns;  the  large  estates   which  replaced   the  small  freeholds 
were  cultivated  by  slaves  and  managed  or  farmed  by  slaves  or 
freedmen,  and  wide  tracts  of  country  were  wholly  depopulated. 
How  greatly  the  free  citizen  element  had  diminished  by  the  close 
of  the  ist  century  A.D.  may  be  judged  from  the  estimate  of 
Plutarch  that  all  Greece  could  not  furnish  more  than  3000 
hoplites.     The  composite  population  which  replaced  the  ancient 
Hellenic  stock  became  completely  Hellenized.     According  to 
craniologists   the   modern   Greeks  are   brachycephalous   while 
the  ancient  race  is  stated  to  have  been  dolichocephalous,  but  it 
seems  doubtful  whether  any  such  generalization  with  regard 
to  the  ancients  can  be  conclusively  established.     The  Aegean 
islanders  are  more  brachycephalous  than  the  inhabitants  of  the 
mainland,    though   apparently   of  purer    Greek   descent.     No 
general  conception  of  the  facial  type  of  the  ancient  race  can  be 
derived  from  the  highly-idealized  statues  of  deities,  heroes  and 
athletes;  so  far  as  can  be  judged  from  portrait  statues  it  was 
very  varied.     Among  the  modern  Greeks  the  same  variety  of 
features  prevails;  the  face  is  usually  oval,  the  nose  generally 


430 


GREECE 


[ETHNOLOGY 


long  and  somewhat  aquiline,  the  teeth  regular,  and  the  eyes 
remarkably  bright  and  full  of  animation.  The  country-folk  are, 
as  a  rule,  tall  and  well-made,  though  slightly  built  and  rather 
meagre;  their  form  is  graceful  and  supple  in  movement.  The 
urban  population,  as  elsewhere,  is  physically  very  inferior. 
The  women  often  display  a  refined  and  delicate  beauty  which 
disappears  at  an  early  age.  The  best  physical  types  of  the  race 
are  found  in  Arcadia,  in  the  Aegean  Islands  and  in  Crete. 

The  Albanian  population  extends  over  all  Attica  and  Megaris 
(except  the  towns  of  Athens,  Peiraeus  and  Megara),  the  greater 
part  of  Boeotia,  the  eastern  districts  of  Locris,  the  southern  half 
of  Euboea  and  the  northern  side  of  Andres,  the  whole  of  the 
islands  of  Salamis,  Hydra,  Spetsae  and  Poros,  and  part  of  Aegina, 
the  whole  of  Corinthia  and  Argolis,  the  northern  districts  of 
Arcadia  and  the  eastern  portion  of  Achaea.  There  are  also  small 
Albanian  groups  in  Laconia  and  Messenia  (see  ALBANIA).  The 
Albanians,  who  call  themselves  Shkyipetar,  and  are  called  by 
the  Greeks  Aroanitae  ('Ap/Scwirai),  belong  to  the  Tosk  or 
southern  branch  of  the  race;  their  immigration  took  place  in 
the  latter  half  of  the  I4th  century.  Their  first  settlements  in  the 
Morea  were  made  in  1347-1355.  The  Albanian  colonization  was 
first  checked  by  the  Turks;  in  1454  an  Albanian  insurrection  in 
the  Morea  against  Byzantine  rule  was  crushed  by  the  Turkish 
general  Tura  Khan,  whose  aid  had  been  invoked  by  the  Palaeo- 
logi.  With  a  few  exceptions,  the  Albanians  in  Greece  retained 
their  Christian  faith  after  the  Turkish  conquest.  The  failure 
of  the  insurrection  of  1770  was  followed  by  a  settlement  of 
Moslem  Albanians,  who  had  been  employed  by  the  Turks  to 
suppress  the  revolt.  The  Christian  Albanians  have  long  lived 
on  good  terms  with  the  Greeks  while  retaining  their  own  customs 
and  language  and  rarely  intermarrying  with  their  neighbours. 
They  played  a  brilliant  part  during  the  War  of  Independence, 
and  furnished  the  Greeks  with  many  of  their  most  distinguished 
leaders.  The  process  of  their  Hellenization,  which  scarcely 
began  till  after  the  establishment  of  the  kingdom,  has  been 
somewhat  slow;  most  of  the  men  can  now  speak  Greek,  but 
Albanian  is  still  the  language  of  the  household.  The  Albanians, 
who  are  mainly  occupied  with  agriculture,  are  less  quick-witted, 
less  versatile,  and  less  addicted  to  politics  than  the  Greeks,  who 
regard  them  as  intellectually  their  inferiors.  A  vigorous  and 
manly  race,  they  furnish  the  best  soldiers  in  the  Greek  army, 
and  also  make  excellent  sailors. 

The  Vlachs,  who  call  themselves  A  rom&ni,  i.  e.  Romans,  form 
another  important  foreign  element  in  the  population  of  Greece. 
They  are  found  principally  in  Pindus  (the  Agrapha  district),  the 
mountainous  parts  of  Thessaly,  Othrys,  Oeta,  the  mountains 
of  Boeotia,  Aetolia  and  Acarnania;  they  have  a  few  settlements 
in  Euboea.  They  are  for  the  most  part  either  nomad  shepherds 
and  herdsmen  or  carriers  (kiradjis).  They  apparently  descend 
from  the  Latinized  provincials  of  the  Roman  epoch  who  took 
refuge  in  the  higher  mountains  from  the  incursions  of  the  bar- 
barians and  Slavs  (see  VLACHS  and  MACEDONIA).  In  the  i3th 
century  the  Vlach  principality  of  "  Great  Walachia  "  (M«7aXr; 
BXaxta)  included  Thessaly  and  southern  Macedonia  as  far  as 
Castoria;  its  capital  was  at  Hypati  near  Lamia.  Acarnania 
and  Aetolia  were  known  as  "  Lesser  Walachia."  The  urban 
element  among  the  Vlachs  has  been  almost  completely  Hellenized ; 
it  has  always  displayed  great  aptitude  for  commerce,  and  Athens 
owes  many  of  its  handsomest  buildings  to  the  benefactions 
of  wealthy  Vlach  merchants.  The  nomad  population  in  the 
mountains  has  retained  its  distinctive  nationality  and  customs 
together  with  its  Latin  language,  though  most  of  the  men  can 
speak  Greek.  Like  the  Albanians,  the  pastoral  Vlachs  seldom 
intermarry  with  the  Greeks;  they  occasionally  take  Greek  wives, 
but  never  give  their  daughters  to  Greeks;  many  of  them  are 
illiterate,  and  their  children  rarely  attend  the  schools.  Owing 
to  their  deficient  intellectual  culture  they  are  regarded  with 
disdain  by  the  Greeks,  who  employ  the  term  /SXdxos  to  denote 
not  only  a  shepherd  but  an  ignorant  rustic. 

A  considerable  Italian  element  was  introduced  into  the  Ionian 
Islands  during  the  middle  ages  owing  to  their  prolonged  sub- 
jection to  Latin  princes  and  subsequently  (till  1797)  to  the 


Venetian  republic.  The  Italians  intermarried  with  the  Greeks; 
Italian  became  the  language  of  the  upper  classes,  and  Roman 
Catholicism  was  declared  the  state  religion.  The  peasantry, 
however,  retained  the  Greek  language  and  remained  faithful  to 
the  Eastern  Church;  during  the  past  century  the  Italian  element 
was  completely  absorbed  by  the  Greek  population. 

The  Turkish  population  in  Greece,  which  numbered  about 
70,000  before  the  war  of  liberation,  disappeared  in  the  course 
of  the  struggle  or  emigrated  at  its  conclusion.  The  Turks  in 
Thessaly  are  mainly  descended  either  from  colonists  established 
in  the  country  by  the  Byzantine  emperors  or  from  immigrants 
from  Asia  Minor,  who  arrived  at  the  end  of  the  I4th  century; 
they  derive  their  name  Konariots  from  Iconium  (Konia).  Many 
of  the  beys  or  land-owning  class  are  the  lineal  representatives 
of  the  Seljuk  nobles  who  obtained  fiefs  under  the  feudal  system 
introduced  here  and  in  Macedonia  by  the  Sultan  Bayezid  I. 

Notwithstanding  their  composite  origin,  their  wide  geo- 
graphical distribution  and  their  cosmopolitan  instincts,  the 
modern  Greeks  are  a  remarkably  homogeneous  people,  N 
differing  markedly  in  character  from  neighbouring  character 
races,  united  by  a  common  enthusiasm  in  the  pursuit 
of  their  national  aims,  and  profoundly  convinced  of  their 
superiority  to  other  nations.  Their  distinctive  character, 
combined  with  their  traditional  tendency  to  regard  non-Hellenic 
peoples  as  barbarous,  has,  indeed,  to  some  extent  counteracted 
the  results  of  their  great  energy  and  zeal  in  the  'assimilation  of 
other  races;  the  advantageous  position  which  they  attained  at 
an  early  period  under  Turkish  rule  owing  to  their  superior 
civilization,  their  versatility,  their  wealth,  and  their  monopoly 
of  the  ecclesiastical  power  would  probably  have  enabled  them  to 
Hellenize  permanently  the  greater  part  of  the  Balkan  peninsula 
had  their  attitude  towards  other  Christian  races  been  more 
sympathetic.  Always  the  most  civilized  race  in  the  East,  they 
have  successively  influenced  their  Macedonian,  Roman  and 
Turkish  conquerors,  and  their  remarkable  intellectual  endow- 
ments bid  fair  to  secure  them  a  brilliant  position  in  the  future. 
The  intense  patriotic  zeal  of  the  Greeks  may  be  compared  with 
that  of  the  Hungarians;  it  is  liable  to  degenerate  into  arrogance 
and  intolerance;  it  sometimes  blinds  their  judgment  and  involves 
them  in  ill-considered  enterprises,  but  it  nevertheless  offers  the 
best  guarantee  for  the  ultimate  attainment  of  their  national 
aims.  All  Greeks,  in  whatever  country  they  may  reside,  work 
together  for  the  realization  of  the  Great  Idea  (17  Me7<xXjj  'I6«a) — 
the  supremacy  of  Hellenism  in  the  East — and  to  this  object  they 
freely  devote  their  time,  their  wealth  and  their  talents;  the 
large  fortunes  which  they  amass  abroad  are  often  bequeathed 
for  the  foundation  of  various  institutions  in  Greece  or  Turkey, 
for  the  increase  of  the  national  fleet  and  army,  or  for  the  spread 
of  Hellenic  influence  in  the  Levant.  This  patriotic  sentiment  is 
unfortunately  much  exploited  by  self-seeking  demagogues  and 
publicists,  who  rival  each  other  in  exaggerating  the  national 
pretensions  and  in  pandering  to  the  national  vanity.  In  no  other 
country  is  the  passion  for  politics  so  intense;  "  keen  political 
discussions  are  constantly  going  on  at  the  cafes;  the  newspapers, 
which  are  extraordinarily  numerous  and  generally  of  little  value, 
are  literally  devoured,  and  every  measure  of  the  government  is 
violently  criticized  and  ascribed  to  interested  motives."  The 
influence  of  the  journals  is  enormous;  even  the  waiters  in  the 
cafes  and  domestic  servants  have  their  favourite  newspaper, 
and  discourse  fluently  on  the  political  problems  of  the  day. 
Much  of  the  national  energy  is  wasted  by  this  continued  political 
fever;  it  is  diverted  from  practical  aims,  and  may  be  said  to 
evaporate  in  words.  The  practice  of  independent  criticism 
tends  to  indiscipline  in  the  organized  public  services;  it  has 
been  remarked  that  every  Greek  soldier  is  a  general  and  every 
sailor  an  admiral.  During  the  war  of  1897  a  young  naval 
lieutenant  telegraphed  to  the  minister  of  war  condemning  the 
measures  taken  by  his  admiral,  and  his  action  was  applauded 
by  several  journals.  There  is  also  little  discipline  in  the  ranks 
of  political  parties,  which  are  held  together,  not  by  any  definite 
principle,  but  by  the  personal  influence  of  the  leaders;  defections 
are  frequent,  and  as  a  rule  each  deputy  in  the  Chamber  makes 


CUSTOMS] 


GREECE 


his  terms  with  his  chief.  On  the  other  hand,  the  independent 
character  of  the  Greeks  is  favourably  illustrated  by  the  circum- 
stance that  Greece  is  the  only  country  in  the  Balkan  peninsula 
in  which  the  government  cannot  count  on  securing  a  majority 
by  official  pressure  at  the  elections.  Few  scruples  are  observed 
in  political  warfare,  but  attacks  on  private  life  are  rare.  The 
love  of  free  discussion  is  inherent  in  the  strongly-rooted  demo- 
cratic instinct  of  the  Greeks.  They  are  in  spirit  the  most  demo- 
cratic of  European  peoples;  no  trace  of  Latin  feudalism  survives, 
and  aristocratic  pretensions  are  ridiculed.  In  social  life  there 
is  no  artificial  distinction  of  classes;  all  titles  of  nobility  are 
forbidden;  a  few  families  descended  from  the  chiefs  in  the 
War  of  Independence  enjoy  a  certain  pre-eminence,  but  wealth 
and,  still  more,  political  or  literary  notoriety  constitute  the 
principal  claim  to  social  consideration.  The  Greeks  display  great 
intellectual  vivacity;  they  are  clever,  inquisitive,  quick-witted 
and  ingenious,  but  not  profound;  sustained  mental  industry 
and  careful  accuracy  are  distasteful  to  them,  and  their  aversion 
to  manual  labour  is  still  more  marked.  Even  the  agricultural 
class  is  but  moderately  industrious;  abundant  opportunities 
for  relaxation  are  provided  by  the  numerous  church  festivals. 
The  desire  for  instruction  is  intense  even  in  the  lowest  ranks 
of  the  community;  rhetorical  and  literary  accomplishments 
possess  a  greater  attraction  for  the  majority  than  the  fields  of 
modern  science.  The  number  of  persons  who  seek  to  qualify 
for  the  learned  professions  is  excessive;  they  form  a  superfluous 
element  in  the  community,  an  educated  proletariat,  attaching 
themselves  to  the  various  political  parties  in  the  hope  of  obtaining 
state  employment  and  spending  an  idle  existence  in  the  cafes 
and  the  streets  when  their  party  is  out  of  power.  In  disposition 
the  Greeks  are  lively,  cheerful,  plausible,  tactful,  sympathetic; 
very  affable  with  strangers,  hospitable,  kind  to  their  servants 
and  dependants,  remarkably  temperate  and  frugal  in  their 
habits,  amiable  and  united  in  family  life.  Drunkenness  is 
almost  unknown,  thrift  is  universally  practised;  the  standard 
of  sexual  morality  is  high,  especially  in  the  rural -districts,  where 
illegitimacy  is  extremely  rare.  The  faults  of  the  Greeks  must 
in  a  large  degree  be  attributed  to  their  prolonged  subjection  to 
alien  races;  their  cleverness  often  degenerates  into  cunning, 
their  ready  invention  into  mendacity,  their  thrift  into  avarice, 
their  fertility  of  resource  into  trickery  and  fraud.  Dishonesty 
is  not  a  national  vice,  but  many  who  would  scorn  to  steal  will 
not  hesitate  to  compass  illicit  gains  by  duplicity  and  misrepre- 
sentation; deceit,  indeed,  is  often  practised  gratuitously  for 
the  mere  intellectual  satisfaction  which  it  affords.  In  the 
astuteness  of  their  monetary  dealings  the  Greeks  proverbially 
surpass  the  Jews,  but  fall  short  of  the  Armenians;  their  remark- 
able aptitude  for  business  is  sometimes  marred  by  a  certain 
short-sightedness  which  pursues  immediate  profits  at  the  cost 
of  ulterior  advantages.  Their  vanity  and  egoism,  which  are 
admitted  by  even  the  most  favourable  observers,  render  them 
jealous,  exacting,  and  peculiarly  susceptible  to  flattery.  In 
common  with  other  southern  European  peoples  the  Greeks  are 
extremely  excitable;  their  passionate  disposition  is  prone  to  take 
offence  at  slight  provocation,  and  trivial  quarrels  not  infre- 
quently result  in  homicide.  They  are  religious,  but  by  no  means 
fanatical,  except  in  regard  to  politico-religious  questions  affecting 
their  national  aims.  In  general  the  Greeks  may  be  described 
as  a  clever,  ambitious  and  versatile  people,  capable  of  great 
effort  and  sacrifice,  but  deficient  in  some  of  the  more  solid 
qualities  which  make  for  national  greatness. 

The  customs  and  habits  of  the  Greek  peasantry,  ip  which 
the  observances  of  the  classical  age  may  often  be  traced,  together 
Customs  with  their  legends  and  traditions,  have  furnished  an 
interesting  subject  of  investigation  to  many  writers 
(see  Bibliography  below).  In  the  towns  the  more  cosmopolitan 
population  has  largely  adopted  the  "  European  "  mode  of  life, 
and  the  upper  classes  show  a  marked  preference  for  French 
manners  and  usages.  In  both  town  and  country,  however,  the 
influence  of  oriental  ideas  is  still  apparent,  due  in  part  to  the 
long  period  of  Turkish  domination,  in  part  to  the  contact  of 
the  Greeks  with  Asiatic  races  at  all  epochs  of  their  history.  In 


the  rural  districts,  especially,  the  women  lead  a  somewhat 
secluded  life  and  occupy  a  subject  position;  they  wait  at  table, 
and  only  partake  of  the  meal  when  the  men  of  the  family  have 
been  served.  In  most  parts  of  continental  Greece  the  women 
work  in  the  fields,  but  in  the  Aegean  Islands  and*  Crete  they  rarely 
leave  the  house.  Like  the  Turks,  the  Greeks  have  a  great 
partiality  for  coffee,  which  can  always  be  procured  even  in  the 
remotest  hamlets;  the  Turkish  practice  of  carrying  a  string  of 
beads  or  rosary  (comboloio),  which  provides  an  occupation  for 
the  hands,  is  very  common.  Many  of  the  observances  in  con- 
nexion with  births,  christenings,  weddings  and  funerals  are  very 
interesting  and  in  some  cases  are  evidently  derived  from  remote 
antiquity.  Nuptial  ceremonies  are  elaborate  and  protracted; 
in  some  of  the  islands  of  the  archipelago  they  continue  for  three 
weeks.  In  the  preliminary  negotiations  for  a  marriage  the 
question  of  the  bride's  dowry  plays  a  very  important  part;  a 
girl  without  a  dowry  often  remains  unmarried,  notwithstanding 
the  considerable  excess  of  the  male  over  the  female  population. 
Immediately  after  the  christeningof  af  emale  child  her  parents  begin 
to  lay  up  her  portion,  and  young  men  often  refrain  from  marrying 
until  their  sisters  have  been  settled  in  life.  The  dead  are  carried 
to  the  tomb  in  an  open  coffin;  in  the  country  districts  profes- 
sional mourners  are  engaged  to  chant  dirges;  the  body  is  washed 
with  wine  and  crowned  with  a  wreath  of  flowers.  A  valedictory 
oration  is  pronounced  at  the  grave.  Many  superstitions  still 
prevail  among  the  peasantry;  the  belief  in  the  vampire  and  the 
evil  eye  is  almost  universal.  At  Athens  and  in  the  larger  towns 
many  handsome  dwelling-houses  may  be  seen,  but  the  upper 
classes  have  no  predilection  for  rural  life,  and  their  country 
houses  are  usually  mere  farmsteads,  which  they  rarely  visit. 
In  the  more  fertile  districts  two-storeyed  houses  of  the  modern 
type  are  common,  but  in  the  mountainous  regions  the  habita- 
tions of  the  country-folk  are  extremely  primitive;  the  small 
stone-built  hut,  almost  destitute  of  furniture,  shelters  not  only 
the  family  but  its  cattle  and  domestic  animals.  In  Attica  the 
peasants'  houses  are  usually  built  of  cob.  In  Maina  the  villagers 
live  in  fortified  towers  of  three  or  more  storeys;  the  animals 
occupy  the  ground  floor,'  the  family  the  topmost  storey;  the 
intermediate  space  serves  as  a  granary  or  hay-loft.  The  walls 
are  loop-holed  for  purposes  of  defence  in  view  of  the  traditional 
vendetta  and  feuds,  which  in  some  instances  have  been  handed 
down  from  remote  generations  and  are  maintained  by  occasional 
sharp-shooting  from  these  primitive  fortresses.  In  general 
cleanliness  and  sanitation  are  much  neglected;  the  traveller  in 
the  country  districts  is  doomed  to  sleepless  nights  unless  he  has 
provided  himself  with  bedding  and  a  hammock.  Even  Athens, 
though  enriched  by  many  munificent  benefactions,  is  still  without 
a  drainage  system  or  an  adequate  water  supply;  the  sewers  of 
many  houses  open  into  the  streets,  in  which  rubbish  is  allowed 
to  accumulate.  The  effects  of  insanitary  conditions  are,  how- 
ever, counteracted  in  some  degree  by  the  excellent  climate. 
The  Aegean  islanders  contrast  favourably  with  the  continentals 
in  point  of  personal  cleanliness  and  the  neatness  of  their  dwellings; 
their  houses  are  generally  covered  with  the  flat  roof,  familiar 
in  Asia,  on  which  the  family  sleep  in  summer.  The  habits  and 
customs  of  the  islanders  afford  an  interesting  study.  Propitiatory 
rites  are  still  practised  by  the  mariners  and  fishermen,  and  thank- 
offerings  for  preservation  at  sea  are  hung  up  in  the  churches. 
Among  the  popular  amusements  of  the  Greeks  dancing  holds  a 
prominent  place;  the  dance  is  of  various  kinds;  the  most  usual 
is  the  somewhat  inanimate  round  dance  (avpro  or  T pa.ro.),  in 
which  a  number  of  persons,  usually  of  the  same  sex,  take  part 
holding  hands;  it  seems  indentical  with  the  Slavonic  kolo 
("  circle  ").  The  more  lively  Albanian  fling  is  generally  danced 
by  three  or  four  persons,  one  of  whom  executes  a  series  of  leaps 
and  pirouettes.  The  national  music  is  primitive  and  monotonous. 
All  classes  are  passionately  addicted  to  card-playing,  which  is 
forbidden  by  law  in  places  of  public  resort.  The  picturesque 
national  costume,  which  is  derived  from  the  Albanian  Tosks, 
has  unfortunately  been  abandoned  by  the  upper  classes  and  the 
urban  population  since  the  abdication  of  King  Otho,  who  always 
wore  it ;  it  is  maintained  as  the  uniform  of  the  evzones  (highland 


432 


GREECE 


[GOVERNMENT 


regiments).  It  consists  of  a  red  cap  with  dark  blue  tassel,  a 
white  shirt  with  wide  sleeves,  a  vest  and  jacket,  sometimes  of 
velvet,  handsomely  adorned  with  gold  or  black  braid,  a  belt  in 
which  various  weapons  are  carried,  a  white  kilt  or  fustanella  of 
many  folds,  white  hose  tied  with  garters,  and  red  leather  shoes 
with  pointed  ends,  from  which  a  tassel  depends.  Over  all  is  worn 
the  shaggy  white  capote.  The  islanders  wear  a  dark  blue  costume 
with  a  crimson  waistband,  loose  trousers  descending  to  the  knee, 
stockings  and  pumps  or  long  boots.  The  women's  costume  is 
very  varied;  the  loose  red  fez  is  sometimes  worn  and  a  short 
velvet  jacket  with  rich  gold  embroidery.  The  more  elderly 
women  are  generally  attired  in  black.  In  the  Megara  district 
and  elsewhere  peasant  girls  wear  on  festive  occasions  a  head- 
dress composed  of  strings  of  coins  which  formerly  represented 
the  dowry. 

Greece  is  a  constitutional  monarchy;  hereditary  in  the  male 

line,  or,  in  case  of  its  extinction,  in  the  female.     The  sovereign, 

by  decision  of  the  conference  of  London  (August  1863), 

meaT"  is  styled  "  kinS  of  the  Hellenes  ";  the  title  "  king 
of  Greece  "  was  borne  by  King  Otho.  The  heir 
apparent  is  styled  6  Siadoxos,  "  the  successor ";  the  title 
"  duke  of  Sparta,"  which  has  been  accorded  to  the  crown  prince, 
is  not  generally  employed  in  Greece.  The  king  and  the  heir 
apparent  must  belong  to  the  Orthodox  Greek  Church;  a  special 
exception  has  been  made  for  King  George,  who  is  a  Lutheran. 
The  king  attains  his  majority  on  completing  his  eighteenth  year; 
before  ascending  the  throne  he  must  take  the  oath  to  the  con- 
stitution in  presence  of  the  principal  ecclesiastical  and  lay 
dignitaries  of  the  kingdom,  and  must  convoke  the  Chamber 
within  two  months  after  his  accession.  The  civil  list  amounts 
to  1,125,000  dr.,  in  addition  to  which  it  was  provided  that  King 
George  should  receive  £4000  annually  as  a  personal  allowance 
from  each  of  the  three  protecting  powers,  Great  Britain,  France 
and  Russia.  The  heir  apparent  receives  from  the  state  an 
annuity  of  200,000  dr.  The  king  has  a  palace  at  Athens  and 
other  residences  at  Corfu,  Tatoi  (on  the  slopes  of  Mt  Parnes) 
and  Larissa.  The  present  constitution  dates  from  the  2gth  of 
October  1864.  The  legislative  power  is  shared  by  the  king  with 
a  single  chamber  (flov\r])  elected  by  manhood  suffrage  for  a 
period  of  four  years.  The  election  is  by  ballot;  candidates 
must  have  completed  their  thirtieth  year  and  electors  their 
twenty-first.  The  deputies  (/SouXewai),  according  to  the 
constitution,  receive  only  their  travelling  expenses,  but  they 
vote  themselves  a  payment  of  1800  dr.  each  for  the  session  and 
a  further  allowance  in  case  of  an  extraordinary  session.  The 
Chamber  sits  for  a  term  of  not  less  than  three  or  more  than  six 
months.  No  law  can  be  passed  except  by  an  absolute  majority 
of  the  house,  and  one-half  of  the  members  must  be  present  to 
form  a  quorum;  these  arrangements  have  greatly  facilitated  the 
practice  of  obstruction,  and  often  enable  individual  deputies 
to  impose  terms  on  the  government  for  their  attendance.  In 
1898  the  number  of  deputies  was  234.  Some  years  previously 
a  law  diminishing  the  national  representation  and  enlarging 
the  constituencies  was  passed  by  Trikoupis  with  the  object 
of  checking  the  local  influence  of  electors  upon  deputies,  but 
the  measure  was  subsequently  repealed.  The  number  of  deputies, 
however,  who  had  hitherto  been  elected  in  the  proportion  of  one 
to  twelve  thousand  of  the  population,  was  reduced  in  1905, 
when  the  proportion  of  one  to  sixteen  thousand  was  substituted ; 
the  Chamber  of  1906,  elected  under  the  new  system,  consisted 
of  177  deputies.  In  1906  the  electoral  districts  were  diminished 
in  number  and  enlarged  so  as  to  coincide  with  the  twenty-six 
administrative  departments  (VOIMI);  the  reduction  of  these 
departments  to  their  former  number  of  sixteen,  which  is  in 
contemplation,  will  bring  about  some  further  diminution  in 
parliamentary  representation.  It  is  hoped  that  recent  legislation 
will  tend  to  check  the  pernicious  practice  of  bartering  personal 
favours,  known  as  avva\\ayri,  which  still  prevails  to  the  great 
detriment  of  public  morality,  paralysing  all  branches  of  the 
administration  and  wasting  the  resources  of  the  state.  Political 
parties  are  formed  not  for  the  furtherance  of  any  principle  or 
cause,  but  with  the  object  of  obtaining  the  spoils  of  office,  and 


the  various  groups,  possessing  no  party  watchword  or  programme, 
frankly  designate  themselves  by  the  names  of  their  leaders. 
Even  the  strongest  government  is  compelled  to  bargain  with  its 
supporters  in  regard  to  the  distribution  of  patronage  and  other 
favours.  The  consequent  instability  of  successive  ministries 
has  retarded  useful  legislation  and  seriously  checked  the  national 
progress.  In  1906  a  law  was  passed  disqualifying  junior  officers 
of  the  army  and  navy  for  membership  of  the  Chamber;  great 
numbers  of  these  had  hitherto  been  candidates  at  every  election. 
This  much-needed  measure  had  previously  been  passed  by 
Trikoupis,  but  had  been  repealed  by  his  rival  Delyannes.  The 
executive  is  vested  in  the  king,  who  is  personally  irresponsible, 
and  governs  through  ministers  chosen  by  himself  and  responsible 
to  the  Chamber,  of  which  they  are  ex-officio  members.  He 
appoints  all  public  officials,  sanctions  and  proclaims  laws, 
convokes,  prorogues  and  dissolves  the  Chamber,  grants  pardon 
or  amnesty,  coins  money  and  confers  decorations.  There  are 
seven  ministries  which  respectively  control  the  departments 
of  foreign  affairs,  the  interior,  justice,  finance,  education  and 
worship,  the  army  and  the  navy. 

The  26  departments  or  vo^ol,  into  which  the  country  is  divided 
for  administrative  purposes,  are  each  under  a  prefect  or  nomarch 
(v6fj.apxos) ',  they  are  subdivided  into  69  districts  or 
eparchies,  and  into  445  communes  or  demes  (5^/xot) 
under  mayors  or  demarchs  (drnj.apxot) .  The  prefects 
and  sub-prefects  are  nominated  by  the  government; 
the  mayors  are  elected  by  the  communes  for  a  period  of  four 
years.  The  prefects  are  assisted  by  a  departmental  council, 
elected  by  the  population,  which  manages  local  business  and 
assesses  rates;  there  are  also  communal  councils  under  the 
presidency  of  the  mayors.  There  are  altogether  some  12,000 
state-paid  officials  in  the  country,  most  of  them  inadequately 
remunerated  and  liable  to  removal  or  transferral  upon  a  change 
of  government.  A  host  of  office-seekers  has  thus  been  created, 
and  large  numbers  of  educated  persons  spend  many  years  in 
idleness  or  in  political  agitation.  A  law  passed  in  1905  secures 
tenure  of  office  to  civil  servants  of  fifteen  years'  standing,  and 
some  restrictions  have  been  placed  on  the  dismissal  and  trans- 
ferral of  schoolmasters. 

Under  the  Turks  the  Greeks  retained,  together  with  their 
ecclesiastical  institutions,  a  certain  measure  of  local  self-govern- 
ment and  judicial  independence.  The  Byzantine  code, 
based  on  the  Roman,  as  embodied  in  the  *E£d|3i|3Xos 
of  Armenopoulos  (1345),  was  sanctioned  by  royal  decree  ini83S 
with  some  modifications  as  the  civil  law  of  Greece.  Further 
modifications  and  new  enactments  were  subsequently  introduced, 
derived  from  the  old  French  and  Bavarian  systems.  The  penal 
code  is  Bavarian,  the  commercial  French.  Liberty  of  person 
and  domicile  is  inviolate;  no  arrest  can  be  made,  no  house 
entered,  and  no  letter  opened  without  a  judicial  warrant.  Trial 
by  jury  is  established  for  criminal,  political  and  press  offences. 
A  new  civil  code,  based  on  Saxon  and  Italian  law,  has  been 
drawn  up  by  a  commission  of  jurists,  but  it  has  not  yet  been 
considered  by  the  Chamber.  A  separate  civil  code,  partly  French, 
partly  Italian,  is  in  force  in  the  Ionian  Islands.  The  law  is 
administered  by  i  court  of  cassation  (styled  the  "  Areopagus  "), 
5  courts  of  appeal,  26  courts  of  first  instance,  233  justices  of  the 
peace  and  19  correctional  tribunals. 

The  judges,  who  are  appointed  by  the  Crown,  are  liable  to 
removal  by  the  minister  of  justice,  whose  exercise  of  this  right 
is  often  invoked  by  political  partisans.  The  administration  of 
justice  suffers  in  consequence,  more  especially  in  the  country 
districts,  where  the  judges  must  reckon  with  the  influential 
politicians  and  their  adherents.  The  pardon  or  release  of  a 
convicted  criminal  is  not  infrequently  due  to  pressure  on  the  part 
of  some  powerful  patron.  The  lamentable  effects  of  this  system 
have  long  been  recognized,  and  in  1906  a  law  was  introduced 
securing  tenure  of  office  for  two  or  four  years  to  judges  of  the 
courts  of  first  instance  and  of  the  inferior  tribunals.  In  the 
circumstances  crime  is  less  rife  than  might  be  expected;  the 
temperate  habits  of  the  Greeks  have  conduced  to  this  result. 
A  serious  feature  is  the  great  prevalence  of  homicide,  due  in 


Justice. 


EDUCATION] 


GREECE 


433 


part  to  the  passionate  character  of  the  people,  but  still  more  to 
the  almost  universal  practice  of  carrying  weapons.  The  tradi- 
tions of  the  vendetta  are  almost  extinct  in  the  Ionian  Islands, 
but  still  linger  in  Maina,  where  family  feuds  are  transmitted 
from  generation  to  generation.  The  brigand  of  the  old-fashioned 
type  (Xnorifc,  K\«$TI;S)  has  almost  disappeared,  except  in  the 
remoter  country  districts,  and  piracy,  once  so  prevalent  in  the 
Aegean,  has  been  practically  suppressed,  but  numbers  of  outlaws 
or  absconding  criminals  (<j>v*/65iKoi)  still  haunt  the  mountains, 
and  the  efforts  of  the  police  to  bring  them  to  justice  are  far  from 
successful.  Their  ranks  were  considerably  increased  after  the 
war  of  1897,  when  many  deserters  from  the  army  and  adventurers 
who  came  to  Greece  as  volunteers  betook  themselves  to  a  pre- 
datory life.  On  the  other  hand,  there  is  no  habitually  criminal 
class  in  Greece,  such  as  exists  in  the  large  centres  of  civilization, 
and  professional  mendicancy  is  still  rare. 

Police  duties,  for  which  officers  and,  in  some  cases,  soldiers 
of  the  regular  army  were  formerly  employed,  are  since  1906 
carried  out  by  a  reorganized  gendarmerie  force  of  194  officers 
and  6344  non-commissioned  officers  and  men,  distributed  in 
the  twenty-six  departments  and  commanded  by  an  inspector- 
general  resident  at  Athens,  who  is  aided  by  a  consultative  com- 
mission. There  are  male  and  female  prisons  at  all  the  depart- 
mental centres;  the  number  of  prisoners  in  1906  was  5705. 
Except  in  the  Ionian  Islands,  the  general  condition  of  the  prisons 
is  deplorable;  discipline  and  sanitation  are  very  deficient,  and 
conflicts  among  the  prisoners  are  sometimes  reported  in  which 
knives  and  even  revolvers  are  employed.  A  good  prison  has 
been  built  near  Athens  by  Andreas  Syngros,  and  a  reformatory 
for  juvenile  offenders  («<£jj/3eioj')  has  been  founded  by  George 
Averoff,  another  national  benefactor.  Capital  sentences  are 
usually  commuted  to  penal  servitude  for  life;  executions,  for 
which  the  guillotine  is  employed,  are  for  the  most  part  carried 
out  on  the  island  of  Bourzi  near  Nauplia;  they  are  often  post- 
poned for  months  or  even  for  years.  There  is  no  enactment 
resembling  the  Habeas  Corpus  Act,  and  accused  persons  may 
be  detained  indefinitely  before  trial.  The  Greeks,  like  the  other 
nations  liberated  from  Turkish  rule,  are  somewhat  litigious,  and 
numbers  of  lawyers  find  occupation  even  in  the  smaller  country 
towns. 

The  Greeks,  an  intelligent  people,  have  always  shown  a  remark- 
able zeal  for  learning,  and  popular  education  has  made  great 
strides.  So  eager  is  the  desire  for  instruction  that 
schools  are  often  founded  in  the  rural  districts  on  the 
initiative  of  the  villagers,  and  the  sons  of  peasants, 
artisans  and  small  shopkeepers  come  in  numbers  to  Athens, 
where  they  support  themselves  by  domestic  service  or  other 
humble  occupations  in  order  to  study  at  the  university  during 
their  spare  hours.  Almost  immediately  after  the  accession  of 
King  Otho  steps  were  taken  to  establish  elementary  schools  in 
all  the  communes,  and  education  was  made  obligatory.  The 
law  is  not  very  rigorously  applied  in  the  remoter  districts,  but 
its  enforcement  is  scarcely  necessary.  In  1898  there  were  2914 
"  demotic  "  or  primary  schools,  with  3465  teachers,  attended  by 
1 29, 2 10  boys  (5-38%  of  the  population)  and  29,119  girls  (1-19  % 
of  the  population).  By  a  law  passed  in  1905  the  primary  schools, 
which  had  reached  the  number  of  3359  in  that  year,  were  reduced 
to  2604.  The  expenditure  'on  primary  schools  is  nominally 
sustained  by  the  communes,  but  in  reality  by  the  government 
in  the  form  of  advances  to  the  communes,  which  are  not  repaid; 
it  was  reduced  in  1905  from  upwards  of  7,000,000  dr.  to  under 
6,000,000  dr.  In  1905  there  were  306  "  Hellenic  "  or  secondary 
schools,  with  819  teachers  and  21,575  pupils  (boys  only)  main- 
tained by  the  state  at  a  cost  of  1,720,096  dr.;  and  39  higher 
schools,  or  gymnasia,  with  261  masters  and  6485  pupils,  partly 
maintained  by  the  state  (expenditure  615,600  dr.)  and  partly 
by  benefactions  and  other  means.  Besides  these  public  schools 
there  are  several  private  educational  institutions,  of  which  there 
are  eight  at  Athens  with  650 pupils.  The  Polytechnic  Institute 
of  Athens  affords  technical  instruction  in  the  departments  of  art 
and  science  to  221  students.  Scientific  agricultural  instruction 
has  been  much  neglected;,  there  is  an  agricultural  school  at 


Educa- 
tion. 


Aidinion  in  Thessaly  with  40  pupils;  there  are  eight  agricultural 
stations  (aroBnoi)  in  various  parts  of  the  country.  There  are 
two  theological  seminaries — the  Rizari  School  at  Athens  (120 
pupils)  and  a  preparatory  school  at  Arta;  three  other  seminaries 
have  been  suppressed.  The  Commercialand  Industrial  Academy 
at  Athens  (about  225  pupils),  a  private  institution,  has  proved 
highly  useful  to  the  country ;  there  are  four  commercial  schools, 
each  in  one  of  the  country  towns.  A  large  school  for  females 
at  Athens,  tie  Arsakion;  is  attended  by  1 500  girls.  There  are 
several  military  and  naval  schools,  including  the  military  college 
of  the  Euelpides  at  Athens  and  the  school  of  naval  cadets  (TCOI> 
doKinuv).  The  university  of  Athens  in  1905  numbered  57 
professors  and  2598  students,  of  whom  557  were  from  abroad. 
Of  the  six  faculties,  theology  numbered  79  students,  law  1467, 
medicine  567,  arts  206,  physics  and  mathematics  192,  ajid 
pharmacy  87.  The  university  receives  a  subvention  from  the 
state,  which  in  1905  amounted  to  563,960  dr.;  it  possesses 
a  library  of  over  150,000  volumes  and  geological,  zoological  and 
botanical  museums.  A  small  tax  on  university  education  was 
imposed  in  1903;  the  total  cost  to  the  student  for  the  four  years' 
course  at  the  university  is  about  £25.  Higher  education  is 
practically  gratuitous  in  Greece,  and  there  is  a  somewhat  ominous 
increase  in  .the  number  of  educated  persons  who  disdain  agri- 
cultural pursuits  and  manual  labour.  The  intellectual  culture 
acquired  is  too  often  of  a  superficial  character  owing  to  the 
tendency  to  sacrifice  scientific  thoroughness  and  accuracy,  to 
neglect  the  more  useful  branches  of  knowledge,  and  to  aim  at  a 
showy  dialectic  and  literary  proficiency.  (For  the  native  and 
foreign  archaeological  institutions  see  ATHENS.) 

The  Greek  branch  of  the  Orthodox  Eastern  Church  is  practi- 
cally independent,  like  those  of  Servia,  Montenegro  and  Rumania, 
though  nominally  subject  to  the  patriarchate  of  ReUrl  „ 
Constantinople.  The  jurisdiction  of  the  patriarch 
was  in  fact  repudiated  in  1833,  when  the  king  was  declared  the 
supreme  head  of  the  church,  and  the  severance  was  completed 
in  1850.  Ecclesiastical  affairs  are  under  the  control  of  the 
Ministry  of  Education.  Church  government  is  vested  in  the 
Holy  Synod,  a  council  of  five  ecclesiastics  under  the  presidency 
of  the  metropolitan  of  Athens;  its  sittings  are  attended  by  a 
royal  commissioner.  The  church  can  invoke  the  aid  of  the  civil 
authorities  for  the  punishment  of  heresy  and  the  suppression  of 
unorthodox  literature,  pictures,  &c.  There  were  formerly  21 
archbishoprics  and  29  bishoprics  in  Greece,  but  a  law  passed  in 
1899  suppressed  the  archbishoprics  (except  the  metropolitan 
see  of  Athens)  on  the  death  of  the  existing  prelates,  and  fixed 
the  total  number  of  seesat32.  The  prelates  derive  their  incomes 
partly  from  the  state  and  partly  from  the  church  lands.  There 
are  about  5500  priests,  who  belong  for  the  most  part  to  the 
poorest  classes.  The  parochial  clergy  have  no  fixed  stipends, 
and  often  resort  to  agriculture  or  small  trading  in  order  to 
supplement  the  scanty  fees  earned  by  their  ministrations.  Owing 
to  their  lack  of -education  their  personal  influence  over  their 
parishioners  is  seldom  considerable.  In  addition  to  the  parochial 
clergy  there  are  19  preachers  (itponripvKts)  salaried  by  the  state. 
There  are  170  monasteries  and  4  nunneries  in  Greece,  with  about 
1600  monks  and  250  nuns.  In  regard  to  their  constitution  the 
monasteries  are  either  "  idiorrhythmic  "  or  "  coenobian  "  (see 
ATHOS);  the  monks  (nokcr/tpoi)  are  in  some  cases  assisted 
by  lay  brothers  (MHT/UKOI)  .  More  than  300  of  the  smaller 
monasteries  were  suppressed  in  1829  and  their  revenues  secular- 
ized. Among  the  more  important  and  interesting  monasteries 
are  those  of  Megaspelaeon  and  Lavra  (where  the  standard  of 
insurrection,  unfurled  in  f82i,  is  preserved)  near  Kalavryta, 
St  Luke  of  Stiris  near  Arachova,  Daphne  and  Penteli  near  Athens, 
and  the  Meteora  group  in  northern  Thessaly.  The  bishops,  who 
must  be  unmarried,  are  as  a  rule  selected  from  the  monastic 
order  and  are  nominated  by  the  king;  the  parish  priests  are 
allowed  to  marry,  but  the  remarriage  of  widowers  is  forbidden. 
The  bulk  of  the  population,  about  2,000,000,  belongs  to  the 
Orthodox  Church;  other  Christian  confessions  number  about 
1 5,000,  the  great  majority  being  Roman  Catholics.  The  Roman 
Catholics  (principally  in  Naxos  and  the  Cyclades)  have  three 


434 


GREECE 


[AGRICULTURE 


archbishoprics(Athens,Naxos  andCorf  u)  ,five  bishoprics  and  about 
60  churches.  The  Jews,  who  are  regarded  with  much  hostility, 
have  almost  disappeared  from  the  Greek  mainland;  they  now 
number  about  5000,  and  are  found  principally  at  Corfu.  The 
Mahommedans  are  confined  to  Thessaly  except  a  few  at  Chalcis. 
National  sentiment  is  a  more  powerful  factor  than  personal 
religious  conviction  in  the  attachment  of  .  the  Greeks  to  the 
Orthodox  Church;  a  Greek  without  the  pale  of  the  church  is 
more  or  less  an  alien.  The  Catholic  Greeks  of  Syros  sided  with 
the  Turks  at  the  time  of  the  revolution;  the  Mahommedans  of 
Crete,  though  of  pure  Greek  descent,  have  always  been  hostile 
to  their  Christian  fellow-countrymen  and  are  commonly  called 
Turks.  On  the  other  hand,  that  portion  of  the  Macedonian 
population  which  acknowledges  the  patriarch  of  Constantinople 
is  regarded  as  Greek,  while  that  which  adheres  to  the  Bulgarian 
exarchate,  though  differing  in  no  point  of  doctrine,  has  been 
declared  schismatic.  The  constitution  of  1864  guarantees 
toleration  to  all  creeds  in  Greece  and  imposes  no  civil  disabilities 
on  account  of  religion. 

Greece  is  essentially  an  agricultural  country;  its  prosperity 
depends  on  its  agricultural  products,  and  more  than  half  the 

population  is  occupied  in  the  cultivation  of  the  soil 
culture.  and  kindred  pursuits.  The  land  in  the  plains  and 

valleys  is  exceedingly  rich,  and,  wherever  there  is 
a  sufficiency  of  water,  produces  magnificent  crops.  Cereals 
nevertheless  furnish  the  principal  figure  in  the  list  of  imports, 
the  annual  value  being  about  30,000,000  fr.  The  country, 
especially  since  the  acquisition  of  the  fertile  province  of  Thessaly, 
might  under  a  well-developed  agricultural  system  provide  a 
food-supply  for  all  its  inhabitants  and  an  abundant  surplus 
for  exportation.  Thessaly  alone,  indeed,  could  furnish  cereals 
for  the  whole  of  Greece.  Unfortunately,  however,  agriculture 
is  still  in  a  primitive  state,  and  the  condition  of  the  rural  popula- 
tion has  received  very  inadequate  attention  from  successive 
governments.  The  wooden  plough  of  the  Hesiodic  type  is  still 
in  use,  especially  in  Thessaly;  modern  implements,  however, 
are  being  gradually  introduced.  The  employment  of  manure 
and  the  rotation  of  crops  are  almost  unknown;  the  fields  are 
generally  allowed  to  lie  fallow  in  alternate  years.  As  a  rule, 
countries  dependent  on  agriculture  are  liable  to  sudden  fluctua- 
tions in  prosperity,  but  in  Greece  the  diversity  of  products  is  so 
great  that  a  failure  in  one  class  of  crops  is  usually  compensated 
by  exceptional  abundance  in  another.  Among  the  causes  which 
have  hitherto  retarded  agricultural  progress  are  the  ignorance 
and  conservatism  of  the  peasantry,  antiquated  methods  of 
cultivation,  want  of  capital,  absentee  proprietorship,  sparsity 
of  population,  bad  roads,  the  prevalence  of  usury,  the  uncertainty 
of  boundaries  and  the  land  tax,  which,  in  the  absence  of  a  survey, 
is  levied  on  ploughing  oxen;  to  these  may  be  added  the  in- 
security hitherto  prevailing  in  many  of  the  country  districts 
and  the  growing  distaste  for  rural  life  which  has  accompanied 
the  spread  of  education.  Large  estates  are  managed  under  the 
metayer  system;  the  cultivator  paying  the  proprietor  from 
one-third  to  half  of  the  gross  produce;  the  landlords,  who 
prefer  to  live  in  the  larger  towns,  see  little  of  their  tenants,  and 
rarely  interest  themselves  in  their  welfare.  A  great  proportion 
of  the  best  arable  land  in  Thessaly  is  owned  by  persons  who 
reside  permanently  out  of  the  country.  The  great  estates  in 
this  province  extend  over  some  1,500,000  acres,  of  which  about 
500,000  are  cultivated.  In  the  Peloponnesus  peasant  proprietor- 
ship is  almost  universal;  elsewhere  it  is  gradually  supplanting 
the  metayer  system  ;  the  small  properties  vary  from  2  or  3  to 
50  acres.  The  extensive  state  lands,  about  one-third  of  the 
area  of  Greece,  were  formerly  the  property  of  Mahommedan 
religious  communities  (vakoufs);  they  are  for  the  most  part 
farmed  out  annually  by  auction.  They  have  been  much  en- 
croached upon  by  neighbouring  owners;  a  considerable  portion 
has  also  been  sold  to  the  peasants.  The  rich  plain  of  Thessaly 
suffers  from  alternate  droughts  and  inundations,  and  from  the 
ravages  of  field  mice;  with  improved  cultivation,  drainage 
and  irrigation  it  might  be  rendered  enormously  productive. 
A  commission  has  been  occupied  for  some  years  in  preparing 


a  scheme  of  hydraulic  works.  Usury  is,  perhaps,  a  greater 
scourge  to  the  rural  population  than  any  visitation  of  nature; 
the  institution  of  agricultural  banks,  lending  money  at  a  fair 
rate  of  interest  on  the  security  of  their  land,  would  do  much 
to  rescue  the  peasants  from  the  clutches  of  local  Shylocks. 
There  is  a  difficulty,  however,  in  establishing  any  system  of 
land  credit  owing  to  the  lack  of  a  survey.  Since  1897  a  law 
passed  in  1882  limiting  the  rate  of  interest  to  8%  (to  9  %  in  the 
case  of  commercial  debts)  has  to  some  extent  been  enforced  by 
the  tribunals.  In  the  Ionian  Islands  the  rate  of  10  %  still 
prevails. 

The  following  figures  give  approximately  the  acreage  in  1906 
and  the  average  annual  yield  of  agricultural  produce,  no  official 
statistics  being  available: — 

Acres. 

Fields  sown  or  lying  fallow 3,000,000 

Vineyards 337.5OO 

Currant  plantations 175,000 

Olives  (10,000,000  trees) 250,000 

Fruit  trees  (fig,  mulberry,  &c.)      ....         125,000 

Meadows  and  pastures 7,500,000 

Forests 2,000,000 

Waste  lands 2,875,000 

16,262,500 
The  average  annual  yield  is  as  follows  :— 

Wheat 350,000,000  kilograms 

Maize 100,000,000  ,, 

Rye 20,000,000  „ 

Barley 70,000,000  „ 

Oats 75,000,000          „ 

Beans,  lentils,  &c 25,000,000          „ 

Currants 350,000,000  Venetian  Ib 

Sultanina 4,000,000  ,, 

Wine 3,000,000  hectolitres 

Olive  oil 300,000  „ 

Olives  (preserved)      ....  100,000,000  kilograms 
Figs  (exported  only)  ....     12,000,000 

Seed  cotton 6,500,000 

Tobacco 8,000,000 

Vegetables  and  fresh  fruits  •.      .     20,000,000 

Cocoons 1,000,000 

Hesperidiums  (exported  only)  .  4,000,000 
Carobs  (exported  only)  .  .  .  10,000,000 
Resin  ........  5,000,000 

Beet 12,000,000 

Rice  is  grown  in  the  marshy  plains  of  Elis,  Boeotia,  Marathon 
and  Missolonghi;  beet  in  Thessaly.  The  cultivation  of  vegetables 
is  increasing;  beans,  peas  and  lentils  are  the  most  common.  Potatoes 
are  grown  in  the  upland  districts,  but  are  not  a  general  article  of  diet. 
Of  late  years  market-gardening  has  been  taken  up  as  a  new  industry 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Athens.  There  is  a  great  variety  of  fruits. 
Olive  plantations  are  found  everywhere;  in  1860  they  occupied 
about  90,000  acres;  in  1887,  433,701  acres.  The  trees  are  sometimes 
of  immense  age  and  form  a  picturesque  feature  in  the  landscape. 
In  latter  years  the  groves  in  many  parts  of  the  western  Morea  and 
Zante  have  been  cut  down  to  make  room  for  currant  plantations; 
the  destruction  has  been  deplorable  in  its  consequences,  for,  as  the 
tree  requires  twenty  years  to  come  into  full  bearing,  replanting 
is  seldom  resorted  to.  Preserved  olives,  eaten  with  bread,  are  a 
common  article  of  food.  Excellent  olive  oil  is  produced  in  Attica 
and  elsewhere.  The  value  of  the  oil  and  fruit  exported  varies  from 
five  to  ten  million  francs.  Figs  are  also  abundant,  especially  in 
Messenia  and  in  the  Cyclades.  Mulberry  trees  are  planted  for  the 
purposes  of  sericulture;  they  have  been  cut  down  in  great  numbers 
in  the  currant-growing  districts.  Other  fruit  trees  are  the  orange, 
citron,  lemon,  pomegranate  and  almond.  Peaches,  apricots,  pears, 
cherries,  &c.,  abound,  but  are  seldom  scientifically  cultivated;  the 
fruit  is  generally  gathered  while  unripe.  Cotton  in  1906  occupied 
about  I2,5coacres,  chiefly  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Livadia.  Tobacco 
plantations  in  1893  covered  16,320  acres,  yielding  about  3,500,000 
kilograms;  the  yield  in  1906  was  9,000,000  kilograms.  About  40% 
of  the  produce  is  exported,  principally  to  Egypt  and  Turkey.  More 
important  are  the  vineyards,  which  occupied  in  1 887  an  area  of  306,42 1 
acres.  The  best  wine  is  made  at  Patras,  on  the' royal  estate  at 
Decelea,  and  on  other  estates  in  Attica;  a  peculiar  flavour  is  im- 
parted to  the  wine  of  the  country  by  the  addition  of  resin.  The 
wine  of  Santorin,  the  modern  representative  of  the  famous  "  malm- 
sey," is  mainly  exported  to  Russia.  The  foreign  demand  for  Greek 
wines  is  rapidly  increasing;  3,770,257  gallons  were  exported  in  1890, 
4,974,196  gallons  in  1894.  There  is  also  a  growing  demand  for 
Greek  cognac.  The  export  of  wine  in  1905  was  20,850,941  okes, 
value  5, 848, 544 fr.;  of  cognac,  363, 720 okes,  value  1,091, itefr. 

The  currant,  by  far  the  most  important  of  Greek  exports,  is  culti- 
vated in  a  limited  area  extending  along  the  southern  shore  of  the 
Gulf  of  Corinth  and  the  seaboard  of  the  Western  Peloponnesus, 


AGRICULTURE] 


GREECE 


435 


in  Zante,  Cephalonia  and  Leucas,  and  in  certain  districts  of 
Acarnania  and  Aetolia;  attempts  to  cultivate  it  elsewhere  have 
.  generally  proved  unsuccessful.  The  history  of  the  currant 
urran  s.  jnc)usjry  nas  been  a  record  of  extraordinary  vicissitudes. 
Previously  to  1877  the  currant  was  exported  solely  foreating  purposes, 
the  amounts  for  the  years  1872  to  1877  being  70,766  tons,  71,222 
tons,  76,210  tons,  72,916  tons,  86,947  tons,  and  82,181  tons  respect- 
ively. In  1877,  however,  the  French  vineyards  began  to  suffer 
seriously  from  the  phylloxera,  and  French  wine  producers  were 
obliged  to  have  recourse  to  dried  currants,  which  make  an  excellent 
wine  for  blending  purposes.  The  importation  of  currants  into 
France  at  once  rose  from  881  tons  in  1877  to  20,999  tons  in  1880, 
and  to  70,401  tons  in  1889,  or  about  20,000  tons  more  than  were 
imported  into  England  in  that  year.  Meanwhile  the  total  amount 
of  currants  produced  in  Greece  had  nearly  doubled  in  these  thirteen 
years.  The  country  was  seized  with  a  mania  for  currant  planting; 
every  other  industry  was  neglected,  and  olive,  orange  and  lemon 
groves  were  cut  down  to  make  room  for  the  more  lucrative  growth. 
The  currant  growers,  in  order  to  increase  their  production  as  rapidly 
as  possible,  had  recourse  to  loans  at  a  high  rate  of  interest,  and  the 
great  profits  which  they  made  were  devoted  to  further  planting, 
while  the  loans  remained  unpaid.  A  crisis  followed  rapidly.  By 
1891  the  French  vineyards  had  to  a  great  extent  recovered  from  the 
disease,  and  wine  producers  in  France  began  to  clamour  against  the 
competition  of  foreign  wines  and  wine-producingraisinsand  currants. 
The  import  duty  on  these  was  thereupon  raised  from  6  francs  to  15 
francs  per  loo  kilos,  and  was  further  increased  in  1894  to  25 
francs.  The  currant  trade  with  France  was  thus  extinguished ;  of  a 
crop  averaging  160,000  tons,  only  some  110,000  now  found  a  market. 
Although  a  fresh  opening  for  exportation  was  found  in  Russia,  the 
value  of  the  fruit  dropped  from  £15  to  £5  per  ton,  a  price  scarcely 
covering  the  cost  of  cultivation.  In  July  1895  the  government 
introduced  a  measure,  since  known  as  the  Retention  (iraptucpaTTjo-is) 
Law,  by  which  it  was  enacted  that  every  shipper  should  deliver 
into  depots  provided  by  the  government  a  weight  of  currants  equiva- 
lent to  15  %  of  the  amount  which  he  intended  to  export.  A  later  law 
fixed  the  quantity  to  be  retained  by  the  state  at  10%,  which  might 
be  increased  to  20%,  should  a  representative  committee,  meeting 
every  summer  at  Athens,  so  advise  the  government.  The  currants 
thus  taken  over  by  the  government  cannot  be  exported  unless  they 
are  reduced  to  pulp,  syrup  or  otherwise  rendered  unsuitable  for 
eating  purposes;  they  may  be  sold  locally  for  wine-making  or  distil- 
ling, due  precautions  being  taken  that  they  are  not  used  in  any  other 
way.  The  price  of  exported  currants  is  thus  maintained  at  an  artificial 
figure.  The  Retention  Law,  which  after  1895  was  voted  annually, 
was  passed  for  a  period  of  ten  years  in  1899.  This  pernicious 
measure,  which  is  in  defiance  of  all  economic  laws,  perpetuates  a 
superfluous  production,  retards  the  development  of  other  branches 
of  agriculture  and  burdens  the  government  with  vast  accumulations 
of  an  unmarketable  commodity.  It  might  excusably  be  adopted  as 
a  temporary  expedient  to  meet  a  pressing  crisis,  but  as  a  permanent 
system  it  can  only  prove  detrimental  to  the  country  and  the  currant 
growers  themselves. 

In  1899  a  "  Bank  of  Viticulture  "  was  established  at  Patras  for  the 
purpose  of  assisting  the  growers,  to  whom  it  was  bound  to  make 
advances  at  a  low  rate  of  interest ;  it  undertook  the  storage  and  the 
sale  of  the  retained  fruit,  from  which  its  capital  was  derived.  The 
bank  soon  found  itself  burdened  with  an  enormous  unsaleable 
stock,  while  its  loans  for  the  most  part  remained  unpaid ;  meantime 
over-production,  the  cause  of  the  trouble,  continued  to  increase, 
and  prices  further  diminished.  In  1903  a  syndicate  of  English  and 
other  foreign  capitalists  made  proposals  for  a  monopoly  of  the  export, 
guaranteeing  fixed  prices  to  the  growers.  The  scheme,  which  con- 
flicted with  Anglo-Greek  commercial  conventions,  wasrejected  by  the 
Theotokis  ministry;  serious  disturbances  followed  in  the  currant- 
growing  districts,  and  M.  Theotokis  resigned.  His  successor,  M. 
Rallis,  in  order  to  appease  the  cultivators,  arranged  that  the  Currant. 
Bank  should  offer  them  fixed  minimum  prices  for  the  various  growths, 
and  guaranteed  it  a  loan  of  6,000,000  dr.  The  resources  of  the  bank, 
however,  gave  out  before  the  end  of  the  season,  and  prices  pursued 
their  downward  course.  Another  experiment  was  then  tried;  the 
export  duty  (15%)  was  made  payable  in  kind,  the  retention  quota 
being  thus  practically  raised  from  20  to  35  %.  The  only  result  of  this 
measure  was  a  diminution  of  the  export ;  in  the  spring  of  1905  prices 
fell  very  low  and  the  growers  began  to  despair.  A  syndicate  of  banks 
and  capitalists  then  came  forward,  which  introduced  the  system  now 
in  operation.  A  privileged  company  was  formed  which  obtained 
a  charter  from  the  government  for  twenty  years,  during  which  period 
the  retention  and  export  duties  are  maintained  at  the  fixed  rates 
of  20  and  15  %  respectively.  The  company  aims  at  keeping  up  the 
prices  of  the  marketable  qualities  by  employing  profitably  for 
industrial  purposes  the  unexported  surplus  and  retained  inferior 
qualities;  it  pays  to  the  state  4,000,000  dr.  annually  under  the  head 
of  export  duty;  offers  all  growers  at  the  beginning  of  each  agri- 
cultural year  a  fixed  price  of  1 15  dr.  per  looo  Venetian  Ib  irrespective 
of  quality,  and  pays  a  price  varying  from  1 15  dr.  to  145  dr.  according 
to  quality  at  the  end  of  the  year  for  the  unexported  surplus.  In 
return  for  these  advantages  to  the  growers  the  company  is  entitled 
to  receive  7  dr.  on  every  looo  Ib  of  currants  produced  and  to  dispose 
of  the  whole  retained  amount.  A  special  company  has  been  formed 


for  the  conversion  of  the  superfluous  product  into  spirit,  wine,  &c. 
The  system  may  perhaps  prove  commercially  remunerative,  but  it 
penalizes  the  producers  of  the  better  growths  in  order  to  provide  a 
livelihood  for  the  growers  of  inferior  and  unmarketable  kinds  and 
protracts  an  abnormal  situation.  The  following  table  gives  the 
annual  currant  crop  from  1877  to  1905: — 


Year. 

Total  crop 
•  (tons). 

Exported  to 
Gt.  Britain. 

Exported  to 
France. 

1877 

82,181 

881 

1878 

100,004 

9,086 

1879 

92.3U 

19,087 

1880 

92,337 

20,999 

1881 

121,994 

30,315 

1882 

109,403 

51,933 

26,282 

1883 

114,980 

52,099 

24-815 

1884 

129,268 

59,629 

39,198 

1885 

113,287 

55,765 

37-730 

1886 

127,570 

48,892 

45,000 

1887 

127,160 

55,549 

37,438 

1888 

158,728 

63,714 

40,735 

1889 

142,308 

52,251 

69,555 

1890 

146,749 

67,502 

37,8i6 

1891 

i6i,545 

70,762 

39,712 

1892 

116,944 

60,418 

21,721 

1893 

119,886 

73,000 

6,800 

1894 

I35,5oo 

64,500 

15,000 

1895 

167,695 

60,500 

26,500 

1896 

I53,5H 

65,000 

6,500 

1897 

H5,73o 

63,000 

2,000 

1898 

I53,5H 

69,500 

6,000 

1899 

144,071 

65,600 

3,800 

1900 

47,236 

36,000 

300 

1901 

139,820 

58,000 

1,216 

1902 

152,580 

58,400 

4,782 

1903 

179,499 

54,800 

4,470 

1904 

146,500 

58,850 

820 

1905 

t62,957 

61,700 

1,042 

The  "  peronosppra,"  a  species  of  white  blight,  first  caused  con- 
siderable damage  in  the  Greek  vineyards  in  1892,  recurring  in  1897 
and  1900. 

More  than  half  the  cultivable  area  of  Greece  is  devoted  to  pastur- 
age. Cattle-rearing,  as  a  rule,  is  a  distinct  occupation  from  agri- 
cultural farming;  the  herds  are  sent  to  pasture  on  the 
mountains  in  the  summer,  and  return  to  the  plains  at  the 
beginning  of  winter.  The  larger  cattle  are  comparatively 
rare,  being  kept  almost  exclusively  for  agricultural  labour;  the 
smaller  are  very  abundant.  Beef  is  scarcely  eaten  in  Greece,  the 
milk  of  cows  is  rarely  drunk  and  butter  is  almost  unknown.  Cheese, 
a  staple  article  of  diet,  is  made  from  the  milk  of  sheep  and  goats. 
The  number  of  larger  cattle  has  declined  in  recent  years;  that  of 
the  smaller  has  increased.  The  native  breed  of  oxen  is  small ; 
buffaloes  are  seldom  seen  except  in  north-western  Thessaly;  a  few 
camels  are  used  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Parnassus.  The  Thessalian 
breed  of  horses,  small  but  sturdy  and  enduring,  can  hardly  be  taken 
to  represent  the  celebrated  chargers  of  antiquity.  Mules  are  much 
employed  in  the  mountainous  districts;  the 'best  type  of  these 
animals  is  found  in  the  islands.  The  flocks  of  long-horned  sheep  and 
goats  add  a  picturesque  feature  to  Greek  rural  scenery.  The  goats 
are  more  numerous  in  proportion  to  the  population  than  in  any  other 
European  country  (137  per  100  inhabitants).  The  shepherds'  dogs 
rival  those  of  Bulgaria  in  ferocity.  According  to  an  unofficial  estimate 
published  in  1905  the  numbers  of  the  various  domestic  animals  in 
1899  were  as  follows:  Oxen  and  buffaloes,  408,744;  horses,  157,068; 
mules,  88,869;  donkeys,  141,174;  camels,  51;  sheep,  4,568,151; 
goats,  3,339,439;  pigs,  79,716.  During  the  four  years  1899-1902 
the  annual  average  value  of  imported  cattle  was  4,218,015  dr.,  of 
exported  cattle  209,32 1  dr. 

The  forest  area  (about  2,500,000  acres  or  one-fifth  of  the  surface 
of  the  mainland)  is  for  the  most  part  state  property.  The  value  of 
the  forests  has  been  estimated  at  200,000,000  fr. ;  the  _ 
most  productive  are  in  the  district  extending  from  the 
Pindus  range  to  the  Gulf  of  Corinth.  The  principal  trees  are  the 
oak  (about  30  varieties),  the  various  coniferae,  the  chestnut,  maple, 
elm,  beech,  alder,  cornel  and  arbutus.  In  Greece,  as  in  other  lands 
formerly  subject  to  Turkish  rule,  the  forests  are  not  only  neglected, 
but  often  deliberately  destroyed ;  this  great  source  of  national 
wealth  is  thus  continually  diminishing.  Every  year  immense  forest 
fires  may  be  seen  raging  in  the  mountains,  and  many  of  the  most 
picturesque  districts  in  the  country  are  converted  into  desolate 
wildernesses.  These  conflagrations  are  mainly  the  work  of  shep- 
herds eager  to  provide  increased  pasturage  for  their  flocks;  they  are 
sometimes,  however,  due  to  the  carelessness  of  smokers,  and  occa- 
sionally, it  is  said,  to  spontaneous  ignition  in  hot  weather.  Great 
damage  is  also  done  by  the  goats,  which  browse  on  theyoung  saplings ; 
the  pine  trees  are  much  injured  by  the  practice  of  scoring  their  bark 
for  resin.  With  the  disappearance  of  the  trees  the  soil  of  the  moun- 
tain slopes,  deprived  of  its  natural  protection,  is  soon  washed  away 


436 


GREECE 


[COMMERCE 


by  the  rain ;  the  rapid  descent  of  the  water  causes  inundations  in 
the  plains,  while  the  uplands  become  sterile  and  lose  their  vegetation. 
The  climate  has  been  affected  by  the  change;  rain  falls  less  fre- 
quently but  with  greater  violence,  and  the  process  of  denudation  is 
accelerated.  The  government  has  from  time  to  time  made  efforts 
for  the  protection  of  the  forests,  but  with  little  success  till  recently. 
A  staff  of  inspectors  and  forest  guards  was  first  organized  in  1877. 
The  administration  of  the  forests  has  since  1893  been  entrusted  to  a 
department  of  the  Ministry  of  Finance,  which  controls  a  %taff  of  4 
inspectors  (tiriSfwpfjTai),  31  superintendents  (Saa-apxo  i) ,  52  head 
foresters  (Apx*#W«"<«)  and  298  foresters  (&a<rv<t>b\aj<a).  The 
foresters  are  aided  during  the  summer  months,  when  fires  are  most 
frequent,  by  about  500  soldiers  and  gendarmes.  _  About  a  third 
of  these  functionaries  have  received  instruction  in  the  school  of 
forestry  at  Vythine  in  the  Morea,  open  since  1898.  Owing  to  the 
measures  now  taken,  which  include  excommunication  by  the  parish 
priests  of  incendiaries  and  their  accomplices,  the  conflagrations  have 
considerably  diminished.  The  total  annual  value  of  the  products  of 
the  Greek  forests  averages  15,000,000  drachmae.  The  revenue 
accuring  to  the  government  in  1905  was  1,418,158  dr.,  as  compared 
with  583,991  dr.  in  1883.  The  increase  is  mainly  due  to  improved 
administration.  The  supply  of  timber  for  house-construction,  ship- 
building, furniture-making,  railway  sleepers,  &c.,  is  insufficient,  and 
is  supplemented  by  importation  (annual  value  about  12,000,000 
francs) ;  transport  is  rendered  difficult  by  the  lack  of  roads  and 
navigable  streams.  The  principal  secondary  products  are  valonea 
(annual  exportation  about  1,250,000  fr.)  and  resin,  which  is  locally 
employed  as  a  preservative  ingredient  in  the  fabrication  of  wine. 
The  administration  of  the  forests  is  still  defective,  and  measures 
for  the  augmentation  and  better  instruction  of  the  staff  of  foresters 
have  been  designed  by  the  government.  In  1900  a  society  for  the  re- 
afforesting  of  the  country  districts  and  environs  of  the  large  towns 
was  founded  at  Athens  under  the  patronage  of  the  crown  princess. 

The  chief  minerals  are  silver,  lead,  zinc,  copper  manganese, 
magnesia,  iron,  sulphur  and  coal.  Emery,  salt,  millstone  and 
Ml  gypsum,  which  are  found  in  considerable  quantities, 

<es'  are  worked  by  the  government.  The  important  mines 
at  Laurium,  a  source  of  great  wealth  to  ancient  Athens.were  reopened 
in  1864  by  a  Franco-Italian  company,  but  were  declared  to  be  state 
property  in  1871 ;  they  are  now  worked  by  a  Greek  and  a  French 
company.  The  output  of  marketable  ore  in  1899  amounted  to 
486,760  tons,  besides  289,292  tons  of  dressed  lead  ore.  In  1905 
the  output  was  as  follows:  Raw  and  roasted  manganese  iron  ore, 
113,636  tons;  hematite  iron  ore,  94,734  tons;  calamine  or  zinc 
ore,  22,612  tons;  arsenic  and  argentiferous  lead,  1875  tons;  zinc 
blende  and  galena,  443  tons;  total,  233,300  tons,  together  with 
164,857  tons  of  dressed  lead,  producing  13,822  tons  of  silver  pig  lead 
containing  1657  to  1910  grams  of  silver  per  ton.  It  has  been  found 
profitable  to  resmelt  the  scoriae  of  the  ancient  workings.  The  total 
value  of  the  exports  from  the  Laurium  mines.whichin  1875  amounted 
to  only  £150,513,  had  in  1899  increased  to  £827,209,  but  fell  in  1905 
to  £499,882.  The  revenue  accruing  to  the  government  from  all  mines 


Tons. 

Francs. 

Chrome       

8,900 

337,952 

Emery   

6,972 

742,486 

Gypsum      

185 

7,995 

Iron  ore       

465,622 

3,387,467 

Ferromanganese    .... 
Lead  (argentiferous  pig)  ore 

89,687 
13,729 

1,182,652 
6,811,792 

Lignite         

n,757 

143,814 

Magnesite         

43,498 

864,982 

Manganese  ore       .... 

8,171 

122,565 

Mill  stones        

12,628 

34,66o 

Salt        

25,201 

1,638,065 

Sulphur       

1,126 

121,000 

Zinc  ore       

22,562 

2,852,355 

green  on  Taygetus  and  in  Thessaly;     black  at  Tenos;     and  red 
(porphyry)  in  Maina. 

The  official  statistics  of  the  output  and  value  of  minerals  produced 
in  1905  were  as  in  the  preceding  table. 

The  number  of  persons  employed  in  mining  operations  in  1905 
was  9934.     . 

Owing  to  the  natural  aptitude  of  the  Greeks  for  commerce 
and  their  predilection  for  a  seafaring  life  a  great  portion  of  the 
trade  of  the  Levant  has  fallen  into  their  hands.  Im- 
portant Greek  mercantile  colonies  exist  in  all  the  Commerce 
larger  ports  of  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Black  Sea,  "austry. 
and  many  of  the'm  possess  great  wealth.  In  some  of 
the  islands  of  the  archipelago  almost  every  householder  is  the 
owner  or  joint  owner  of  a  ship.  The  Greek  mercantile  marine, 
which  in  1888  consisted  of  1352  vessels  (70  steamers)  with  a  total 
tonnage  of  219,415  tons,  numbered  in  1906,  according  to  official 
returns,  1364  vessels  (275  steamers)  with  a  total  tonnage  of 
427,291  tons.  This  figure  is  apparently  too  low,  as  the  ship- 
owners are  prone  to  understate  the  tonnage  in  order  to  diminish 
the  payment  of  dues.  Almost  the  whole  corn  trade  of  Turkey 
is  in  Greek  hands.  A  large  number  of  the  sailing  ships,  especially 
the  smaller  vessels  engaged  in  the  coasting  trade,  belong  to  the 
islanders.  A  considerable  portion  of  the  shipping  on  the  Danube 
and  Pruth  is  owned  by  the  inhabitants  of  Ithaca  and  Cephalonia; 
a  certain  number  of  their  steps  (crXeirta)  have  latterly  been 
acquired  by  Rumanian  Jews,  but  the  Greek  flag  is  still  pre- 
dominant. There  are  seven  principal  Greek  steamship  companies 
owning  40  liners  with  a  total  tonnage  of  21,972  tons.  In  1847 
there  was  but  one  lighthouse  in  Greek  waters;  in  1906  there 
were  70  lighthouses  and  68  port  lanterns.  Hermoupolis  (Syra) 
is  the  chief  seat  of  the  carrying  trade,  but  as  a  commercial  port 
it  yields  to  Peiraeus,  which  is  the  principal  centre  of  distribution 
for  imports.  Other  important  ports  are  Patras,  Volo,  Corfu, 
Kalamata  and  Laurium. 

The  following  table  gives  the  total  value  (in  francs)  of  special 
Greek  commerce  for  the  given  years: — 


and  quarries,  including  those  worked  by  the  state,  was  estimated 
in  the  budget  for  1906  at  1,332,000  dr.  The  emery  of  Naxos,  which 
is  a  state  monopoly,  is  excellent  in  quality  and  very  abundant. 
Mines  of  iron  ore  have  latterly  been  opened  at  Larimna  in  Locris. 
Magnesite  mines  are  worked  by  an  Anglo-Greek  company  in  Euboca. 
There  are  sulphur  and  manganese  mines  in  the  island  of  Melos,  and 
the  volcanic  island  of  Santorin  produces  pozzolana,  a  kind  of  cement, 
which  is  exported  in  considerable  quantities.  The  great  abundance 
of  marble  in  Greece  has  latterly  attracted  the  attention  of  foreign 
capitalists.  New  quarries  have  been  opened  since  1897  by  an 
English  company  on  the  north  slope  of  Mount  Pentelicus,  and  are 
now  connected  by  rail  with  Athens  and  the  Peiraeus.  The  marble 
on  this  side  of  the  mountain  is  harder  than  that  on  the  south,  which 
alone  was  worked  by  the  ancients.  The  output  in  1905  was  1573 
tons.  Mount  Pentelicus  furnished  material  for  most  of  the  celebrated 
buildings  of  ancient  Athens;  the  marble,  which  is  white,  blue- 
veined,  and  somewhat  transparent,  assumes  a  rich  yellow  hue  after 
long  exposure  to  the  air.  The  famous  Parian  quarries  are  still 
worked;  white  marble  is  also  found  at  Scyros,  Tenos  and  Naxos; 
grey  at  Stoura  and  Karystos;  variegated  at  Valaxa  and  Karystos; 


1887. 

1892.                 1897.                 1902. 

Imports 

131,849,325 

119,306,007      116,363,348      137,229,364 

Exports 

102,652,487 

82,261,464        81,708,626        79,663,473 

The  marked  fluctuations  in  the  returns  are  mainly  attributable 

to  variations  in  the  price  and  quantity  of  imported  cereals  and  in 

the  sale  of 

currants.     The  great  excess  of  imports,  caused  by  the 

large  importation  of  food-stuffs  and  manufactured  articles,  is  due 

to  the  neglect  of  agriculture  and  the  undeveloped  condition  of  local 

industries. 

The  imports  and  exports  for  1905  were  distributed  as  follows  :  — 

Imports  from. 

Exports  to. 

Frs. 

Frs. 

Russia      .... 

27,725,218 

810,925 

Great  Britain 

27,516,928 

24,436,707 

Austria-Hungary 

19,444,415 

7,876,806 

Turkey     .... 

15,538,370 

4,516,403 

Germany 

13,896,687 

7,514,474 

France      .... 

10,101,070 

7,078,321 

Italy   .      .      .      .      . 

6,190,253 

4,266,210 

Bulgaria  .... 

5,135,718 

133,106 

Rumania 

3,814,641 

1,152,207 

America   .... 

2,656,501 

6,440,648 

Belgium   .... 

2,276,393 

2,068,138 

Netherlands  . 

1,921,762 

7,180,301 

Egypt       .      .      .      . 

634,035 

5,928,555 

Switzerland    . 

348,281 

Other  countries 

4,555,781 

4,288,365 

Total 

141,756,053 

83,691,166 

An  enumeration  of  the  chief  articles  of  importation  and  exporta- 
tion, together  with  their  value,  will  be  found  in  tabular  form  overleaf. 

Greece  does  not  possess  any  manufacturing  industries  on  a  large 
scale;  the  absence  of  a  native  coal  supply  is  an  obstacle  to  their 
development.  In  1889  there  were  145  establishments  employing 
steam  of  5568  indicated  horse-power;  in  1892  the  total  horse-power 
employed  was  estimated  at  10,000.  In  addition  to  the  smelting-works 
at  Laurium,  at  which  some  5000  hands  are  employed  by  Greek  and 
French  companies  and  local  proprietors,  there  are  flour  mills,  cloth, 
cotton  and  silk  spinning  mills,  ship-building  and  engineering  works, 
oil-presses,  tanneries,  powder  and  dynamite  mills,  soap  mills  (about 


ARMY] 


GREECE 


Principal  Articles  of  Importation. 

Articles. 

1904. 

1905- 

Total  value 
in  francs. 

Imported  from 
the  United 
Kingdom. 

Total  value 
in  francs. 

Imported  from 
the  United 
Kingdom. 

27.735.8o8 
17,999,344 
13,341,  '91 
10,146,500 
7,757,444 
6,522,086 

4,739,819 
4,992,615 
4,558,101 

4,271,151 
3,011,450 

3.327,144 
2,957,601 
2,606,696 

1,977,894 
1,750,858 

none 
10,762,464 
7,630,633 
9,769 
2,162,250 
6,087,068 
2,504,667 
2,394,224 
478,965 
none 
none 

157,017 
293,610 
none 
63,882 
341,839 

32,511,784 
13,460,620 

12,254,190 

5,073,841 
8,021,523 
1,014,164 
3,909,657 
3,373-523 
.   2,070,250 
3.319,700 
3,060,904 
2,887,854 
1,901,486 
2,146,509 

none 
5,497-172 

61,309 

4,308,357 
6,838,079 
186,072 

215,745 
1,268 
none 

76,454 
107,296 

70 
236,027 

281,433 

Textiles               
Raw  minerals    
Forest  products       .... 
Wrought  metals      .... 
Coals  and  pit-coal 
Yarn  and  tissues     .... 
Fish         
Raw  hides    
Various  animals      .... 
Horses    
Paper,  books,  &c  

Coffee     
Sugar      
Rice         
Colours         

Chief  Articles  of  Exportation. 

Articles. 

1904. 

1905. 

Total  value 
in  francs. 

Exported  to 
the  United 
Kingdom. 

Total  value 
in  francs. 

Exported  to 
the  United 
Kingdom. 

Currants       
Minerals  and  raw  metals 
Wines     

28,841,678 
19,134,185 
10,084,960 

7,285,385 
4,163,262 
3,583,428 
2,754,245 
1,793.362 
1,558,678 
1,027,224 

14,569,137 
5,161,898 

429,H3 
39,512 
212,081 
62,304 
7,750 
9,833 
200,849 
12,099 

34,299,780 
15,125,072 
5,832,139 
6,157,092 
2,150,285 
3,309,432 
2,607,580 
1,138,116 
1,917,014 
1,091,160 

17,008,929 
5,438,698 
881,696 
147,565 
64,310 
338,196 
900 
18,800 
146,927 
2,283 

Tobacco       
Olive  oil       
Figs         
Minerals  and  metals  (worked) 
Olives     
Valonea        
Cognac  

Posts 
and  tek- 


40),  and  some  manufactures  of  paper,  glass,  matches,turpentine,  white 
lead,  hats,  gloves,  candles,  &c.  About  100  factories  are  established 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Athens  and  Peiraeus.  The  wine  industry 
(10  factories)  is  of  considerable  importance,  and  the  manufacture 
of  cognac  has  latterly  made  great  progress;  there  are  10  large  and 
numerous  small  cognac  distilleries.  Ship-building  is  carried  on 
actively  at  all  the  ports  on  the  mainland  and  islands;  about  200 
ships,  mostly  of  low  tonnage,  are  launched  annually. 

Public  Works. — -The  important  drainage-works  at  Lake  Copais 
were  taken  over  by  an  English  company  in  1890.  The  lake  covered 
an  area  of  58,080  acres,  the  greater  part  of  which  is  now  rendered 
fit  for  cultivation.  The  drainage  works  consist  of  a  canal,  28  kilo- 
metres in  length,  and  a  tunnel  of  600  metres  descending  through 
the  mountain  to  a  lower  lake,  which  is  connected  by  a  second  tunnel 
with  the  sea.  The  reclaimed  land  is  highly  fertile.  The  area  under 
crops  amounted  in  1906  to  27,414  acres,  of  which  20,744  were  let 
to  tenants  and  the  remainder  farmed  by  the  company.  The  un- 
cultivated portion  affords  excellent  grazing.  The  canal  through  the 
Isthmus  of  Corinth  was  opened  to  navigation  in  November  1893. 
The  total  cost  of  the  works,  which  were  begun  by  a  company  in  1882, 
was  70,000,000  francs.  The  narrowness  of  the  canal,  which  is  only 
24-60  metres  broad  at  the  surface,  and  the  strength  of  the  current 
which  passes  through  it,  seriously  detract  from  its  utility.  The  high 
charges  imposed  on  foreign  vessels  have  proved  almost  prohibitive. 
There  are  reduced  rates  for  ships  sailing  in  Greek  waters.  Up  to  the 
3lst  of  July  1906,  37,214  vessels,  with  a  tonnage  of  4,971,922,  had 
passed  through  the  canal.  The  receipts  up  to  that  date  were3, 207,835 
drachmae  (mainly  from  Greek  ships)  and  415,976  francs  (mainly 
from  foreign  ships).  In  1905,  2930  vessels  (2735  Greek)  passed 
through,  the  receipts  being  281,935  drachmae  and  34,142  francs. 
The  total  liabilities  of  the  company  in  1906  were  about  40,000,000  fr. 
The  canal  would  be  more  frequented  by  foreign  shipping  if  the 
harbours  at  its  entrances  were  improved,  and  its  sides,  which  are  of 
masonry,  lined  with  beams;  efforts  are  being  made  to  raise  funds  for 
these  purposes.  The  widening  of  the  Eunpus  Channel  at  Chalcis 
to  the  extent  of  21-56  metres  was  accomplished  in  1894.  The  opera- 
tions involved  the  destruction  of  the  picturesque  Venetian  tower 
which  guarded  the  strait.  A  canal  was  completed  in  1903  rendering 
navigable  the  shallow  channel  between  Leucas  (Santa  Maura)  and 
the  mainland  (breadth  l§  metres,  depth  5  metres).  Large  careening 
docks  were  undertaken  in  1909  at  Peiraeus  at  an  estimated  cost  of 
4,750,000  drachmae. 

Communications. — Internal  communication  by  roads  is  improving, 
though  much  remains  to  be  done,  especially  as  regards  the  quality 
of  the  roads.  A  considerable  impetus  was  given  to  road-making 


437 

under  the  Trikoupis  administration. 
In  1878  there  were  only  555  m.  of 
roads;  in  1898  there  were  2398  m. ; 
in  1906,  3275  m.  Electric  trams  have 
been  introduced  at  Patras.  Railways 
were  open  to  traffic  in  1900  for  a  length 
of  598  m.;  in  1906  for  a  length  of 
867  m.  The  circuit  of  the  Morea  rail- 
ways (462  m.)  was  completed  in  1902 ; 
from  Diakophto,  on  the  north  coast,  a 
cogwheel  railway,  finished  in  1894, 
ascends  to  Kalavryta.  A  very  im- 
portant undertaking  is  the  completion 
of  a  line  from  Peiraeus  to  the  frontier, 
the  contract  for  which  was  signed  in 
1900  between  the  Greek  government 
and  the  Eastern  Railway  Extension 
Syndicate  (subsequentjy  converted  into 
the  Soctiti  des  Chemins  de  Per  helte- 
niques).  A  line  connecting  Peiraeus 
with  Larissa  was  begun  in  1890,  but 
in  1894  the  English  company  which 
had  undertaken  the  contract  went  into 
liquidation.  Under  the  contract  of 
1900  the  line  was  drawn  through 
Demerit,  in  the  south  of  Thessaly,  to 
Larissa,  a  distance  of  217  m.,  and  con- 
tinued through  the  vale  of  Tempe  to 
the  Turkish  frontier  (about  246  m.  in 
all).  Branch  lines  have  been  con- 
structed to  Lamia  and  Chalcis.  The 
establishment  of  a  connexion  with  the 
continental  railway  system,  by  a 
junction  with  the  line  from  Belgrade 
to  Salonica,  would  be  of  immense  ad- 
vantage to  Greece,  and  the  Peiraeus 
would  become  an  important  place  of 
embarkation  for  Egypt,  India  and  the 
Far  East. 

In  1905  the  number  of  post  offices 
was  640.  Of  these  320  were  also  tele- 
graph and  89  telephone 
stations,  with  664  clerks; 
the  remaining  post  offices 
possess  no  special  staff,  but  «ra'"Ii 
are  served  by  persons  who  also  pursue  other  occupations.  The 
number  of  postmen  and  other  employees  was  889.  During  the 
year  there  passed  through  the  post  6,897,899  ordinary  letters 
for  the  interior,  2,980,958  for  foreign  destinations,  2,788,477  from 
abroad;  540,411  registered  letters  or  parcels  for  the  interior,  309,907 
for  foreign  countries,  and  300,150  from  abroad;  880,673  post-cards 
for  the  interior,  504,785  from  abroad,  and  187,975  .sent  abroad; 
100,680  samples;  7,068,125  printed  papers  for  the  interior,  5,278,405 
to  or  from  foreign  countries.  Telegraph  lines  in  1905  extended 
over  4222  m.  with  6836  m.  of  wires;  841,913  inland  telegrams, 
221,188  service  telegrams  and  129,036  telegrams  to  foreign  destina- 
tions were  despatched,  and  169,519  received  from  abroad.  Receipts 
amounted  to  4,589,601  drachmae  (postal  service  2,744,212,  telegraph 
and  telephone  services  1,845,389  drachmae)  and  expenditure  to 
3,954,742  drachmae. 

The  Greek  army  has  recently  been  in  a  state  of  transition. 
Its  condition  has  never  been  satisfactory,  partly  owing  to  the 
absence  of  systematic  effort  in  the  work  of  organization, 
partly  owing  to  the  pernicious  influence  of  political 
parties,  and  in  times  of  national  emergency  it  has  never  been 
in  a  condition  of  readiness.  The  experience  of  the  war  of  1897 
proved  the  need  of  far-reaching  administrative  changes  and 
disciplinary  reforms.  A  scheme  of  complete  reorganization  was 
subsequently  elaborated  under  the  auspices  of  the  crown  prince 
Constantine,  the  commander-in-chief,  and  received  the  assent 
of  the  Chamber  in  June  1904.  During  the  war  of  1897  about 
65,000  infantry,  1000  cavalry,  and  24  batteries  were  put  into  the 
field,  and  after  great  efforts  another  15,000  men  were  mobilized. 
Under  the  new  scheme  it  is  proposed  to  maintain  on  a  peace 
footing  1887  officers,  25, 140  non-commissioned  officers  and  men, 
and  4059  horses  and  mules;  in  time  of  war  the  active  army 
will  consist  of  at  least  120,000  men  and  the  territorial  army  of 
at  least  60,000  men.  The  heavy  expenditure  entailed  by  the 
project  has  been  an  obstacle  to  its  immediate  realization.  In 
order  to  meet  this  expenditure  a  special  fund  has  been  instituted 
in  addition  to  the  ordinary  military  budget,  and  certain  revenues 
have  been  assigned  to  it  amounting  to  about  5,500,000  drachmae 
annually.  In  1906,  however,  it  was  decided  to  suspend  partially 
for  five  years  the  operation  of  the  law  of  1904  and  to  devote 


438 


GREECE 


[NAVY 


the  resources  thus  economized  together  with  other  funds  to 
the  immediate  purchase  of  new  armaments  and  equipment. 
Under  this  temporary  arrangement  the  peace  strength  of  the 
army  in  1908  consisted  of  1939  officers  and  civilians,  19,416 
non-commissioned  officers  and  men  and  2661  horses  and 
mules;  it  is  calculated  that  the  reserves  will  furnish  about 
77,000  men  and  the  territorial  army  about  37,000  men  in  time 
of  war. 

Military  service  is  obligatory,  and  liability  to  serve  begins 
from  the  twenty-first  year.  The  term  of  service  comprises 
two  years  in  the  active  army,  ten  years  in  the  active  army 
reserve  (for  cavalry  eight  years),  eight  years  in  the  territorial 
army  (for  cavalry  ten  years)  and  ten  years  for  all  branches  in 
the  territorial  army  reserve.  As  a  rule,  however,  the  period 
of  service  in  the  active  army  has  hitherto  been  considerably 
shortened;  with  a  view  to  economy,  the  men,  under  the  law 
of  1904,  receive  furlough  after  eighteen  months  with  the  colours. 
Exemptions  from  military  service,  which  were  previously  very 
numerous,  are  also  restricted  considerably  by  the  law  of  1904, 
which  will  secure  a  yearly  contingent  of  about  13,000  men  in 
time  of  peace.  The  conscripts  in  excess  of  the  yearly  contingent 
are  withdrawn  by  lot;  they  are  required  to  receive  six  months' 
training  in  the  ranks  as  supernumeraries  before  passing  into  the 
reserve,  in  which  they  form  a  special  category  of  "  liability  "  men. 
Under  the  temporary  system  of  1906  the  contingent  is  reduced 
to  about  10,000  men  by  postponing  the  abrogation  of  several 
exemptions,  and  the  period  of  service  is  fixed  at  fourteen  months 
for  all  the  conscripts  alike.  The  field  army  as  constituted  by 
the  law  of  1904  consists  of  3  divisions,  each  division  comprising 
2  brigades  of  infantry,  each  of  2  regiments  of  3  battalions  and 
other  units.  There  are  thus  36  battalions  of  infantry  (of  which 
12  are  cadres);  also  6  battalions  of  evzones  (highlanders) , 
1 8  squadrons  of  cavalry  (6  cadres),  33  batteries  of  artillery  (6 
cadres),  3  battalions  of  engineers  and  telegraphists,  3  companies 
of  ambulance,  3  of  train,  &c.  The  artillery  is  composed  of  24 
field  batteries,  3  heavy  and  6  mountain  batteries;  it  is  mainly 
provided  with  Krupp  7-5  cm.  guns  dating  from  1870  or  earlier. 
After  a  series  of  trials  in  1907  it  was  decided  to  order  36  field 
batteries  of  7-5  cm.  quick-firing  guns  and  6  mountain  batteries, 
in  all  168  guns,  with  1500  projectiles  for  each  battery  from  the 
Creuzot  factory.  The  infantry,  which  was  hitherto  armed 
with  the  obsolete  Gras  rifle  (-433  in.),  was  furnished  in  1907  with 
the  Mannlicher-Schonauer  (model  1903)  of  which  100,000  had 
been  delivered  in  May  1908.  Hitherto  the  gendarmerie,  which 
replaced  the  police,  have  formed  a  corps  drawn  from  the  army, 
which  in  1908  consisted  of  194  officers  and  6344  non-commissioned 
officers  and  men,  but  a  law  passed  in  1907  provided  for  these 
forces  being  thenceforth  recruited  separately  by  voluntary 
enlistment  in  annual  contingents  of  700  men.  The  participation 
of  the  officers  in  politics,  which  has  proved  very  injurious  to 
discipline,  has  been  checked  by  a  law  forbidding  officers  below 
the  rank  of  colonel  to  stand  for  the  Chamber.  In  the  elections 
of  1905  115  officers  were  candidates.  The  three  divisional 
headquarters  are  at  Larissa,  Athens  and  Missolonghi;  the  six 
headquarters  of  brigades  are  at  Trikkala,  Larissa,  Athens, 
Chalcis,  Missolonghi  and  Nauplia.  In  1907  annual  manoeuvres 
were  instituted. 

The  Greek  fleet  consisted  in  1907  of  3  armoured  barbette  ships 
of  4885  tons  (built  in  France  in  1890,  reconstructed  1899), 
N  carrying  each  three  io-8-in.  guns,  five  6-in.,  thirteen 

quick-firing  and  smaller  guns,  and  three  torpedo  tubes; 
i  cruiser  of  1770  tons  (built  in  1879),  with  two  6-7-in.  and  six 
light  quick-firing  guns;  i  armoured  central  battery  ship  of 
1774  tons  (built  1867,  reconstructed  1897)  with  two  8-4  in. 
and  nine  small  quick-firing  guns;  2  coast-defence  gunboats 
with  one  io-6-in.  gun  each;  4  corvettes;  i  torpedo  dep6t  ship; 
8  destroyers,  each  with  six  guns  (ordered  in  1905);  3  transport 
steamers;  7  small  gunboats;  3  mining  boats;  5  torpedo  boats; 
i  royal  yacht ;  2  school  ships  and  various  minor  vessels.  The 
personnel  of  the  navy  was  composed  in  1907  of  437  officers,  26 
cadets,  1118  petty  officers,  2372  seamen  and  stokers,  60  boys 
and  99  civilians,  together  with  386  artisans  employed  at  the 


arsenal.  The  navy  is  manned  chiefly  by  conscription ;  the  period 
of  service  is  two  years,  with  four  years  in  the  reserve.  The 
headquarters  of  the  fleet  and  arsenal  are  in  the  island  of  Salamis, 
where  there  is  a  dockyard  with  naval  stores,  a  floating  dock  and 
a  torpedo  school.  Most  of  the  vessels  of  the  Greek  fleet  were  in 
1907  obsolete;  in  1904  a  commission  under  the  presidency 
of  Prince  George  proposed  the  rearmament  of  the  existing  iron- 
clads and  the  purchase  of  three  new  ironclads  and  other 
vessels.  A  different  scheme  of  reorganization,  providing  almost 
exclusively  for  submarines  and  scout  vessels,  was  suggested 
to  the  government  by  the  French  admiral  Fournier  in  1908,  but 
was  opposed  by  the  Greek  naval  officers.  With  a  view  to  the 
augmentation  and  better  equipment  of  the  fleet  a  special  fund 
was  instituted  in  1900  to  which  certain  revenues  have  been 
assigned;  it  has  been  increased  by  various  donations  and 
bequests  and  by  the  proceeds  of  a  state  lottery.  The  fleet  is  not 
exercised  methodically  either  in  navigation  or  gunnery  practice; 
a  long  voyage,  however,  was  undertaken  by  the  ironclad  vessels 
in  1904.  The  Greeks,  especially  the  islanders  of  the  Aegean, 
make  better  sailors  than  soldiers;  the  personnel  of  the  navy, 
if  trained  by  foreign  officers,  might  be  brought  to  a  high  state 
of  efficiency. 

The  financial  history  of  Greece  has  been  unsatisfactory  from  the 
outset.  Excessive  military  and  naval  expenditure  (mainly  due  to 
repeated  and  hasty  mobilizations),  a  lax  and  improvident 
system  of  administration,  the  corruption  of  political  parties  flounce. 
and  the  instability  of  the  government,  which  has  rendered  impossible 
the  continuous  application  of  any  scheme  of  fiscal  reform — all  alike 
have  contributed  to  the  economic  ruin  of  the  country.  For  a  long 
series  of  years  preceding  the  declaration  of  national  insolvency  in 
1893  successive  budgets  presented  a  deficit,  which  in  years  of  political 
excitement  and  military  activity  assumed  enormous  proportions: 
the  shortcomings  of  the  budget  were  supplied  by  the  proceeds  of 
foreign  loans,  or  by  means  of  advances  obtained  in  the  country  at 
a  high  rate  of  interest.  The  two  loans  which  had  been  contracted 
during  the  war  of  independence  were  extinguished  by  means  of  a 
conversion  in  1889.  Of  the  existing  foreign  loans  the  earliest  is 
that  of  60,000,000  frs.,  guaranteed  by  the  three  protecting  powers 
in  1832;  owing  to  the  payment  of  interest  and  amortization  by  the 
powers,  the  capital  amounted  in  1871  to  100,392,833  fr. ;  on  this 
Greece  pays  an  annual  sum  of  900,000  fr.,  of  which  300,000  have  been 
granted  by  the  powers  as  a  yearly  subvention  to  King  George. 
The  only  other  existing  foreign  obligation  of  early  date  is  the  debt  to 
the  heirs  of  King  Otho  (4,500,000  dr.)  contracted  in  1868.  A  large 
amount  of  internal  debt  was  incurred  between  1848  and  1880,  but 
a  considerable  proportion  of  this  was  redeemed  with  the  proceeds 
of  the  foreign  loans  negotiated  after  this  period.  At  the  end  of  1880 
the  entire  national  debt,  external  and  internal,  stood  at  252,652,481 
dr.  In  1881  the  era  of  great  foreign  loans  began.  In  that  year  a  5  % 
loan  of  120,000,000  fr.  was  raised  to  defray  the  expenses  of  the 
mobilization  of  1880.  This  was  followed  in  1884  by  a  5  %  loan  of 
170,000,000  fr.,  of  which  100,000,000  was  actually  issued.  The 
service  of  these  loans  was  guaranteed  by  various  State  revenues.  A 
"  patriotic  loan  "  of  30,000,000  dr.  without  interest,  issued  during  the 
war  excitement  of  1885,  proved  a  failure,  only  2,723,860  dr.  being 
subscribed.  In  1888  a  4%  loan  of  135,000,000  fr.  was  contracted, 
secured  on  the  receipts  of  the  five  State  monopolies,  the  management 
of  which  was  entrusted  to  a  privileged  company.  In  the  following 
year  (1889)  two  4%  loans  of  30,000,000  fr.  and  125,000,000  fr. 
respectively  were  issued  without  guarantee  or  sinking  fund;  Greek 
credit  had  now  apparently  attained  an  established  position  in  the 
foreign  money  market,  but  a  decline  of  public  confidence  soon 
became  evident.  In  1890,  of  a  5%  loan  of  80,000,000  fr.  effective, 
authorized  for  the  construction  of  the  Peiraeus-Larissa  railway, 
only  40,050,000  fr.  was  taken  up  abroad  and  12,900,000  fr.  at  home; 
large  portions  of  the  proceeds  were  devoted  to  other  purposes. 
In  1892  the  government  was  compelled  to  make  large  additions 
to  the  internal  floating  debt,  and  to  borrow  16,500,000  fr.  from  the 
National  Bank  on  onerous  terms.  In  1893  an  effort  to  obtain  a 
foreign  loan  for  the  reduction  of  the  forced  currency  proved  unsuccess- 
ful. (For  the  events  leading  up  to  the  declaration  of  national 
bankruptcy  in  that  year  see  under  Recent  History.)  A  funding 
convention  was  concluded  in  the  summer,  under  which  the  creditors 
accepted  scrip  instead  of  cash  payments  of  interest.  A  few  months 
later  this  arrangement  was  reversed  by  the  Chamber,  and  on  the 
I3th  December  a  law  was  passed  assigning  provisionally  to  all  the 
foreign  loans  alike  30%  of  the  stipulated  interest;  the  reduced 
coupons  were  made  payable  in  paper  instead  of  gold,  the  sinking 
funds  were  suspended,  and  the  sums  encashed  by  the  monopoly 
company  were  confiscated.  The  causes  of  the  financial  catastrophe 
may  be  briefly  summarized  as  follows:  (i)  The  military  prepara- 
tions of  1885-1886,  with  the  attendant  disorganization  of  the 
country;  the  extraordinary  expenditure  of  these  years  amounted  to 
1 30.987, 772  dr.  (2)  Excessive  borrowing  abroad,  involving  a  charge 


FINANCE] 


GREECE 


439 


for  the  service  of  foreign  loans  altogether  disproportionate  to  the 
revenue.     (3)  Remissness  in  the  collection  of  taxation:    the  tola 
loss  through  arrears  in  a   period  of  ten  years    (1882-1891)   was 
36,549,202  dr.,  being  in  the  main  attributable  to  non-payment  ol 
direct  taxes.    (4)  The  adverse  balance  of  trade,  largely  due  to  the 
neglected  condition  of  agriculture;  in  the  five  years   preceding  the 
crisis  (1888-1892)  the  exports  were  stated  to  amount  to  £19,578,973, 
while  the  imports  reached  £24,890,146;  foreign  live  stock  and  cereals 
being  imported  to  the  amount  of  £6,193,579.     The  proximate  cause 
of  the  crisis  was  the  rise  in  the  exchange  owing  to  the  excessive 
amount  of  paper  money  in  circulation.    Forced  currency  was  first 
introduced  in  1868,  when  15,000,000  dr.  in  paper  money  was  issued; 
it  was  abolished  in  the  following  year,  but  reintroduced  in  1877  with 
a  paper  issue  of  44,000,000  dr.     It  was  abolished  a  second  time  in 
1884,  but  again  put  into  circulation  in  1885,  when  paper  loans  to 
the  amount  of  45,000,000  dr.  were  authorized.    In  1893  the  total 
authorized  forced  currency  was  146,000,000  dr.,  of  which  88,000,000 
(including  14,000,000  dr.  in  small  notes)was  on  account  of  the  govern- 
ment.    The  gold  and  silver  coinage  had  practically  disappeared  from 
circulation.     The  rate  of  exchange,  as  a  rule,  varies  directly  with  the 
amount  of  paper  money  in  circulation,  but,  owing  to  speculation,  it 
is  liable  to  violent  fluctuations  whenever  there  is  an  exceptional 
demand  for  gold  in  the  market.     In  1893  tne  g°'d  franc  stood  at 
the  ratio  of  I -60  to  the  paper  drachma;    the  service  of  the  foreign 
loans  required  upwards  of  31,000,000  dr.  in  gold,  and  any  attempt 
to  realize  this  sum  in  the  market  would  have  involved  an  outlay 
equivalent  to  at  least  half  the  budget.     With  the  failure  of  the 
projected  loan  for  the  withdrawal  of  the  forced  currency  repudiation 
became  inevitable.  The  law  of  the  I3th  of  December  was  not  recog- 
nized by  the  national  creditors:     prolonged  negotiations  followed, 
but  no  arrangement  was  arrived  at  till  1897,  when  the  intervention 
of  the  powers  after  the  war  with  Turkey  furnished  the  opportunity 
for  a  definite  settlement.     It  was  stipulated  that  Turkey  should 
receive  an  indemnity  of  £T4,ooo,ooo  contingent  on  the  evacuation 
of  Thessaly ;    in  order  to  secure  the  payment  of  this  sum  by  Greece 
without  prejudice  to  the  interests  of  her  creditors,  and  to  enable 
the  country  to  recover  from  the  economic  consequences  of  the  war, 
Great  Britain,  France  and  Russia  undertook  to  guarantee  a   2j% 
loan  of  170,000,000  fr.,  of  which  150,000,000  fr.  has  been  issued. 
By  the  preliminary  treaty  of  peace  (l8th  of  September  1897)  an 
International  Financial  Commission,  composed  of  six  representatives 
of  the  powers,  was  charged  with  the  payment  of  the  indemnity  to 
Turkey,  and  with  "  absolute  control  "  over     the  collection     and 
employment  of  revenues  sufficient  for  the  service  of  the  foreign  debt. 
A  law  defining  the  powers  of  the  Commission  was  passed  by  the 
Chamber,  26th  of  February  1898  (o.s.).      The  revenues   assigned 
to  its  supervision  were  the  five  government  monopolies,  the  tobacco 
and  stamp  duties,  and  the  import  duties  of  Peiraeus  (total  annual 
value  estimated  at  39,600,000  dr.) :  the  collection  was  entrusted  to  a 
Greek  society,  which  is  under  the  absolute  control  of  the  Commission. 
The  returns  of  Peiraeus  customs  (estimated  at  10,700,000  dr.)  are 
regarded  as  an  extra  guarantee,  and  are  handed  over  to  the  Greek 
government;      when  the  produce  of  the  other  revenues  exceeds 
28,900,000  dr.  the  "  plus  value  "  or  surplus  is  divided  in  the  propor- 
tion of  50-8  %  to  the  Greek  government  and  49-2  %  to  the-  creditors. 
The  plus  values  amounted  to  3,301,481  dr.  in  1898,  3,533,755  dr. 
in  1899.  and  3,442,713  dr.  in  1900.    Simultaneously  with  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  control  the  interest  for  the  Monopoly  Loan  was 
fixed  at  43%,  for  the  Funding  Loan  at  40%,  and  for  the  other 
loans  at  32  %  of  the  original  interest.     With  the   revenues  at   its 
disposal  the  International  Commission  has  already  been  enabled 
to  make  certain  augmentations  in  the  service  of  the  foreign  debt; 
since  1900  it  has  begun  to  take  measures  for  the  reduction  of  the 
forced  currency,  of  which  2,000,000  dr.  will  be  annually  bought  up 
and  destroyed  till  the  amount  in  circulation  is  reduced  to  40,000,000 
dr.     On  the  1st  of  January  1901  the  authorized  paper  issue  was 
164,000,000    dr.,    of    which    92,000,000    (including    18,000,000    in 
fractional  currency)  was  on  account  of  the  government;  the  amount 
in  actual  circulation  was  148,619,618  dr.     On  the  3lst  of  July  1906 
the  paper  issue  had  been  reduced  to  152,775,975  dr.,  and  the  amount 
in  circulation  was  124,668,057  dr.   The  financial  commission  retains 
its  powers  until  the  extinction  of  all  the  foreign  loans  contracted 
since  1881.   Though  its  activity  is  mainly  limited  to  the  administra- 
tion of  the  assigned  revenues,  it  has  exercised  a  beneficial  influence 
over  the  whole  domain  of  Greek  finance ;  the  effect  may  be  observed 
in  the  greatly  enhanced  value  of  Greek  securities  since  its  institution, 
averaging  25-76  %  in  1906.     No  change  can  be  made  in  its  composi- 
tion or  working  without  the  consent  of  the  six  powers,  and  none  of 
the  officials  employed  in  the  collection  of  the  revenues  subject  to  its 
control  ran  be  dismissed  or  transferred  without  its  consent.     It 
thus  constitutes  an  element  of  stability  and  order  which  cannot 
fail  to  react  on  the  general  administration.    It  is  unable,  however, 
to  control  the  expenditure  or  to  assert  any  direct  influence  over 
the  government,  with  which  the  responsibility  still  rests  for  an  im- 
proved system  of  collection,  a  more  efficient  staff  of  functionaries 
and  the  repression  of  smuggling.     The  country  has  shown  a  re- 
markable vitality  in  recovering  from  the  disasters  of  1897,  and 
should    it    in    future  obtain   a   respite   from    paroxysms    of    mili- 
tary and   political  excitement,   its  financial   regeneration  will  be 
assured. 


The  following  table  gives  the  actual  expenditure  and  receipts  for 
the  period  1889-1906  inclusive: 


Year. 

Actual 
Receipts. 

Actual 
Expenditure. 

Surplus  or 
Deficit. 

Drachmae. 

Drachmae. 

Drachmae. 

1889 

83.731.591 

110,772,327 

-27,040,736 

1890 

79.93  '.795 

125.932,579 

—46,000,784 

1891 

90,321,872 

122,836,385 

-32,514.513 

1892 

95465.569 

107,283,498 

—  11,817,929 

1893' 

96,723,418 

92,133.565 

+  4.589,853 

1894 

102,885,643 

85.135,752 

+  17,749,891 

1895 

94,657,065 

91,641,967 

+  3,015,098 

1896 

96,931,726 

90,890,607 

+  6,041,119 

1  8972 

92,485,825 

137.043.929 

-44,558,104 

iSgS3 

104,949,718 

110,341,431 

-  5.391.713 

1899 

111,318,273 

104,586,504 

+  6,731,769 

1900 

112,206,849 

112,049,279 

+      157,570 

1901 

115,734.159 

113,646,301 

+  2,087,858 

1902 

I23.949.93i 

121,885,707 

+  2,064,224 

1903 

120,194,362 

"7.436,549 

+  2,757,813 

1904 

121,186,246 

120,200,247 

+      985,9W 

1905 

126,472,580 

118,699,761 

+  7,772,819 

1906 

125.753,358 

124,461,577 

-(-  1,291,781 

The  steady  increase  of  receipts  since  1898  attests  the  growing 
prosperity  of  the  country,  but  expenditure  has  been  allowed  to  out- 
strip revenue,  and,  notwithstanding  the  official  figures  which 
represent  a  series  of  surpluses,  the  accumulated  deficit  in  1905 
amounted  to  about  14,000,000  dr.  in  addition  to  treasury  bonds  for 
8,000,000  dr.  A  remarkable  feature  has  been  the  rapid  fall  in  the 
exchange  since  1903 ;  the  gold  franc,  which  stood  at  1-63  dr.  in  1902, 
had  fallen  to  I -08  in  October  1906.  The  decline,  a  favourable 
symptom  if  resulting  from  normal  economic  factors,  is  apparently 
due  to  a  combination  of  exceptional  circumstances,  and  consequently 
may  not  be  maintained ;  it  has  imposed  a  considerable  strain  on  the 
financial  and  commercial  situation.  The  purchasing  power  of  the 
drachma  remains  almost  stationary  and  the  price  of  imported 
commodities  continues  high;  import  dues,  which  since  1904  are 
payable  in  drachmae  at  the  fixed  rate  of  I  -45  to  the  franc,  have  been 
practically  increased  by  more  than  30%.  In  April  1900  a  4%  loan 
of  43,750,000  francs  for  the  completion  of  the  railway  from  Peiraeus 
to  the  Turkish  frontier,  and  another  loan  of  11,750,000  drachmae 
for  the  construction  of  a  line  from  Pyrgos  to  Meligala,  linking  up 
the  Morea  railway  system,  were  sanctioned  by  the  Chamber;  the 
first-named,  the  "  Greek  Railways  Loan,"  was  taken  up  at  80  by  the 
syndicate  contracting  for  the  works  and  was  placed  on  the  market 
in  1902.  The  service  of  both  loans  is  provided  by  the  International 
Commission  from  the  surplus  funds  of  the  assigned  revenues.  On 
the  1st  of  January  1906  the  external  debt  amounted  to  725,939,500 
francs  and  the  internal  (including  the  paper  circulation)  to  17 1 ,629,436 
drachmae. 

The  budget  estimates  for  1906  were  as  follows:  Civil  list,  1,325,000 
dr.;  pensions,  payment  of  deputies,  &c.,  7,706,676  dr. ;  public  debt, 
34,253,471  dr.;  foreign  affairs,  3,563,994  dr.;  justice,  6,240,271 
dr.;  interior,  13,890,927  dr.;  religion  and  education,  7,143,924  dr.; 
army,  20,618,563  dr.;  navy,  7,583,369  dr.;  finance,  2,362,143 
dr.;  collection  of  revenue,  10,650,487  dr.;  various  expenditure, 
9,122,752  dr.;  total,  124,461,577  dr. 

The  two  privileged  banks  in  Greece  are  the  National  Bank, 
founded  in  1841;  capital  20,000,000  drachmae  in  20,000  shares  of 
looo  dr.  each,  fully  paid  up;  reserve  fund  13,500,000  dr.;  notes 
in  circulation  (September  1906)  126,721,887  dr.,  of  which  76,360,905 
dr.  on  account  of  the  government ;  and  the  Ionian  Bank,  incorporated 
in  1839;  capital  paid  up  £315,500  in  63,102  shares  of  £5  each; 
notes  in  circulation,  10,200,000  drachmae,  of  which  3,500,000  (in 
fractional  notes  of  i  and  2  dr.)  on  account  of  the  government.  The 
notes  issued  by  these  two  banks  constitute  the  forced  paper  currency 
circulating  throughout  the  kingdom.  In  the  case  of  the  Ionian  Bank 
the  privilege  of  issuing  notes,  originally  limited  to  the  Ionian  Islands, 
will  expire  in  1920.  The  National  Bank  is  a  private  institution  under 
supervision  of  the  government,  which  is  represented  by  a  royal 
commissioner  on  the  board  of  administration;  the  central  establish- 
ment is  at  Athens  with  forty-two  branches  throughout  the  country. 
The  headquarters  of  the  Ionian  Bank,  which  is  a  British  institution, 
are  in  London;  the  bank  has  a  central  office  at  Athens  and  five 
branches  in  Greece.  The  privileged  Epiro-Thessalian  Bank  ceased  to 
exist  from  the  4th  of  January  1900,  when  it  was  amalgamated  with 
the  National  Bank.  There  are  several  other  banking  companies,  as 
well  as  private  banks,  at  Athens.  The  most  important  is  the  Bank 
of  Athens  (capital  40,000,000  dr.),  founded  in  1893;  it  possesses 
five  branches  in  Greece  and  six  abroad. 

Greece  entered  the  Latin  Monetary  .Union  in  1868.  The  monetary 
unit  is  the  new  drachma,  equivalent  to  the  franc,  and  divided  into 


1  Reduction  of  interest  on  foreign  debt  by  70  %. 

2  War  with  Turkey. 

3  International  Financial  Commission  instituted. 


440 


GREECE 


[HISTORY 


100  lepta  or  centimes.  There  are  nickel  coins  of  20,  10  and  5  lepta, 
copper  coins  of  ip  and  5  lepta.  Gold  and  silver  coins  were  minted 
in  Paris  between  1868  and  1884,  but  have  since  practic- 
Curreacy,  any  disappeared  from  the  country.  The  paper  currency 
weights  consists  of  notes  for  1000  dr.,  500  dr.,  100  dr.,  25  dr.,  10 
dr.  and  5  dr.,  and  of  fractional  notes  for  2  dr.  and  I  dr. 
measures,  rpj^  j^^-jj  svstem  of  weights  and  measures  was  adopted 
in  1876,  but  some  of  the  old  Turkish  standards  are  still  in  general 
use.  The  dram  ^^  oz.  avoirdupois  approximately;  the  oke  =400 
drams  or  2-8  Ib;  the  kilo  =22  okes  or  0-114  °f  an  imperial  quarter; 
the  cantar  or  quintal  =44  okes  or  123-2  ft.  Liquids  are  measured 
by  weight.  The  punta  =  if  in. ;  the  ruppa,  3j  in. ;  the  pik,  26  in. ; 
the  stadion  =  I  kilometre  or  1093^  yds.  The  stremma  (square 
measure)  is  nearly  one-third  of  an  acre. 

AUTHORITIES. — W.  Leake,  Researches  in  Greece  (1814),  Travels  in 
the  Morea  (3  vols.,  1830),  Travels  in  Northern  Greece  (4  vols.,  1834), 
Peloponnesiaca  (1846) ;  Bursian,  Geographic  von  Griechenland  (2  vols., 
Leipzig,  1862-1873);  Lolling,  "  Hellenische  Landeskunde  und 
Topographic  "  in  Ivan  Muller's  Handbuch  der  klassischen  Altertums- 
wissenschaft',  C.  Wordsworth,  Greece;  Pictorial,  Descriptive  and 
Historical  (new  ed.,  revised  by  H.  F.  Tozer,  London,  1882);  K. 
Stephanos,  La  Grece  (Paris,  1884);  C.  Neumann  and  J.  Partsch, 
Physikalische  Geographic  von  Griechenland  (Breslau,  1885);  K. 
Krumbacher,  Griechische  Reise  (Berlin,  1886);  J.  P.  Mahaffy, 
Rambles  and  Studies  in  Greece  (London,  1887) ;  R.  A.  H.  Bickford- 
Smith,  Greece  under  King  George  (London,  1893);  Ch.  Diehl,  Ex- 
cursions archeologiques  en  Grece  (Paris,  1893);  Perrot  and  Chipiez, 
Histoire  de  I'art,  tome  vi.,  "La  Grece  primitive"  (Paris,  1894); 
tome  vii.,  "La  Grece  archaique  "  (Paris,  1898);  A.  Philippson, 
Griechenland  und  seine  Stellung  im  Orient  (Leipzig,  1897);  L. 
Sergeant,  Greece  in  the  Nineteenth  Century  (London,  1897) ;  J.  G. 
Frazer,  Pausanias's  Description  of  Greece  (6  vols.,  London,  1898) ; 
Pausanias  and  other  Greek  Sketches  (London,  1900);  Greco-Turkish 
War  of  1897,  from  official  sources,  by  a  German  staff  officer  (Eng. 
trans.,  London,  1898);  J.  A.  Symonds,  Studies,  and  Sketches  in 
Italy  and  Greece  (3  vols.,  2nd  ed.,  London,  1898);  V.  B<5rard,  La 
Turquie  el  I'hellenisme  contemporaine  (Paris,  1900). 

For  the  climate:  D.  Aeginetes,  Td  <c\i/io  rijs  'EXXdSos  (Athens, 
1908). 

For  the  fauna:  Th.  de  Heldreich,  La  Fauna  de  la  Grece  (Athens, 
1878). 

For  special  topography:  A.  Meliarakes,  KuxXaSutd  <JTOI  ytwypait>ia 
KaHtrTopiaTWJ'KuKXaSiKcoi' j^axoi^Athens,  1874)  ',"Tironvfji*aTa  7rept7pa0wcd 
TUV  KuxXdSwi'  vifawv  "AvSpov  ical  Kea>  (Athens,  1880);  Tcwypa<t>la 
iroXiTixi)  v'ta.  KO.I  ap\ata  TOV  vo/u>v  "Ap7oXi5os  nal  Kopittftas  (Athens, 
1886);  Tfo>ypa<t>ia  TroXiTuci)  vka.  Kal  dpxata  TOV  vopav  Ke^aXX^ytas. 
(Athens,  1890);  Th.  Bent,  The  Cyclades  (London,  1885);  A. 
Botticher,  Olympia  (2nd  ed.,  Berlin,  1886);  J.  Partsch,  Die  Insel 
Corfu:  eine  geographische  Monographic  (Gotha,  1887);  Die  Insel 
Leukas  (Gotha,  1889);  Kephallenia  und  Ithaka  (Gotha,  1890); 
Die  Insel  Zante  (Gotha,  1891);  A.  Philippson,  Der  Peloponnes. 
(Versuch  einer  Landeskunde  auf  geologischer  Grundlage.)  (Berlin, 
1892);  "  Thessalien  und  Epirus  "  (Reisen  und  Forschungen  im 
nordlichen  Griechenland)  (Berlin,  1897) ;  Die  griechischen  Inseln 
des  dgaischen  Meeres  (Berlin,  1897);  W.  J.  Woodhouse,  Aetolia 
(Oxford,  1897) ;  Schultz  and  Barnsley,  The  Monastery  of  St  Luke  of 
Stiris  (London,  1901) ;  M.  Lamprinides,  'H  NauirXia  (Athens,  1898) ; 
Monuments  de  I'art  byzantin,  publics  par  le  Ministere  de  1'Instruction, 
tome  i. ;  G.  Millet,  "  Le  Monastere  de  Daphni  "  (Paris,  1900).  For 
the  life,  customs  and  habits  of  the  modern  Greeks:  C.  Wachsmuth, 
Das  alte  Griechenland  im  neuen  (Bonn,  1864);  C.  K.  Tuckerman, 
The  Greeks  of  to-day  (London,  1873);  B.  Schmidt,  Volksleben  der 
Neugriechen  und  das  hellenische  Altertum  (Leipzig,  1871);  Estour- 
nelle  de  Constant,  La  Vie  de  province  en  Grece  (Paris,  1878);  E. 
About,  La  Grece  contemporaine  (Paris,  1855;  8th  ed.,  1883);  J.  T. 
Bent,  Modern  Life  and  Thought  among  the  Greeks  (London,  1891); 
J.  Rennell  Rodd,  The  Customs  and  Lore  of  Modern  Greece  (London, 
1892).  Guide-books,  Baedeker's  Greece  (3rd  ed.,  Leipzig,  1905); 
Murray's  Handbook  for  Greece  (7th  ed.,  London,  1905)  ;  Macmillan's 
Guide  to  the  Eastern  Mediterranean  (London,  1901).  (J.  D.  B.) 

2.  HISTORY 
a.  Ancient;  to  146  B.C. 

i.  Introductory. — It  is  necessary  to  indicate  at  the  outset  the 
scope  and  object  of  the  present  article.  The  reader  must  not 
expect  to  find  in  it  a  compendious  summary  of  the  chief  events 
in  the  history  of  ancient  Greece.  It  is  not  intended  to  supply 
an  "  Outlines  of  Greek  History."  It  may  be  questioned  whether 
such  a  sketch  of  the  history,  within  the  limits  of  space  which  are 
necessarily  imposed  in  a  work  of  reference,  would  be  of  utility 
to  any  class  of  readers.  At  any  rate,  the  plan  of  the  present 
work,  in  which  the  subject  of  Greek  history  is  treated  of  in  a 
large  number  of  separate  articles,  allows  of  the  narrative  of 
events  being  given  in  a  more  satisfactory  form  under  the  more 
general  of  the  headings  (e.g.  ATHENS,  SPARTA,  PELOPONNESIAN 


WAR).  The  character  of  the  history  itself  suggests  a  further 
reason  why  a  general  article  upon  Greek  history  should  not 
be  confined  to,  or  even  attempt,  a  narrative  of  events.  A  sketch 
of  Greek  history  is  not  possible  in  the  sense  in  which  a  sketch  of 
Roman  history,  or  even  of  English  history,  is  possible.  Greek 
history  is  not  the  history  of  a  single  state.  When  Aristotle 
composed  his  work  upon  the  constitutions  of  the  Greek  states, 
he  found  it  necessary  to  extend  his  survey  to  no  less  that  158 
states.  Greek  history  is  thus  concerned  with  more  than  150 
separate  and  independent  political  communities.  Nor  is  it  even 
the  history  of  a  single  country.  The  area  occupied  by  the  Greek 
race  extended  from  the  Pyrenees  to  the  Caucasus,  and  from 
southern  Russia  to  northern  Africa.  It  is  inevitable,  therefore, 
that  the  impression  conveyed  by  a  sketch  of  Greek  history 
should  be  a  misleading  one.  A  mere  narrative  can  hardly  fail 
to  give  a  false  perspective.  Experience  shows  that  such  a 
sketch  is  apt  to  resolve  itself  into  the  history  of  a  few  great 
movements  and  of  a  few  leading  states.  What  is  still  worse, 
it  is  apt  to  confine  itself,  at  any  rate  for  the  greater  part  of  the 
period  dealt  with,  to  the  history  of  Greece  in  the  narrower  sense, 
i.e.  of  the  Greek  peninsula.  For  the  identification  of  Greece 
with  Greece  proper  there  may  be  some  degree  of  excuse  when  we 
come  to  the  5th  and  4th  centuries.  In  the  period  that  lies  behind 
the  year  500  B.C.  Greece  proper  forms  but  a  small  part  of  the 
Greek  world.  In  the  7th  and  6th  centuries  it  is  outside  Greece 
itself  that  we  must  look  for  the  most  active  life  of  the  Greek 
people  and  the  most  brilliant  manifestations  of  the  Greek  spirit. 
The  present  article,  therefore,  will  be  concerned  with  the  causes 
and  conditions  of  events,  rather  than  with  the  events  themselves; 
it  will  attempt  analysis  rather  than  narrative.  Its  object  will 
be  to  indicate  problems  and  to  criticize  views;  to  suggest 
lessons  and  parallels,  and  to  estimate  the  importance  of  the 
Hellenic  factor  in  the  development  of  civilization. 

2.  The  Minoan  and  Mycenaean  Ages. — When  does  Greek 
history  begin?  Whatever  may  be  the  answer  that  is  given  to 
this  question,  it  will  be  widely  different  from  any  that  could 
have  been  proposed  a  generation  ago.  Then  the  question  was, 
How  late  does  Greek  history  begin?  To-day  the  question  is, 
How  early  does  it  begin?  The  suggestion  made  by  Grote  that 
the  first  Olympiad  (776  B.C.)  should  be  taken  as  the  starting- 
point  of  the  history  of  Greece,  in  the  proper  sense  of  the  term 
"  history,"  seemed  likely,  not  so  many  years  ago,  to  win  general 
acceptance.  At  the  present  moment  the  tendency  would  seem 
to  be  to  go  back  as  far  as  the  3rd  or  4th  millennium  B.C.  in  order 
to  reach  a  starting-point.  It  is  to  the  results  of  archaeological 
research  during  the  last  thirty  years  that  we  must  attribute  so 
startling  a  change  in  the  attitude  of  historical  science  towards 
this  problem.  In  the  days  when  Grote  published  the  first  volumes 
of  his  History  of  Greece  archaeology  was  in  its  infancy.  Its 
results,  so  far  as  they  affected  the  earlier  periods  of  Greek  history, 
were  scanty;  its  methods  were  unscientific.  The  methods  have 
been  gradually  perfected  by  numerous  workers  in  the  field;  but 
the  results,  which  have  so  profoundly  modified  our  conceptions 
of  the  early  history  of  the  Aegean  area,  are  principally  due  to  the 
discoveries  of  two  men,  Heinrich  Schliemann  and  A.  J.  Evans. 
A  full  account  of  these  discoveries  will  be  found  elsewhere  (see 
AEGEAN  CIVILIZATION  and  CRETE).  It  will  be  sufficient  to 
mention  here  that  Schliemann's  labours  began  with  the  excava- 
tions on  the  site  of  Troy  in  the  years  1870-1873;  that  he  passed 
on  to  the  excavations  at  Mycenae  in  1876  and  to  those  at  Tiryns 
in  1884.  It  was  the  discoveries  of  these  years  that  revealed 
to  us  the  Mycenaean  age,  and  carried  back  the  history  to  the 
middle  of  the  2nd  millennium.  The  discoveries  of  Dr  A.  J.  Evans 
in  the  island  of  Crete  belong  to  a  later  period.  The  work  of 
excavation  was  begun  in  1900,  and  was  carried  on  in  subsequent 
years.  It  has  revealed  to  us  the  Minoan  age,  and  enabled  us 
to  trace  back  the  development  and  origins  of  the  civilization 
for  a  further  period  of  1000  or  1500  years.  The  dates  assigned 
by  archaeologists  to  the  different  periods  of  Mycenaean  and 
Minoan  art  must  be  regarded  as  merely  approximate.  Even 
the  relation  of  the  two  civilizations  is  still,  to  some  extent,  a 
matter  of  conjecture.  The  general  chronological  scheme, 


^^v^^^_   =•  I 

S!  /:f~ J*!^^! 


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HISTORY] 


GREECE 


441 


however,  in  the  sense  of  the  relative  order  of  the  various  periods 
and  the  approximate  intervals  between  them,  is  too  firmly 
established,  both  by  internal  evidence,  such  as  the  development 
of  the  styles  of  pottery,  and  of  the  art  in  general,  and  by  external 
evidence,  such  as  the  points  of  contact  with  Egyptian  art  and 
history,  to  admit  of  its  being  any  longer  seriously  called  in 
question. 

If,  then,  by  "  Greek  history  "  is  to  be  understood  the  history 
of  the  lands  occupied  in  later  times  by  the  Greek  race  (i.e.  the 
Greek  peninsula  and  the  Aegean  basin),  the  beginnings  of  the 
history  must  be  carried  back  some  2000  years  before  Grote's 
proposed  starting-point.  If,  however,  "  Greek  history  "  is  taken 
to  mean  the  history  of  the  Greek  people,  the  determination  of 
the  starting-point  is  far  from  easy.  For  the  question  to  which 
archaeology  does  not  as  yet  supply  any  certain  answer  is  the 
question  of  race.  Were  the  creators  of  the  Minoan  and 
Mycenaean  civilization  Greeks  or  were  they  not  ?  In  some 
degree  the  Minoan  evidence  has  modified  the  answer  suggested 
by  the  Mycenaean.  Although  wide  differences  of  opinion  as  to 
the  origin  of  the  Mycenaean  civilization  existed  among  scholars 
when  the  results  of  Schliemann's  labours  were  first  given  to  the 
world,  a  general  agreement  had  gradually  been  arrived  at  in 
favour  of  the  view  which  would  identify  Mycenaean  with  Achaean 
or  Homeric.  In  presence  of  the  Cretan  evidence  it  is  no  longer 
possible  to  maintain  this  view  with  the  same  confidence.  The 
two  chief  difficulties  in  the  way  of  attributing  either  the  Minoan 
or  the  Mycenaean  civilization  to  an  Hellenic  people  are  connected 
respectively  with  the  script  and  the  religion.  The  excavations 
at  Cnossus  have  yielded  thousands  of  tablets  written  in  the  linear 
script.  There  is  evidence  that  this  script  was  in  use  among  the 
Mycenaeans  as  well.  If  Greek  was  the  language  spoken  at 
Cnossus  and  Mycenae,  how  is  it  that  all  attempts  to  decipher 
the  script  have  hitherto  failed  ?  The  Cretan  excavations,  again, 
have  taught  us  a  great  deal  as  to  the  religion  of  the  Minoan  age ; 
they  have,  at  the  same  time,  thrown  a  new  light  upon  the  evidence 
supplied  by  Mycenaean  sites.  It  is  no  longer  possible  to  ignore 
the  contrast  between  the  cults  of  the  Minoan  and  Mycenaean 
ages,  and  the  religious  conceptions  which  they  imply,  and  the 
cults  and  religious  conceptions  prevalent  in  the  historical  period. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  may  safely  be  asserted  that  the  argument 
derived  from  the  Mycenaean  art,  in  which  we  seem  to  trace  a 
freedom  of  treatment  which  is  akin  to  the  spirit  of  the  later 
Greek  art,  and  is  in  complete  contrast  to  the  spirit  of  Oriental 
art,  has  received  striking  confirmation  from  the  remains  of 
Minoan  art.  The  decipherment  of  the  script  would  at  once 
solve  the  problem.  We  should  at  least  know  whether  the 
dominant  race  in  Crete  in  the  Minoan  age  spoke  an  Hellenic  or 
a  non-Hellenic  dialect.  And  what  could  be  inferred  with  regard 
to  Crete  in  the  Minoan  age  could  almost  certainly  be  inferred 
with  regard  to  the  mainland  in  the  Mycenaean  age.  In  the 
meanwhile,  possibly  until  the  tablets  are  read,  at  any  rate  until 
further  evidence  is  forthcoming,  any  answer  that  can  be  given 
to  the  question  must  necessarily  be  tentative  and  provisional. 
(See  AEGEAN  CIVILIZATION.) 

It  has  already  been  implied  that  this  period  of  the  history 
of  Greece  may  be  subdivided  into  a  Minoan  and  a  Mycenaean 
age.  Whether  these  terms  are  appropriate  is  a  question  of 
comparatively  little  importance.  They  at  least  serve  to  remind 
us  of  the  part  played  by  the  discoveries  at  Mycenae  and  Cnossus 
in  the  reconstruction  of  the  history.  The  term  "  Mycenaean," 
it  is  true,  has  other  associations  than  those  of  locality.  It  may 
seem  to  imply  that  the  civilization  disclosed  in  the  excavations 
at  Mycenae  is  Achaean  in  character,  and  that  it  is  to  be  connected 
with  the  Pelopid  dynasty  to  which  Agamemnon  belonged.  In 
its  scientific  use,  the  term  must  be  cleared  of  all  such  associations. 
Further,  as  opposed  to  "  Minoan  "  it  must  be  understood  in  a 
more  definite  sense  than  that  in  which  it  has  often  been  employed. 
It  has  come  to  be  generally  recognized  that  two  different  periods 
are  to  be  distinguished  in  Schliemann's  discoveries  at  Mycenae 
itself.  There  is  an  earlier  period,  to  which  belong  the  objects 
found  in  the  shaft-graves,  and  there  is  a  later  period,  to  which 
belong  the  beehive  tombs  and  the  remains  of  the  palaces.  It 


is  the  latter  period  which  is  "  Mycenaean  "  in  the  strict  sense; 
i.e.  it  is  "  Mycenaean  "  as  opposed  to  "  Minoan."  To  this 
period  belong  also  the  palace  at  Tiryns,  the  beehive-tombs 
discovered  elsewhere  on  the  mainland  of  Greece  and  one  of  the 
cities  on  the  site  of  Troy  (Schliemann's  sixth).  The  pottery 
of  this  period  is  as  characteristic  of  it,  both  in  its  forms  (e.g.  the 
"  stirrup  "  or  "  false-necked  "  form  of  vase)  and  in  its  peculiar 
glaze,  as  is  the  architecture  of  the  palaces  and  the  beehive-tombs. 
Although  the  chief  remains  have  been  found  on-  the  mainland 
of  Greece  itself,  the  art  of  this  period  is  found  to  have  extended 
as  far  north  as  Troy  and  as  far  east  as  Cyprus.  On  the  other 
hand,  hardly  any  traces  of  it  have  been  discovered  on  the  west 
coast  of  Asia  Minor,  south  of  the  Troad.  The  Mycenaean  age, 
in  this  sense,  may  be  regarded  as  extending  from  1600  to  1 200  B.C. 
The  Minoan  age  is  of  far  wider  extent.  Its  latest  period  includes 
both  the  earlier  and  the  later  periods  of  the  remains  found  at 
Mycenae.  This  is  the  period  called  by  Dr  Evans  "  Late  Minoan." 
To  this  period  belong  the  Great  Palace  at  Cnossus  and  the 
linear  system  of  writing.  The  "  Middle  Minoan  "  period,  to 
which  the  earlier  palace  belongs,  is  characterized  by  the  picto- 
graphic  system  of  writing  and  by  polychrome  pottery  of  a 
peculiarly  beautiful  kind.  Dr  Evans  proposes  to  carry  back 
this  period  as  far  as  2500  B.C.  Even  behind  it  there  are  traces 
of  a  still  earlier  civilization.  Thus  the  Minoan  age,  even  if 
limited  to  the  middle  and  later  periods,  will  cover  at  least  a 
thousand  years.  Perhaps  the  most  surprising  result  of  the 
excavations  in  Crete  is  the  discovery  that  Minoan  art  is  on  a 
higher  level  than  Mycenaean  art.  To  the  scholars  of  a  generation 
ago  it  seemed  a  thing  incredible  that  the  art  of  the  shaft-graves, 
and  the  architecture  of  the  beehive-tombs  and  the  palaces,  could 
belong  to  the  age  before  the  Dorian  invasion.  The  most  recent 
discoveries  seem  to  indicate  that  the  art  of  Mycenae  is  a  decadent 
art;  they  certainly  prove  that  an  art,  hardly  inferior  in  its  way 
to  the  art  of  the  classical  period,  and  a  civilization  which  implies 
the  command  of  great  material  resources,  were  flourishing  in  the 
Aegean  perhaps  a  thousand  years  before  the  siege  of  Troy. 

To  the  question,  "  What  is  the  origin  of  this  civilization? 
Is  it  of  foreign  derivation  or  of  native  growth  ? "  it  is  not 
possible  to  give  a  direct  answer.  It  is  clear,  on  the  one 
hand  that  it  was  developed,  by  a  gradual  process  of  Oriental 
differentiation,  from  a  culture  which  was  common  to  ence. 
the  whole  Aegean  basin  and  extended  as  far  to  the 
west  as  Sicily.  It  is  equally  clear,  on  the  other  hand,  that 
foreign  influences  contributed  largely  to  the  process  of  develop- 
ment. Egyptian  influences,  in  particular,  can  be  traced  through- 
out the  "  Minoan  "  and  "  Mycenaean  "  periods.  The  developed 
art,  however,  both  in  Crete  and  on  the  mainland,  displays 
characteristics  which  are  the  very  opposite  of  those  which  are 
commonly  associated  with  the  term  "  oriental."  Egyptian 
work,  even  of  the  best  period,  is  stiff  and  conventional;  in  the 
best  Cretan  work,  and,  in  a  less  degree,  in  Mycenaean  work, 
we  find  an  originality  and  a  freedom  of  treatment  which  remind 
one  of  the  spirit  of  the  Greek  artists.  The  civilization  is,  in 
many  respects,  of  an  advanced  type.  The  Cretan  architects 
could  design  on  a  grand  scale,  and  could  carry  out  their  designs 
with  no  small  degree  of  mechanical  skill.  At  Cnossus  we  find  a 
system  of  drainage  in  use,  which  is  far  in  advance  of  anything 
known  in  the  modern  world  before  the  ipth  century.  If  the  art 
of  the  Minoan  age  falls  short  of  the  art  of  the  Periclean  age,  it  is 
hardly  inferior  to  that  of  the  age  of  Peisistratus.  It  is  a  civiliza- 
tion, too,  which  has  long  been  familiar  with  the  art  of  writing. 
But  it  is  one  that  belongs  entirely  to  the  Bronze  Age.  Iron  is  not 
found  until  the  very  end  of  the  Mycenaean  period,  and  then 
only  in  small  quantities.  Nor  is  this  the  only  point  of  contrast 
between  the  culture  of  the  earliest  age  and  that  of  the  historical 
period  in  Greece.  The  chief  seats  of  the  early  culture  are  to  be 
found  either  in  the  island  of  Crete,  or,  on  the  mainland,  at  Tiryns 
and  Mycenae.  In  the  later  history  Crete  plays  no  part,  and 
Tiryns  and  Mycenae  are  obscure.  With  the  great  names  of  a 
later  age,  Argos,  Sparta  and  Athens,  no  great  discoveries  are 
connected.  In  northern  Greece,  Orchomenos  rather  than  Thebes 
is  the  centre  of  influence.  Further  points  of  contrast  readily 


442 


GREECE 


[HISTORY 


suggest  themselves.  The  so-called  Phoenician  alphabet,  in 
use  amongst  the  later  Greeks,  is  unknown  in  the  earliest  age. 
Its  systems  of  writing,  both  the  earlier  and  the  later  one,  are 
syllabic  in  character,  and  analogous  to  those  in  vogue  in  Asia 
Minor  and  Cyprus.  In  the  art  of  war,  the  chariot  is  of  more 
importance  than  the  foot-soldier,  and  the  latter,  unlike  the 
Greek  hoplite,  is  lightly  clad,  and  trusts  to  a  shield  large  enough 
to  cover  the  whole  body,  rather  than  to  the  metal  helmet,  breast- 
plate and  greaves  of  later  times  (see  ARMS  AND  ARMOUR :  Creek). 
The  political  system  appears  to  have  been  a  despotic  monarchy, 
and  the  realm  of  the  monarch  to  have  extended  to  far  wider 
limits  than  those  of  the  "  city-states  "  of  historical  Greece. 
It  is,  perhaps,  in  the  religious  practices  of  the  age,  and  in  the 
ideas  implied  in  them,  that  the  contrast  is  most  apparent. 
Neither  in  Crete  nor  on  the  mainland  is  there  any  trace  of  the 
worship  of  the  "  Olympian  "  deities.  The  cults  in  vogue  remind 
us  rather  of  Asia  than  of  Greece.  The  worship  of  pillars  and  of 
trees  carries  us  back  to  Canaan,  while  the  double-headed  axe, 
so  prominent  in  the  ritual  of  Cnossus,  survives  in  later  times 
as  the  symbol  of  the  national  deity  of  the  Carians.  The  beehive- 
tombs,  found  on  many  sites  on  the  mainland  besides  Mycenae, 
are  evidence  both  of  a  method  of  sepulture  and  of  ideas  of  the 
future  state,  which  are  alien  to  the  practice  and  the  thought 
of  the  Greeks  of  history.  It  is  only  in  one  region — in  the  island 
of  Cyprus — that  the  culture  of  the  Mycenaean  age  is  found 
surviving  into  the  historical  period.  As  late  as  the  beginning 
of  the  5th  century  B.C.  Cyprus  is  still  ruled  by  kings,  the  alphabet 
has  not  yet  displaced  a  syllabary,  the  characteristic  forms  of 
Mycenaean  vases  still  linger  on,  and  the  chief  dei^y  of  the  island 
is  the  goddess  with  attendant  doves  whose  images  are  among 
the  common  objects  of  Mycenaean  finds. 

3.  The  Homeric  Age. — Alike  in  Crete  and  on  the  mainland 
the  civilization  disclosed  by  excavation  comes  abruptly  to  an 
end.  In  Crete  we  can  trace  it  back  from  c.  1200  B.C.  to  the 
Neolithic  period.  From  the  Stone  Age  to  the  end  of  the  Minoan 
Age  the  development  is  continuous  and  uninterrupted.1  But 
between  the  culture  of  the  Early  Age  and  the  culture  of  the 
Dorians,  who  occupied  the  island  in  historical  times,  no  connexion 
whatever  can  be  established.  Between  the  two  there  is  a  great 
gulf  fixed.  It  would  be  difficult  to  imagine  a  greater  contrast 
than  that  presented  by  the  rude  life  of  the  Dorian  communities 
in  Crete  when  it  is  compared  with  the  political  power,  the  material 
resources  and  the  extensive  commerce  of  the  earlier  period. 
The  same  gap  between  the  archaeological  age  and  the  historical 
exists  on  the  mainland  also.  It  is  true  that  the  solution  of 
continuity  is  here  less  complete.  Mycenaean  art  continues,  here 
and  there,  in  a  debased  form  down  to  the  gth  century,  a  date  to 
which  we  can  trace  back  the  beginnings  of  the  later  Greek  art. 
On  one  or  two  lines  (e.g.  architecture)  it  is  even  possible  to 
establish  some  sort  of  connexion  between  them.  But  Greek 
art  as  a  whole  cannot  be  evolved  from  Mycenaean  art.  We 
cannot  bridge  over  the  interval  that  separates  the  latter  art,  even 
in  its  decline,  from  the  former.  It  is  sufficient  to  compare  the 
"  dipylon  "  ware  (with  which  the  process  of  development  begins, 
which  culminates  in  the  pottery  of  the  Great  Age)  with  the 
Mycenaean  vases,  to  satisfy  oneself  that  the  gulf  exists.  What 
then  is  the  relation  of  the  Heroic  or  Homeric  Age  (i.e.  the  age 
whose  life  is  portrayed  for  us  in  the  poems  of  Homer)  to  the 
Earliest  Age  ?  It  too  presents  many  contrasts  to  the  later 
periods.  On  the  other  hand,  it  presents  contrasts  to  the  Minoan 
Age,  which,  in  their  way,  are  not  less  striking.  Is  it  then  to  be 
identified  with  the  Mycenaean  Age  ?  Schliemann,  the  dis- 
coverer of  the  Mycenaean  culture,  unhesitatingly  identified 
Mycenaean  with  Homeric.  He  even  identified  the  shaft-graves 
of  Mycenae  with  the  tombs  of  Agamemnon  and  Clytemnestra. 
Later  inquirers,  while  refusing  to  discover  so  literal  a  corre- 
spondence between  things  Homeric  and  things  Mycenaean, 
have  not  hesitated  to  accept  a  general  correspondence  between 
the  Homeric  Age  and  the  Mycenaean.  Where  it  is  a  case  of 

1  It  would  be  more  accurate  to  say  to  the  year  1500  B.C.  At 
Cnossus  the  palace  is  sacked  soon  after  this  date,  and  the  art,  both 
in  Crete  and  in  the  whole  Aegean  area,  becomes  lifeless  and  decadent. 


comparing  literary  evidence  with  archaeological,  an  exact 
coincidence  is  not  of  course  to  be  demanded.  The  most  that 
can  be  asked  is  that  a  general  correspondence  should  be  estab- 
lished. It  may  be  conceded  that  the  case  for  such  a  correspond- 
ence appears  prima  facie  a  strong  one.  There  is  much  in  Homer 
that  seems  to  find  confirmation  or  explanation  in  Schliemann's 
finds.  Mycenae  is  Agamemnon's  city;  the  plan  of  the  Homeric 
house  agrees  fairly  well  with  the  palaces  at  Tiryns  and  Mycenae; 
the  forms  and  the  technique  of  Mycenaean  art  serve  to  illustrate 
passages  in  the  poems;  such  are  only  a  few  of  the  arguments 
that  have  been  urged.  It  is  the  great  merit  of  Professor  Ridge- 
way's  work  (The  Early  Age  of  Greece)  that  it  has  demonstrated, 
once  and  for  all,  that  Mycenaean  is  not  Homeric  pure  and  simple. 
He  insists  upon  differences  as  great  as  the  resemblances.  Iron  is 
in  common  use  in  Homer;  it  is  practically  unknown  to  the 
Mycenaeans.  In  place  of  the  round  shield  and  the  metal  armour 
of  the  Homeric  soldier,  we  find  at  Mycenae  that  the  warrior  is 
lightly  clad  in  linen,  and  that  he  fights  behind  an  oblong  shield, 
which  covers  the  whole  body;  nor  are  the  chariots  the  same  in 
form.  The  Homeric  dead  are  cremated;  the  Mycenaean  are 
buried.  The  gods  of  Homer  are  the  deities  of  Olympus,  of  whose 
cult  no  traces  are  to  be  found  in  the  Mycenaean  Age.  The 
novelty  of  Professor  Ridgeway's  theory  is  that  for  the  accepted 
equation,  Homeric = Achaean  =  Mycenaean,  he  proposes  to 
substitute  the  equations,  Homeric  =  Achaean = post-Mycenaean, 
and  Mycenaean  =  pre- Achaean  =  Pelasgian.  The  Mycenaean 
civilization  he  attributes  to  the  Pelasgians,  whom  he  regards 
as  the  indigenous  population  of  Greece,  the  ancestors  of  the  later 
Greeks,  and  themselves  Greek  both  in  speech  and  blood.  The 
Homeric  heroes  are  Achaeans,  a  fair-haired  Celtic  race,  whose 
home  was  in  the  Danube  valley,  where  they  had  learned  the  use 
of  iron.  In  Greece  they  are  newcomers,  a  conquering  class 
comparable  to  the  Norman  invaders  of  England  or  Ireland, 
and  like  them  they  have  acquired  the  language  of  their  subjects 
in  the  course  of  a  few  generations.  The  Homeric  civilization 
is  thus  Achaean,  i.e.  it  is  Pelasgian  (Mycenaean)  civilization, 
appropriated  by  a  ruder  race;  but  the  Homeric  culture  is  far 
inferior  to  the  Mycenaean.  Here,  at  any  rate,  the  Norman 
analogy  breaks  down.  Norman  art  in  England  is  far  in  advance 
of  Saxon.  Even  in  Normandy  (as  in  Sicily),  where  the  Norman 
appropriated  rather  than  introduced,  he  not  only  assimilated 
but  developed.  In  Greece  the  process  must  have  been  reversed. 

The  theory  thus  outlined  is  probably  stronger  on  its  destructive 
side  than  on  its  constructive.  To  treat  the  Achaeans  as  an 
immigrant  race  is  to  run  counter  to  the  tradition  of  the  Greeks 
themselves,  by  whom  the  Achaeans  were  regarded  as  indigenous 
(cf.  Herod,  viii.  73).  Nor  is  the  Pelasgian  part  of  the  theory 
easy  to  reconcile  with  the  Homeric  evidence.  If  the  Achaeans 
were  a  conquering  class  ruling  over  a  Pelasgian  population, 
we  should  expect  to  find  this  difference  of  race  a  prominent 
feature  in  Homeric  society.  We  should,  at  least,  expect  to  find 
a  Pelasgian  background  to  the  Homeric  picture.  As  a  matter 
of  fact,  we  find  nothing  of  the  sort.  There  is  no  consciousness 
in  the  Homeric  poems  of  a  distinction  of  race  between  the 
governing  and  the  subject  classes.  There  are,  indeed,  Pelasgians 
in  Homer,  but  the  references  either  to  the  people  or  the  name 
are  extraordinarily  few.  They  appear  as  a  people,  presumably 
in  Asia  Minor,  in  alliance  with  the  Trojans;  they  appear  also, 
in  a  single  passage,  as  one  of  the  tribes  inhabiting  Crete.  The 
name  survives  in  "  Pelasgicon  Argos,"  which  is  probably  to  be 
identified  with  the  valley  of  the  Spercheius,2  and  as  an  epithet 
of  Zeus  of  Dodona.  The  population,  however,  of  Pelasgicon 
Argos  and  of  Dodona  is  no  longer  Pelasgian.  Thus,  in  the  age 
of  Homer,  the  Pelasgians  belong,  so  far  as  Greece  proper  is 
concerned,  to  a  past  that  is  already  remote.  It  is  inadmissible 
to  appeal  to  Herodotus  against  Homer.  For  the  conditions 
of  the  Homeric  age  Homer  is  the  sole  authoritative  witness. 
If,  however,  Professor  Ridgeway  has  failed  to  prove  that 
"  Mycenaean  "  equals  "  Pelasgian,"  he  has  certainly  proved 
that  much  that  is  Homeric  is  post-Mycenaean.  It  is  possible 

2  See  T.  W.  Allen  in  the  Classical  Review,  vol.  xx.  (1906),  No.  4 

(May). 


HISTORY] 


GREECE 


443 


that  different  strata  are  to  be  distinguished  in  the  Homeric 
poems.  There  are  passages  which  seem  to  assume  the  conditions 
of  the  Mycenaean  age;  there  are  others  which  presuppose  the 
conditions  of  a  later  age.  It  may  be  that  the  latter  passages 
reflect  the  circumstances  of  the  poet's  own  times,  while  the 
former  ones  reproduce  those  of  an  earlier  period.  If  so,  the 
substitution  of  iron  for  bronze  must  have  been  effected  in  the 
interval  between  the  earlier  and  the  later  periods. 

It  has  already  been  pointed  out  that  the  question  whether 
the  makers  of  the  Minoan  and  Mycenaean  civilizations  were 
Greeks  must  still  be  regarded  as  an  open  one.     No 
*"*'  such  question  can  be  raised  as  to  the  Homeric  Age. 

state.  The  Achaeans  may  or  may  not  have  been  Greek  in 
blood.  What  is  certain  is  that  the  Achaean  Age 
forms  an  integral  part  of  Greek  history.  Alike  on  the  linguistic, 
the  religious  and  the  political  sides,  Homer  is  the  starting-point 
of  subsequent  developments.  In  the  Greek  dialects  the  great 
distinction  is  that  between  the  Doric  and  the  rest.  Of  the  non- 
Doric  dialects  the  two  main  groups  are  the  Aeolic  and  Ionic, 
both  of  which  have  been  developed,  by  a  gradual  process  of 
differentiation,  from  the  language  of  the  Homeric  poems.  With 
regard  to  religion  it  is  sufficient  to  refer  to  the  judgment  of 
Herodotus,  that  it  was  Homer  and  Hesiod  who  were  the  authors 
of  the  Greek  theogony  (ii.  53  ovroi  tl<n  ol  iroiriaavTes  deoyoviijv 
"EX\T/<Tt).  It  is  a  commonplace  that  Homer  was  the  Bible  of  the 
Greeks.  On  the  political  side,  Greek  constitutional  development 
would  be  unintelligible  without  Homer.  When  Greek  history, 
in  the  proper  sense,  begins,  oligarchy  is  almost  universal.  Every- 
where, however,  an  antecedent  stage  of  monarchy  has  to  be 
presupposed.  In  the  Homeric  system  monarchy  is  the  sole 
form  of  government;  but  it  is  monarchy  already  well  on  the 
way  to  being  transformed  into  oligarchy.  In  the  person  of  the 
king  are  united  the  functions  of  priest,  of  judge  and  of  leader 
in  war.  He  belongs  to  a  family  which  claims  divine  descent 
and  his  office  is  hereditary.  He  is,  however,  no  despotic  monarch. 
He  is  compelled  by  custom  to  consult  the  council  (boule)  of  the 
elders,  or  chiefs.  He  must  ask  their  opinion,  and,  if  he  fails 
to  obtain  their  consent,  he  has  no  power  to  enforce  his  will. 
Even  when  he  has  obtained  the  consent  of  the  council,  the 
proposal  still  awaits  the  approval  of  the  assembly  (agora) ,  of  the 
people. 

Thus  in  the  Homeric  state  we  find  the  germs  not  only  of  the 
oligarchy  and  democracy  of  later  Greece,  but  also  of  all  the 
various  forms  of  constitution  known  to  the  Western 
world.  And  a  monarchy  such  as  is  depicted  in  the 
Homeric  poems  is  clearly  ripe  for  transmutation 
into  oligarchy.  The  chiefs  are  addressed  as  kings  (/JocriXijes),  and 
claim,  equally  with  the  monarch,  descent  from  the  gods. 
In  Homer,  again,  we  can  trace  the  later  organization  into  tribe 
(<j>v\ri),  clan  (yivos),  and  phratry,  which  is  characteristic  of 
Greek  society  in  the  historical  period,  and  meets  us  in  analogous 
forms  in  other  Aryan  societies.  The  yevos  corresponds  to  the 
Roman  gens,  the  <f>v\f]  to  the  Roman  tribe,  and  the  phratry  to 
the  curia.  The  importance  of  the  phratry  in  Homeric  society  is 
illustrated  by  the  well-known  passage  (Iliad  ix.  63)  in  which 
the  outcast  is  described  as  "  one  who  belongs  to  no  phratry  " 
(<X$/MJTO>P).  It  is  a  society  that  is,  of  course,  based  upon  slavery, 
but  it  is  slavery  in  its  least  repulsive  aspect.  The  treatment 
which  Eumaeus  and  Eurycleia  receive  at  the  hands  of  the  poet 
of  the  Odyssey  is  highly  creditable  to  the  humanity  of  the  age. 
A  society  which  regarded  the  slave  as  a  mere  chattel  would  have 
been  impatient  of  the  interest  shown  in  a  swineherd  and  a  nurse. 
It  is  a  society,  too,  that  exhibits  many  of  the  distinguishing 
traits  of  later  Greek  life.  Feasting  and  quarrels,  it  is  true,  are 
of  more  moment  to  the  heroes  than  to  the  contemporaries  of 
Pericles  or  Plato;  but  "  music  "  and  "  gymnastic  "  (though 
the  terms  must  be  understood  in  a  more  restricted  sense)  are  as 
distinctive  of  the  age  of  Homer  as  of  that  of  Pindar.  In  one 
respect  there  is  retrogression  in  the  historical  period.  Woman 
in  Homeric  society  enjoys  a  greater  freedom,  and  receives  greater 
respect,  than  in  the  Athens  of  Sophocles  and  Pericles. 
4.  The  Growth  of  the  Greek  States— The  Greek  world  at  the 


beginning  of  the  6th  century  B.C.  presents  a  picture  in  many 
respects  different  from  that  of  the  Homeric  Age.  The  Greek 
race  is  no  longer  confined  to  the  Greek  peninsula.  It  occupies 
the  islands  of  the  Aegean,  the  western  seaboard  of  Asia  Minor, 
the  coasts  of  Macedonia  and  Thrace,  of  southern  Italy  and 
Sicily.  Scattered  settlements  are  found  as  far  apart  as  the  mouth 
of  the  Rhone,  the  north  of  Africa,  the  Crimea  and  the  eastern 
end  of  the  Black  Sea.  The  Greeks  are  called  by  a  national  name, 
Hellenes,  the  symbol  of  a  fully-developed  national  self-conscious- 
ness. They  are  divided  into  three  great  branches,  the  Dorian, 
the  Ionian  and  the  Aeolian,  names  almost,  or  entirely,  unknown 
to  Homer.  The  heroic  monarchy  has  nearly  everywhere  dis- 
appeared. In  Greece  proper,  south  of  Thermopylae,  it  survives, 
but  in  a  peculiar  form,  in  the  Spartan  state  alone.  What  is  the 
significance  and  the  explanation  of  contrasts  so  profound? 

It  is  probable  that  the  explanation  is  to  be  found,  directly 
or  indirectly,  in  a  single  cause,  the  Dorian  invasion.  In  Homer 
the  Dorians  are  mentioned  in  one  passage  only  (Odyssey 
xix.  177).  They  there  appear  as  one  of  the  races  which 
inhabit  Crete.  In  the  historical  period  the  whole 
Peloponnese,  with  the  exception  of  Arcadia,  Elis  and  Achaea, 
is  Dorian.  In  northern  Greece  the  Dorians  occupy  the  little 
state  of  Doris,  and  in  the  Aegean  they  form  the  population 
of  Crete,  Rhodes  and  some  smaller  islands.  Thus  the  chief 
centres  of  Minoan  and  Mycenaean  culture  have  passed  into 
Dorian  hands,  and  the  chief  seats  of  Achaean  power  are  included 
in  Dorian  states.  Greek  tradition  explained  the  overthrow  of 
the  Achaean  system  by  an  invasion  of  the  Peloponnese  by  the 
Dorians,  a  northern  tribe,  which  had  found  a  temporary  home  in 
Doris.  The  story  ran  that,  after  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to 
force  an  entrance  by  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth,  they  had  crossed 
from  Naupactus,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Corinthian  Gulf,  landed 
on  the  opposite  shore,  and  made  their  way  into  the  heart  of  the 
Peloponnese,  where  a  single  victory  gave  them  possession  of  the 
Achaean  states.  Their  conquests  were  divided  among  the 
invaders  into  three  shares,  for  which  lots  were  cast,  and  thus 
the  three  states  of  Argos,  Sparta  and  Messenia  were  created. 
There  is  much  in  this  tradition  that  is  impossible  or  improbable. 
It  is  impossible,  e.g.  for  the  tiny  state  of  Doris,  with  its  three 
or  four  "  small,  sad  villages  "  (irb\tis  /u/cpai  xat  Xwrpox^poi, 
Strabo,  p.  427),  to  have  furnished  a  force  of  invaders  sufficient 
to  conquer  and  re-people  the  greater  part  of  the  Peloponnese. 
It  is  improbable  that  the  conquest  should  have  been  either  as 
sudden,  or  as  complete,  as  the  legend  represents.  On  the 
contrary,  there  are  indications  that  the  conquest  was  gradual, 
and  that  the  displacement  of  the  older  population  was  incomplete. 
The  improbability  of  the  details  affords,  however,  no  ground 
for  questioning  the  reality  of  the  invasion.1  The  tradition 
can  be  traced  back  at  Sparta  to  the  7th  century  B.C.  (Tyrtaeus, 
quoted  by  Strabo,  p.  362),  and  there  is  abundant  evidence,  other 
than  that  of  legend,  to  corroborate  it.  There  is  the  Dorian  name, 
to  begin  with.  If,  as  Beloch  supposes,  it  originated  on  the  coast 
of  Asia  Minor,  where  it  served  to  distinguish  the  settlers  in 
Rhodes  and  the  neighbouring  islands  from  the  lonians  and 
Aeolians  to  the  north  of  them,  how  came  the  great  and  famous 
states  of  the  Peloponnese  to  adopt  a  name  in  use  among  the 
petty  colonies  planted  by  their  kinsmen  across  the  sea?  Or,  if 
Dorian  is  simply  Old  Peloponnesian,  how  are  we  to  account  for 
the  Doric  dialect  or  the  Dorian  pride  of  race? 

It  is  true  that  there  are  great  differences  between  the  literary 
Doric,  the  dialect  of  Corinth  and  Argos,  and  the  dialects  of 
Laconia  and  Crete,  and  that  there  are  affinities  between  the 
dialect  of  Laconia  and  the  non-Dorian  dialects  of  Arcadia  and 
Elis.  It  is  equally  true,  however,  and  of  far  more  consequence, 
that  all  the  Doric  dialects  are  distinguished  from  all  other  Greek 
dialects  by  certain  common  characteristics.  Perhaps  the 
strongest  sentiment  in  the  Dorian  nature  is  the  pride  of  race. 
Indeed,  it  looks  as  if  the  Dorians  claimed  to  be  the  sole  genuine 
Hellenes.  How  can  we  account  for  an  indigenous  population, 
first  imagining  itself  to  be  immigrant,  and  then  developing  a 

1  It  has  been  impugned  by  J.  Beloch,  Griechische  Geschichte,  i. 
149  ff- 


444 


GREECE 


[HISTORY 


contempt  for  the  rest  of  the  race,  equally  indigenous  with  itself, 
on  account  of  a  fictitious  difference  in  origin?  Finally,  there 
is  the  archaeological  evidence.  The  older  civilization  comes  to 
an  abrupt  end,  and  it  does  so,  on  the  mainland  at  least,  at  the 
very  period  to  which  tradition  assigns  the  Dorian  migration. 
Its  development  is  greatest,  and  its  overthrow  most  complete, 
precisely  in  the  regions  occupied  by  the  Dorians  and  the  other 
tribes,  whose  migrations  were  traditionally  connected  with 
theirs.  It  is  hardly  too  much  to  say  that  the  archaeologist  would 
have  been  compelled  to  postulate  an  inroad  into  central  and 
southern  Greece  of  tribes  from  the  north,  at  a  lower  level  of 
culture,  in  the  course  of  the  I2th  and  nth  centuries  B.C.,  if  the 
historian  had  not  been  able  to  direct  him  to  the  traditions  of  the 
great  migrations  (juerayaorcuras),  of  which  the  Dorian  invasion 
was  the  chief.  With  the  Dorian  migration  Greek  tradition 
connected  the  expansion  of  the  Greek  race  eastwards  across  the 
Aegean.  In  the  historical  period  the  Greek  settlements  on  the 
western  coast  of  Asia  Minor  fall  into  three  clearly  defined  groups. 
To  the  north  is  the  Aeolic  group,  consisting  of  the  island  of 
Lesbos  and  twelve  towns,  mostly  insignificant,  on  the  opposite 
mainland.  To  the  south  is  the  Dorian  hexapolis,  consisting  of 
Cnidus  and  Halicarnassus  on  the  mainland,  and  the  islands  of 
Rhodes  and  Cos.  In  the  centre  comes  the  Ionian  dodecapolis, 
a  group  consisting  of  ten  towns  on  the  mainland,  together  with 
the  islands  of  Samos  and  Chios.  Of  these  three  groups,  the 
Ionian  is  incomparably  the  most  important.  The  lonians  also 
occupy  Euboea  and  the  Cyclades.  Although  it  would  appear 
that  Cyprus  (and  possibly  Pamphylia)  had  been  occupied  by 
settlers  from  Greece  in  the  Mycenaean  age,  Greek  tradition  is 
probably  correct  in  putting  the  colonization  of  Asia  Minor  and 
the  islands  of  the  Aegean  after  the  Dorian  migration.  Both  the 
Homeric  and  the  archaeological  evidence  seem  to  point  to  the 
same  conclusion.  Between  Rhodes  on  the  south  and  the  Troad 
on  the  north  scarcely  any  Mycenaean  remains  have  been  found. 
Homer  is  ignorant  of  any  Greeks  east  of  Euboea.  If  the  poems 
are  earlier  than  the  Dorian  Invasion,  his  silence  is  conclusive. 
If  the  poems  are  some  centuries  later  than  the  Invasion,  they  at 
least  prove  that,  within  a  few  generations  of  that  event,  it  was 
the  belief  of  the  Greeks  of  Asia  Minor  that  their  ancestors  had 
crossed  the  seas  after  the  close  of  the  Heroic  Age.  It  is  probable, 
too,  that  the  names  Ionian  and  Aeolian,  the  former  of  which  is 
found  once  in  Homer,  and  the  latter  not  at  all,  originated  among 
the  colonists  in  Asia  Minor,  and  served  to  designate,  in  the  first 
instance,  the  members  of  the  Ionic  and  Aeolic  dodecapoleis. 
As  Curtius1  pointed  out,  the  only  Ionia  known  to  history  is  in 
Asia  Minor.  It  does  not  follow  that  Ionia  is  the  original  home 
of  the  Ionian  race,  as  Curtius  argued.  It  almost  certainly 
follows,  however,  that  it  is  the  original  home  of  the  Ionian 
name. 

It  is  less  easy  to  account  for  the  name  Hellenes.  The  Greeks 
were  profoundly  conscious  of  their  common  nationality,  and  of 
the  gulf  that  separated  them  from  the  rest  of  mankind.  They 
themselves  recognized  a  common  race  and  language,  and  a 
common  type  of  religion  and  culture,  as  the  chief  factors  in  this 
sentiment  of  nationality  (see  Herod,  viii.  144  rt>  'EXXiji'tKoj'  tbv 
onaifiov  Te  Kal  o/joyXoxrcrov  Kal  deSiv  Idpiinara  Tf  KOIVO.  Kal 
Qvffiaj.  fiOta  re  oiwrpaira).  "Hellenes"  was  the  name  of  their 
common  race,  and  "  Hellas  "  of  their  common  country.  In 
Homer  there  is  no  distinct  consciousness  of  a  common  nation- 
ality, and  consequently  no  antithesis  of  Greek  and  Barbarian 
(see  Thuc.  i.  3).  Nor  is  there  a  true  collective  name.  There  are 
indeed  Hellenes  (though  the  name  occurs  in  one  passage  only, 
Iliad  ii.  684),  and  there  is  a  Hellas;  but  his  Hellas,  whatever  its 
precise  signification  may  be,  is,  at  any  rate,  not  equivalent  either 
to  Greece  proper  or  to  the  land  of  the  Greeks,  and  his  Hellenes  are 
the  inhabitants  of  a  small  district  to  the  south  of  Thessaly.  It 
is  possible  that  the  diffusion  of  the  Hellenic  name  was  due  to  the 
Dorian  invaders.  Its  use  can  be  traced  back  to  the  first  half  of 
the  7th  century.  Not  less  obscure  are  the  causes  of  the  fall  of 
monarchy.  It  cannot  have  been  the  immediate  effect  of  the 

1  History  of  Greece  (Eng.  trans.,  i.  32  ff.);  cf.  the  same  writer's 
loner  vor  der  ionischen  Wanderung. 


Dorian  conquest,  for  the  states  founded  by  the  Dorians  were  at 
first  monarchically  governed.  It  may,  however,  have  been  an  in- 
direct effect  of  it.  We  have  already  seen  that  the  power  of  the 
Homeric  king  is  more  limited  than  that  of  the  rulers  of 
Cnossus,  Tiryns  or  Mycenae.  In  other  words,  monarchy 
is  already  in  decay  at  the  epoch  of  the  Invasion.  The 
Invasion,  in  its  effects  on  wealth,  commerce  and  civilization,  is 
almost  comparable  to  the  irruption  of  the  barbarians  into  the 
Roman  empire.  The  monarch  of  the  Minoan  and  Mycenaean  age 
has  extensive  revenues  at  his  command ;  the  monarch  of  the  early 
Dorian  states  is  little  better  than  a  petty  chief.  Thus  the  interval, 
once  a  wide  one,  that  separates  him  from  the  nobles  tends  to  dis- 
appear. The  decay  of  monarchy  was  gradual;  much  more  gradual 
than  is  generally  recognized.  There  were  parts  of  the  Greek  world 
in  which  it  still  survived  in  the  6th  century,  e.g.  Sparta,  Cyrene, 
Cyprus,  and  possibly  Argos  and  Tarentum.  Both  Herodotus 
and  Thucydides  apply  the  title  "king"  (/3o<riXei)s)  to  the  rulers 
of  Thessaly  in  the  sth  century.  The  date  at  which  monarchy 
gave  place  to  a  republican  form  of  government  must  have 
differed,  and  differed  widely,  in  different  cases.  The  traditions 
relating  to  the  foundation  of  Cyrene  assume  the  existence  of 
monarchy  in  Thera  and  in  Crete  in  the  middle  of  the  7th  century 
(Herodotus  iv.  150  and  154),  and  the  reign  of  Amphicrates 
at  Samos  (Herod,  iii.  59)  can  hardly  be  placed  more  than  a 
generation  earlier.  In  view  of  our  general  ignorance  of  the  history 
of  the  7th  and  Sth  centuries,  it  is  hazardous  to  pronounce  these 
instances  exceptional.  On  the  other  hand,  the  change  from 
monarchy  to  oligarchy  was  completed  at  Athens  before  the  end 
of  the  8th  century,  and  at  a  still  earlier  date  in  some  of  the  other 
states.  The  process,  again,  by  which  the  change  was  effected 
was,  in  all  probability,  less  uniform  than  is  generally  assumed. 
There  are  extremely  few  cases  in  which  we  have  any  trustworthy 
evidence,  and  the  instances  about  which  we  are  informed  refuse 
to  be  reduced  to  any  common  type.  In  Greece  proper  our 
information  is  fullest  in  the  case  of  Athens  and  Argos.  In  the 
former  case,  the  king  is  gradually  stripped  of  his  powers  by  a 
process  of  devolution.  An  hereditary  king,  ruling  for  life,  is 
replaced  by  three  annual  and  elective  magistrates,  between 
whom  are  divided  the  executive,  military  and  religious  functions 
of  the  monarch  (see  ARCHON).  At  Argos  the  fall  of  the  monarchy 
is  preceded  by  an  aggrandisement  of  the  royal  prerogatives. 
There  is  nothing  in  common  between  these  two  cases,  and  there 
is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  the  process  elsewhere  was  analogous 
to  that  at  Athens.  Everywhere,  however,  oligarchy  is  the 
form  of  government  which  succeeds  to  monarchy.  Political 
power  is  monopolized  by  a  class  of  nobles,  whose  claim  to  govern 
is  based  upon  birth  and  the  possession  of  land,  the  most  valuable 
form  of  property  in  an  early  society.  Sometimes  power  is 
confined  to  a  single  clan  (e.g.  the  Bacchiadae  at  Corinth);  more 
commonly,  as  at  Athens,  all  houses  that  are  noble  are  equally 
privileged.  In  every  case  there  is  found,  as  the  adviser  of  the 
executive,  a  Boule,  or  council,  representative  of  the  privileged 
class.  Without  such  a  council  a  Greek  oligarchy  is  inconceivable. 
The  relations  of  the  executive  to  the  council  doubtless  varied. 
At  Athens  it  is  clear  that  the  real  authority  was  exercised  by  the 
archons;2  in  many  states  the  magistrates  were  probably  sub- 
ordinate to  the  council  (cf .  the  relation  of  the  consuls  to  the  senate 
at  Rome).  And  it  is  clear  that  the  way  in  which  the  oligarchies 
used  their  power  varied  also.  The  cases  in  which  the  power  was 
abused  are  naturally  the  ones  of  which  we  hear;  for  an  abuse 
of  power  gave  rise  to  discontent  and  was  the  ultimate  cause  of 
revolution.  We  hear  little  or  nothing  of  the  cases  in  which 
power  was  exercised  wisely.  Happy  is  the  constitution  which 
has  no  annals!  We  know,  however,  that  oligarchy  held  its 
ground  for  generations,  or  even  for  centuries,  in  a  large  propor- 
tion of  the  Greek  states;  and  a  government  which,  like  the 
oligarchies  of  Elis,  Thebes  or  Aegina,  could  maintain  itself  for 
three  or  four  centuries  cannot  have  been  merely  oppressive. 

2  If  the  account  of  early  Athenian  constitutional  history  given  in 
the  Athenaion  Politeia  were  accepted,  it  would  follow  that  the 
archons  were  inferior  in  authority  to  the  Eupatrid  Boule,  the 
Areopagus. 


HISTORY] 


GREECE 


445 


The  period  of  the  transition  from  monarchy  to  oligarchy 
is  the  period  in  which  commerce  begins  to  develop,  and  trade- 
routes  to  be  organized.  Greece  had  been  the  centre  of 
an  active  trade  in  the  Minoan  and  Mycenaean  epochs. 
The  products  of  Crete  and  of  the  Peloponnese  had  found  their 
way  to  Egypt  and  Asia  Minor.  The  overthrow  of  the  older 
civilization  put  an  end  to  commerce.  The  seas  became  insecure 
and  intercourse  with  the  East  was  interrupted.  Our  earliest 
glimpses  of  the  Aegean  after  the  period  of  the  migrations  disclose 
the  raids  of  the  pirate  and  the  activity  of  the  Phoenician  trader. 
It  is  not  till  the  8th  century  has  dawned  that  trade  begins  to 
revive,  and  the  Phoenician  has  to  retire  before  his  Greek  com- 
petitor. For  some  time  to  come,  however,  no  clear  distinction  is 
drawn  between  the  trader  and  the  pirate.  The  pioneers  of  Greek 
trade  in  the  West  are  the  pirates  of  Cumae  (Thucyd.  vi.  4). 
The  expansion  of  Greek  commerce,  unlike  that  of  the  commerce 
of  the  modern  world,  was  not  connected  with  any  great  scientific 
discoveries.  There  is  nothing  in  the  history  of  ancient  navigation 
that  is  analogous  to  the  invention  of  the  mariner's  compass  or 
of  the  steam-engine.  In  spite  of  this,  the  development  of  Greek 
commerce  in  the  7th  and  6th  centuries  was  rapid.  It  must  have 
been  assisted  by  the  great  discovery  of  the  early  part  of  the 
former  century,  the  invention  of  coined  money.  To  the  Lydians, 
rather  than  the  Greeks,  belongs  the  credit  of  the  discovery; 
but  it  was  the  genius  of  the  latter  race  that  divined  the  import- 
ance of  the  invention  and  spread  its  use.  The  coinage  of  the 
Ionian  towns  goes  back  to  the  reign  of  Gyges  (c.  675  B.C.).  And 
it  is  in  Ionia  that  commercial  development  is  earliest  and  greatest. 
In  the  most  distant  regions  the  Ionian  is  first  in  the  field.  Egypt 
and  the  Black  Sea  are  both  opened  up  to  Greek  trade  by  Miletus, 
the  Adriatic  and  the  Western  Mediterranean  by  Phocaea  and 
Samos.  It  is  significant  that  of  the  twelve  states  engaged  in  the 
Egyptian  trade  in  the  6th  century  all,  with  the  exception  of 
Aegina,  are  from  the  eastern  side  of  the  Aegean  (Herod,  ii.  178). 
On  the  western  side  the  chief  centres  of  trade  during  these 
centuries  were  the  islands  of  Euboea  and  Aegina  and  the  town 
of  Corinth.  The  Aeginetan  are  the  earliest  coins  of  Greece 
proper  (c.  650  B.C.);  and  the  two  rival  scales  of  weights  and 
measures,  in  use  amongst  the  Greeks  of  every  age,  are  the 
Aeginetan  and  the  Euboic.  Commerce  naturally  gave  rise  to 
commercial  leagues,  and  commercial  relations  tended  to  bring 
about  political  alliances.  'Foreign  policy  even  at  this  early 
epoch  seems  to  have  been  largely  determined  by  considerations 
of  commerce.  Two  leagues,  the  members  of  which  were  connected 
by  political  as  well  as  commercial  ties,  can  be  recognized.  At 
the  head  of  each  stood  one  of  the  two  rival  powers  in  the  island 
of  Euboea,  Chalcis  and  Eretria.  Their  primary  object  was 
doubtless  protection  from  the  pirate  and  the  foreigner.  Compet- 
ing routes  were  organized  at  an  early  date  under  their  influence, 
and  their  trading  connexions  can  be  traced  from  the  heart  of 
Asia  Minor  to  the  north  of  Italy.  Miletus,  Sybaris  and  Etruria 
were  members  of  the  Eretrian  league;  Samos,  Corinth,  Rhegium 
and  Zancle  (commanding  the  Straits  of  Messina),  and  Cumae, 
on  the  Bay  of  Naples;  of  the  Chalcidian.  The  wool  of  the 
Phrygian  uplands,  woven  in  the  looms  of  Miletus,  reached  the 
Etruscan  markets  by  way  of  Sybaris;  through  Cumae,  Rome 
and  the  rest  of  Latium  obtained  the  elements  of  Greek  culture. 
Greek  trade,  however,  was  confined  to  the  Mediterranean  area. 
The  Phoenician  and  the  Carthaginian  navigators  penetrated 
to  Britain;  they  discovered  the  passage  round  the  Cape  two 
thousand  years  before  Vasco  da  Gama's  time.  The  Greek  sailor 
dared  not  adventure  himself  outside  the  Black  Sea,  the  Adriatic 
and  the  Mediterranean.  Greek  trade,  too,  was  essentially  mari- 
time. Ports  visited  by  Greek  vessels  were  often  the  starting 
points  of  trade-routes  into  the  interior;  the  traffic  along  those 
routes  was  left  in  the  hands  of  the  natives  (see  e.g.  Herod,  iv.  24). 
One  service,  the  importance  of  which  can  hardly  beoverestimated, 
was  rendered  to  civilization  by  the  Greek  traders — the  invention 
of  geography.  The  science  of  geography  is  the  invention  of  the 
Greeks.  The  first  maps  were  made  by  them  (in  the  6th  century) ; 
and  it  was  the  discoveries  and  surveys  of  their  sailors  that  made 
map-making  possible. 


°" 


Closely  connected  with  the  history  of  Greek  trade  is  the 
history  of  Greek  colonization.  The  period  of  colonization,  in 
its  narrower  sense,  extends  from  the  middle  of  the 
8th  to  the  middle  of  the  6th  century.  Greek  coloniza- 
tion  is,  however,  merely  a  continuation  of  the  process 
which  at  an  earlier  epoch  had  led  to  the  settlement,  first  of 
Cyprus,  and  then  of  the  islands  and  coasts  of  the  Aegean.  From 
the  earlier  settlements  the  colonization  of  the  historical  period 
is  distinguished  by  three  characteristics.  The  later  colony 
acknowledges  a  definite  metropolis  (  "mother-city");  it  is 
planted  by  a  definite  oecist  (oiwcrnfc)  ;  it  has  a  definite  date 
assigned  to  its  foundation.1  It  would  be  a  mistake  to  regard 
Greek  colonization  as  commercial  in  origin,  in  the  sense  that  the 
colonies  were  in  all  cases  established  as  trading-posts.  This 
was  the  case  with  the  Phoenician  and  Carthaginian  settlements, 
most  of  which  remained  mere  factories;  and  some  of  the  Greek 
colonies  (e.g.  many  of  those  planted  by  Miletus  on  the  shores 
of  the  Black  Sea)  bore  this  character.  The  typical  Greek  colony, 
however,  was  neither  in  origin  nor  in  development  a  mere 
trading-post.  It  was,  or  it  became,  a  polis,  a  city-state,  in  which 
was  reproduced  the  life  of  the  parent  state.  Nor  was  Greek 
colonization,  like  the  emigration  from  Europe  to  America  and 
Australia  in  the  igth  century,  simply  the  result  of  over-popula- 
tion. The  causes  were  as  various  as  those  which  can  be  traced 
in  the  history  of  modern  colonization.  Those  which  were 
established  for  the  purposes  of  trade  may  be  compared  to  the 
factories  of  the  Portuguese  and  Dutch  in  Africa  and  the  Far  East. 
Others  were  the  result  of  political  discontent,  in  some  form  or 
shape;  these  may  be  compared  to  the  Puritan  settlements 
in  New  England.  Others  again  were  due  to  ambition  or  the 
mere  love  of  adventure  (see  Herod,  v.  42  ff.,  the  career  of 
Dorieus).  But  however  various  the  causes,  two  conditions 
must  always  be  presupposed  —  an  expansion  of  commerce  and 
a  growth  of  population.  Within  the  narrow  limits  of  the  city- 
state  there  was  a  constant  tendency  for  population  to  become 
redundant,  until,  as  in  the  later  centuries  of  Greek  life,  its 
growth  was  artificially  restricted.  Alike  from  the  Roman 
colonies,  and  from  those  founded  by  the  European  nations 
in  the  course  of  the  last  few  centuries,  the  Greek  colonies  are 
distinguished  by  a  fundamental  contrast.  It  is  significant  that 
the  contrast  is  a  political  one.  The  Roman  colony  was  in  a 
position  of  entire  subordination  to  the  Roman  state,  of  which  it 
formed  a  part.  The  modern  colony  was,  in  varying  degrees, 
in  political  subjection  to  the  home  government.  The  Greek 
colony  was  completely  independent;  and  it  was  independent 
from  the  first.  The  ties  that  united  a  colony  to  its  metropolis 
were  those  of  sentiment  and  interest;  the  political  tie  did  not 
exist.  There  were,  it  is  true,  exceptions.  The  colonies  estab- 
lished by  imperial  Athens  closely  resembled  the  colonies  of 
imperial  Rome.  The  cleruchy  (q.v.)  formed  part  of  the  Athenian 
state;  the  cleruchs  kept  their  status  as  citizens  of  Athens  and 
acted  as  a  military  garrison.  And  if  the  political  tie,  in  the 
proper  sense,  was  wanting,  it  was  inevitable  that  political 
relations  should  spring  out  of  commercial  or  sentimental  ones. 
Thus  we  find  Corinth  interfering  twice  to  save  her  colony  Syracuse 
from  destruction,  and  Megara  bringing  about  the  revolt  of 
Byzantium,  her  colony,  from  Athens.  Sometimes  it  is  not  easy 
to  distinguish  political  relations  from  a  political  tie  (e.g.  the 
relations  of  Corinth,  both  in  the  Persian  and  Peloponnesian 
Wars,  to  Ambracia  and  the  neighbouring  group  of  colonies). 
When  we  compare  the  development  of  the  Greek  and  the  modern 
colonies  we  shall  find  that  the  development  of  the  former  was 
even  more  rapid  than  that  of  the  latter.-  In  at  least  three 
respects  the  Greek  settler  was  at  an  advantage  as  compared 
with  the  colonist  of  modern  times.  The  differences  of  race,  of 
colour  and  of  climate,  with  which  the  chief  problems  of  modern 
colonization  are  connected,  played  no  part  in  the  history  of  the 
Greek  settlements.  The  races  amongst  whom  the  Greeks  planted 

1  The  dates  before  the  middle  of  the  7th  century  are  in  most  cases 
artificial,  e.e.  those  given  by  Thucydides  (book  vi.)  for  the  earlier 
Sicilian  settlements.  See  J.  P.  Mahaffy,  Journal  of  Hellenic  Studies, 
ii.  164  IT. 


446 


GREECE 


[HISTORY 


themselves  were  in  some  cases  on  a  similar  level  of  culture. 
Where  the  natives  were  still  backward  or  barbarous,  they  came 
of  a  stock  either  closely  related  to  the  Greek,  or  at  least  separated 
from  it  by  no  great  physical  differences.  We  need  only  contrast 
the  Carian,  the  Sicel,  the  Thracian  or  even  the  Scythian,  with 
the  native  Australian,  the  Hottentot,  the  Red  Indian  or  the 
Maori,  to  apprehend  the  advantage  of  the  Greek.  Amalgama- 
tion with  the  native  races  was  easy,  and  it  involved  neither 
physical  nor  intellectual  degeneracy  as  its  consequence.  Of  the 
races  with  which  the  Greeks  came  in  contact  the  Thracian  was 
far  from  the  highest  in  the  scale  of  culture;  yet  three  of  the 
greatest  names  in  the  Great  Age  of  Athens  are  those  of  men  who 
had  Thracian  blood  in  their  veins,  viz.  Themistocles,  Cimon 
and  the  historian  Thucydides.  In  the  absence  of  any  distinction 
of  colour,  no  insuperable  barrier  existed  between  the  Greek  and 
the  hellenized  native.  The  demos  of  the  colonial  cities  was 
largely  recruited  from  the  native  population,1  nor  was  there 
anything  in  the  Greek  world  analogous  to  the  "  mean  whites  " 
or  the  "  black  belt."  Of  hardly  less  importance  were  the 
climatic  conditions.  In  this  respect  the  Mediterranean  area  is 
unique.  There  is  no  other  region  of  the  world  of  equal  extent 
in  which  these  conditions  are  at  once  so  uniform  and  so  favourable. 
Nowhere  had  the  Greek  settler  to  encounter  a  climate  which 
was  either  unsuited  to  his  labour  or  subversive  of  his  vigour. 
That  in  spite  of  these  advantages  so  little,  comparatively 
speaking,  was  effected  in  the  work  of  Hellenization  before 
the  epoch  of  Alexander  and  the  Diadochi,  was  the  effect  of  a 
single  counteracting  cause.  The  Greek  colonist,  like  the  Greek 
trader,  clung  to  the  shore.  He  penetrated  no  farther  inland 
than  the  sea-breeze.  Hence  it  was  only  in  islands,  such  as 
Sicily  or  Cyprus,  that  the  process  of  Hellenization  was  complete. 
Elsewhere  the  Greek  settlements  formed  a  mere  fringe  along  the 
coast. 

To  the  7th  century  there  belongs  another  movement  of  high 
importance  in  its  bearing  upon  the  economic,  religious  and 
literary  development  of  Greece,  as  well  as  upon  its 
constitutional  history.  This  movement  is  the  rise  of 
the  tyrannis.  In  the  political  writers  of  a  later  age  the 
word  possesses  a  clear-cut  connotation.  From  other  forms 
of  monarchy  it  is  distinguished  by  a  twofold  differentiation. 
The  tyrannus  is  an  unconstitutional  ruler,  and  his  authority 
is  exercised  over  unwilling  subjects.  In  the  7th  and  6th  centuries 
the  line  was  not  drawn  so  distinctly  between  the  tyrant  and  the 
legitimate  monarch.  Even  Herodotus  uses  the  words  "  tyrant  " 
and  "  king  "  interchangeably  (e.g.  the  princes  of  Cyprus  are 
called  "  kings  "  in  v.  no  and  "  tyrants  "  in  v.  109),  so  that  it 
is  sometimes  difficult  to  decide  whether  a  legitimate  monarch 
or  a  tyrant  is  meant  (e.g.  Aristophilides  of  Tarentum,  iii.  136, 
or  Telys  of  Sybaris,  v.  44).  But  the  distinction  between  the 
tyrant  and  the  king  of  the  Heroic  Age  is  a  valid  one.  It  is  not 
true  that  his  rule  was  always  exercised  over  unwilling  subjects; 
it  is  true  that  his  position  was  always  unconstitutional.  The 
Homeric  king  is  a  legitimate  monarch;  his  authority  is  invested 
with  the  sanctions  of  religion  and  immemorial  custom.  The 
tyrant  is  an  illegitimate  ruler;  his  authority  is  not  recognized, 
either  by  customary  usage  or  by  express  enactment.  But  the 
word  "  tyrant "  was  originally  a  neutral  term;  it  did  not 
necessarily  imply  a  misuse  of  power.  The  origin  of  the  tyrannis 
is  obscure.  The  word  lyrannus  has  been  thought,  with  some 
reason,  to  be  a  Lydian  one.  Probably  both  the  name  and  the 
thing  originated  in  the  Greek  colonies  of  Asia  Minor,  though  the 
earliest  tyrants  of  whom  we  hear  in  Asia  Minor  (at  Ephesus  and 
Miletus)  are  a  generation  later  than  the  earliest  in  Greece  itself, 
where,  both  at  Sicyon  and  at  Corinth,  tyranny  appears  to  date 
back  to  the  second  quarter  of  the  7th  century.  It  is  not  unusual 
to  regard  tyranny  as  a  universal  stage  in  the  constitutional 
development  of  the  Greek  states,  and  as  a  stage  that  occurs 
everywhere  at  one  and  the  same  period.  In  reality,  tyranny 
is  confined  to  certain  regions,  and  it  is  a  phenomenon  that  is 
peculiar  to  no  one  age  or  century.  In  Greece  proper,  before  the 

1  At  Syracuse  the  demos  makes  common  cause  with  the  Sicel 
serf -population  against' the  nobles  (Herod,  vii.  155). 


The 
tyrants. 


4th  century  B.C.,  it  is  confined  to  a  small  group  of  states  round  the 
Corinthian  and  Saronic  Gulfs.  The  greater  part  of  the  Pelo- 
ponnese  was  exempt  from  it,  and  there  is  no  good  evidence  for  its 
existence  north  of  the  Isthmus,  except  at  Megara  and  Athens. 
It  plays  no  part  in  the  history  of  the  Greek  cities  in  Chalcidice 
and  Thrace.  It  appears  to  have  been  rare  in  the  Cyclades. 
The  regions  in  which  it  finds  a  congenial  soil  are  two,  Asia  Minor 
and  Sicily.  Thus  it  is  incorrect  to  say  that  most  Greek  states 
passed  through  this  stage.  It  is  still  wider  of  the  mark  to 
assume  that  they  passed  through  it  at  the  same  time.  There  is 
no  "  Age  of  the  Tyrants."  Tyranny  began  in  the  Peloponnese 
a  hundred  years  before  it  appears  in  Sicily,  and  it  has  disappeared 
in  the  Peloponnese  almost  before  it  begins  in  Sicily.  In  the 
latter  the  great  age  of  tyranny  comes  at  the  beginning  of  the 
5th  century;  in  the  former  it  is  at  the  end  of  the  7th  and  the 
beginning  of  the  6th.  At  Athens  the  history  of  tyranny  begins 
after  it  has  ended  both  at  Sicyon  and  Corinth.  There  is,  indeed, 
a  period  in  which  tyranny  is  non-existent  in  the  Greek  states; 
roughly  speaking,  the  last  sixty  years  of  the  5th  century.  But 
with  this  exception,  there  is  no  period  in  which  the  tyrant  is 
not  to  be  found.  The  greatest  of  all  the  tyrannies,  that  of 
Dionysius  at  Syracuse,  belongs  to  the  4th  century.  Nor  must 
it  be  assumed  that  tyranny  always  comes  at  the  same  stage  in 
the  history  of  a  constitution;  that  it  is  always  a  stage  between 
oligarchy  and  democracy.  At  Corinth  it  is  followed,  not  by 
democracy  but  by  oligarchy,  and  it  is  an  oligarchy  that  lasts, 
with  a  brief  interruption,  for  two  hundred  and  fifty  years.  At 
Athens  it  is  not  immediately  preceded  by  oligarchy.  Between 
the'Eupatrid  oligarchy  and  the  rule  of  Peisistratus  there  comes 
the  timocracy  of  Solon.  These  exceptions  do  not  stand  alone. 
The  cause  of  tyranny  is,  in  one  sense,  uniform.  In  the  earlier 
centuries,  at  any  rate,  tyranny  is  always  the  expression  of 
discontent;  the  tyrant  is  always  the  champion  of  a  cause. 
But  it  would  be  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  the  discontent  is 
necessarily  political,  or  that  the  cause  which  he  champions  is 
always  a  constitutional  one.  At  Sicyon  it  is  a  racial  one; 
Cleisthenes  is  the  champion  of  the  older  population  against  their 
Dorian  oppressors  (see  Herod,  v.  67,  68).  At  Athens  the 
discontent  is  economic  rather  than  political;  Peisistratus  is  the 
champion  of  the  Diacrii,  the  inhabitants  of  the  poorest  region  of 
Attica.  The  party-strifes  of  which  we  hear  in  the  early  history 
of  Miletus,  which  doubtless  gave  the  tyrant  his  opportunity, 
are  concerned  with  the  claims  of  rival  industrial  classes.  In 
Sicily  the  tyrant  is  the  ally  of  the  rich  and  the  foe  of  the  demos, 
and  the  cause  which  he  champions,  both  in  the  5th  century  and 
the  4th,  is  a  national  one,  that  of  the  Greek  against  the  Cartha- 
ginian. We  may  suspect  that  in  Greece  itself  the  tyrannies  of 
the  7th  century  are  the  expression  of  an  anti-Dorian  reaction. 
It  can  hardly  be  an  accident  that  the  states  in  which  the  tyrannis 
is  found  at  this  epoch,  Corinth,  Megara,  Sicyon,  Epidaurus, 
are  all  of  them  states  in  which  a  Dorian  upper  class  ruled  over 
a  subject  population.  In  Asia  Minor  the  tyrannis  assumes  a 
peculiar  character  after  the  Persian  conquest.  The  tyrant 
rules  as  the  deputy  of  the  Persian  satrap.  Thus  in  the  East  the 
tyrant  is  the  enemy  of  the  national  cause;  in  the  West,  in  Sicily, 
he  is  its  champion. 

Tyranny  is  not  a  phenomenon  peculiar  to  Greek  history. 
It  is  possible  to  find  analogies  to  it  in  Roman  history,  in  the 
power  of  Caesar,  or  of  the  Caesars;  in  the  despotisms  of  medieval 
Italy;  or  even  in  the  Napoleonic  empire.  Between  the  tyrant 
and  the  Italian  despot  there  is  indeed  a  real  analogy;  but 
between  the  Roman  principate  and  the  Greek  tyrannis  there  are 
two  essential  differences.  In  the  first  place,  the  principate  was 
expressed  in  constitutional  forms,  or  veiled  under  constitutional 
fictions;  the  tyrant  stood  altogether  outside  the  constitution. 
And,  secondly,  at  Rome  both  Julius  and  Augustus  owed  their 
position  to  the  power  of  the  sword.  The  power  of  the  sword, 
it  is  true,  plays  a  large  part  in  the  history  of  the  later  tyrants 
(e.g.  Dionysius  of  Syracuse);  the  earlier  ones,  however,  had  no 
mercenary  armies  at  their  command.  We  can  hardly  compare 
the  bodyguard  of  Peisistratus  to  the  legions  of  the  first  or  the 
second  Caesar. 


HISTORY] 


GREECE 


447 


The  view  taken  of  the  tyrannis  in  Greek  literature  is  almost 
uniformly  unfavourable.  In  this  respect  there  is  no  difference 
between  Plato  and  Aristotle,  or  between  Herodotus  and  the 
later  historians.1  His  policy  is  represented  as  purely  selfish, 
and  his  rule  as  oppressive.  Herodotus  is  influenced  partly  by 
the  traditions  current  among  the  oligarchs,  who  had  been  the 
chief  sufferers,  and  partly  by  the  odious  associations  which  had 
gathered  round  tyranny  in  Asia  Minor.  The  philosophers  write 
under  their  impressions  of  the  later  tyrannis,  and  their  account 
is  largely  an  a  priori  one.  It  is  seldom  that  we  find  any  attempt, 
either  in  the  philosophers  or  the  historians,  to  do  justice  to  the 
real  services  rendered  by  the  tyrants.2  Their  first  service  was 
a  constitutional  one.  They  helped  to  break  down  the  power 
of  the  old  aristocratic  houses,  and  thus  to  create  the  social  and 
political  conditions  indispensable  to  democracy.  The  tyrannis 
involved  the  sacrifice  of  liberty  in  the  cause  of  equality.  When 
tyranny  falls,  it  is  never  succeeded  by  the  aristocracies  which 
it  had  overthrown.  It  is  frequently  succeeded  by  an  oligarchy, 
but  it  is  an  oligarchy  in  which  the  claim  to  exclusive  power  is 
based,  not  upon  mere  birth,  but  upon  wealth,  or  the  possession 
of  land.  It  would  be  unfair  to  treat  this  service  as  one  that 
was  rendered  unconsciously  and  unwillingly.  Where  the  tyrant 
asserted  the  claims  of  an  oppressed  class,  he  consciously  aimed  at 
the  destruction  of  privilege  and  the  effacement  of  class  distinc- 
tions. Hence  it  is  unjust  to  treat  his  power  as  resting  upon 
mere  force.  A  government  which  can  last  eighty  or  a  hundred 
years,  as  was  the  case  with  the  tyrannies  at  Corinth  and  Sicyon, 
must  have  a  moral  force  behind  it.  It  must  rest  upon  the 
consent  of  its  subjects.  The  second  service  which  the  tyrants 
rendered  to  Greece  was  a  political  one.  Their  policy  tended  to 
break  down  the  barriers  which  isolated  each  petty  state  from 
its  neighbours.  In  their  history  we  can  trace  a  system  of  wide- 
spread alliances,  which  are  often  cemented  by  matrimonial 
connexions.  The  Cypselid  tyrants  of  Corinth  appear  to  have  been 
allied  with  the  royal  families  of  Egypt,  Lydia  and  Phrygia,  as 
well  as  with  the  tyrants  of  Miletus  and  Epidaurus,  and  with 
some  of  the  great  Athenian  families.  In  Sicily  we  find  a  league 
of  the  northern  tyrants  opposed  to  a  league  of  the  southern; 
and  in  each  case  there  is  a  corresponding  matrimonial  alliance. 
Anaxilaus  of  Rhegium  is  the  son-in-law  and  ally  of  Terillus  of 
Himera;  Gelo  of  Syracuse  stands  in  the  same  relation  to  Theron 
of  Agrigentum.  Royal  marriages  have  played  a  great  part  in 
the  politics  of  Europe.  In  the  comparison  of  Greek  and  modern 
history  it  has  been  too  often  forgotten  how  great  a  difference 
it  makes,  and  how  great  a  disadvantage  it  involves,  to  a  republic 
that  it  has  neither  sons  nor  daughters  to  give  in  marriage.  In 
commerce  and  colonization  the  tyrants  were  only  continuing 
the  work  of  the  oligarchies  to  which  they  succeeded.  Greek 
trade  owed  its  expansion  to  the  intelligent  efforts  of  the  oligarchs 
who  ruled  at  Miletus  and  Corinth,  in  Samos,  Aegina  and  Euboea; 
but  in  particular  cases,  such  as  Miletus,  Corinth,  Sicyon  and 
Athens,  there  was  a  further  development,  and  a  still  more  rapid 
growth,  under  the  tyrants.  In  the  same  way,  the  foundation 
of  the  colonies  was  in  most  cases  due  to  the  policy  of  the  oli- 
garchical governments.  They  can  claim  credit  for  the  colonies 
of  Chalcis  and  Eretria,  of  Megara,  Phocaea  and  Samos,  as  well 
as  for  the  great  Achaean  settlements  in  southern  Italy.  The 
Cypselids  at  Corinth,  and  Thrasybulus  at  Miletus,  are  instances 
of  tyrants  who  colonized  on  a  great  scale. 

In  their  religious  policy  the  tyrants  went  far  to  democratize 

Greek  religion.     The  functions  of  monarchy  had  been  largely 

religious;    but,    while    the    king    was    necessarily    a 

Religion      pnest,  he  was  not  the  only  priest  in  the  community. 

under  the     {L.  .    ,         .     ;, 

"tyrants."  There  were  special  priesthoods,  hereditary  m  par- 
ticular families,  even  in  the  monarchical  period;  and 
upon  the  fall  of  the  monarchy,  while  the  priestly  functions  of 
the  kings  passed  to  republican  magistrates,  the  priesthoods 
which  were  in  the  exclusive  possession  of  the  great  families 
tended  to  become  the  important  ones.  Thus,  before  the  rise  of 
tyranny,  Greek  religion  is  aristocratic.  The  cults  recognized 

1  An  exception  should  perhaps  be  made  in  the  case  of  Thucydides. 

2  The  Peisistratidae  come  off  better,  however. 


by  the  state  are  the  sacra  of  noble  clans.  The  religious  pre- 
rogatives of  the  nobles  helped  to  confirm  their  political  ones, 
and,  as  long  as  religion  retained  its  aristocratic  character,  it  was 
impossible  for  democracy  to  take  root.  The  policy  of  the  tyrants 
aimed  at  fostering  popular  cults  which  had  no  associations  with 
the  old  families,  and  at  establishing  new  festivals.  The  cult 
of  the  wine-god,  Dionysus,  was  thus  fostered  at  Sicyon  by 
Cleisthenes,  and  at  Corinth  by  the  Cypselids;  while  at  Athens 
a  new  festival  of  this  deity,  which  so  completely  overshadowed 
the  older  festival  that  it  became  known  as  the  Great  Dionysia, 
probably  owed  its  institution  to  Peisistratus.  Another  festival, 
the  Panathenaea,  which  had  been  instituted  only  a  few  years 
before  his  rise  to  power,  became  under  his  rule,  and  thanks  to  his 
policy,  the  chief  national  festival  of  the  Athenian  state.  Every- 
where, again,  we  find  the  tyrants  the  patrons  of  literature. 
Pindar  and  Bacchylides,  Aeschylus  and  Simonides  found  a 
welcome  at  the  court  of  Hiero.  Polycrates  was  the  patron  of 
Anacreon,  Periander  of  Arion.  To  Peisistratus  has  been  attri- 
buted, possibly  not  without  reason,  the  first  critical  edition  of 
the  text  of  Homer,  a  work  as  important  in  the  literary  history 
of  Greece  as  was  the  issue  of  the  Authorized  Version  of  the  Bible 
in  English  history.  It  we  would  judge  fairly  of  tyranny,  and  of 
what  it  contributed  to  the  development  of  Greece,  we  must 
remember  how  many  states  there  were  in  whose  history  the 
period  of  greatest  power  coincides  with  the  rule  of  a  tyrant. 
This  is  unquestionably  true  of  Corinth  and  Sicyon,  as  well  as  of 
Syracuse  in  the  sth,  and  again  in  the  4th  century;  it  is  probably 
true  of  Samos  and  Miletus.  In  the  case  of  Athens  it  is  only  the 
splendour  of  the  Great  Age  that  blinds  us  to  the  greatness  of 
the  results  achieved  by  the  policy  of  the  Peisistratids. 

With  the  overthrow  of  this  dynasty  tyranny  disappears  from 
Greece  proper  for  more  than  a  century.  During  the  century  and 
a  half  which  had  elapsed  since  its  first  appearance  the  whole 
aspect  of  Greek  life,  and  of  the  Greek  world,  had  changed. 
The  development  was  as  yet  incomplete,  but  the  lines  on  which 
it  was  to  proceed  had  been  clearly  marked  out.  Political  power 
was  no  longer  the  monopoly  of  a  class.  The  struggle  between 
the  "  few  "  and  the  "  many  "  had  begun;  in  one  state  at  least 
(Athens)  the  victory  of  the  "  many  "  was  assured.  The  first 
chapter  in  the  history  of  democracy  was  already  written.  In 
the  art  of  war  the  two  innovations  which  were  ultimately  to 
establish  the  military  supremacy  of  Greece,  hoplite  tactics  and 
the  trireme,  had  already  been  introduced.  Greek  literature  was 
no  longer  synonymous  with  epic  poetry.  Some  of 
its  most  distinctive  forms  had  not  yet  been  evolved; 
indeed,  it  is  only  quite  at  the  end  of  the  period  that 
prose-writing  begins;  but  both  lyric  and  elegiac  poetry  had  been 
brought  to  perfection.  In  art,  statuary  was  still  comparatively 
stiff  and  crude;  but  in  other  branches,  in  architecture,  in  vase- 
painting  and  in  coin-types,  the  aesthetic  genius  of  the  race  had 
asserted  its  pre-eminence.  Philosophy,  the  supreme  gift  of  Greece 
to  the  modern  world,  had  become  a  living  power.  Some  of  her 
most  original  thinkers  belong  to  the  6th  century.  Criticism  had 
been  applied  to  everything  in  turn:  to  the  gods,  to  conduct, 
and  to  the  conception  of  the  universe.  Before  the  Great  Age 
begins,  the  claims  of  intellectual  as  well  as  of  political  freedom 
had  been  vindicated.  It  was  not,  however,  in  Greece  proper 
that  progress  had  been  greatest.  In  the  next  century  the  centre 
of  gravity  of  Greek  civilization  shifts  to  the  western  side  of  the 
Aegean;  in  the  6th  century  it  must  be  looked  for  at  Miletus, 
rather  than  at  Athens.  In  order  to  estimate  how  far  the  develop- 
ment of  Greece  had  advanced,  or  to  appreciate  the  distinctive 
features  of  Greek  life  at  this  period,  we  must  study  Ionia,  rather 
than  Attica  or  the  Peloponnese.  Almost  all  that  is  greatest  and 
most  characteristic  is  to  be  found  on  the  eastern  side  of  the 
Aegean.  The  great  namesin  the  history  of  science  and  philosophy 
before  the  beginning  of  the  sth  century — Thales,  Pythagoras, 
Xenophanes,  Heraclitus,  Parmenides,  Anaximander,  Hecataeus; 
names  which  are  representative  of  mathematics,  astronomy, 
geography  and  metaphysics,  are  all,  without  exception,  Ionian. 
In  poetry,  too,  the  most  famous  names,  if  not  so  exclusively 
Ionian,  are  connected  either  with  the  Asiatic  coast  or  with 


The  arts. 


GREECE 


[HISTORY 


External 
relations. 


the  Cyclades.  Against  Archilochus  and  Anacreon,  Sappho  and 
Alcaeus,  Greece  has  nothing  better  to  set,  after  the  age  of  Hesiod, 
than  Tyrtaeus  and  Theognis.  Reference  has  already  been  made 
to  the  greatness  of  the  lonians  as  navigators,  as  colonizers  and 
as  traders.  In  wealth  and  in  population,  Miletus,  at  the  epoch 
of  the  Persian  conquest,  must  have  been  far  ahead  of  any  city 
of  European  Greece.  Sybaris,  in  Magna  Graecia,  can  have  been 
its  only  rival  outside  Ionia.  There  were  two  respects,  however, 
in  which  the  comparison  was  in  favour  of  the  mother-country. 
In  warfare,  the  superiority  of  the  Spartan  infantry  was  un- 
questioned; in  politics,  the  Greek  states  showed  a  greater  power 
of  combination  than  the  Ionian. 

Finally,  Ionia  was  the  scene  of  the  first  conflicts  with  the 
Persian.  Here  were  decided  the  first  stages  of  a  struggle  which 
was  to  determine  the  place  of  Greece  in  the  history 
of  the  world.  The  rise  of  Persia  under  Cyrus  was,  as 
Herodotus  saw,  the  turning-point  of  Greek  history. 
Hitherto  the  Greek  had  proved  himself  indispensable  to 
the  oriental  monarchies  with  which  he  had  been  brought  into 
contact.  In  Egypt  the  power  of  the  Saite  kings  rested  upon  the 
support  of  their  Greek  mercenaries.  Amasis  (560-525  B.C.),  who 
is  raised  to  the  throne  as  the  leader  of  a  reaction  against  the 
influence  of  the  foreign  garrison,  ends  by  showing  greater  favour 
to  the  Greek  soldiery  and  the  Greek  traders  than  all  that  were 
before  him.  With  Lydia  the  relations  were  originally  hostile; 
the  conquest  of  the  Greek  fringe  is  the  constant  aim  of  Lydian 
policy.  Greek  influences,  however,  seem  to  have  quickly  per- 
meated Lydia,  and  to  have  penetrated  to  the  court.  Alyattes 
(610-560  B.C.)  marries  an  Ionian  wife,  and  the  succession  is 
disputed  between  the  son  of  this  marriage  and  Croesus,  whose 
mother  was  a  Carian.  Croesus  (560-546  B.C.)  secures  the  throne, 
only  to  become  the  lavish  patron  of  Greek  sanctuaries  and  the 
ally  of  a  Greek  state.  The  history  of  Hellenism  had  begun. 
It  was  the  rise  of  Cyrus  that  closed  the  East  to  Greek  enterprise 
and  Greek  influences.  In  Persia  we  find  the  antithesis  of  all 
that  is  characteristic  of  Greece — autocracy  as  opposed  to  liberty; 
a  military  society  organized  on  an  aristocratic  basis,  to  an 
industrial  society,  animated  by  a  democratic  spirit;  an  army, 
whose  strength  lay  in  its  cavalry,  to  an  army,  in  which  the  foot- 
soldier  alone  counted;  a  morality,  which  assigned  the  chief 
place  to  veracity,  to  a  morality  which  subordinated  it  to  other 
virtues;  a  religion,  which  ranks  among  the  great  religions  of 
the  world,  to  a  religion,  which  appeared  to  the  most  spiritual 
minds  among  the  Greeks  themselves  both  immoral  and  absurd. 
Between  two  such  races  there  could  be  neither  sympathy  nor 
mutual  understanding.  In  the  Great  Age  the  Greek  had  learned 
to  despise  the  Persian,  and  the  Persian  to  fear  the  Greek. 
^n  *he  6th  century  it  was  the  Persian  who  despised, 
and  the  Greek  who  feared.  The  history  of  the  conflicts 
between  the  Ionian  Greeks  and  the  Persian  empire  affords  a 
striking  example  of  the  combination  of  intellectual  strength  and 
political  weakness  in  the  character  of  a  people.  The  causes  of 
the  failure  of  the  lonians  to  offer  a  successful  resistance  to  Persia, 
both  at  the  time  of  the  conquest  by  Harpagus  (546-545  B.C.)  and 
in  the  Ionic  revolt  (490-494  B.C.),  are  not  far  to  seek.  The 
centrifugal  forces  always  tended  to  prove  the  stronger  in  the 
Greek  system,  and  nowhere  were  they  stronger  than  in  Ionia. 
The  tie  of  their  tribal  union  proved  weaker,  every  time  it  was 
put  to  the  test,  than  the  political  and  commercial  interests  of 
the  jndividual  states.  A  league  of  jealous  commercial  rivals  is 
certain  not  to  stand  the  strain  of  a  protracted  struggle  against 
great  odds.  Against  the  advancing  power  of  Lydia  a  common 
resistance  had  not  so  much  as  been  attempted.  Miletus,  the 
greatest  of  the  Ionian  towns,  had  received  aid  from  Chios  alone. 
Against  Persia  a  common  resistance  was  attempted.  The  Pani- 
onium,  the  centre  of  a  religious  amphictyony,  became  for  the 
moment  the  centre  of  a  political  league.  At  the  time  of  the 
Persian  conquest  Miletus  held  aloof.  She  secured  favourable 
terms  for  herself,  and  left  the  rest  of  Ionia  to  its  fate.  In  the 
later  conflict,  on  the  contrary,  Miletus  is  the  leader  in  the  revolt. 
The  issue  was  determined,  not  as  Herodotus  represents  it,  by 
the  inherent  indolence  of  the  Ionian  nature,  but  by  the  selfish 


Persian 
wars. 


policy  of  the  leading  states.  In  the  sea-fight  at  Lade  (494  B.C.) 
the  decisive  battle  of  the  war,  the  Milesians  and  Chians  fought 
with  desperate  courage.  The  day  was  lost  thanks  to  the  treachery 
of  the  Samian'and  Lesbian  contingents. 

The  causes  of  the  successful  resistance  of  the  Greeks  to  the 
invasions  of  their  country,  first  by  Datis  and  Artaphernes 
(490  B.C.),  in  the  reign  of  Darius,  and  then  by  Xerxes  in  person 
(480-479  B.C.),  are  more  complex.  Their  success  was  partly 
due  to  a  moral  cause.  And  this  was  realized  by  the  Greeks 
themselves.  They  felt  (see  Herod,  vii.  104)  that  the  subjects 
of  a  despot  are  no  match  for  the  citizens  of  a  free  state,  who 
yield  obedience  to  a  law  which  is  self-imposed.  But  the  cause 
was  not  solely  a  moral  one.  Nor  was  the  result  due  to  the 
numbers  and  efficiency  of  the  Athenian  fleet,  in  the  degree  that 
the  Athenians  claimed  (see  Herod,  vii.  139).  The  truth  is  that 
the  conditions,  both  political  and  military,  were  far  more  favour- 
able to  the  Greek  defence  in  Europe  than  they  had  been  in  Asia. 
At  this  crisis  the  centripetal  forces  proved  stronger  than  the 
centrifugal.  The  moral  ascendancy  of  Sparta  was  the  deter- 
mining factor.  In  Sparta  the  Greeks  had  a  leader  whom  all 
were  ready  to  obey  (Herod,  viii.  2).  But  for  her  influence  the 
forces  of  disintegration  would  have  made  themselves  felt  as 
quickly  as  in  Ionia.  Sparta  was  confronted  with  immense 
difficulties  in  conducting  the  defence  against  Xerxes.  The  two 
chief  naval  powers,  Athens  and  Aegina,  had  to  be  reconciled 
after  a  long  and  exasperating  warfare  (see  AEGINA).  After 
Thermopylae,  the  whole  of  northern  Greece,  with  the  exception 
of  Athens  and  a  few  minor  states,  was  lost  to  the  Greek  cause. 
The  supposed  interests  of  the  Peloponnesians,  who  formed  the 
greater  part  of  the  national  forces,  conflicted  with  the  supposed 
interests  of  the  Athenians.  A  more  impartial  view  than  was 
possible  to  the  generation  for  which  Herodotus  wrote  suggests 
that  Sparta  performed  her  task  with  intelligence  and  patriotism. 
The  claims  of  Athens  and  Sparta  were  about  equally  balanced. 
And  in  spite  of  her  great  superiority  in  numbers,1  the  military 
conditions  were  far  from  favourable  to  Persia.  A  land  so  moun- 
tainous as  Greece  is  was  unsuited  to  the  operations  of  cavalry, 
the  most  efficient  arm  of  the  service  in  the  Persian  Army,  as 
in  most  oriental  ones.  Ignorance  of  local  conditions,  combined 
with  the  dangerous  nature  of  the  Greek  coast,  exposed  their  ships 
to  the  risk  of  destruction;  while  the  composite  character  of  the 
fleet,  and  the  jealousies  of  its  various  contingents,  tended  to 
neutralize  the  advantage  of  numbers.  In  courage  and  discipline, 
the  flower  of  the  Persian  infantry  was  probably  little  inferior 
to  the  Greek;  in  equipment,  they  were  no  match  for  the  Greek 
panoply.  Lastly,  Xerxes  laboured  under  a  disadvantage,  which 
may  be  illustrated  by  the  experience  of  the  British  army  in  the 
South  African  War — distance  from  his  base. 

5.  The  Great,  Age  (480-338  B.C.).— The  effects  of  the  repulse 
of  Persia  were  momentous  in  their  influence  upon  Greece.  The 
effects  upon  Elizabethan  England  of  the  defeat  of  the  Spanish 
armada  would  afford  quite  an  inadequate  parallel.  It  gave 
the  Greeks  a  heightened  sense,  both  of  their  own  national  unity 
and  of  their  superiority  to  the  barbarian,  while  at  the  same  time 
it  helped  to  create  the  material  conditions  requisite  alike  for 
the  artistic  and  political  development  of  the  sth  century.  Other 
cities  besides  Athens  were  adorned  with  the  proceeds  of  the 
spoils  won  from  Persia,  and  Greek  trade  benefited  both  from  the 
reunion  of  Ionia  with  Greece,  and  from  the  suppression  of  piracy 
in  the  Aegean  and  the  Hellespont.  Do  these  developments 
justify  us  in  giving  to  the  period,  which  begins  with  the  repulse 
of  Xerxes,  and  ends  with  the  victory  of  Philip,  the  title  of 
"  the  Great  Age  "?  If  the  title  is  justified  in  the  case  of  the  sth 
century,  should  the  4th  century  be  excluded  from  the  period? 
At  first  sight,  the  difference  between  the  4th  century  and  the 
5th  may  seem  greater  than  that  which  exists  between  the  5th 
and  the  6th.  On  the  political  side,  the  5th  century  is  an  age 
of  growth,  the  4th  an  age  of  decay;  on  the  literary  side,  the 

1  The  numbers  given  by  Herodotus  (upwards  of  5,000,000)  are 
enormously  exaggerated.  We  must  divide  by  ten  or  fifteen  to 
arrive  at  a  probable  estimate  of  the  forces  that  actually  crossed 
the  Hellespont. 


HISTORY] 


GREECE 


449 


former  is  an  age  of  poetry,  the  latter  an  age  of  prose.  In  spite 
of  these  contrasts,  there  is  a  real  unity  in  the  period  which  begins 
with  the  repulse  of  Xerxes  and  ends  with  the  death  of  Alexander, 
as  compared  with  any  preceding  one.  It  is  an  age  of  maturity 
in  politics,  in  literature,  and  in  art;  and  this  is  true  of  no  earlier 
age.  Nor  can  we  say  that  the  sth  century  is,  in  all  these  aspects 
of  Greek  life,  immature  as  compared  with  the  4th,  or,  on  the 
other  hand,  that  the  4th  is  decadent  as  compared  with  the 
Sth.  On  the  political  side,  maturity  is,  in  one  sense,  reached 
in  the  earlier  century.  There  is  nothing  in  the  later  century  so 
great  as  the  Athenian  empire.  In  another  sense,  maturity  is 
not  reached  till  the  4th  century.  It  is  only  in  the  later  century 
that  the  tendency  of  the  Greek  constitutions  to  conform  to  a 
common  type,  democracy,  is  (at  least  approximately)  realized, 
and  it  is  only  in  this  century  that  the  principles  upon  which 
democracy  is  based  are  carried  to  their  logical  conclusion.  In 
literature,  if  we  confine  our  attention  to  poetry,  we  must  pro- 
nounce the  5th  century  the  age  of  completed  development; 
but  in  prose  the  case  is  different.  The  style  even  of  Thucydides 
is  immature,  as  compared  with  that  of  Isocrates  and  Plato.  In 
philosophy,  however  high  may  be  the  estimate  that  is  formed 
of  the  genius  of  the  earlier  thinkers,  it  cannot  be  disputed  that  in 
Plato  and  Aristotle  we  find  a  more  mature  stage  of  thought. 
In  art,  architecture  may  perhaps  be  said  to  reach  its  zenith  in 
the  5th,  sculpture  in  the  4th  century.  In  its  political  aspect, 
the  history  of  the  Great  Age  resolves  itself  into  the  history  of 
two  movements,  the  imperial  and  the  democratic.  Hitherto 
Greece  had  meant,  politically,  an  aggregate  of  independent 
states,  very  numerous,  and,  as  a  rule,  very  small.  The  principle 

of  autonomy  was  to  the  Greek  the  most  sacred  of  all 
govern-"  political  principles;  the  passion  for  autonomy  the 
meat.  most  potent  of  political  factors.  In  the  latter  half  of 

the  6th  century  Sparta  had  succeeded  in  combining 
the  majority  of  the  Peloponnesian  states  into  a  loose  federal 
union;  so  loose,  however,  that  it  appears  to  have  been  dormant 
in  the  intervals  of  peace.  In  the  crisis  of  the  Persian  invasion 
the  Peloponnesian  League  was  extended  so  as  to  include  all  the 
states  which  had  espoused  the  national  cause.  It  looked  on  the 
morrow  of  Plataea  and  Mycale  (the  two  victories,  won  simul- 
taneously, in  479  B.C.,  by  Spartan  commanders,  by  which  the 
danger  from  Persia  was  finally  averted)  as  if  a  permanent  basis 
for  union  might  be  found  in  the  hegemony  of  Sparta.  The  sense 
of  a  common  peril  and  a  common  triumph  brought  with  it  the 
need  of  a  common  union;  it  was  Athens,  however,  instead  of 
Sparta,  by  whom  the  first  conscious  effort  was  made  to  transcend 
the  isolation  of  the  Greek  political  system  and  to  bring  the  units 
into  combination.  The  league  thus  founded  (the  Delian  League, 
established  in  477  B.C.)  was  under  the  presidency  of  Athens, 
but  it  included  hardly  any  other  state  besides  those  that  had 
conducted  the  defence  of  Greece.  It  was  formed,  almost  entirely, 
of  the  states  which  had  been  liberated  from  Persian  rule  by 
the  great  victories  of  the  war.  The  Delian  League,  even  in  the 
form  in  which  it  was  first  established,  as  a  confederation  of 
autonomous  allies,  marks  an  advance  in  political  conceptions 
upon  the  Peloponnesian  League.  Provision  is  made  for  an 
annual  revenue,  for  periodical  meetings  of  the  council,  and  for 
a  permanent  executive.  It  is  a  real  federation,  though  an 
imperfect  one.  There  were  defects  in  its  constitution  which 
rendered  it  inevitable  that  it  should  be  transformed  into  an 
empire.  Athens  was  from  the  first  "  the  predominant  partner." 
The  fleet  was  mainly  Athenian,  the  commanders  entirely  so; 
the  assessment  of  the  tribute  was  in  Athenian  hands;  there 
was  no  federal  court  appointed  to  determine  questions  at  issue 
between  Athens  and  the  other  members;  and,  worst  omission 
of  all,  the  right  of  secession  was  left  undecided.  By  the  middle 
of  the  century  the  Delian  League  has  become  the  Athenian 
empire.  Henceforward  the  imperial  idea,  in  one  form  or  another, 
dominates  Greek  politics.  Athens  failed  to  extend  her  authority 
over  the  whole  of  Greece.  Her  empire  was  overthrown;  but  the 
triumph  of  autonomy  proved  the  triumph  of  imperialism. 
The  Spartan  empire  succeeds  to  the  Athenian,  and,  when  it  is 
finally  shattered  at  Leuctra  (371  B.C.),  the  hegemony  of  Thebes, 

xii.  15 


which  is  established  on  its  ruins,  is  an  empire  in  all  but  name. 
The  decay  of  Theban  power  paves  the  way  for  the  rise  of  Macedon. 

Thus  throughout  this  period  we  can  trace  two  forces  contending 
for  mastery  in  the  Greek  political  system.  Two  causes  divide 
the  allegiance  of  the  Greek  world,  the  cause  of  empire  and  the 
cause  of  autonomy.  The  formation  of  the  confederacy  of  Delos 
did  not  involve  the  dissolution  of  the  alliance  between  Athens 
and  Sparta.  For  seventeen  years  more  Athens  retained  her 
place  in  the  league,  "  which  had  been  established  against  the 
Mede"  under  the  presidency  of  Sparta  in  480  B.C.  (Thuc.  i.  102). 
The  ascendancy  of  Cimon  and  the  Philolaconian  party  at  Athens 
was  favourable  to  a  good  understanding  between  the  two  states, 
and  at  Sparta  in  normal  times  the  balance  inclined  in  favour 
of  the  party  whose  policy  is  best  described  by  the  motto  "  quieta 
non  movere." 

In  the  end,  however,  the  opposition  of  the  two  contending 
forces  proved  too  strong  for  Spartan  neutrality.  The  fall  of 
Cimon  (461  B.C.)  was  followed  by  the  so-called  "  First 
Peloponnesian  War,"  a  conflict  between  Athens  and  lo 
her  maritime  rivals,  Corinth  and  Aegina,  into  which  wars. 
Sparta  was  ultimately  drawn.  Thucydides  regards 
the  hostilities  of  these  years  (460-454  B.C.),  which  were  resumed 
for  a  few  months  in  446  B.C.,  on  the  expiration  of  the  Five  Years' 
Truce,  as  preliminary  to  those  of  the  great  Peloponnesian  War 
(431-404  B.C.).  The  real  question  at  issue  was  in  both  cases  the 
same.  The  tie  that  united  the  opponents  of  Athens  was  found 
in  a  common  hostility  to  the  imperial  idea.  It  is  a  complete 
misapprehension  to  regard  the  Peloponnesian  War  as  a  mere 
duel  between  two  rival  claimants  for  empire.  The  ultimatum 
presented  by  Sparta  on  the  eve  of  the  war  demanded  the  restora- 
tion of  autonomy  to  the  subjects  of  Athens.  There  is  no  reason 
for  doubting  her  sincerity  in  presenting  it  in  this  form.  It  would, 
however,  be  an  equal  misapprehension  to  regard  the  war  as 
merely  a  struggle  between  the  cause  of  empire  and  the  cause  of 
autonomy.  Corresponding  to  this  fundamental  contrast  there 
are  other  contrasts,  constitutional,  racial  and  military.  The 
military  interest  of  the  war  is  largely  due  to  the  fact  that  Athens 
was  a  sea  power  and  Sparta  a  land  one.  As  the  war  went  on, 
the  constitutional  aspect  tended  to  become  more  marked.  At 
first  there  were  democracies  on  the  side  of  Sparta,  and  oligarchies 
on  the  side  of  Athens.  In  the  last  stage  of  the  war,  when 
Lysander's  influence  was  supreme,  we  see  the  forces  of  oligarchy 
everywhere  united  and  organized  for  the  destruction  of  demo- 
cracy. In  its  origin  the  war  was  certainly  not  due  to  the  rivalry 
of  Dorian  and  Ionian.  This  racial,  or  tribal,  contrast  counted 
for  more  in  the  politics  of  Sicily  than  of  Greece;  and,  though 
the  two  great  branches  of  the  Greek  race  were  represented 
respectively  by  the  leaders  of  the  two  sides,  the  allies  on  neither 
side  belonged  exclusively  to  the  one  branch  or  the  other.  Still, 
it  remains  true  that  the  Dorian  states  were,  as  a  rule,  on  the 
Spartan  side,  and  the  Ionian  states,  as  a  rule,  on  the  Athenian 
— a  division  of  sentiment  which  must  have  helped  to  widen  the 
breach,  and  to  intensify  the  animosities. 

As  a  political  experiment  the  Athenian  empire  possesses  a 
unique  interest.      It  represents  the  first  attempt  to  fuse  the 
principles  of  imperialism  and  democracy.     It  is  at 
once  the  first  empire  in  history  possessed  and  admini-    JT** 
stered   by   a  sovereign   people,   and  the  first  which    emp"n.° 
sought  to  establish  a  common  system  of  democratic 
institutions  amongst  its  subjects.1    It  was  an  experiment  that 
failed,  partly  owing  to  the  inherent  strength  of  the  oligarchic 
cause,  partly  owing  to  the  exclusive  character  of  ancient  citizen- 
ship.    The  Athenians  themselves  recognized  that  their  empire 
depended  for  its  existence  upon  the   solidarity  of  democratic 
interests  (see  Thuc.  iii.  47;  Pseudo-Xenophon,  de  Rep.  Ath.  i.  14, 
iii.    10).     An    understanding   existed    between  the  democratic 
leaders  in  the  subject-states  and  the  democratic  party  at  Athens. 

1  It  has  been  denied  by  some  writers  (e.g.  by  A.  H.  J.  Greenidge ) 
that  Athens  interfered  with  the  constitutions  of  the  subject -states. 
For  the  view  put  forward  in  the  text,  the  following  passages  may 
be  quoted:  Aristotle,  Politics  1307  b  20;  Isocrates,  Paneeyricus, 
105,  106,  Panathenaicus,  54  and  68;  Xenophon,  Hettenica,  in.  4.7; 
Ps.-Xen.  A  then.  Constit.  i.  14,  iii.  10. 


450 


GREECE 


[HISTORY 


Charges  were  easily  trumped  up  against  obnoxious  oligarchs, 
and  conviction  as  easily  obtained  in  the  Athenian  courts  of 
law.  Such  a  system  forced  the  oligarchs  into  an  attitude  of 
opposition.  How  much  this  opposition  counted  for  was  realized 
when  the  Sicilian  disaster  (413  B.C.)  gave  the  subjects  their  chance 
to  revolt.  The  organization  of  the  oligarchical  party  throughout 
the  empire,  which  was  effected  hy  Lysander  in  the  last  stage 
of  the  war,  contributed  to  the  overthrow  of  Athenian  ascendancy 
hardly  less  than  the  subsidies  of  Persia.  Had  Athens  aimed  at 
establishing  a  community  of  interest  between  herself  and  her 
subjects,  based  upon  a  common  citizenship,  her  empire  might 
have  endured.  It  would  have  been  a  policy  akin  to  that  which 
secured  the  permanence  of  the  Roman  empire.  And  it  was  a 
policy  which  found  advocates  when  the  day  for  it  was  past  (see 
Aristophanes,  Lysistrata,  574  ff.;  cf.  the  grant  of  citizenship 
to  the  Samians  after  Aegospotami,  C.I. A.  iv.  2,  ib).  But  the 
policy  pursued  by  Athens  in  the  plenitude  of  her  power  was  the 
reverse  of  the  policy  pursued  by  Rome  in  her  treatment  of  the 
franchise.  It  is  hardly  an  exaggeration  to  say  that  the  fate  of  the 
empire  was  sealed  by  the  law  of  Pericles  (451  B.C.),  by  which  the 
franchise  was  restricted  to  those  who  could  establish  Athenian 
descent  on  both  sides.  It  was  not  merely  that  the  process  of 
amalgamation  through  intermarriage  was  abruptly  checked; 
what  was  more  serious  was  that  a  hard  and  fast  line  was  drawn, 
once  and  for  all,  between  the  small  body  of  privileged  rulers  and 
the  great  mass  of  unprivileged  subjects.  Maine  (Early  Institu- 
tions, lecture  13)  has  classed  the  Athenian  empire  with  those 
of  the  familiar  Oriental  type,  which  attempt  nothing  beyond  the 
raising  of  taxes  and  the  levying  of  troops.  The  Athenian  empire 
cannot,  indeed,  be  classed  with  the  Roman,  or  with  the  British 
rule  in  India;  it  does  not,  therefore,  deserve  to  be  classed  with 
the  empires  of  Cyrus  or  of  Jenghiz  Khan.  Though  the  basis  of 
its  organization,  like  that  of  the  Persian  empire  under  Darius, 
was  financial,  it  attempted,  and  secured,  objects  beyond  the 
mere  payment  of  tribute  and  the  supply  of  ships.  If  Athens  did 
not  introduce  a  common  religion,  or  a  common  system  of  educa- 
tion, or  a  common  citizenship,  she  did  introduce  a  common  type 
of  political  institutions,  and  a  common  jurisdiction.1  She  went 
some  way,  too,  in  the  direction  of  establishing  a  common  system 
of  coins,  and  of  weights  and  measures.  A  common  language 
was  there  already.  In  a  word,  the  Athenian  empire  marks  a 
definite  stage  of  political  evolution. 

The  other  great  political  movement  of  the  age  was  the  progress 
of  democracy.  Before  the  Persian  invasion  democracy  was  a 
The  rare  phenomenon  in  Greek  politics.  Where  it  was 

mature  found  it  existed  in  an  undeveloped  form,  and  its  tenure 
demo-  of  power  was  precarious.  By  the  beginning  of  the 
cracy.  Peloponnesian  Wai  it  had  become  the  prevalent  form 
of  government.  The  great  majority  of  Greek  states  had  adopted 
democratic  constitutions.  Both  in  the  Athenian  sphere  of 
influence  and  in  the  colonial  world  outside  that  sphere,  demo- 
cracy was  all  but  the  only  form  of  constitution  known.  It  was 
only  in  Greece  proper  that  oligarchy  held  its  own.  In  the 
Peloponnese  it  could  count  a  majority  of  the  states;  in  northern 
Greece  at  least  a  half  of  them.  The  spread  of  democratic  insti- 
tutions was  arrested  by  the  victory  of  Sparta  in  the  East,  and 
the  rise  of  Dionysius  in  the  West.  There  was  a  moment  at  the 
end  of  the  sth  century  when  it  looked  as  if  democracy  was  a  lost 
cause.  Even  Athens  was  for  a  brief  period  under  the  rule  of 
the  Thirty  (404-403  B.C.).  In  the  regions  which  had  formed 
the  empire  of  Athens  the  decarchies  set  up  by  Lysander  were 
soon  overthrown,  and  democracies  restored  in  most  cases,  but 
oligarchy  continued  to  be  the  prevalent  form  in  Greece  proper 
until  Leuctra  (371  B.C.),  and  in  Sicily  tyranny  had  a  still  longer 
tenure  of  power.  By  the  end  of  the  Great  Age  oligarchy  has 
almost  disappeared  from  the  Greek  world,  except  in  the  sphere 
of  Persian  influence.  The  Spartan  monarchy  still  survives;  a 
few  Peloponnesian  states  still  maintain  the  rule  of  the  few;  here 

1  The  evidence  seems  to  indicate  that  all  the  more  important 
criminal  cases  throughout  the  empire  were  tried  in  the  Athenian 
courts.  In  civil  cases  Athens  secured  to  the  citizens  of  the  subject- 
states  the  right  of  suing  Athenian  citizens,  as  well  as  citizens  of  other 
subject-states. 


and  there  in  Greece  itself  we  meet  with  a  revival  of  the  tyrannis; 
but,  with  these  exceptions,  democracy  is  everywhere  the  only 
type  of  constitution.  And  democracy  has  developed  as  well 
as  spread.  At  the  end  of  the  sth  century  the  constitution  of 
Cleisthenes,  which  was  a  democracy  in  the  view  of  his  contem- 
poraries, had  come  to  be  regarded  as  an  aristocracy  (Aristot. 
Ath.  Pol.  29.  3).  We  can  trace  a  similar  change  of  sentiment 
in  Sicily.  As  compared  with  the  extreme  form  of  constitution 
adopted  at  Syracuse  after  the  defeat  of  the  Athenian  expedition, 
the  democracies  established  two  generations  earlier,  on  the  fall 
of  the  tyrannis,  appeared  oligarchical.  The  changes  by  which 
the  character  of  the  Greek  democracies  was  revolutionized  were 
four  in  number:  the  substitution  of  sortition  for  election,  the 
abolition  of  a  property  qualification,  the  payment  of  officials 
and  the  rise  of  a  class  of  professional  politicians.  In  the  demo- 
cracy of  Cleisthenes  no  payment  was  given  for  service,  whether 
as  a  magistrate,  a  juror  or  a  member  of  the  Boule.  The  higher 
magistracies  were  filled  by  election,  and  they  were  held  almost 
exclusively  by  the  members  of  the  great  Athenian  families. 
For  the  highest  office  of  all,  the  archonship,  none  but  Penta- 
cosiomedimni  (the  first  of  the  four  Solonian  classes)  were  eligible. 
The  introduction  of  pay  and  the  removal  of  the  property  qualir 
fication  formed  part  of  the  reforms  of  Pericles.  Sortition  had  been 
instituted  for  election  a  generation  earlier  (487  B.C.).2  What  is 
perhaps  the  most  important  of  all  these  changes,  the  rise  of  the 
demagogues,  belongs  to  the  era  of  the  Peloponnesian  War. 
From  the  time  of  Cleisthenes  to  the  outbreak  of  the  war  every 
statesman  of  note  at  Athens,  with  the  exception  of  Themistocles 
(and,  perhaps,  of  Ephialtes),  is  of  aristocratic  birth.  Down  to 
the  fall  of  Cimon  the  course  of  Athenian  politics  is  to  a  great 
extent  determined  by  the  alliances  and  antipathies  of  the  great 
clans.  With  the  Peloponnesian  War  a  new  epoch  begins.  The 
chief  office,  the  strategia,  is  still,  as  a  rule,  held  by  men  of  rank. 
But  leadership  in  the  Ecclesia  has  passed  to  men  of  a  different 
class.  The  demagogues  were  not  necessarily  poor  men.  Cleon 
was  a  wealthy  man;  Eucrates,  Lysicles  and  Hyperbolus  were, 
at  any  rate,  tradesmen  rather  than  artisans.  The  first  "  labour 
member"  proper  is  Cleophon  (411-404  B.C.),  a  lyre-maker. 
They  belonged,  however,  not  to  the  land-owning,  but  to  the  in' 
dustrial  classes;  they  were  distinguished  from  the  older  race  of 
party-leaders  by  a  vulgar  accent,  and  by  a  violence  of  gesture 
in  public  speaking,  and  they  found  their  supporters  among  the 
population  of  the  city  and  its  port,  the  Peiraeus,  rather  than 
among  the  farmers  of  the  country  districts.  In  the  4th  century 
the  demagogues,  though  under  another  name,  that  of  orators, 
have  acquired  entire  control  of  the  Ecclesia.  It  is  an  age  of 
professionalism,  and  the  professional  soldier  has  his  counterpart 
in  the  professional  politician.  Down  to  the  death  of  Pericles 
the  party-leader  had  always  held  office  as  Strategus.  His  rival, 
Thucydides,  son  of  Melesias,  forms  a  solitary  exception  to  this 
statement.  In  the  4th  century  the  divorce  between  the  general 
and  the  statesman  is  complete.  The  generals  are  professional 
soldiers,  who  aspire  to  no  political  influence  in  the  state,  and  the 
statesmen  devote  themselves  exclusively  to  politics,  a  career 
for  which  they  have  prepared  themselves  by  a  professional 
training  in  oratory  or  administrative  work.  The  ruin  of  agri- 
culture during  the  war  had  reduced  the  old  families  to  insigni- 
ficance. Birth  counts  for  less  than  nothing  as  a  political  asset 
in  the  age  of  Demosthenes. 

But  great  as  are  the  contrasts  which  have  been  pointed 
out  between  the  earlier  and  the  later  democracy,  those  that 
distinguish  the  ancient  conception  of  democracy  from 
the  modern  are  of  a  still  more  essential  nature.  The 
differences  that  distinguish  the  democracies  of  ancient 
Greece  from  those  of  the  modern  world  have  their  origin, 
to  a  great  extent,  in  the  difference  between  a  city-state 
and  a  nation-state.  Many  of  the  most  famous  Greek  states 

5  After  this  date,  and  partly  in  consequence  of  the  change,  the 
archonship,  to  which  sortition  was  applied,  loses  its  importance. 
The  strategi  (generals)  become  the  chief  executive  officials.  As  elec- 
tion was  never  replaced  by  the  lot  in  their  case,  the  change  had  less 
practical  meaning  than  might  appear  at  first  sight.  (See  ARCHON; 
STRATEGUS.) 


The  city- 
state. 


HISTORY] 


GREECE 


had  an  area  of  a  few  square  miles;  the  largest  of  them  was  no 
larger  than  an  English  county.  Political  theory  put  the  limit 
of  the  citizen-body  at  10,000.  Though  this  number  was  exceeded 
in  a  few  cases,  it  is  doubtful  if  any  state,  except  Athens,  ever 
counted  more  than  20,000  citizens.  In  the  nation-states  of 
modern  times,  democratic  government  is  possible  only  under  the 
form  of  a  representative  system;  in  the  city-state  representative 
government  was  unnecessary,  and  therefore  unknown.  In  the 
ancient  type  of  democracy  a  popular  chamber  has  no  existence. 
The  Ecclesia  is  not  a  chamber  in  any  sense  of  the  term;  it  is  an 
assembly  of  the  whole  people,  which  every  citizen  is  entitled 
to  attend,  and  in  which  every  one  is  equally  entitled  to  vote  and 
speak.  The  question  raised  in  modern  political  science,  as  to 
whether  sovereignty  resides  in  the  electors  or  their  representatives, 
has  thus  neither  place  nor  meaning  in  ancient  theory.  In  the 
same  way,  one  of  the  most  familiar  results  of  modern  analysis, 
the  distinction  between  the  executive  and  the  legislative,  finds 
no  recognition  in  the  Greek  writers.  In  a  direct  system  of 
government  there  can  be  no  executive  in  the  proper  sense. 
Executive  functions  are  discharged  by  the  ecclesia,  to  whose 
decision  the  details  of  administration  may  be  referred.  The 
position  of  the  strategi,  the  chief  officials  in  the  Athenian 
democracy  of  the  sth  century,  was  in  no  sense  comparable  to 
that  of  a  modern  cabinet.  Hence  the  individual  citizen  in  an 
'ancient  democracy  was  concerned  in,  and  responsible  for,  the 
actual  work  of  government  to  a  degree  that  is  inconceivable  in 
a  modern  state.  Thus  participation  in  the  administrative  and 
judicial  business  of  the  state  is  made  by  Aristotle  the  differentia 
of  the  citizen  (TroXirrjs  karlv  6  perexuv  Kp'urtws  /cat  Apx^5, 
Aristot.  Politics,  p.  1 27  5  a  20) .  A  large  proportion  of  the  citizens 
of  Athens,  in  addition  to  frequent  service  in  the  courts  of  law, 
must  in  the  course  of  their  lives  have  held  a  magistracy,  great 
or  small,  or  have  acted  for  a  year  or  two  as  members  of  the 
Boule.1  It  must  be  remembered  that  there  was  nothing  corre- 
sponding to  a  permanent  civil  service  in  the  ancient  state. 
Much  of  the  work  of  a  government  office  would  have  been 
transacted  by  the  Athenian  Boule.  It  must  be  remembered, 
too,  that  political  and  administrative  questions  of  great  import- 
ance came  before  the  popular  courts  of  law.  Hence  it  follows 
that  the  ordinary  citizen  of  an  ancient  democracy,  in  the  course 
of  his  service  in  the  Boule  or  the  law-courts,  acquired  an  interest 
in  political  questions,  and  a  grasp  of  administrative  work,  which 
none  but  a  select  few  can  hope  to  acquire  under  the  conditions 
of  the  modern  system.  Where  there  existed  neither  a  popular 
chamber  nor  a  distinct  executive,  there  was  no  opportunity  for 
the  growth  of  a  party-system.  There  were,  of  course,  political 
parties  at.  Athens  and  elsewhere — oligarchs  and  democrats, 
conservatives  and  radicals,  a  peace-party  and  a  war-party, 
according  to  the  burning  question  of  the  day.  There  was, 
however,  nothing  equivalent  to  a  general  election,  to  a  cabinet 
(or  to  that  collective  responsibility  which  is  of  the  essence  of  a 
cabinet),  or  to  the  government  and  the  opposition.  Party 
organization,  therefore,  and  a  party  system,  in  the  proper  sense, 
were  never  developed.  Whatever  may  have  been  the  evils 
incident  to  the  ancient  form  of  democracy,  the  "  boss,"  the 
caucus  and  the  spoils-system  were  not  among  them. 

Besides  these  differences,  which,  directly  or  indirectly,  result 
from  the  difference  of  scale,  there  are  others,  hardly  less  profound, 
which  are  not  connected  with  the  size  of  the  city-state.  Perhaps 
the  most  striking  contrast  between  the  democracies  of  ancient 
and  of  modern  times  is  to  be  found  in  their  attitude  towards 
privilege.  Ancient  democracy  implies  privilege;  modern 
democracy  implies  its  destruction.  In  the  more  fully  developed 
democracies  of  the  modern  world  (e.g.  in  the  United  States,  or  in 
Australia),  the  privilege  of  class  is  unknown;  in  some  of  them 
(e.g.  New  Zealand,  Australia,  Norway)  even  the  privilege  of 
sex  has  been  abolished.  Ancient  democracy  was  bound  up  with 
privilege  as  much  as  oligarchy  was.  The  transition  from  the 
latter  to  the  former  was  effected  by  enlarging  the  area  of  privilege 
and  by  altering  its  basis.  In  an  oligarchical  state  citizenship 

1  For  an  estimate  of  the  numbers  annually  engaged  in  the  service 
of  Athens,  see  Aristot.  Ath.  Pol.  24.  3. 


might  be  confined  to  10  %  of  the  free  population;  under  a 
democracy  S°%  might  enjoy  it.  In  the  former  case  the  qualifica- 
tion might  be  wealth  or  land;  in  the  latter  case  it  might  be, 
as  it  was  at  Athens,  birth,  i.e.  descent,  on  both  sides,  from  a 
citizen  family.  But,  in  both  cases  alike,  the  distinction  between 
a  privileged  and  an  unprivileged  body  of  free-born  residents 
is  fundamental.  To  the  unprivileged  class  belonged,  not  only 
foreigners  temporarily  resident  (Qtvoi.)  and  aliens  permanently 
domiciled  (ju«rotKoi),but  also  those  native-born  inhabitants  of 
the  state  who  were  of  foreign  extraction,  on  one  side  or  the 
other.2  The  privileges  attaching  to  citizenship  included,  in 
addition  to  eligibility  for  office  and  a  vote  in  the  assembly,  such 
private  rights  as  that  of  owning  land  or  a  house,  or  of  contracting 
a  marriage  with  one  of  citizen  status.  The  citizen,  too,  was 
alone  the  recipient  of  all  the  various  forms  of  pay  (e.g.  for  attend- 
ance in  the  assembly,  for  service  in  the  Boule  or  the  law-courts, 
or  for  the  celebration  of  the  great  festivals)  which  are  so  con- 
spicuous a  feature  in  the  developed  democracy  of  the  4th  century. 
The  metoeci  could  not  even  plead  in  a  court  of  law  in  person, 
but  only  through  a  patron  OrpooraTTjs).  It  is  intelligible  that 
privileges  so  great  should  be  jealously  guarded.  In  the  demo- 
cracies of  the  modern  world  naturalization  is  easy;  in  those 
of  ancient  Greece  admission  to  the  franchise  was  rarely  accorded. 
In  modern  times,  again,we  are  accustomed  to  connect  democracy 
with  the  emancipation  of  women.  It  is  true  that  only 
a  few  democratic  constitutions  grant  them  the  suffrage;  ofs 
but  though,  as  a  rule,  they  are  denied  public  rights,  women. 
the  growth  of  popular  government  has  been  almost 
everywhere  accompanied  by  an  extension  of  their  private  rights, 
and  by  the  removal  of  the  restrictions  imposed  by  law,  custom 
or  public  opinion  upon  their  freedom  of  action.  In  ancient 
Greece  the  democracies  were  as  illiberal  in  their  policy  as  the 
oligarchies.  Women  of  the  respectable  class  were  condemned 
to  comparative  seclusion.  They  enjoyed  far  less  freedom  in 
4th-century  Athens  than  in  the  Homeric  Age.  It  is  not  in  any 
of  the  democracies,  but  in  conservative  Sparta,  that  they 
possess  privilege  and  exercise  influence. 

The  most  fundamental  of  all  the  contrasts  between  democracy 
in  its  ancient  and  in  its  modern  form  remains  to  be  stated. 
The  ancient  state  was  inseparable  from  slavery.  In  s/ 
this  respect  there  was  no  difference  between  democracy 
and  the  other  forms  of  government.  No  inconsistency  was  felt, 
therefore,  between  this  institution  and  the  democratic  principle. 
Modern  political  theory  has  been  profoundly  affected  by  the 
conception  of  the  dignity  of  labour;  ancient  political  theory 
tended  to  regard  labour  as  a  disqualification  for  the  exercise 
of  political  rights.  Where  slavery  exists,  the  taint  of  it  will 
inevitably  cling  to  all  labour  that  can  be  performed  by  the 
slave.  In  ancient  Athens  (which  may  be  taken  as  typical  of 
the  Greek  democracies)  unskilled  labour  was  almost  entirely 
slave-labour,  and  skilled  labour  was  largely  so.  The  arts  and 
crafts  were,  to  some  extent,  exercised  by  citizens,  but  to  a  less 
extent  in  the  4th  than  in  the  6th  century.  They  were,  however, 
chiefly  left  to  aliens  or  slaves.  The  citizen-body  of  Athens  in 
the  age  of  Demosthenes  has  been  stigmatized  as  consisting  in 
great  measure  of  salaried  paupers.  There  is,  doubtless,  an 
exaggeration  in  this.  It  is,  however,  true,  both  that  the  system 
of  state-pay  went  a  long  way  towards  supplying  the  simple  wants 
of  a  southern  population,  and  that  a  large  proportion  of  the 
citizens  had  time  to  spare  for  the  service  of  the  state.  Had  the 
life  of  the  lower  class  of  citizens  been  absorbed  in  a  round  of 
mechanical  labours,  as  fully  as  is  the  life  of  our  industrial  classes, 
the  working  of  an  ancient  democracy  would  have  been  impossible. 
In  justice  to  the  ancient  democraciesit  must  be  conceded  that, 
while  popular  government  carried  with  it  neither  the  enfranchise- 
ment of  the  alien  nor  the  emancipation  of  the  slave,  the  rights 
secured  to  both  classes  were  more  considerable  in  the  democratic 
states  than  elsewhere.  The  lot  of  the  slave,  as  well  as  that  of  the 
alien,  was  a  peculiarly  favourable  one  at  Athens.  The  pseudo- 
Xenophon  in  the  sth  century  (De  rep.  Ath.  i.  10-12)  and  Plato 

1  Foreign  is  not  used  here  as  equivalent  to  non-Hellenic.     It  means 
"  belonging  to  another  state,  whether  Greek  or  barbarian." 


452 


GREECE 


[HISTORY 


in  the  4th  (Republic,  p.  563  B),  prove  that  the  spirit  of  liberty, 
with  which  Athenian  life  was  permeated,  was  not  without  its 
influence  upon  the  position  of  these  classes.  When  we  read  that 
critics  complained  of  the  opulence  of  slaves,  and  of  the  liberties 
they  took,  and  when  we  are  told  that  the  slave  could  not  be 
distinguished  from  the  poorer  class  of  citizens  either  by  his  dress 
or  his  look,  we  begin  to  realize  the  difference  between  the  slavery 
of  ancient  Athens  and  the  system  as  it  was  worked  on  the  Roman 
latifundia  or  the  plantations  of  the  New  World. 

It  had  been  anticipated  that  the  fall  of  Athens  would  mean 
the  triumph  of  the  principle  of  autonomy.  If  Athens  had 
surrendered  within  a  year  or  so  of  the  Sicilian  catas- 
s^artaa  tr°phe>  tn's  anticipation  would  probably  have  been 
emp/ref  fulfilled.  It  was  the  last  phase  of  the  struggle  (412- 
404  B.C.)  that  rendered  a  Spartan  empire  inevitable. 
The  oligarchical  governments  established  by  Lysander  recognized 
that  their  tenure  of  power  was  dependent  upon  Spartan  support, 
while  Lysander  himself,  to  whose  genius,  as  a  political  organizer 
not  less  than  as  a  commander,  the  triumph  of  Sparta  was  due, 
was  unwilling  to  see  his  work  undone.  The  Athenian  empire 
had  never  included  the  greater  part  of  Greece  proper;  since 
the  Thirty  Years'  Peace  its  possessions  on  the  mainland,  outside 
the  boundaries  of  Attica,  were  limited  to  Naupactus  and  Plataea. 
Sparta,  on  the  other  hand,  attempted  the  control  of  the  entire 
Greek  world  east  of  the  Adriatic.  Athens  had  been  compelled 
to  acknowledge  a  dual  system;  Sparta  sought  to  establish 
uniformity.  The  attempt  failed  from  the  first.  Within  a  year 
of  the  surrender  of  Athens,  Thebes  and  Corinth  had  drifted  into 
an  attitude  of  opposition,  while  Argos  remained  hostile.  It  was 
not  long  before  the  policy  of  Lysander  succeeded  in  uniting 
against  Sparta  the  very  forces  upon  which  she  had  relied  when 
she  entered  on  the  Peloponnesian  War.  The  Corinthian  War 
(394-387  B.C.)  was  brought  about  by  the  alliance  of  all  the  second- 
class  powers  —  Thebes,  Athens,  Corinth,  Argos  —  against  the  one 
first-class  power,  Sparta.  Though  Sparta  emerged  successful 
from  the  war,  it  was  with  the  loss  of  her  maritime  empire,  and 
at  the  cost  of  recognizing  the  principle  of  autonomy  as  the  basis 
of  the  Greek  political  system.  It  was  already  evident,  thus 
early  in  the  century,  that  the  centrifugal  forces  were  to  prove 
stronger  than  the  centripetal.  Two  further  causes  may  be 
indicated  which  help  to  explain  the  failure  of  the  Spartan 
empire.  In  the  first  place  Spartan  sea-power  was  an  artificial 
creation.  History  seems  to  show  that  it  is  idle  for  a  state  to 
aspire  to  naval  supremacy  unless  it  possesses  a  great  commercial 
marine.  Athens  had  possessed  such  a  marine;  her  naval 
supremacy  was  due  not  to  the  mere  size  of  her  fleet,  but  to  the 
numbers  and  skill  of  her  seafaring  population.  Sparta  had  no 
commerce.  She  could  build  fleets  more  easily  than  she  could 
man  them.  A  single  defeat  (at  Cnidus,  391  B.C.)  sufficed  for 
the  ruin  of  her  sea-power.  The  second  cause  is  to  be  found  in  the 
financial  weakness  of  the  Spartan  state.  The  Spartan  treasury 
had  been  temporarily  enriched  by  the  spoils  of  the  Peloponnesian 
War,  but  neither  during  that  war,  nor  afterwards,  did  Sparta 
succeed  in  developing  any  scientific  financial  system.  Athens 
was  the  only  state  which  either  possessed  a  large  annual  revenue 
or  accumulated  a  considerable  reserve.  Under  the  conditions 
of  Greek  warfare,  fleets  were  more  expensive  than  armies.  Not 
only  was  money  needed  for  the  building  and  maintenance  of  the 
ships,  but  the  sailor  must  be  paid,  while  the  soldier  served  for 
nothing.  Hence  the  power  with  the  longest  purse  could  both 
build  the  largest  fleet  and  attract  the  most  skilful  seamen. 

The  battle  of  Leuctra  transferred  the  hegemony  from  Sparta 
to  Thebes,  but  the  attempt  to  unite  Greece  under  the  leadership 
of  Thebes  was  from  the  first  doomed  to  failure.  The 
conditions  were  less  favourable  to  Thebes  than  they 
had  been  to  Athens  or  Sparta.  Thebes  was  even  more 
exclusively  a  land-power  than  Sparta.  She  had  no 
revenue  comparable  to  that  of  Athens  in  the  preceding  century. 
Unlike  Athens  and  Sparta,  she  had  not  the  advantage  of  being 
identified  with  a  political  cause.  As  the  enemy  of  Athens  in  the 
5th  century,  she  was  on  the  side  of  oligarchy;  as  the  rival  of 
Sparta  in  the  4th,  she  was  on  the  side  of  democracy;  but  in  her 


many. 


bid  for  primacy  she  could  not  appeal,  as  Athens  and  Sparta 
could,  to  a  great  political  tradition,  nor  had  she  behind  her, 
as  they  had,  the  moral  force  of  a  great  political  principle.  Her 
position,  too,  in  Boeotia  itself  was  insecure.  The  rise  of  Athens 
was  in  great  measure  the  result  of  the  synoecism  (owoi/aoyioi) 
of  Attica.  All  inhabitants  of  Attica  were  Athenians.  But 
"  Boeotian  "  and  "  Theban  "  were  not  synonymous  terms.  The 
Boeotian  league  was  an  imperfect  form  of  union,  as  compared 
with  the  Athenian  state,  and  the  claim  of  Thebes  to  the  presi- 
dency of  the  league  was,  at  best,  sullenly  acquiesced  in  by  the 
other  towns.  The  destruction  of  some  of  the  most  famous  of 
the  Boeotian  cities,  however  necessary  it  may  have  been  in  order 
to  unite  the  country,  was  a  measure  which  at  once  impaired  the 
resources  of  Thebes  and  outraged  Greek  sentiment.  It  has  been 
often  held  that  the  failure  of  Theban  policy  was  due  to  the  death 
of  Epaminondas  (at  the  battle  of  Mantinea,  362  B.C.).  For  this 
view  there  is  no  justification.  His  policy  had  proved  a  failure 
before  his  death.  Where  it  harmonized  with  the  spirit  of  the 
age,  the  spirit  of  dissidence,  it  succeeded;  where  it  attempted 
to  run  counter  to  it,  it  failed.  It  succeeded  in  destroying  the 
supremacy  of  Sparta  in  the  Peloponnese;  it  failed  to  unite  the 
Peloponnese  on  a  new  basis.  It  failed  still  more  signally  to  unite 
Greece  north  of  the  Isthmus.  It  left  Greece  weaker  and  more 
divided  than  it  found  it  (see  the  concluding  words  of  Xenophon's 
Hellenics).  It  would  be  difficult  to  overestimate  the  importance  ' 
of  his  policy  as  a  destructive  force;  as  a  constructive  force  it 
effected  nothing.1  The  Peloponnesian  system  which  Epami- 
nondas overthrew  had  lasted  two  hundred  years.  Under 
Spartan  leadership  the  Peloponnese  had  enjoyed  almost  complete 
immunity  from  invasion  and  comparative  immunity  from 
stasis  (faction).  The  claim  that  Isocrates  makes  for  Sparta  is 
probably  well-founded  (Archidamus,  64-69;  during  the  period 
of  Spartan  ascendency  the  Peloponnesians  were  evSainoveerraroi. 
T&V  'EXX^j'aH').  Peloponnesian  sentiment  had  been  one  of  the 
chief  factors  in  Greek  politics;  to  it,  indeed,  in  no  small  degree 
was  due  the  victory  over  Persia.  The  Theban  victory  at  Leuctra 
destroyed  the  unity,  and  with  it  the  peace  and  the  prosperity, 
of  the  Peloponnese.  It  inaugurated  a  period  of  misery,  the 
natural  result  of  stasis  and  invasion,  to  which  no  parallel  can 
be  found  in  the  earlier  history  (See  Isocrates,  Archidamus,  65, 
66;  the  Peloponnesians  were  ufi.a\urp£VOL  rais  (ru/t0opais).  It 
destroyed,  too,  the  Peloponnesian  sentiment  of  hostility  to  the 
invader.  The  bulk  of  the  army  that  defeated  Mardonius  at 
Plataea  came  from  the  Peloponnese;  at  Chaeronea  no  Pelopon- 
nesian state  was  represented. 

The  question  remains,  Why  did  the  city-state  fail  to  save 
Greece  from  conquest  by  Macedon?  Was  this  result  due  to  the 
inherent  weakness  either  of  the  city-state  itself,  or  of 
one  particular  form  of  it,  democracy?  It  is  clear,  in  Tbe  ri« 
any  case,  that  the  triumph  of  Macedon  was  the  effect  Macedoa 
of  causes  which  had  long  been  at  work.  If  neither 
Philip  nor  Alexander  had  appeared  on  the  scene,  Greece  might 
have  maintained  her  independence  for  another  generation  or 
two;  but,  when  invasion  came,  it  would  have  found  her  weaker 
and  more  distracted,  and  the  conquerors  might  easily  have  been 
less  imbued  with  the  Greek  spirit,  and  less  sympathetic  towards 
Greek  ideals,  than  the  great  Macedonian  and  his  son.  These 
causes  are  to  be  found  in  the  tendencies  of  the  age,  political, 
economic  and  moral.  Of  the  two  movements  which  characterized 
the  Great  Age  in  its  political  aspect,  the  imperial  and  the 
democratic,  the  one  failed  and  the  other  succeeded.  The  failure 
and  the  success  were  equally  fatal  to  the  chances  of  Greece  in 
the  conflict  with  Macedon.  By  the  middle  of  the  4th  century 
Greek  politics  had  come  to  be  dominated  by  the  theory  of  the 
balance  of  power.  This  theory,  enunciated  in  its  coarsest  form 
by  Demosthenes  (Pro  Megalopolit.  4  <7u/i0ep«  rj  iroAet  KOI 
Ao.MScu./Mjj'tous  aadevtis  elvat.  Kal  GIJ^CUOW;  cf.  in  Aristocrat. 
102,  103),  had  shaped  the  foreign  policy  of  Athens  since  the  end 
of  the  Peloponnesian  War.  As  long  as  Sparta  was  the  stronger, 
Athens  inclined  to  a  Theban  alliance;  after  Leuctra  she  tended 
in  the  direction  of  a  Spartan  one.  At  the  epoch  of  Philip's 

1  It  failed  even  to  create  a  united  Arcadia  or  a  strong  Messenia. 


HISTORY] 


GREECE 


453 


accession  the  forces  were  everywhere  nicely  balanced.  The 
Peloponnese  was  fairly  equally  divided  between  the  Theban  and 
the  Spartan  interests,  and  central  Greece  was  similarly  divided 
between  the  Theban  and  the  Athenian.  Farther  north  we  get 
an  Athenian  party  opposed  to  an  Olynthian  in  Chalcidice,  and 
a  republican  party,  dependent  upon  the  support  of  Thebes, 
opposed  to  that  of  the  tyrants  in  Thessaly.  It  is  easy  to  see  that 
the  political  conditions  of  Greece,  both  in  the  north  and  in  the 
south,  invited  interference  from  without.  And  the  triumph  of 
democracy  in  its  extreme  form  was  ruinous  to  the  military 
efficiency  of  Greece.  On  the  one  side  there  was  a  monarchical 
state,  in  which  all  powers,  civil  as  well  as  military,  were  concen- 
trated in  the  hands  of  a  single  ruler;  on  the  other,  a  constitutional 
system,  in  which  a  complete  separation  had  been  effected  between 
the  responsibility  of  the  statesman  and  that  of  the  commander.1 

It  could  not  be  doubtful  with  which  side  victory  would  rest. 
Meanwhile,  the  economic  conditions  were  steadily  growing  worse. 
The  cause  which  Aristotle  assigns  for  the  decay  of  the  Spartan 
state — a  declining  population  (see  Politics,  p.  1270  a  cbrobXeTo 
fi  TroXis  rSiv  AaKedainovibiv  8ia  ri)v  d\uyavQptinrlo.v) — might  be 
extended  to  the  Greek  world  generally.  The  loss  of  population 
was  partly  the  result  of  war  and  stasis — Isocrates  speaks  of  the 
number  of  political  exiles  from  the  various  states  as  enormous2 — 
but  it  was  also  due  to  a  declining  birth-rate,  and  to  the  exposure 
of  infants.  Aristotle,  while  condemning  exposure,  sanctions  the 
procuring  of  abortion  (Politics,  1335  b).  It  is  probable  that 
both  ante-natal  and  post-natal  infanticide  were  rife  everywhere, 
except  among  the  more  backward  communities.  A  people 
which  has  condemned  itself  to  racial  suicide  can  have  little 
chance  when  pitted  against  a  nation  in  which  healthier  instincts 
prevail.  The  materials  for  forming  a  trustworthy  estimate  of 
the  population  of  Greece  at  any  given  epoch  are  not  available; 
there  is  enough  evidence,  however,  to  prove  that  the  military 
population  of  the  leading  Greek  states  at  the  era  of  the  battle 
of  Chaeronea  (338  B.C.)  fell  far  short  of  what  it  had  been  at  the 
beginning  of  the  Peloponnesian  War.  The  decline  in  population 
had  been  accompanied  by  a  decline  in  wealth,  both  public  and 
private;  and  while  revenues  had  shrunk,  expenditure  had 
grown.  It  was  a  century  of  warfare;  and  warfare  had  become 
enormously  more  expensive,  partly  through  the  increased  em- 
ployment of  mercenaries,  partly  through  the  enhanced  cost  of 
material.  The  power  of  the  purse  had  made  itself  felt  even  in 
the  sth  century;  Persian  gold  had  helped  to  decide  the  issue 
of  the  great  war.  In  the  politics  of  the  4th  century  the  power 
of  the  purse  becomes  the  determining  factor.  The  public 
finance  of  the  ancient  world  was  singularly  simple  in  character, 
and  the  expedients  for  raising  a  revenue  were  comparatively  few. 
The  distinction  between  direct  and  indirect  taxation  was  recog- 
nized in  practice,  but  states  as  a  rule  were  reluctant  to  submit 
to  the  former  system.  The  revenue  of  Athens  in  the  5th  century 
was  mainly  derived  from  the  tribute  paid  by  her  subjects;  it 
was  only  in  time  of  war  that  a  direct  tax  was  levied  upon  the 
citizen-body.3  In  the  age  of  Demosthenes  the  revenue  derived 
from  the  Athenian  Confederacy  was  insignificant.  The  whole 
burden  of  the  expenses  of  a  war  fell  upon  the  1200  richest 
citizens,  who  were  subject  to  direct  taxation  in  the  dual  form  of 
the  Trier archy  and  the  Eisphora  (property-tax).  The  revenue 
thus  raised  was  wholly  insufficient  for  an  effort  on  a  great  scale; 
yet  the  revenues  of  Athens  at  this  period  must  have  exceeded 
those  of  any  other  state. 

It  is  to  moral  causes,  however,  rather  than  to  political  or 
economic  ones,  that  the  failure  of  Greece  in  the  conflict  with 
Macedon  is  attributed  by  the  most  famous  Greek  statesmen 
of  that  age.  Demosthenes  is  never  weary  of  insisting  upon  the 
decay  of  patriotism  among  the  citizens  and  upon  the  decay 
of  probity  among  their  leaders.  Venality  had  always  been 
the  besetting  sin  of  Greek  statesmen.  Pericles'  boast  as  to  his 

1  See  Demosthenes,  On  the  Crown,  235.  Philip  was  afo-o/cpdi-wp, 
dttrtrbrris,  JiycfjLoiv,  Kvpios  irfivrwv. 

1  See  Archidamus,  68;    Philippus,    96,    ixrrt    f>$ov    dva.i    avarr\aa.<. 

OTpOTiTTtSoV  Illityv  KO.I  KptlTTOV  kx  TUV  •K\O.V<t3^ttV(^V  ff  IK  T&V  TToXlT tVOpkvuV . 

'The  Liturgies  (e.g.  the  trierarchy)  had  much  the  same  effect  as 
a  direct  tax  levied  upon  the  wealthiest  citizens. 


own  incorruptibility  (Thuc.  ii.  60)  is  significant  as  to  the  reputa- 
tion of  his  contemporaries.  In  the  age  of  Demosthenes  the  level  of 
public  life  in  this  respect  had  sunk  at  least  as  low  as  that  which 
prevails  in  many  states  of  the  modern  world  (see  Demosth.  On  the 
Crown,  61  irapa  TOIS  "EXXTjcru',  oi>  rurlv  dXX'  awcuriv  djuouos  0opd 
irpodor&v  (cat  SupoSoKuv  avvefiri;  cf.  §§  295,  296).  Corruption  was 
certainly  not  confined  to  the  Macedonian  party.  The  best  that 
can  be  said  in  defence  of  the  patriots,  as  well  as  of  their  opponents, 
is  that  they  honestly  believed  that  the  policy  which  they  were 
bribed  to  advocate  was  the  best  for  their  country's  interests. 
The  evidence  for  the  general  decay  of  patriotism  among  the  mass 
of  the  citizens  is  less  conclusive.  The  battle  of  Megalopolis 
(331  B.C.),  in  which  the  Spartan  soldiery  "  went  down  in  a  blaze 
of  glory,"  proves  that  the  spirit  of  the  Lacedemonian  state 
remained  unchanged.  But  at  Athens  it  seemed  to  contemporary 
observers — to  Isocrates  equally  with  Demosthenes — that  the 
spirit  of  the  great  days  was  extinct  (see  Isocr.  On  the  Peace, 
47,  48).  It  cannot,  of  course,  be  denied  that  public  opinion  was 
obstinately  opposed  to  the  diversion  of  the  Theoric  Fund  to  the 
purposes  of  the  war  with  Philip.  It  was  not  till  the  year  before 
Chaeronea  that  Demosthenes  succeeded  in  persuading  the 
assembly  to  devote  the  entire  surplus  to  the  expenses  of  the  war.4 
Nor  can  it  be  denied  that  mercenaries  were  far  more  largely 
employed  in  the  4th  century  than  in  the  5th.  In  justice,  however, 
to  the  Athenians  of  the  Demosthenic  era,  it  should  be  remembered 
that  the  burden  of  direct  taxation  was  rarely  imposed,  and  was 
reluctantly  endured,  in  the  previous  century.  It  must  also  be 
remembered  that,  even  in  the  4th  century,  the  Athenian  citizen 
was  ready  to  take  the  field,  provided  that  it  was  not  a  question 
of  a  distant  expedition  or  of  prolonged  service.5  For  distant 
expeditions,  or  for  prolonged  service,  a  citizen-militia  is  unsuited. 
The  substitution  of  a  professional  force  for  an  unprofessional 
one  is  to  be  explained,  partly  by  the  change  in  the  character  of 
Greek  warfare,  and  partly  by  the  operation  of  the  laws  of  supply 
and  demand.  There  had  been  a  time  when  warfare  meant  a 
brief  campaign  in  the  summer  months  against  a  neighbouring 
state.  It  had  come  to  mean  prolonged  operations  against  a 
distant  enemy.6  Athens  was  at  war,  e.g.  with  Philip,  for  eleven 
years  continuously  (357-346  B.C.).  If  winter  campaigns  in 
Thrace  were  unpopular  at  this  epoch,  they  had  been  hardly 
less  unpopular  in  the  epoch  of  the  Peloponnesian  War.  In  the 
days  of  her  greatness,  too,  Athens  had  freely  employed  mer- 
cenaries, but  it  was  in  the  navy  rather  than  the  army.  In  the 
age  of  Pericles  the  supply  of  mercenary  rowers  was  abundant, 
the  supply  of  mercenary  troops  inconsiderable.  In  the  age  of 
Demosthenes  incessant  warfare  and  ceaseless  revolution  had 
filled  Greece  with  crowds  of  homeless  adventurers.  The  supply 
helped  to  create  the  demand.  The  mercenary  was  as  cheap  as 
the  citizen-soldier,  and  much  more  effective.  On  the  whole, 
then,  it  may  be  inferred  that  it  is  a  mistake  to  regard  the  preval- 
ence of  the  mercenary  system  as  the  expression  of  a  declining 
patriotism.  It  would  be  nearer  the  mark  to  treat  the  transition 
from  the  voluntary  to  the  professional  system  as  cause  rather 
than  effect:  as  one  among  the  causes  which  contributed  to  the 
decay  of  public  spirit  in  the  Greek  world. 

6.  From  Alexander  to  the  Roman  Conquest  (336-146  B.C.). — In 
the  history  of  Greece  proper  during  this  period  the  interest  is 
mainly  constitutional.     It  may  be  called  the  age  of 
federation.     Federation,  indeed,  was  no  novelty   in 
Greece.     Federal  unions  had  existed  in  Thessaly,  in       meat. 
Boeotia  and  elsewhere,  and  the  Boeotian  league  can  be 
traced  back  at  least  to  the  6th  century.     Two  newly-founded 
federations,  the  Chalcidian  and  the  Arcadian,  play  no  inconsider- 
able part  in  the  politics  of  the  4th  century.     But  it  is  not  till  the 
3rd  century  that  federation  attains  to  its  full  development  in 
Greece,  and  becomes  the  normal  type  of  polity.    The  two  great 

4  His  extreme  caution  in  approaching  the  question  at  an  earlier 
date  is  to  be  noticed.  See,  e.g.,  Olynthiacs,  \.  19,  20. 

*  e.g.  the  two  expeditions  sent  to  Euboea,  the  cavalry  force  that 
took  part  in  the  battle  of  Mantinea,  and  the  army  that  fought  at 
Chaeronea.  The  troops  in  all  these  cases  were  citizens. 

6  For  the  altered  character  of  warfare  see  Demosthenes,  Philippics, 
iii.  48,  49. 


454 


GREECE 


[HISTORY 


leagues  of  this  period  are  the  Aetolian  and  the  Achaean.  Both 
had  existed  in  the  4th  century,  but  the  latter,  which  had  been 
dissolved  shortly  before  the  beginning  of  the  3rd  century, 
becomes  important  only  after  its  restoration  in  280  B.C.,  about 
which  date  the  former,  too,  first  begins  to  attract  notice.  The 
interest  of  federalism  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  marks  an  advance 
beyond  the  conception  of  the  city-state.  It  is  an  attempt  to 
solve  the  problem  which  the  Athenian  empire  failed  to  solve,  {.he 
reconciliation  of  the  claims  of  local  autonomy  with  those  of 
national  union.  The  federal  leagues  of  the  3rd  century  possess 
a  further  interest  for  the  modern  world,  in  that  there  can  be 
traced  in  their  constitutions  a  nearer  approach  to  a  representative 
system  than  is  found  elsewhere  in  Greek  experience.  A  genuine 
representative  system,  it  is  true,  was  never  developed  in  any 
Greek  polity.  What  we  find  in  the  leagues  is  a  sort  of  compromise 
between  the  principle  of  a  primary  assembly  and  the  principle 
of  a  representative  chamber.  In  both  leagues  the  nominal 
sovereign  was  a  primary  assembly,  in  which  every  individual 
citizen  had  the  right  to  vote.  In  both  of  them,  however,  the 
real  power  lay  with  a  council  (/SotA^)  composed  of  members 
representative  of  each  of  the  component  states.1 

The  real  interest  of  this  period,  however,  is  to  be  looked  for 
elsewhere  than  in  Greece  itself.  Alexander's  career  is  one  of  the 
turning-points  in  history.  He  is  one  of  the  few  to 
*'*?",  whom  it  has  been  given  to  modify  the  whole  future 
empire.  of  the  human  race.  He  originated  two  forces  which 
have  profoundly  affected  the  development  of  civiliza- 
tion. He  created  Hellenism,  and  he  created  for  the  western 
world  the  monarchical  ideal.  Greece  had  produced  personal 
rulers  of  ability,  or  even  of  genius;  but  to  the  greatest  of  these, 
to  Peisistratus,  to  Dionysius,  even  to  Jason  of  Pherae,  there 
clung  the  fatal  taint  of  illegitimacy.  As  yet  no  ruler  had  suc- 
ceeded in  making  the  person  of  the  monarch  respectable. 
Alexander  made  it  sacred.  From  him  is  derived,  for  the  West, 
that  "  divinity  that  doth  hedge  a  king."  And  in  creating 
Hellenism  he  created,  for  the  first  time,  a  common  type  of 
civilization,  with  a  common  language,  literature  and  art,  as 
well  as  a  common  form  of  political  organization.  In  Asia  Minor 
he  was  content  to  reinforce  the  existing  Hellenic  elements 
(cf.  the  case  of  Side,  Arrian,  Anabasis,  i.  26.  4).  In  the  rest  of 
the  East  his  instrument  of  hellenization  was  the  polis.  He  is 
said  to  have  founded  no  less  than  seventy  cities,  destined  to 
become  centres  of  Greek  influence;  and  the  great  majority 
of  these  were  in  lands  in  which  city-life  was  almost  unknown. 
In  this  respect  his  example  was  emulated  by  his  successors.  The 
eastern  provinces  were  soon  lost,  though  Greek  influences 
lingered  on  even  in  Bactria  and  across  the  Indus.  It  was  only 
the  regions  lying  to  the  west  of  the  Euphrates  that  were 
effectively  hellenized,  and  the  permanence  of  this  result  was 
largely  due  to  the  policy  of  Rome.  But  after  all  deductions  have 
been  made,  the  great  fact  remains  that  for  many  centuries  after 
Alexander's  death  Greek  was  the  language  of  literature  and 
religion,  of  commerce  and  of  administration  throughout  the 
Nearer  East.  Alexander  had  created  a  universal  empire  as  well 
as  a  universal  culture.  His  empire  perished  at  his  death,  but 
its  central  idea  survived — that  of  the  municipal  freedom  of  the 
Greek  polis  within  the  framework  of  an  imperial  system.  Hellen- 
istic civilization  may  appear  degenerate  when  compared  with 
Hellenic;  when  compared  with  the  civilizations  which  it  super- 
seded in  non-Hellenic  lands,  it  marks  an  unquestionable  advance. 
(For  the  history  of  Greek  civilization  in  the  East,  see  HELLENISM.) 
Greece  left  her  mark  upon  the  civilization  of  the  West  as  well 
as  upon  that  of  the  East,  but  the  process  by  which  her  influence 
was  diffused  was  essentially  different.  In  the  East  Hellenism 
came  in  the  train  of  the  conqueror,  and  Rome  was  content  to 
build  upon  the  foundations  laid  by  Alexander.  In  the  West 
Greek  influences  were  diffused  by  the  Roman  conquest  of  Greece. 
It  was  through  the  ascendancy  which  Greek  literature,  philosophy 
and  art  acquired  over  the  Roman  mind  that  Greek  culture 
penetrated  to  the  nations  of  western  Europe.  The  civilization 

1  It  is  known  that  the  councillors  were  appointed  by  the  states 
in  the  Aetolian  league ;  it  is  only  surmised  in  the  case  of  the  Achaean. 


of  the  East  remained  Greek.  The  civilization  of  the  West 
became  and  remained  Latin,  but  it  was  a  Latin  civilization  that 
was  saturated  with  Greek  influences.  The  ultimate  division, 
both  of  the  empire  and  the  church,  into  two  halves,  finds  its 
explanation  in  this  original  difference  of  culture. 

ANCIENT  AUTHORITIES. — (I.)  For  the  earliest  periods  of  Greek 
history,  the  so-called  Minoan1  and  Mycenaean,  the  evidence  is 
purely  archaeological.  It  is  sufficient  here  to  refer  to  the  article 
AEGEAN  CIVILIZATION.  For  the  next  period,  the  Heroic  or 
Homeric  Age,  the  evidence  is  derived  from  the  poems  of  Homer. 
In  any  estimate  of  the  value  of  these  poems  as  historical  evidence, 
much  will  depend  upon  the  view  taken  of  the  authorship,  age 
and  unity  of  the  poems.  For  a  full  discussion  of  these  questions 
see  HOMER.  It  cannot  be  questioned  that  the  poems  are  evidence 
for  the  existence  of  a  period  in  the  history  of  the  Greek  race, 
which  differed  from  later  periods  in  political  and  social,  military 
and  economic  conditions.  But  here  agreement  ends.  If,  as  is 
generally  held  by  German  critics,  the  poems  are  not  earlier  than 
the  oth  century,  if  they  contain  large  interpolations  of  con- 
siderably later  date  and  if  they  are  Ionian  in  origin,  the  authority'' 
of  the  poems  becomes  comparatively  slight.  The  existence  of 
different  strata  in  the  poems  will  imply  the  existence  of  incon- 
sistencies and  contradictions  in  the  evidence;  nor  will  the 
evidence  be  that  of  a  contemporary.  It  will  also  follow  that  the 
picture  of  the  heroic  age  contained  in  the  poems  is  an  idealized 
one.  The  more  extreme  critics,  e.g.  Beloch,  deny  that  the  poems 
are  evidence  even  for  the  existence  of  a  pre-Dorian  epoch.  If, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  poems  are  assigned  to  the  nth  or  i2th 
century,  to  a  Peloponnesian  writer,  and  to  a  period  anterior  to 
the  Dorian  Invasion  and  the  colonization  of  Asia  Minor  (this 
is  the  view  of  the  late  Dr  D.  B.  Munro),  the  evidence  becomes 
that  of  a  contemporary,  and  the  authority  of  the  poems  for  the 
distribution  of  races  and  tribes  in  the  Heroic  Age,  as  well  as  for 
the  social  and  political  conditions  of  the  poet's  time,  would  be 
conclusive.  Homer  recognizes  no  Dorians  in  Greece,  except  in 
Crete  (see  Odyssey,  xix.  177),  and  no  Greek  colonies  in  Asia 
Minor.  Only  two  explanations  are  possible.  Either  there  is 
deliberate  archaism  in  the  poems,  or  else  they  are  earlier  in  date 
than  the  Dorian  Invasion  and  the  colonization  of  Asia  Minor. 

II.  For  the  period  that  extends  from  the  end  of  the  Heroic 
Age  to  the  end  of  the  Peloponnesian  War2  the  two  principal 
authorities  are  Herodotus  and  Thucydides.  Not  only  Herodotu& 
have  the  other  historical  works  which  treated  of  this 
period  perished  (those  at  least  whose  date  is  earlier  than 
the  Christian  era),  but  their  authority  was  secondary  and 
their  material  chiefly  derived  from  these  two  writers.  In  one 
respect  then  this  period  of  Greek  history  stands  alone.  Indeed, 
it  might  be  said,  with  hardly  an  exaggeration,  that  there  is 
nothing  like  it  elsewhere  in  history.  Almost  our  sole  authorities 
are  two  writers  of  unique  genius,  and  they  are  writers  whose 
works  have  come  down  to  us  intact.  For  the  period  which  ends 
with  the  repulse  of  the  Persian  invasion  our  authority  is  Hero- 
dotus. For  the  period  which  extends  from  478  to  411  we  are 
dependent  upon  Thucydides'.  In  each  case,  however,  a  distinc- 
tion must  be  drawn.  The  Persian  Wars  form  the  proper  subject 
of  Herodotus's  work;  the  Peloponnesian  War  is  the  subject  of 
Thucydides.  The'  interval  between  the  two  wars  is  merely 
sketched  by  Thucydides;  while  of  the  period  anterior  to  the 
conflicts  of  the  Greek  with  the  Persian,  Herodotus  does  not 
attempt  either  a  complete  or  a  continuous  narrative.  His 
references  to  it  are  episodical  and  accidental.  Hence  our  know- 
ledge of  the  Persian  Wars  and  of  the  Peloponnesian  War  is 
widely  different  in  character  from  our  knowledge  of  the  rest  of 
this  period.  In  the  history  of  these  wars  the  lacunae  are  few; 
in  the  rest  of  the  history  they  are  alike  frequent  and  serious.  In 
the  history,  therefore,  of  the  Persian  and  Peloponnesian  Wars 
little  is  to  be  learnt  from  the  secondary  sources.  Elsewhere, 
especially  in  the  interval  between  the  two  wars,  they  become 
relatively  important. 

In  estimating  the  authority  of  Herodotus  (q.v.)  we  must  be 

'Strictly  speaking,  to  411  B.C.     For  the  last  seven  years  of  the 
war  our  principal  authority  is  Xenophon,  Hellenica,  i.,  li. 


IISTORY] 


GREECE 


455 


ireful  to  distinguish  between  the  invasion  of  Xerxes  and  all 
hat  is  earlier.  Herodotus's  work  was  published  soon  after 
30  B.C.,  i.e.  about  half  a  century  after  the  invasion.  Much  of  his 
formation  was  gathered  in  the  course  of  the  preceding  twenty 
years.  Although  his  evidence  is  not  that  of  an  eye-witness,  he 
ad  had  opportunities  of  meeting  those  who  had  themselves 
played  a  part  in  the  war,  on  one  side  or  the  other  (e.g.  Thersander 
of  Orchomenos,  ix.  16).  In  any  case,  we  are  dealing  with  a 
tradition  which  is  little  more  than  a  generation  old,  and  the 
events  to  which  the  tradition  relates,  the  incidents  of  the  struggle 
against  Xerxes,  were  of  a  nature  to  impress  themselves  indelibly 
upon  the  minds  of  contemporaries.  Where,  on  the  other  hand, 
he  is  treating  of  the  period  anterior  to  the  invasion  of  Xerxes, 
he  is  dependent  upon  a  tradition  which  is  never  less  than  two 
generations  old,  and  is  sometimes  centuries  old.  His  informants 
were,  at  best,  the  sons  or  grandsons  of  the  actors  in  the  wars 
(e.g.  Archias  the  Spartan,  iii.  55).  Moreover,  the  invasion  of 
Xerxes,  entailing,  as  it  did,  the  destruction  of  cities  and  sanctu- 
aries, especially  of  Athens  and  its  temples,  marks  a  dividing 
line  in  Greek  history.  It  was  not  merely  that  evidence  perished 
and  records  were  destroyed.  What  in  reference  to  tradition  is 
even  more  important,  a  new  consciousness  of  power  was  awakened, 
new  interests  were  aroused,  and  new  questions  and  problems 
came  to  the  front.  The  former  things  had  passed  away;  all 
things  were  become  new.  A  generation  that  is  occupied  with 
making  history  on  a  great  scale  is  not  likely  to  busy  itself  with 
the  history  of  the  past.  Consequently,  the  earlier  traditions 
became  faint  and  obscured,  and  the  history  difficult  to  recon- 
struct. As  we  trace  back  the  conflict  between  Greece  and 
Persia  to  its  beginnings  and  antecedents,  we  are  conscious  that 
the  tradition  becomes  less  trustworthy  as  we  pass  back  from 
one  stage  to  another.  The  tradition  of  the  expedition  of  Datis 
and  Artaphernes  is  less  credible  in  its  details  than  that  of  the 
expedition  of  Xerxes,  but  it  is  at  once  fuller  and  more  credible 
than  the  tradition  of  the  Ionian  revolt.  When  we  get  back  to 
the  Scythian  expedition,  we  can  discover  but  few  grains  of 
historical  truth. 

Much  recent  criticism  of  Herodotus  has  been  directed  against 
his  veracity  as  a  traveller.  With  this  we  are  not  here  concerned. 
The  criticism  of  him  as  an  historian  begins  with  Thucydides. 
Among  the  references  of  the  latter  writer  to  his  predecessor  are 
the  following  passages:  i.  21;  i.  22  ad  fin.;  i.  20  ad  fin. 
(cf.  Herod,  ix.  53,  and  vi.  57  ad  fin.);  iii.  62  §  4  (cf.  Herod, 
ix.  87);  ii.  2  §§  i  and  3  (cf.  Herod,  vii.  233);  ii.  8  §  3  (cf.  Herod, 
vi.  98).  Perhaps  the  two  clearest  examples  of  this  criticism  are 
to  be  found  in  Thucydides'  correction  of  Herodotus's  account 
of  the  Cylonian  conspiracy  (Thuc.  i.  126,  cf.  Herod,  v.  71)  and 
in  his  appreciation  of  the  character  of  Themistocles — a  veiled 
protest  against  the  slanderous  tales  accepted  by  Herodotus 
(i.  138).  In  Plutarch's  tract  "  On  the  Malignity  of  Herodotus  " 
there  is  much  that  is  suggestive,  although  his  general  standpoint, 
viz.  that  Herodotus  was  in  duty  bound  to  suppress  all  that  was 
discreditable  to  the  valour  or  patriotism  of  the  Greeks,  is  not 
that  of  the  modern  critic.  It  must  be  conceded  to  Plutarch 
that  he  makes  good  his  charge  of  bias  in  Herodotus's  attitude 
towards  certain  of  the  Greek  states.  The  question,  however, 
may  fairly  be  asked,  how  far  this  bias  is  personal  to  the  author, 
or  how  far  it  is  due  to  the  character  of  the  sources  from  which 
his  information  was  derived.  He  cannot,  indeed,  altogether  be 
acquitted  of  personal  bias.  His  work  is,  to  some  extent,  intended 
as  an  apologia  for  the  Athenian  empire.  In  answer  to  the  charge 
that  Athens  was  guilty  of  robbing  other  Greek  states  of  their 
freedom,  Herodotus  seeks  to  show,  firstly,  that  it  was  to  Athens 
that  the  Greek  world,  as  a  whole,  owed  its  freedom  from  Persia, 
and  secondly,  that  the  subjects  of  Athens,  the  Ionian  Greeks, 
were  unworthy  to  be  free.  This  leads  him  to  be  unjust  both 
to  the  services  of  Sparta  and  to  the  qualities  of  the  Ionian  race. 
For  his  estimate  of  the  debt  due  to  Athens  see  vii.  139.  For 
bias  against  the  lonians  see  especially  iv.  142  (cf.  Thuc.  vi.  77); 
cf.  also  i.  143  and  146,  vi.  12-14  (Lade),  vi.  112  ad  fin.  A 
striking  example  of  his  prejudice  in  favour  of  Athens  is  furnished 
by  vi.  91.  At  a  moment  when  Greece  rang  with  the  crime  of 


Athens  in  expelling  the  Aeginetans  from  their  island,  he  ventures 
to  trace  in  their  expulsion  the  vengeance  of  heaven  for  an  act 
of  sacrilege  nearly  sixty  years  earlier  (see  AEGINA).  As  a  rule, 
however,  the  bias  apparent  in  his  narrative  is  due  to  the  sources 
from  which  it  is  derived.  Writing  at  Athens,  in  the  first  years 
of  the  Peloponnesian  War,  he  can  hardly  help  seeing  the  past 
through  an  Athenian  medium.  It  was  inevitable  that  much 
of  what  he  heard  should  come  to  him  from  Athenian  informants, 
and  should  be  coloured  by  Athenian  prejudices.  We  may  thus 
explain  the  leniency  which  he  shows  towards  Argos  and  Thessaly, 
the  old  allies  of  Athens,  in  marked  contrast  to  his  treatment  of 
Thebes,  Corinth  and  Aegina,  her  deadliest  foes.  For  Argos 
cf.  vii.  152;  Thessaly,  vii.  172-174;  Thebes,  vii.  132,  vii.  233, 
ix.  87;  Corinth  (especially  the  Corinthian  general  Adeimantus, 
whose  son  Aristeus  was  the  most  active  enemy  of  Athens  at  the 
outbreak  of  the  Peloponnesian  War),  vii.  5,  vii.  21,  viii.  29  and 
61,  vii.  94;  Aegina,  ix.  78-80  and  85.  In  his  intimacy  with 
members  of  the  great  Alcmaeonid  house  we  probably  have  the 
explanation  of  his  depreciation  of  the  services  of  Themistocles,  as 
well  as  of  his  defence  of  the  family  from  the  charges  brought 
against  it  in  connexion  with  Cylon  and  with  the  incident  of  the 
shield  shown  on  Pentelicus  at  the  time  of  Marathon  (v.  71,  vi. 
121-124).  His  failure  to  do  justice  to  the  Cypselid  tyrants  of 
Corinth  (v.  92),  and  to  the  Spartan  king  Cleomenes,  is  to  be 
accounted  for  by  the  nature  of  his  sources — in  the  former  case, 
the  tradition  of  the  Corinthian  oligarchy;  in  the  latter,  accounts, 
partly  derived  from  the  family  of  the  exiled  king  Demaratus  and 
partly  representative  of  the  view  of  the  ephorate.  Much  of  the 
earlier  history  is  cast  in  a  religious  mould,  e.g.  the  story  of  the 
Mermnad  kings  of  Lydia  in  book  i.,  or  of  the  fortunes  of  the 
colony  of  Cyrene  (iv.  145-167).  In  such  cases  we  cannot  fail 
to  recognize  the  influence  of  the  Delphic  priesthood.  Grote 
has  pointed  out  that  the  moralizing  tendency  observable  in 
Herodotus  is  partly  to  be  explained  by  the  fact  that  much  of  his 
information  was  gathered  from  priests  and  at  temples,  and  that 
it  was  given  in  explanation  of  votive  offerings,  or  of  the  fulfilment 
of  oracles.  Hence  the  determination  of  the  sources  of  his  narrative 
has  become  one  of  the  principal  tasks  of  Herodotean  criticism.  In 
addition  to  the  current  tradition  of  Athens,  the  family  tradition 
of  the  Alcmaeonidae,  and  the  stories  to  be  heard  at  Delphi  and 
other  sanctuaries,  there  may  be  indicated  the  Spartan  tradition, 
in  the  form  in  which  it  existed  in  the  middle  of  the  sth  century; 
that  of  his  native  Halicarnassus,  to  which  is  due  the  prominence 
of  its  queen  Artemisia;  the  traditions  of  the  Ionian  cities, 
especially  of  Samos  and  Miletus  (important  both  for  the  history 
of  the  Mermnadae  and  for  the  Ionian  Revolt) ;  and  those  current 
in  Sicily  and  Magna  Graecia,  which  were  learned  during  his 
residence  at  Thurii  (Sybaris  and  Croton,  v.  44,  45;  Syracuse  and 
Gela,  vii.  153-167).  Among  his  more  special  sources  we  can 
point  to  the  descendants  of  Demaratus,  who  still  held,  at  the 
beginning  of  the  4th  century,  the  principality  in  the  Troad 
which  had  been  granted  to  their  ancestor  by  Darius  (Xen.  Hell. 
iii.  i.  6),  and  to  the  family  of  the  Persian  general  Artabazus, 
in  which  the  satrapy  of  Dascylium  (Phrygia)  was  hereditary  in 
the  5th  century.1  His  use  of  written  material  is  more  difficult 
to  determine.  It  is  generally  agreed  that  the  list  of  Persian 
satrapies,  with  their  respective  assessments  of  tribute  (iii.  89-97), 
the  description  of  the  royal  road  from  Sardis  to  Susa  (v.  52-54), 
and  of  the  march  of  Xerxes,  together  with  the  list  of  the  con- 
tingents that  took  part  in  the  expedition  (vii.  26-131),  are  all 
derived  from  documentary  and  authoritative  sources.  From 
previous  writers  (e.g.  Dionysius  of  Miletus,  Hecataeus,  Charon 
of  Lampsacus  and  Xanthus  the  Lydian)  it  is  probable  that  he 
has  borrowed  little,  though  the  fragments  are  too  scanty  to 
permit  of  adequate  comparison.  His  references  to  monuments, 
dedicatory  offerings,  inscriptions  and  oracles  are  frequent. 

The  chief  defects  of  Herodotus  are  his  failure  too  grasp  the 
principles  of  historical  criticism,  to  understand  the  nature  of 
military  operations,  and  to  appreciate  the  importance  of 

1  Possibly  some  of  his  information  about  Persian  affairs  may  have 
been  derived,  at  first  or  second  hand, from  Zopyrus,  son  of  Megabyzua, 
whose  flight  to  Athens  is  mentioned  in  iii.  160. 


456 


GREECE 


[HISTORY 


chronology.  In  place  of  historical  criticism  we  find  a  crude 
rationalism  (e.g.  ii.  45,  vii.  129,  viii.  8).  Having  no  conception  of 
the  distinction  between  occasion  and  cause,  he  is  content  to  find 
the  explanation  of  great  historical  movements  in  trivial  incidents 
or  personal  motives.  An  example  of  this  is  furnished  by  his 
account  of  the  Ionian  revolt,  in  which  he  fails  to  discover  the 
real  causes  either  of  the  movement  or  of  its  result.  Indeed,  it 
is  clear  that  he  regarded  criticism  as  no  part  of  his  task  as  an 
historian.  In  vii.  152  he  states  the  principles  which  have  guided 
him — eyu  81  6$eiXw  \tyew  rci  \ty6fitva,  irdOtaOai  ye  fitv  ov 
Trwroinurt  6<fctXw,  Kai  fioi  TOVTO  TO  tiros  «x«1"w  's  Travro.  \oyov. 
In  obedience  to  this  principle  he  again  and  again  gives  two  or 
more  versions  of  a  story.  We  are  thus  frequently  enabled  to 
arrive  at  the  truth  by  a  comparison  of  the  discrepant  traditions. 
It  would  have  been  fortunate  if  all  ancient  writers  who  lacked 
the  critical  genius  of  Thucydides  had  been  content  to  adopt  the 
practice  of  Herodotus.  His  accounts  of  battles  are  always 
unsatisfactory.  The  great  battles,  Marathon,  Thermopylae, 
Salamis  and  Plataea,  present  a  series  of  problems.  This  result 
is  partly  due  to  the  character  of  the  traditions  which  he  follows — 
traditions  which  were  to  some  extent  inconsistent  or  contra- 
dictory, and  were  derived  from  different  sources;  it  is,  however, 
in  great  measure  due  to  his  inability  to  think  out  a  strategical 
combination  or  a  tactical  movement.  It  is  not  too  much  to  say 
that  the  battle  of  Plataea,  as  described  by  Herodotus,  is  wholly 
unintelligible.  Most  serious  of  all  his  deficiencies  is  his  careless 
chronology.  Even  in  the  case  of  the  sth  century,  the  data 
which  he  affords  are  inadequate  or  ambiguous.  The  interval 
between  the  Scythian  expedition  and  the  Ionian  revolt  is 
described  by  so  vague  an  expression  as  fiera  5e  ov  iroXkov  \povov 
avtcris  KO.K&V  ffv  (v.  28).  In  the  history  of  the  revolt  itself, 
though  he  gives  us  the  interval  between  its  outbreak  and  the 
fall  of  Miletus  (tKrif  frti,  vi.  18),  he  does  not  give  us  the  interval 
between  this  and  the  battle  of  Lade,  nor  does  he  indicate  with 
sufficient  precision  the  years  to  which  the  successive  phases  of 
the  movement  belong.  Throughout  the  work  professed  syn- 
chronisms too  often  prove  to  be  mere  literary  devices  for  facilitat- 
ing a  transition  from  one  subject  to  another  (cf.  e.g.  v.  81  with 
89,  90;  or  vi.  51  with  87  and  94).  In  the  6th  century,  as  Grote 
pointed  out,  a  whole  generation,  or  more,  disappears  in  his 
historical  perspective  (cf.  i.  30,  vi.  125,  v.  94,  iii.  47,  48, 
v.  113  contrasted  with  v.  104  and  iv.  162).  The  attempts  to 
reconstruct  the  chronology  of  this  century  upon  the  basis  of  the 
data  afforded  by  Herodotus  (e.g.  by  Beloch,  Rheinisches  Museum, 
xlv.,  1890,  pp.  465-473)  have  completely  failed. 

In  spite  of  all  such  defects  Herodotus  is  an  author,  not  only 
of  unrivalled  literary  charm,  but  of  the  utmost  value  to  the 
historian.  If  much  remains  uncertain  or  obscure,  even  in  the 
history  of  the  Persian  Wars,  it  is  chiefly  to  motives  or  policy, 
to  topography  or  strategy,  to  dates  or  numbers,  that  uncertainty 
attaches.  It  is  to  these  that  a  sober  criticism  will  confine  itself. 

Thucydides  is  at  once  the  father  of  contemporary  history  and 
the  father  of  historical  criticism.  From  a  comparison  of  i.  i, 
i.  22  and  v.  26,  we  may  gather  both  the  principles  to 
which  he  adhered  in  the  composition  of  his  work  and 
the  conditions  under  which  it  was  composed.  It  is 
seldom  that  the  circumstances  of  an  historical  writer  have  been 
so  favourable  for  the  accomplishment  of  his  task.  Thucydides 
was  a  contemporary  of  the  Twenty-Seven  Years'  War  in  the 
fullest  sense  of  the  term.  He  had  reached  manhood  at  its  out- 
break, and  he  survived  its  close  by  at  least  half-a-dozen  years. 
And  he  was  more  than  a  mere  contemporary.  As  a  man  of  high 
birth,  a  member  of  the  Periclean  circle,  and  the  holder  of  the 
chief  political  office  in  the  Athenian  state,  the  strategia,  he  was 
not  only  familiar  with  the  business  of  administration  and  the 
conduct  of  military  operations,  but  he  possessed  in  addition 
a  personal  knowledge  of  those  who  played  the  principal  part  in 
the  political  life  of  the  age.  His  exile  in  the  year  424  afforded 
him  opportunities  of  visiting  the  scenes  of  distant  operations 
(e.g.  Sicily)  and  of  coming  in  contact  with  the  actors  on  the  other 
side.  He  himself  tells  us  that  he  spared  no  pains  to  obtain  the 
best  information  available  in  each  case.  He  also  tells  us  that 


he  began  collecting  materials  for  his  work  from  the  very  beginning 
of  the  war.  Indeed,  it  is  probable  that  much  of  books  i.-v.  24 
was  written  soon  after  the  Peace  of  Nicias  (421),  just  as  it  is 
possible  that  the  history  of  the  Sicilian  Expedition  (books  vi. 
and  vii.)  was  originally  intended  to  form  a  separate  work.  To 
the  view,  however,  which  has  obtained  wide  support  in  recent 
years,  that  books  i.-v.  22  and  books  vi.  and  vii.  were  separately 
published,  the  rest  of  book  v.  and  book  viii.  being  little  more  than 
a  rough  draught,  composed  after  the  author  had  adopted  the 
theory  of  a  single  war  of  twenty-seven  years'  duration,  of  which 
the  Sicilian  Expedition  and  the  operations  of  the  years  431-421 
formed  integral  parts,  there  seem  to  the  present  writer  to  be 
insuperable  objections.  The  work,  as  a  whole,  appears  to  have 
been  composed  in  the  first  years  of  the  4th  century,  after  his 
return  from  exile  in  404,  when  the  material  already  in  existence 
must  have  been  revised  and  largely  recast.  There  are  exceed- 
ingly few  passages,  such  as  iv.  48.  5,  which  appear  to  have  been 
overlooked  in  the  process  of  revision.  It  can  hardly  be 
questioned  that  the  impression  left  upon  the  reader's  mind  is 
that  the  point  of  view  of  the  author,  in  all  the  books  alike,  is 
that  of  one  writing  after  the  fall  of  Athens. 

The  task  of  historical  criticism  in  the  case  of  the  Peloponnesian 
War  is  widely  different  from  its  task  in  the  case  of  the  Persian 
Wars.  It  has  to  deal,  not  with  facts  as  they  appear  in  the 
traditions  of  an  imaginative  race,  but  with  facts  as  they  appeared 
to  a  scientific  observer.  Facts,  indeed,  are  seldom  in  dispute. 
The  question  is  rather  whether  facts  of  importance  are  omitted, 
whether  the  explanation  of  causes  is  correct,  or  whether  the 
judgment  of  men  and  measures  is  just.  Such  inaccuracies  as 
have  been  brought  home  to  Thucydides  on  the  strength,  e.g.  of 
epigraphic  evidence,  are,  as  a  rule,  trivial.  His  most  serious 
errors  relate  to  topographical  details,  in  cases  where  he  was 
dependent  on  the  information  of  others.  Sphacteria  (see  PYLOS) 
(see  G.  B.  Grundy,  Journal  of  Hellenic  Studies,  xvi.,  1896,  p.  i) 
is  a  case  in  point.  Nor  have  the  difficulties  connected  with  the 
siege  of  Plataea  been  cleared  up  either  by  Grundy  or  by  others 
(see  Grundy,  Topography  of  the  Battle  of  Plataea,  &c.,  1894). 
Where,  on  the  contrary,  he  is  writing  at  first  hand  his  descrip- 
tions of  sites  are  surprisingly  correct.  The  most  serious  charge 
as  yet  brought  against  his  authority  as  to  matters  of  fact  relates 
to  his  account  of  the  Revolution  of  the  Four  Hundred,  which 
appears,  at  first  sight,  to  be  inconsistent  with  the  documentary 
evidence  supplied  by  Aristotle's  Constitution  of  Athens  (q.v.).  It 
may  be  questioned,  however,  whether  the  documents  have 
been  correctly  interpreted  by  Aristotle.  On  the  whole,  it  is 
probable  that  the  general  course  of  events  was  such  as  Thucydides 
describes  (see  E.  Meyer,  Forschungen,  ii.  406-436),  though  he 
failed  to  appreciate  the  position  of  Theramenes  and  the  Moderate 
party,  and  was  clearly  misinformed  on  some  important  points  of 
detail.  With  regard  to  the  omission  of  facts,  it  is  unquestionable 
that  much  is  omitted  that  would  not  be  omitted  by  a  modern 
writer.  Such  omissions  are  generally  due  to  the  author's  Jcon- 
ception  of  his  task.  Thus  the  internal  history  of  Athens  is 
passed  over  as  forming  no  part  of  the  history  of  the  war.  It 
is  only  where  the  course  of  the  war  is  directly  affected  by  the 
course  of  political  events  (e.g.  by  the  Revolution  of  the  Four 
Hundred)  that  the  internal  history  is  referred  to.  However 
much  it  may  be  regretted  that  the  relations  of  political  parties 
are  not  more  fully  described,  especially  in  book  v.,  it  cannot  be 
denied  that  from  his  standpoint  there  is  logical  justification 
even  for  the  omission  of  the  ostracism  of  Hyperbolus.  There 
are  omissions,  however,  which  are  not  so  easily  explained. 
Perhaps  the  most  notable  instance  is  that  of  the  raising  of  the 
tribute  in  425  B.C.  (see  DELIAN  LEAGUE). 

Nowhere  is  the  contrast  between  the  historical  methods  of 
Herodotus  and  Thucydides  more  apparent  than  in  the  treatment 
of  the  causes  of  events.  The  distinction  between  the  occasion 
and  the  cause  is  constantly  present  to  the  mind  of  Thucydides, 
and  it  is  his  tendency  to  make  too  little  rather  than  too  much 
of  the  personal  factor.  Sometimes,  however,  it  may  be  doubted 
whether  his  explanation  of  the  causes  of  an  event  is  adequate  or 
correct.  In  tracing  the  causes  of  the  Peloponnesian  War  itself, 


HISTORY] 


GREECE 


457 


modern  writers  are  disposed  to  allow  more  weight  to  the  com- 
mercial rivalry  of  Corinth;  while  in  the  case  of  the  Sicilian 
expedition,  they  would  actually  reverse  his  judgment  (ii.  65  6  es 
St«Xtav  irXoDs  8s  ov  roaovrov  yvwiJLtjs  d/id/my/ia  fy>  7rp6s  oDs 
ivrjfffav).  To  us  it  seems  that  the  very  idea  of  the  expedition 
implied  a  gigantic  miscalculation  of  the  resources  of  Athens  and  of 
the  difficulty  of  the  task.  His  judgments  of  men  and  of  measures 
have  been  criticized  by  writers  of  different  schools  and  from 
different  points  of  view.  Grote  criticized  his  verdict  upon  Cleon, 
while  he  accepted  his  estimate  of  the  policy  of  Pericles.  More 
recent  writers,  on  the  other  hand,  have  accepted  his  view  of 
Cleon,  while  they  have  selected  for  attack  his  appreciation  alike 
of  the  policy  and  the  strategy  of  Pericles.  He  has  been  charged, 
too,  with  failure  to  do  justice  to  the  statesmanship  of  Alcibiades.1 
There  are  cases,  undoubtedly,  in  which  the  balance  of  recent 
opinion  will  be  adverse  to  the  view  of  Thucydides.  There  are 
many  more  in  which  the  result  of  criticism  has  been  to  establish 
his  view.  That  he  should  occasionally  have  been  mistaken  in 
his  judgment  and  his  views  is  certainly  no  detraction  from  his 
claim  to  greatness. 

On  the  whole,  it  may  be  said  that  while  the  criticism  of 
Herodotus,  since  Grote  wrote,  has  tended  seriously  to  modify 
our  view  of  the  Persian  Wars,  as  well  as  of  the  earlier  history, 
the  criticism  of  Thucydides,  in  spite  of  its  imposing  bulk,  has 
affected  but  slightly  our  view  of  the  course  of  the  Peloponnesian 
War.  The  labours  of  recent  workers  in  this  field  have  borne 
most  fruit  where  they  have  been  directed  to  subjects  neglected 
by  Thucydides,  such  as  the  history  of  political  parties,  or  the 
organization  of  the  empire  (G.  Gilbert's  Innere  Geschichte  Athens 
im  Zeilalter  des  pel.  Krieges  is  a  good  example  of  such  work). 

In  regard  to  Thucydides'  treatment  of  the  period  between  the 
Persian  and  Peloponnesian  Wars  (the  so-called  Pentecontaeleris) 
it  should  be  remembered  that  he  does  not  profess  to  give,  even 
in  outline,  the  history  of  this  period  as  a  whole.  The  period  is 
regarded  simply  as  a  prelude  to  the  Peloponnesian  War.  There 
is  no  attempt  to  sketch  the  history  of  the  Greek  world  or  of 
Greece  proper  during  this  period.  There  is,  indeed,  no  attempt 
to  give  a  complete  sketch  of  Athenian  history.  His  object  is  to 
trace  the  growth  of  the  Athenian  Empire,  and  the  causes  that 
made  the  war  inevitable.  Much  is  therefore  omitted  not  only 
in  the  history  of  the  other  Greek  states,  especially  the  Pelo- 
ponnesian, but  even  in  the  history  of  Athens.  Nor  does  Thucyd- 
ides attempt  an  exact  chronology.  He  gives  us  a  few  dates 
(e.g.  surrender  of  Ithome,  in  the  tenth  year,  i.  103;  of  Thasos, 
in  the  third  year,  i.  101;  duration,  of  the  Egyptian  expedition 
six  years,  i.  no;  interval  between  Tanagra  and  Oenophyta 
6 1  days,  i.  108;  revolt  of  Samos,  in  the  sixth  year  after  the 
Thirty  Years'  Truce,  i.  115),  but  from  these  data  alone  it  would 
be  impossible  to  reconstruct  the  chronology  of  the  period.  In 
spite  of  all  that  can  be  gleaned  from  our  other  authorities,  our 
knowledge  of  this,  the  true  period  of  Athenian  greatness,  must 
remain  slight  and  imperfect  as  compared  with  our  knowledge 
of  the  next  thirty  years. 

Of  the  secondary  authorities  for  this  period  the  two  principal 
ones  are  Diodorus  (xi.  38  to  xii.  37)  and  Plutarch.  Diodorus 
Diodorus  ls  °^  va'ue  chiefly  in  relation  to  Sicilian  affairs,  to  which 
he  devotes  about  a  third  of  this  section  of  his  work 
and  for  which  he  is  almost  our  sole  authority.  His  source  for 
Sicilian  history  is  the  Sicilian  writer  Timaeus  (q.v.),  an  author 
of  the  3rd  century  B.C.  For  the  history  of  Greece  Proper  during 
the  Pentecontaetia  Diodorus  contributes  comparatively  little 
of  importance.  Isolated  notices  of  particular  events  (e.g.  the 
Synoecism  of  Elis,  471  B.C.,  or  the  foundation  of  Amphipolis, 
437  B.C.),  which  appear  to  be  derived  from  a  chronological  writer, 
may  generally  be  trusted.  The  greater  part  of  his  narrative 
is,  however,  derived  from  Ephorus,  who  appears  to  have  had 
before  him  little  authentic  information  for  this  period  of  Greek 
history  other  than  that  afforded  by  Thucydides'  work.  Four  of 
Plutatch's  Lives  are  concerned  with  this  period,  viz.  Themistocles, 
Aristides,  Cimon  and  Pericles.  From  the  Aristides  little  can 

1  For  a  defence  of  Thucydides'  judgment  on  all  three  statesmen, 
see  E.  Meyer,  Forsckungen,  ii.  296-379. 


be  gained.  Plutarch,  in  this  biography,  appears  to  be  mainly 
dependent  upon  Idomeneus  of  Lampsacus,  an  excessively  untrust- 
worthy writer  of  the  3rd  century  B.C.,  who  is  probably  ^^ 
to  be  credited  with  the  invention  of  the  oligarchical 
conspiracy  at  the  time  of  the  battle  of  Plataea  (ch.  13),  and  of 
the  decree  of  Aristides,  rendering  all  four  classes  of  citizens 
eligible  for  the  archonship  (ch.  22).  The  Cimon,  on  the  other 
hand,  contains  much  that  is  valuable;  such  as,  e.g.  the  account 
of  the  battle  of  the  Eurymedon  (chs.  12  and  13).  To  the  Pericles 
we  owe  several  quotations  from  the  Old  Comedy.  Two  other 
of  the  Lives,  Lycurgus  and  Solon,  are  amongst  our  most  important 
sources  for  the  early  history  of  Sparta  and  Athens  respectively. 
Of  the  two  (besides  Pericles)  which  relate  to  the  Peloponnesian 
War,  Alcibiades  adds  little  to  what  can  be  gained  from  Thucydides 
and  Xenophon;  the  Nicias,  on  the  other  hand,  supplements 
Thucydides'  narrative  of  the  Sicilian  expedition  with  many 
valuable  details,  which,  it  may  safely  be  assumed,  are  derived 
from  the  contemporary  historian,  Philistus  of  Syracuse. 
Amongst  the  most  valuable  material  afforded  by  Plutarch  are 
the  quotations,  which  occur  in  almost  all  the  Lives,  from  the 
collection  of  Athenian  decrees  (^r)<^«r^dTCOv  aw  etywyij)  formed 
by  the  Macedonian  writer  Craterus,  in  the  3rd  century  B.C. 
Two  other  works  may  be  mentioned  in  connexion  with  the 
history  of  Athens.  For  the  history  of  the  Athenian  Constitution 
down  to  the  end  of  the  5th  century  B.C.  Aristotle's 
Constitution  of  Athens  (q.v.)  is  our  chief  authority. 
The  other  Constitution  of  A  thens,  erroneously  attributed 
to  Xenophon,  a  tract  of  singular  interest  both  on  literary  and 
historical  grounds,  throws  a  good  deal  of  light  on  the  internal 
condition  of  Athens,  and  on  the  system  of  government,  both  of 
the  state  and  of  the  empire,  in  the  age  of  the  Peloponnesian  War, 
during  the  earlier  years  of  which  it  was  composed. 

To  the  literary  sources  for  the  history  of  Greece,  especially  of 
Athens,  in  the  5th  century  B.C.  must  be  added  the  epigraphic. 
Few  inscriptions  have  been  discovered  which  date 
back  beyond  the  Persian  Wars.  For  the  latter  half 
of  the  sth  century  they  are  both  numerous  and  im- 
portant. Of  especial  value  are  the  series  of  Quota-lists,  from 
which  can  be  calculated  the  amount  of  tribute  paid  by  the 
subject-allies  of  Athens  from  the  year  454  B.C.  onwards.  The 
great  majority  of  the  inscriptions  of  this  period  are  of  Athenian 
origin.  Their  value  is  enhanced  by  the  fact  that  they  relate,  as 
a  rule,  to  questions  of  organization,  finance  and  administration, 
as  to  which  little  information  is  to  be  gained  from  the  literary 
sources. 

For  the  period  between  the  Persian  and  Peloponnesian  Wars 
Busolt,  Griechische  Geschichte,  iii.  i,  is  indispensable.  Hill's 
Sources  of  Greek  History,  B.C.  478-431  (Oxford,  1897)  is  excellent. 
It  gives  the  most  important  inscriptions  in  a  convenient  form. 

III.  The4thCenlury  tolheDealh  of  Alexander.  —  Of  the  historians 
who  flourished  in  the  4th  century  the  sole  writer  whose  works 
have  come  down  to  us  is  Xenophon.  It  is  a  singular  Xeag  boa 
accident  of  fortune  that  neither  of  the  two  authors, 
who  at  once  were  most  representative  of  their  age  and  did  most 
to  determine  the  views  of  Greek  history  current  in  subsequent 
generations,  Ephorus  (q.v.)  and  Theopompus  (q.v.),  should  be 
extant.  It  was  from-  them,  rather  than  from  Herodotus,  Thucyd- 
ides or  Xenophon  that  the  Roman  world  obtained  its  knowledge 
of  the  history  of  Greece  in  the  past,  and  its  conception  of  its 
significance.  Both  were  pupils  of  Isocrates,  and  both,  therefore, 
bred  up  in  an  atmosphere  of  rhetoric.  Hence  their  popularity 
and  their  influence.  The  scientific  spirit  of  Thucydides  was  alien 
to  the  temper  of  the  4th  century,  'and  hardly  more  congenial  to 
the  age  of  Cicero  or  Tacitus.  To  the  rhetorical  spirit,  which  is 
common  to  both,  each  added  defects  peculiar  to  himself.  Theo- 
pompus is  a  strong  partisan,  a  sworn  foe  to  Athens  and  to 
Democracy.  Ephorus,  though  a  military  historian,  is  ignorant 
of  the  art  of  war.  He  is  also  incredibly  careless  and  uncritical. 
It  is  enough  to  point  to  his  description  of  the  battle  of  the 
Eurymedon  (Diodorus  xi.  60-62),  in  which,  misled  by  an  epigram, 
which  he  supposed  to  relate  to  this  engagement  (it  really  refers 
to  the  Athenian  victory  off  Salamis  in  Cyprus,  449  B.C.),  he 


458 


GREECE 


[HISTORY 


makes  the  coast  of  Cyprus  the  scene  of  Cimon's  nava^l  victory, 
and  finds  no  difficulty  in  putting  it  on  the  same  day  as  the 
victory  on  shore  on  the  banks  of  the  Eurymedon,  in  Pamphylia. 
Only  a  few  fragments  remain  of  either  writer,  but  Theopompus 
(q.v.)  was  largely  used  by  Plutarch  in  several  of  the  Lives, 
while  Ephorus  continues  to  be  the  main  source  of  Diodorus' 
history,  as  far  as  the  outbreak  of  the  Sacred  War  (Fragments  of 
Ephorus  in  M  tiller's  Fragmenta  historicorum  Graecorum,  vol.  i.; 
of  Theopompus  in  Hellenica  Oxyrhynchia,  cum  Theopompi 
et  Cratippi  fragmentis,  ed.  B.  P.  Grenfell  and  A.  S..  Hunt, 
1909). 

It  may  be  at  least  claimed  for  Xenophon  (q.v.)  that  he  is  free 
from  all  taint  of  the  rhetorical  spirit.  It  may  also  be  claimed 
for  him  that,  as  a  witness,  he  is  both  honest  and  well-informed. 
But,  if  there  is  no  justification  for  the  charge  of  deliberate 
falsification,  it  cannot  be  denied  that  he  had  strong  political 
prejudices,  and  that  his  narrative  has  suffered  from  them.  His 
historical  writings  are  the  Anabasis,  an  account  of  the  expedition 
of  the  Ten  Thousand,  the  Hellenica  and  the  Agesilaus,  a  eulogy 
of  the  Spartan  king.  Of  these  the  Hellenica  is  far  the  most 
important  for  the  student  of  history.  It  consists  of  two  distinct 
parts  (though  there  is  no  ground  for  the  theory  that  the  two 
parts  were  separately  written  and  published),  books  i.  and  ii., 
and  books  iii.  to  vii.  The  first  two  books  are  intended  as  a 
continuation  of  Thucydides'  work.  They  begin,  quite  abruptly, 
in  the  middle  of  the  Attic  year  411/10,  and  they  carry  the 
history  down  to  the  fall  of  the  Thirty,  in  403.  Books  iii.  to  vii., 
the  Hellenica  proper,  cover  the  period  from  401  to  362,  and  give 
the  histories  of  the  Spartan  and  Theban  hegemonies  down  to 
the  death  of  Epaminondas.  There  is  thus  a  gap  of  two  years 
between  the  point  at  which  the  first  part  ends  and  that  at  which 
the  second  part  begins.  The  two  parts  differ  widely,  both  in 
their  aim  and  in  the  arrangement  of  the  material.  In  the  first 
part  Xenophon  attempts,  though  not  with  complete  success, 
to  follow  the  chronological  method  of  Thucydides,  and  to  make 
each  successive  spring,  when  military  and  naval  operations  were 
resumed  after  the  winter's  interruption,  the  starting-point  of  a 
fresh  section.  The  resemblance  between  the  two  writers  ends, 
however,  with  the  outward  form  of  the  narrative.  All  that  is 
characteristic  of  Thucydides  is  absent  in  Xenophon.  The 
latter  writer  shows  neither  skill  in  portraiture,  nor  insight  into 
motives.  He  is  deficient  in  the  sense  of  proportion  and  of  the 
distinction  between  occasion  and  cause.  Perhaps  his  worst 
fault  is  a  lack  of  imagination.  To  make  a  story  intelligible 
it  is  necessary  sometimes  to  put  oneself  in  the  reader's  place, 
and  to  appreciate  his  ignorance  of  circumstances  and  events 
which  would  be  perfectly  familiar  to  the  actors  in  the  scene 
or  to  contemporaries.  It  was  not  given  to  Xenophon,  as  it  was 
to  Thucydides,  to  discriminate  between  the  circumstances  that 
are  essential  and  those  that  are  not  essential  to  the  comprehen- 
sion of  the  story.  In  spite,  therefore,  of  its  wealth  of  detail, 
his  narrative  is  frequently  obscure.  It  is  quite  clear  that  in  the 
trial  of  the  generals,  e.g.,  something  is  omitted.  It  may  be 
supplied  as  Diodorus  has  supplied  it  (xiii.  101),  or  it  may  be 
supplied  otherwise.  It  is  probable  that,  when  under  cross- 
examination  before  the  council,  the  generals,  or  some  of  them, 
disclosed  the  commission  given  to  Theramenes  and  Thrasybulus. 
The  important  point  is  that  Xenophon  himself  has  omitted  to 
supply  it.  As  it  stands  his  narrative  is  unintelligible.  In  the 
first  two  books,  though  there  are  omissions  (e.g.  the  loss  of 
Nisaea,  409  B.C.),  they  are  not  so  serious  as  in  the  last  five,  nor 
is  the  bias  so  evident.  It  is  true  that  if  the  account  of  the  rule 
of  the  Thirty  given  in  Aristotle's  Constitution  of  Athens  be 
accepted,  Xenophon  must  have  deliberately  misrepresented 
the  course  of  events  to  the  prejudice  of  Theramenes.  But  it  is 
at  least  doubtful  whether  Aristotle's  version  can  be  sustained 
against  Xenophon's,  though  it  may  be  admitted,  not  only  that 
there  are  mistakes  as  to  details  in  the  latter  writer's  narrative, 
but  that  less  than  justice  is  done  to  the  policy  and  motives 
of  the  "  Buskin."  The  Hellenica  was  written,  it  should  be 
remembered,  at  Corinth,  after  362.  More  than  forty  years  had 
thus  elapsed  since  the  events  recorded  in  the  first  two  books, 


and  after  so  long  an  interval  accuracy  of  detail,  even  where  the 
detail  is  of  importance,  is  not  always  to  be  expected.1  In  the 
second  part  the  chronological  method  is  abandoned.  A  subject 
once  begun  is  followed  out  to  its  natural  ending,  so  that  sections 
of  the  narrative  which  are  consecutive  in  order  are  frequently 
parallel  in  point  of  date.  A  good  example  of  this  will  be  found 
in  book  iv.  In  chapters  2  to  7  the  history  of  the  Corinthian 
war  is  carried  down  to  the  end  of  390,  so  far  as  the  operations 
on  land  are  concerned,  while  chapter  8  contains  an  account  of 
the  naval  operations  from  394  to  388.  In  this  second  part  of  the 
Hellenica  the  author's  disqualifications  for  his  task  are  more 
apparent  than  in  the  first  two  books.  The  more  he  is  acquitted 
of  bias  in  his  selection  of  events  and  in  his  omissions,  the  more 
clearly  does  he  stand  convicted  of  lacking  all  sense  of  the  propor- 
tion of  things.  Down  to  Leuctra  (371  B.C.)  Sparta  is  the  centre 
of  interest,  and  it  is  of  the  Spartan  state  alone  that  a  complete 
or  continuous  history  is  given.  After  Leuctra,  if  the  point  of 
view  is  no  longer  exclusively  Spartan,  the  narrative  of  events 
is  hardly  less  incomplete.  Throughout  the  second  part  of  the 
Hellenica  omissions  abound  which  it  is  difficult  either  to  explain 
or  justify.  The  formation  of  the  Second  Athenian  Confederacy 
of  377  B.C.,  the  foundation  of  Megalopolis  and  the  restoration 
of  the  Messenian  state  are  all  left  unrecorded.  Yet  the  writer 
who  passes  them  over  without  mention  thinks  it  worth  while 
to  devote  more  than  one-sixth  of  an  entire  book  to  a  chronicle 
of  the  unimportant  feats  of  the  citizens  of  the  petty  state  of 
Phlius.  Nor  is  any  attempt  made  to  appraise  the  policy  of 
the  great  Theban  leaders,  Pelopidas  and  Epaminondas.  The 
former,  indeed,  is  mentioned  only  in  a  single  passage,  relating 
to  the  embassy  to  Susa  in  368;  the  latter  does  not  appear  on 
the  scene  till  a  year  later,  and  receives  mention  but  twice  before 
the  battle  of  Mantinea.  An  author  who  omits  from  his  narrative 
some  of  the  most  important  events  of  his  period,  and  elaborates 
the  portraiture  of  an  Agesilaus  while  not  attempting  the  bare 
outline  of  an  Epaminondas,  may  be  honest;  he  may  even 
write  without  a  consciousness  of  bias;  he  certainly  cannot  rank 
among  the  great  writers  of  history.2 

For  the  history  of  the  4th  century  Diodorus  assumes  a  higher 
degree  of  importance  than  belongs  to  him  in  the  earlier  periods. 
This  is  partly  to  be  explained  by  the  deficiencies  of 
Xenophon's  Hellenica,  partly  by  the  fact  that  for  the 
interval  between  the  death  of  Epaminondas  and  the  accession  of 
Alexander  we  have  in  Diodorus  alone  a  continuous  narrative 
of  events.  Books  xiv.  and  xv.  of  his  history  include  the  period 
covered  by  the  Hellenica.  More  than  half  of  book  xiv.  is  devoted 
to  the  history  of  Sicily  and  the  reign  of  Dionysius,  the  tyrant  of 
Syracuse.  For  this  period  of  Sicilian  history  he  is,  practically, 
our  sole  authority.  In  the  rest  of  the  book,  as  well  as  in  book  xv., 
there  is  much  of  value,  especially  in  the  notices  of  Macedonian 
history.  Thanks  to  Diodorus  we  are  enabled  to  supply  many 
of  the  omissions  of  the  Hellenica.  Diodorus  is,  e.g.,  our  sole 
literary  authority  for  the  Athenian  naval  confederation  of  377. 
Book  xvi.  must  rank,  with  the  Hellenica  and  Arrian's  Anabasis, 
as  one  of  the  three  principal  authorities  for  this  century,  so  far, 
at  least,  as  works  of  an  historical  character  are  concerned.  It  is 
our  authority  for  the  Social  and  the  Sacred  Wars,  as  well  as 
for  the  reign  of  Philip.  It  is  a  curious  irony  of  fate  that,  for 
what  is  perhaps  the  most  momentous  epoch  in  the  history 
of  Greece,  we  should  have  to  turn  to  a  writer  of  such  inferior 
capacity.  For  this  period  his  material  is  better  and  his  import- 
ance greater:  his  intelligence  is  as  limited  as  ever.  Who  but 
Diodorus  would  be  capable  of  narrating  the  siege  and  capture 
of  Methone  twice  over,  once  under  the  year  354,  and  again  under 
the  year  352  (xvi.  31  and  34;  cf.  xii.  35  and  42;  Archidamus  (q.v.) 
dies  in  434,  commands  Peloponnesian  army  in  431);  or  of  giving 
three  different  numbers  of  years  (eleven,  ten  and  nine)  in  three 
different  passages  (chs.  14,  23  and  59)  for  the  length  of  the 

1  On  the  discrepancies  between  Xenophon's  account  of  the  Thirty, 
and  Aristotle's,  see  G.  Busolt,  Hermes  (1898),  pp.  71-86. 

2  The  fragment  of  the  New  Historian  (Oxyrhynchus  Papyri,  vol.  v.) 
affords  exceedingly  important  material  for  the  criticism  of  Xenophon's 
narrative.     (See  THEOPOMPUS.) 


HISTORY] 


GREECE 


459 


ande^s 
reign. 


Sacred  War;  or  of  asserting  the  conclusion  of  peace  between 
Athens  and  Philip  in  340,  after  the  failure  of  his  attack  on 
Perinthus  and  Byzantium?  Amongst  the  subjects  which  are 
omitted  is  the  Peace  of  Philocrates.  For  the  earlier  chapters, 
which  bring  the  narrative  down  to  the  outbreak  of  the  Sacred  War, 
Ephorus,  as  in  the  previous  book,  is  Diodorus'  main  source. 
His  source  for  the  rest  of  the  book,  i.e.  for  the  greater  part  of 
Philip's  reign,  cannot  be  determined.  It  is  generally  agreed  that 
it  is  not  the  Philippica  of  Theopompus. 

For  the  reign  of  Alexander  our  earliest  extant  authority  is 
Diodorus,  who  belongs  to  the  age  of  Augustus.  Of  the  others, 
•Historians  Q-  Curtius  Rufus,  who  wrote  in  Latin,  lived  in  the 
of  Alex-  reign  of  the  emperor  Claudius,  Arrian  and  Plutarch 
in  the  2nd  century  A.D.  Yet  Alexander's  reign  is 
one  of  the  best  known  periods  of  ancient  history. 
The  Peloponnesian  War  and  the  twenty  years  of  Roman 
history  which  begin  with  63  B.C.  are  the  only  two  periods 
which  we  can  be  said  to  know  more  fully  or  for  which  we 
have  more  trustworthy  evidence.  For  there  is  no  period  of 
ancient  history  which  was  recorded  by  a  larger  number  of 
contemporary  writers,  or  for  which  better  or  more  abundant 
materials  were  available.  Of  the  writers  actually  contemporary 
with  Alexander  there  were  five  of  importance — Ptolemy,  Aristo- 
bulus,  Callisthenes,  Onesicritus  and  Nearchus;  and  all  of  them 
occupied  positions  which  afforded  exceptional  opportunities 
of  ascertaining  the  facts.  Four  of  them  were  officers  in 
Alexander's  service.  Ptolemy,  the  future  king  of  Egypt,  was 
one  of  the  somatophylaces  (we  may,  perhaps,  regard  them  as 
corresponding  to  Napoleon's  marshals);  Aristobulus  was  also 
an  officer  of  high  rank  (see  Arrian,  Anab.  vi.  29.  10);  Nearchus 
was  admiral  of  the  fleet  which  surveyed  the  Indus  and  the 
Persian  Gulf,  and  Onesicritus  was  one  of  his  subordinates.  The 
fifth,  Callisthenes,  a  pupil  of  Aristotle,  accompanied  Alexander 
on  his  march  down  to  his  death  in  327  and  was  admitted  to  the 
circle  of  his  intimate  friends.  A  sixth  historian,  Cleitarchus, 
was  possibly  also  a  contemporary;  at  any  rate  he  is  not  more 
than  a  generation  later.  These  writers  had  at  their  command  a 
mass  of  official  documents,  such  as  the  jSacriXetoi  e(/>i?juepi5es — the 
Gazette  and  Court  Circular  combined — edited  and  published 
after  Alexander's  death  by  his  secretary,  Eumenes  of  Cardia; 
the  orodjuot,  or  records  of  the 'marches  of  the  armies,  whkh  were 
carefully  measured  at  the  time;  and  the  official  reports  on  the 
conquered  provinces.  That  these  documents  were  made  use  of 
by  the  historians  is  proved  by  the  references  to  them  which  are 
to  be  found  in  Arrian,  Plutarch  and  Strabo;  e.g.  Arrian,  Anab. 
vii.  25  and  26,  and  Plutarch,  Alexander  76  (quotation  from  the 
jScunXeioi  'ffantptie;);  Strabo  xv.  723  (reference  to  the  oraffytoi), 
ii.  69  (reports  drawn  up  on  the  various  provinces).  We  have, 
in  addition,  in  Plutarch  numerous  quotations  from  Alexander's 
correspondence  with  his  mother,  Olympias,  and  with  his  officers. 
The  contemporary  historians  may  be  roughly  divided  into  two 
groups.  On  the  one  hand  there  are  Ptolemy  and  Aristobulus, 
who,  except  in  a  single  instance,  are  free  from  all  suspicion  of 
deliberate  invention.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are  Callisthenes, 
Onesicritus  and  Cleitarchus,  whose  tendency  is  rhetorical. 
Nearchus  appears  to  have  allowed  full  scope  to  his  imagination 
in  dealing  with  the  wonders  of  India,  but  to  have  been  otherwise 
veracious.  Of  the  extant  writers  Arrian  (q.ii.)  is  incomparably 
the  most  valuable.  His  merits  are  twofold.  As  the  commander 
of  Roman  legions  and  the  author  of  a  work  on  tactics,  he  com- 
bined a  practical  with  a  theoretical  knowledge  of  the  military  art, 
while  the  writers  whom  he  follows  in  the  Anabasis  are  the  two 
most  worthy  of  credit,  Ptolemy  and  Aristobulus.  We  may  well 
hesitate  to  call  in  question  the  authority  of  writers  who  exhibit 
an  agreement  which  it  would  be  difficult  to  parallel  elsewhere 
in  the  case  of  two  independent  historians.  It  may  be  inferred 
from  Arrian's  references  to  them  that  there  were  only  eleven 
cases  in  all  in  which  he  found  discrepancies  between  them. 
The  most  serious  drawback  which  can  be  alleged  against  them 
is  an  inevitable  bias  in  Alexander's  favour.  It  would  be  only 
natural  that  they  should  pass  over  in  silence  the  worst  blots  on 
their  great  commander's  fame.  Next  in  value  to  the  Anabasis 


The 
orators. 


comes  Plutarch's  Life  of  Alexander,  the  merits  of  which,  however, 
are  not  to  be  gauged  by  the  influence  which  it  has  exercised  upon 
literature.  The  Life  is  a  valuable  supplement  to  the  Anabasis, 
partly  because  Plutarch,  as  he  is  writing  biography  rather  than 
history  (for  his  conception  of  the  difference  between  the  two 
see  the  famous  preface,  Life  of  Alexander,  ch.  i.),  is  concerned 
to  record  all  that  will  throw  light  upon  Alexander's  character 
(e.g.  his  epigrammatic  sayings  and  quotations  from  his  letters); 
partly  because  he  tells  us  much  about  his  early  life,  before  he 
became  king,  while  Arrian  tells  us  nothing.  It  is  unfortunate 
that  Plutarch  writes  in  an  uncritical  spirit;  it  is  hardly  less 
unfortunate  that  he  should  have  formed  no  clear  conception 
and  drawn  no  consistent  picture  of  Alexander's  character. 
Book  xvii.  of  Diodorus  and  the  Historiae  Alexandri  of  Curtius 
Rufus  are  thoroughly  rhetorical  in  spirit.  It  is  probable  that 
in  both  cases  the  ultimate  source  is  the  work  of  Clitarchus. 

It  is  towards  the  end  of  the  5th  century  that  a  fresh  source 
of  information  becomes  available  in  the  speeches  of  the  orators, 
the  earliest  of  whom  is  Antiphon  (d.  411  B.C.).  Lysias 
is  of  great  importance  for  the  history  of  the  Thirty 
(see  the  speeches  against  Eratosthenes  and  Agoratus), 
and  a  good  deal  may  be  gathered  from  Andocides  with  regard 
to  the  last  years  of  the  sth  and  the  opening  years  of  the  next 
century.  At  the  other  end  of  this  period  Lycurgus,  Hyperides 
and  Dinarchus  throw  light  upon  the  time  of  Philip  and  Alexander. 
The  three,  however,  who  are  of  most  importance  to  the  historian 
are  Isocrates,  Aeschines  and  Demosthenes.  Isocrates  (q.v.), 
whose  long  life  (436-338)  more  than  spans  the  interval 
between  the  outbreak  of  the  Peloponnesian  War  and  isocrates 
the  triumph  of  Macedon  at  Chaeronea,  is  one  of  the 
most  characteristic  figures  in  the  Greek  world  of  his  day.  To 
comprehend  that  world  the  study  of  Isocrates  is  indispensable; 
for  in  an  age  dominated  by  rhetoric  he  is  the  prince  of  rhetoricians. 
It  is  difficult  for  a  modern  reader  to  do  him  justice,  so  alien  is 
his  spirit  and  the  spirit  of  his  age  from  ours.  It  must  be  allowed 
that  he  is  frequently  monotonous  and  prolix;  at  the  same  time 
it  must  not  be  forgotten  that,  as  the  most  famous  representative 
of  rhetoric,  he  was  read  from  one  end  of  the  Greek  world  to  the 
other.  He  was  the  friend  of  Evagoras  and  Archidamus,  of 
Dionysius  and  Philip;  he  was  the  master  of  Aeschines  and 
Lycurgus  amongst  orators  and  of  Ephorus  and  Theopompus 
amongst  historians.  No  other  contemporary  writer  has  left 
so  indelible  a  stamp  upon  the  style  and  the  sentiment  of  his 
generation.  It  is  a  commonplace  that  Isocrates  is  the  apostle 
of  Panhellenism.  It  is  not  so  generally  recognized  that  he  is  the 
prophet  of  Hellenism.  A  passage  in  the  Panegyricus  (§  50 
ai<TT6  TO  rSiv  'EXMjvwv  ovona.  jurjKeTi  ToO  yevovs  dXXa  TTJS  diavoias 
SoKelv  tlvat  Kai  naXhav  "EXXTjcas  Ka\tiada.i  TOW  TJJS  iratSewrecos 
TTJS  17/ueTepas  rj  TOW  TTJS  KOIVTJS  $weatt  /xerexoi'Tas)  is  the  key 
to  the  history  of  the  next  three  centuries.  Doubtless  he  had  no 
conception  of  the  extent  to  which  the  East  was  to  be  hellenized. 
He  was,  however,  the  first  to  recognize  that  it  would  be  hellenized 
by  the  diffusion  of  Greek  culture  rather  than  of  Greek  blood.  His 
Panhellenism  was  the  outcome  of  his  recognition  of  the  new 
forces  and  tendencies  which  were  at  work  in  the  midst  of  a  new 
generation.  When  Greek  culture  was  becoming  more  and  more 
international,  the  exaggeration  of  the  principle  of  autonomy 
in  the  Greek  political  system  was  becoming  more  and  more 
absurd.  He  had  sufficient  insight  to  be  aware  that  the  price 
paid  for  this  autonomy  was  the  domination  of  Persia;  a  domina- 
tion which  meant  the' servitude  of  the  Greek  states  across  the 
Aegean  and  the  demoralization  of  Greek  political  life  at  home. 
His  Panhellenism  led  him  to  a  more  liberal  view  of  the  distinction 
between  what  was  Greek  and  what  was  not  than  was  possible 
to  the  intenser  patriotism  of  a  Demosthenes.  In  his  later  orations 
he  has  the  courage  not  only  to  pronounce  that  the  day  of  Athens 
as  a  first-rate  power  is  past,  but  to  see  in  Philip  the  needful 
leader  in  the  crusade  against  Persia.  The  earliest  and  greatest  of 
his  political  orations  is  the  Panegyricus,  published  in  380  B.C., 
midway  between  the  peace  of  Antalcidas  and  Leuctra.  It  is 
his  apologia  for  Panhellenism.  To  the  period  of  the  Social  War 
belong  the  De  pace  (355  B.C.)  and  the  Areopagiticus  (354  B.C.), 


460 


GREECE 


[HISTORY 


Demos- 
theaes. 


both  of  great  value  as  evidence  for  the  internal  conditions  of 
Athens  at  the  beginning  of  the  struggle  with  Macedon.  The 
Plataicus  (373  B.C.)  and  the  Archidamus  (366  B.C.)  throw  light 
upon  the  politics  of  Boeotia  and  the  Peloponnese  respectively. 
The  Panathenaicus  (339  B.C.),  the  child  of  his  old  age,  contains 
little  that  may  not  be  found  in  the  earlier  orations.  The 
Philippus  (346  B.C.)  is  of  peculiar  interest,  as  giving  the  views 
of  the  Macedonian  party. 

Not  the  least  remarkable  feature  in  recent  historical  criticism 
is  the  reaction  against  the  view  which  was  at  one  time  almost 
universally  accepted  of  the  character,  statesmanship 
and  authority  of  the  orator  Demosthenes  (q.v.). 
During  the  last  quarter  of  a  century  his  character  and 
statesmanship  have  been  attacked,  and  his  authority  impugned, 
by  a  series  of  writers  of  whom  Holm  and  Beloch  are  the  best 
known.  With  the  estimate  of  his  character  and  statesmanship 
we  are  not  here  concerned.  With  regard  to  his  value  as  an 
authority  for  the  history  of  the  period,  it  is  to  his  speeches,  and 
to  those  of  his  contemporaries,  Aeschines,  Hypereides,  Dinarchus 
and  Lycurgus,  that  we  owe  our  intimate  knowledge,  both  of 
the  working  of  the  constitutional  and  legal  systems,  and  of  the 
life  of  the  people,  at  this  period  of  Athenian  history.  From  this 
point  of  view  his  value  can  hardly  be  overestimated.  As  a 
witness,  however,  to  matters  of  fact,  his  authority  can  no  longer 
be  rated  as  highly  as  it  once  was,  e.g.  by  Schaefer  and  by  Grote. 
The  orator's  attitude  towards  events,  both  in  the  past  and  in  the 
present,  is  inevitably  a  different  one  from 'the  historian's.  The 
object  of  a  Thucydides  is  to  ascertain  a  fact,  or  to  exhibit  it  in 
its  true  relations.  The  object  of  a  Demosthenes  is  to  make 
a  point,  or  to  win  his  case.  In  their  dealings  with  the  past  the 
orators  exhibit  a  levity  which  is  almost  inconceivable  to  a  modern 
reader.  Andocides,  in  a  passage  of  his  speech  On  the  Mysteries 
(§  107),  speaks  of  Marathon  as  the  crowning  victory  of  Xerxes' 
campaign;  in  his  speech  On  the  Peace  (§  3)  he  confuses  Miltiades 
with  Cimon,  and  the  Five  Years'  Peace  with  the  Thirty  Years' 
Truce.  Though  the  latter  passage  is  a  mass  of  absurdities  and 
confusions,  it  was  so  generally  admired  that  it  was  incorporated 
by  Aeschines  in  his  speech  On  the  Embassy  (§§  172-176).  If  such 
was  their  attitude  towards  the  past;  if,  in  order  to  make  a  point, 
they  do  not  hesitate  to  pervert  history,  is  it  likely  that  they 
would  conform  to  a  higher  standard  of  veracity  in  their  state- 
ments as  to  the  present — as  to  their  contemporaries,  their  rivals 
or  their  own  actions  ?  When  we  compare  different  speeches  of 
Demosthenes,  separated  by  an  interval  of  years,  we  cannot  fail 
to  observe  a  marked  difference  in  his  statements.  The  farther 
he  is  from  the  events,  the  bolder  are  his  mis-statements.  It  is 
only  necessary  to  compare  the  speech  On  the  Crown  with  that  On 
the  Embassy,  and  this  latter  speech  with  the  Philippics  and 
Olynthiacs,  to  find  illustrations.  It  has  come  to  be  recognized 
that  no  statement  as  to  a  matter  of  fact  is  to  be  accepted,  unless 
it  receives  independent  corroboration,  or  unless  it  is  admitted 
by  both  sides.  The  speeches  of  Demosthenes  may  be  conveniently 
divided  into  four  classes  according  to  their  dates.  To  the  pre- 
Philippic  period  belong  the  speeches  On  the  Symmories  (354  B.  C.), 
On  Megalopolis  (352  B.C.),  Against  Aristocrates  (351  B.C.),  and, 
perhaps,  the  speech  On  Rhodes  (?  351  B.C.).  These  speeches 
betray  no  consciousness  of  the  danger  threatened  by  Philip's 
ambition.  The  policy  recommended  is  one  based  upon  the 
principle  of  the  balance  of  power.  To  the  succeeding  period, 
which  ends  with  the  peace  of  Philocrates  (346  B.C.),  belong  the 
First  Philippic  and  the  three  Olynthiacs.  To  the  period  between 
the  peace  of  Philocrates  and  Chaeronea  belong  the  speech  On 
the  Peace  (346  B.C.),  the  Second  Philippic  (344  B.C.),  the  speeches 
On  the  Embassy  (344  B.C.)  and  On  the  Chersonese  (341  B.C.),  and 
the  Third  Philippic.  The  masterpiece  of  his  genius,  the  speech 
On  the  Crown,  was  delivered  in  330  B.C.,  in  the  reign  of  Alexander. 
Of  the  three  extant  speeches  of  Aeschines  (q.v.)  that  On  the 
Embassy  is  of  great  value,  as  enabling  us  to  correct  the  mis- 
statements  of  Demosthenes.  For  the  period  from  the  death  of 
Alexander  to  the  fall  of  Corinth  (323-146  B.C.)  our  literary 
authorities  are  singularly  defective.  For  the  Diadochi  Diodorus 
(books  xviii.-xx.)  is  our  chief  source.  These  books  form  the 


most  valuable  part  of  Diodorus'  work.  They  are  mainly  based 
upon  the  work  of  Hieronymus  of  Cardia,  a  writer  who  combined 
exceptional  opportunities  for  ascertaining  the  truth  (he  was  in 
the  service  first  of  Eumenes,  and  then  of  Antigonus)  with  an 
exceptional  sense  of  its  importance.  Hieronymus  ended  his 
history  at  the  death  of  Pyrrhus  (272  B.C.),  but,  unfortunately, 
book  xx.  of  Diodorus'  work  carries  us  no  farther  than  303  B.C., 
and  of  the  later  books  we  have  but  scanty  fragments.  The 
narrative  of  Diodorus  may  be  supplemented  by  the  fragments 
of  Arrian's  History  of  the  events  after  Alexander's  death  (which 
reach,  however,  only  to  321  B.C.),  and  by  Plutarch's  Lives  of 
Eumenes  and  of  Demetrius.  For  the  rest  of  the  3rd  century  and 
the  first  half  of  the  2nd  we  have  his  Lives  of  Pyrrhus,  of  Aratus, 
of  Philopoemen,  and  of  Agis  and  Cleomenes.  For  the  period 
from  220  B.C.  onwards  Polybius  (q.v.)  is  our  chief  authority  (see 
ROME:  Ancient  History,  section  "  Authorities  ").  In  a  period 
in  which  the  literary  sources  are  so  scanty  great  weight  attaches 
to  the  epigraphic  and  numismatic  evidence. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The  literature  which  deals  with  the  history  of 
Greece,  in  its  various  periods,  departments  and  aspects,  is  of  so  vast 
a  bulk  that  all  that  can  be  attempted  here  is  to  indicate  the  most  im- 
portant and  most  accessible  works. 

General  Histories  of  Greece. — Down  to  the  middle  of  the  igth 
century  the  only  histories  of  Greece  deserving  of  mention  were  the 
products  of  English  scholarship.  The  two  earliest  of  these  were 
published  about  the  same  date,  towards  the  end  of  the  l8th  century, 
nearly  three-quarters  of  a  century  before  any  history  of  Greece, 
other  than  a  mere  compendium,  appeared  on  the  Continent.  John 
Gillies'  History  of  Greece  was  published  in  1786,  Mitford's  in  1784. 
Both  works  were  composed  with  a  political  bias  and  a  political  object. 
Gillies  was  a  Whig.  In  the  dedication  (to George  III.)  he  expresses 
the  view  that  "  the  History  of  Greece  exposes  the  dangerous  turbu- 
lence of  Democracy,  and  arraigns  the  despotism  of  Tyrants,  while 
it  evinces  the  inestimable  benefits,  resulting  to  Liberty  itself,  from 
the  steady  operation  of  well-regulated  monarchy."  Mitford  was 
a  Tory,  who  thought  to  demonstrate  the  evils  of  democracy  from 
the  example  of  the  Athenian  state.  His  History,  in  spite  of  its  bias, 
was  a  work  of  real  value.  More  than  fifty  years  elapsed  between 
Mitford'sworkandThirlwall's.  Connop  Thirlwall,  fellow  of  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  afterwards  bishop  of  St  David's,  brought  a 
sound  judgment  to  the  aid  of  ripe  scholarship.  His  History  of  Greece, 
published  in  1835-1838  (8  vols.),  is  entirely  free  from  the  controversial 
tone  of  Mitford's  volumes.  Ten  years  later  (1846)  George  Grote 
published  the  first  volumes  of  his  history,  which  was  not  completed 
(in  12  vols.)  till  1856.  Grote,  like  Mitford,  was  a  politician — an 
ardent  Radical,  with  republican  sympathies.  It  was  in  order  to 
refute  the  slanders  of  the  Tory  partisan  that  he  was  impelled  to 
write  a  history  of  Greece,  which  should  do  justice  to  the  greatest 
democracy  of  the  ancient  world,  the  Athenian  state.  Thus,  in  the 
case  of  three  of  these  four  writers,  the  interest  in  their  subject  was 
mainly  political.  Incomparably  the  greatest  of  these  works  is 
Grote's.  Grote  had  his  faults  and  his  limitations.  His  prejudices 
are  strong,  and  his  scholarship  is  weak ;  he  had  never  visited  Greece, 
and  he  knew  little  or  nothing  of  Greek  art ;  and,  at  the  time  he  wrote, 
the  importance  of  coins  and  inscriptions  was  imperfectly  appre- 
hended. In  spite  of  every  defect,  however,  his  work  is  the  greatest 
history  of  Greece  that  has  yet  been  written.  It  is  not  too  much  to 
say  that  nobody  knows  Greek  history  till  he  has  mastered  Grote. 
No  history  of  Greece  has  since  appeared  in  England  on  a  scale  at  all 
comparable  to  that  of  Grote's  work.  The  most  important  of  the 
more  recent  ones  is  that  by  J.  B.  Bury  (l  vol.,  1900),  formerly  fellow 
of  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  afterwards  Regius  Professor  of  Modern 
History  at  Cambridge.  Mitford  and  Bury  end  with  the  death  of 
Alexander;  Gillies  and  Grote  carry  on  the  narrative  a  generation 
farther;  while  Thirlwall's  work  extends  to  the  absorption  of  Greece 
in  the  Roman  Empire  (146  B.C.). 

While  in  France  the  Histoire  des  Grecs  (ending  at  146  B.C.)  of 
Victor  Duruy  (new  edition,  2  vols.,  1883),  Minister  of  Public  Instruc- 
tion under  Napoleon  III.,  is  the  only  one  that  need  be  mentioned, 
in  Germany  there  has  been  a  succession  of  histories  of  Greece  since 
the  middle  of  the  igth  century.  Kortum's  Geschichte  Griechenlands 
(3  vols.,  1854),  a  work  of  little  merit,  was  followed  by  Max  Duncker's 
Geschichte  der  Griechen  (vols.  I  and  2  published  in  1856;  vols.  I  and 
2,  Neue  Folge,  which  bring  the  narrative  down  to  the  death  of 
Pericles,  in  1884;  the  two  former  volumes  form  vols.  5,  6  and  7 
of  his  Geschichte  des  Altertums),  and  by  the  Griechische  Geschichte 
of  Ernst  Curtius  (3  vols.,  1857-1867).  An  English  translation  of 
Duncker,  by  S.  F.  Alleyne,  appeared  in  1883  (2  vols.,  Bentley), 
and  of  Curtius,  by  A.  W.  Ward  (5  vols.,  Bentley,  1868-1873).  Among 
more  recent  works  may  be  mentioned  the  Griechische  Geschichte  of 
Adolf  Holm  (4  vols.,  Berlin,  1886-1894;  English  translation  by  F. 
Clarke,  4  vols.,  Macmillan,  1894-1898),  and  histories  with  the  same 
title  by  Julius  Beloch  (3  vols.,  Strassburg,  1893-1904)  and  Georg 
Busolt  (2nd  ed.,  3  vols.,  Gotha,  1893-1904).  Holm  carries  on  the 
narrative  to  30  B.C.,  Beloch  to  217  B.C.,  Busolt  to  Chaeronea 


HISTORY] 


GREECE 


461 


(338  B.C.).1  Busolt's  work  is  entirely  different  in  character  from  any 
other  history  of  Greece.  The  writer's  object  is  to  refer  in  the  notes 
(which  constitute  five-sixths  of  the  book)  to  the  views  of  every  writer 
in  any  language  upon  every  controverted  question.  It  is  absolutely 
indispensable,  as  a  work  of  reference,  for  any  serious  study  of  Greek 
history.  The  ablest  work  since  Grote's  is  Eduard  Meyer's  Geschichte 
des  Altertums,  of  which  5  vols.  (Stuttgart  and  Berlin,  1884-1902) 
have  appeared,  carrying  the  narrative  down  to  the  death  of  Epami- 
nondas  (362  B.C.).  Vols.  2-5  are  principally  concerned  with  Greek 
history.  It  must  be  remembered  that,  partly  owing  to  the  literary 
finds  and  the  archaeological  discoveries  of  the  last  thirty  years, 
and  partly  owing  to  the  advance  made  in  the  study  of  epigraphy 
and  numismatics,  all  the  histories  published  before  those  of  Busolt, 
Beloch,  Meyer  and  Bury  are  out  of  date. 

Works  bearing  on  the  History  of  Greece. — Earlier  works  and  editions 
are  omitted,  except  in  the  case  of  a  work  which  has  not  been  super- 
seded. 

Introductions. — C.  Wachsmuth,  Einleitung  in  das  'Studium  der 
alien  Geschichte  (i  vol.,  Leipzig,  1895) ;  E.  Meyer,  Forschungen  zur 
alien  Geschichte  (2  parts,  Halle,  1892-1899;  quite  indispensable); 
J.  B.  Bury,  The  Ancient  Greek  Historians  (London,  1909). 

Constitutional  History  and  Institutions. — G.  F.  Schomann,  Grie- 
chische  Altertiimer  (2  vols.,  Berlin,  1855-1859;  vol.  i.,  tr.  by  E.  G. 
Hardy  and  J.  S.  Mann,  Rivingtons,  1880);  G.  Gilbert,  Griechische 
Staatsaltertiimer  (2nd  ed.,  2  vols.,  Leipzig,  1893;  vol.  i.  tr.  by  E.  J. 
Brooks  and  T.  Nicklin,  Swan  Sonnenschein,  1895);  K.  F.  Hermann, 
Lehrbuch  der  griechischen  Antiquitdten  (6th  ed.,  4  vols.,  Freiburg, 
1882-1895);  Iwan  Miiller,  Handbuch  der  klassischen  Altertums- 
wissenschaft  (9  vols.,  Nordlingen,  1886,  in  progress;  several  of  the 
volumes  are  concerned  with  Greek  history) ;  J.  H.  Lipsius,  Das 
attische  Recht  und  Rechlsverfahren  (Leipzig,  1905,  in  progress) ; 
A.  H.  J.  Greenidge,  Handbook  of  Greek  Constitutional  History  (i  vol., 
Macmillan,  1896);  Pauly-Wissowa,  Realencyklopddie  der  klassischen 
Altertumswissenschaft  (Stuttgart,  1894  foil.). 

Geography. — E.  H.  Bunbury,  History  of  Ancient  Geography 
amongst  the  Greeks  and  Romans  (2nd  ed.,  2  vols.,  Murray,  1883), 
W.  M.  Leake,  Travels  in  the  Morea  (3  vols.,  1830),  and  Travels  in 
Northern  Greece  (4  vols.,  1834) ;  H.  F.  Tozer,  Lectures  on  the  Geography 
of  Greece  (i  vol.,  Murray,  1873),  and  History  of  Ancient  Geography 
(i  vol.,  Cambridge,  1897);  J.  P.  Mahaffy,  Rambles  and  Studies  in 
Greece  (3rd  ed.,  i  vol.,  Macmillan,  1887,  an  admirable  book);  C. 
Bursian,  Geographic  von  Griechenland  (2  vols.,  Leipzig,  1872);  H. 
Berger,  Geschichte  der  wissenschafUichen  Erdkunde  der  Griechen 
(4  parts,  Leipzig,  1887-1893);  Ernst  Curtius,  Peloponnesos  (2  vols., 
Gotha,  1850-1851). 

Epigraphy  and  Numismatics. — Corpus  inscriptionum  Allicarum 
(Berlin,  1875,  in  progress),  Corpus  inscriptionum  Graecarum  (Berlin, 
1 892,  in  progress) .  The  following  selections  of  Greek  inscriptions  may 
be  mentioned :  E.  F.  Hicks  and  G.  F.  Hill,  Manual  of  Greek  Historical 
Inscriptions  (new  ed.,  i  vol.,  Oxford,  1901) ;  W.  Dittenberger,  Sylloge 
inscriptionum  Graecarum  (2nd  ed.,  2  vols.,  Berlin,  1898);  C.  Michel, 
Recueil  d' inscriptions  grecques  (Paris,  1900).  Among  works  on 
numismatics  the  English  reader  may  refer  to  B.  V.  Head,  Historia 
numorum  (i  vol.,  Oxford,  1887);  G.  F.  Hill,  Handbook  of  Greek  and 
Roman  Coins  (i  vol.,  Macmillan,  1899),  as  well  as  to  the  British 
Museum  Catalogue  of  Greek  Coins.  In  French  the  most  important 
general  work  is  the  Monnaies  grecques  of  F.  Imhoof-Blumer  (Paris, 
1883). 

Chronology,  Trade,  War,  Social  Life,  Gfc.—H.  F.  Clinton,  Fasti 
Hellenici  (3rd  ed.,  3  vols.,  Oxford,  1841,  a  work  of  which  English 
scholarship  may  well  be  proud;  it  is  still  invaluable  for  the. study 
of  Greek  chronology) ;  B.  Buchsenschutz,  Besitz  und  Erwerb  im 
griechischen  Altertume  (i  vol.,  Halle,  1869;  this  is  still  the  best 
book  on  Greek  commerce) ;  J.  Beloch,  Die  Bevolkerung  der  griechisch- 
romischen  Welt  (i  vol.,  Leipzig,  1886);  W.  Riistow  and  H.  Kochly, 
Geschichte  des  griechischen  Kriegswesens  (i  vol.,  Aarau,  1852);  J.  P. 
Mahaffy,  Social  Life  in  Greece  (2nd  ed.,  i  vol.,  1875).  (E.  M.  W.) 

b.  Post-Classical:  146  B.C.-A.D.  1800 

I.  THE  PERIOD  OF  ROMAN  RULE. — (i.)  Greece  under  the 
Republic  (146-27  B.C.).  After  the  collapse  of  the  Achaean 
League  (q.v.)  the  Senate  appointed  a  commission  to  reorganize 
Greece  as  a  Roman  dependency.  Corinth,  the  chief  centre  of 
resistance,  was  destroyed  and  its  inhabitants  sold  into  slavery. 
In  addition  to  this  act  of  exemplary  punishment,  which  may 
perhaps  have  been  inspired  in  part  by  the  desire  to  crush  a 
commercial  competitor,  steps  were  taken  to  obviate  future 
insurrections.  The  national  and  cantonal  federations  were 
dissolved,  commercial  intercourse  between  cities  was  restricted, 
and  the  government  transferred  from  the  democracies  to  the 
propertied  classes,  whose  interests  were  bound  up  with  Roman 
supremacy.  In  other  respects  few  changes  were  made  in  existing 
institutions.  Some  favoured  states  like  Athens  and  Sparta 
retained  their  full  sovereign  rights  as  civitates  liberae,  the  other 
1  Vol.  iii.  goes  down  to  the  end  of  the  Peloponnesian  War. 


cities  continued  to  enjoy  local  self-government.  The  ownership 
of  the  land  was  not  greatly  disturbed  by  confiscations,  and 
though  a  tribute  upon  it  was  levied,  this  impost  may  not  have 
been  universal.  General  powers  of  supervision  were  entrusted 
to  the  governor  of  Macedonia,  who  could  reserve  cases  of  high 
treason  for  his  decision,  and  in  case  of  need  send  troops  into  the 
country.  But  although  Greece  was  in  the  provincia  of  the 
Macedonian  proconsul,  in  the  sense  of  belonging  to  his  sphere  of 
command,  its  status  was  in  fact  more  favourable  than  that  of 
other  provincial  dependencies. 

This  settlement  was  acquiesced  in  by  the  Greek  people,  who 
had  come  to  realize  the  hopelessness  of  further  resistance.  The 
internal  disorder  which  was  arising  from  the  numerous  disputes 
about  property  rights  consequent  upon  the  political  revolutions 
was  checked  by  the  good  offices  of  the  historian  Polybius,  whom 
the  Senate  deputed  to  mediate  between  the  litigants.  The 
pacification  of  the  country  eventually  became  so  complete  that 
the  Romans  withdrew  the  former  restrictions  upon  intercourse 
and  allowed  some  of  the  leagues  to  revive.  But  its  quiet  was 
seriously  disturbed  during  the  first  Mithradatic  War  (88-84  B.C.), 
when  numerous  Greek  states  sided  with  Mithradates  (q.v.). 
The  success  which  the  invader  experienced  in  detaching  the 
Greeks  from  Rome  is  partly  to  be  explained  by  the  skilful  way 
in  which  his  agents  incited  the  imperialistic  ambitions  of 
prominent  cities  like  Athens,  partly  perhaps  by  his  promises 
of  support  to  the  democratic  parties.  The  result  of  the  war  was 
disastrous  to  Greece.  Apart  from  the  confiscations  and  exactions 
by  which  the  Roman  general  L.  Cornelius  Sulla  punished  the 
disloyal  communities,  the  extensive  and  protracted  campaigns 
left  Central  Greece  in  a  ruinous  condition.  During  the  last 
decades  of  the  Roman  republic  European  Greece  was  scarcely 
affected  by  contemporary  wars  nor  yet  exploited  by  Roman 
magistrates  in  the  same  systematic  manner  as  most  other 
provinces.  Yet  oppression  by  officials  who  traversed  Greece 
from  time  to  time  and  demanded  lavish  entertainments  and 
presentations  in  the  guise  of  viaticum  or  aurum  coronarium  was 
not  unknown.  Still  greater  was  the  suffering  produced  by  the 
rapacity  of  Roman  traders  and  capitalists:  it  is  recorded  that 
Sicyon  was  reduced  to  sell  its  most  cherished  art  treasures  in 
order  to  satisfy  its  creditors.  A  more  indirect  but  none  the  less 
far-reaching  drawback  to  Greek  prosperity  was  the  diversion 
of  trade  which  followed  upon  the  establishment  of  direct  com- 
munication between  Italy  and  the  Levant.  The  most  lucrative 
source  of  wealth  which  remained  to  the  European  Greeks  was 
pasturage  in  large  domains,  an  industry  which  almost  exclusively 
profited  the  richer  citizens  and  so  tended  to  widen  the  breach 
between  capitalists  and  the  poorer  classes,  and  still  further  to 
pauperize  the  latter.  The  coast  districts  and  islands  also 
suffered  considerably  from  swarms  of  pirates  who,  in  the  absence 
of  any  strong  fleet  in  Greek  waters,  were  able  to  obtain  a  firm 
footing  in  Crete  and  freely  plundered  the  chief  trading  places 
and  sanctuaries;  the  most  notable  of  such  visitations  was 
experienced  in  69  B.C.  by  the  island  of  Delos.  This  evil  came  to 
an  end  with  the  general  suppression  of  piracy  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean by  Pompey  (67  B.C.),  but  the  depopulation  which  it  had 
caused  in  some  regions  is  attested  by  the  fact  that  the  victorious 
admiral  settled  some  of  his  captives  on  the  desolated  coast 
strip  of  Achaea. 

In  the  conflict  between  Julius  Caesar  and  Pompey  the  Greeks 
provided  the  latter  with  a  large  part  of  his  excellent  fleet.  In 
48  B.C.  the  decisive  campaign  of  the  war  was  fought  on  Greek 
soil,  and  the  resources  of  the  land  were  severely  taxed  by  the 
requisitions  of  both  armies.  As  a  result  of  Caesar's  victory  at 
Pharsalus,  the  whole  country  fell  into  his  power;  the  treatment 
which  it  received  was  on  the  whole  lenient,  though  individual 
cities  were  punished  severely.  After  the  murder  of  Caesar  the 
Greeks  supported  the  cause  of  Brutus  (42  B.C.),  but  were  too 
weak  to  render  any  considerable  service.  In  39  B.C.  the  Pelo- 
ponnese  for  a  short  time  was  made  over  to  Sextus  Pompeius. 
During  the  subsequent  period  Greece  remained  in  the  hands  of 
M.  Antonius  (Mark  Antony),  who  imposed  further  exactions  in 
order  to  defray  the  cost  of  his  wars.  The  extensive  levies  which 


462 


GREECE 


[HISTORY 


he  made  in  31  B.C.  for  his  campaign  against  Octavian,  and  the 
contributions  which  his  gigantic  army  required,  exhausted  the 
country's  resources  so  completely  that  a  general  famine  was 
prevented  only  by  Octavian's  prompt  action  after  the  battle  of 
Actium  in  distributing  supplies  of  grain  and  evacuating  the  land 
with  all  haste.  The  depopulation  which  resulted  from  the  civil 
wars  was  partly  remedied  by  the  settlement  of  Italian  colonists  at 
Corinth  and  Patrae  by  Julius  Caesar  and  Octavian;  on  the  other 
hand,  the  foundation  of  Nicopolis  (q.v.)  by  the  latter  merely  had 
the  effect  of  transferring  the  people  from  the  country  to  the  city. 

(ii.)  The  Early  Roman  Empire  (27  B.C-A.D.  323). — Under  the 
emperor  Augustus  Thessaly  was  incorporated  with  Macedonia; 
the  rest  of  Greece  was  converted  into  the  province  of  Achaea, 
under  the  control  of  a  senatorial  proconsul  resident  at  Corinth. 
Many  states,  including  Athens  and  Sparta,  retained  their  rights 
as  free  and  nominally  independent  cities.  The  provincials  were 
encouraged  to  send  delegates  to  a  communal  synod  (KOIVOV  ruv 
'Axa-iuv)  which  met  at  Argos  to  consider  the  general  interests 
of  the  country  and  to  uphold  national  Hellenic  sentiment;  the 
Delphic  amphictyony  was  revived  and  extended  so  as  to  represent 
in  a  similar  fashion  northern  and  central  Greece. 

Economic  conditions  did  not  greatly  improve  under  the 
empire.  Although  new  industries  sprang  up  to  meet  the  needs 
of  Roman  luxury,  and  Greek  marble,'  textiles  and 
Social  table  delicacies  were  in  great  demand,  the  only  cities 
which  regained  a  really  flourishing  trade  were  the 
Italian  communities  of  Corinth  and  Patrae.  Commerce 
languished  in  general,  and  the  soil  was  mainly  abandoned  to 
pasturage.  Though  certain  districts  retained  a  measure  of 
prosperity,  e.g.  Thessaly,  Phocis,  Elis,  Argos  and  Laconia,  huge 
tracts  stood  depopulated  and  many  notable  cities  had  sunk 
into  ruins;  Aetolia,  Acarnania  and  Epirus  never  recovered 
from  the  effects  of  former  wars  and  from  the  withdrawal  of 
their  surviving  inhabitants  into  Nicopolis.  Such  wealth  as 
remained  was  amassed  in  the  hands  of  a  few  great  landowners 
and  capitalists;  the  middle  class  continued  to  dwindle,  and 
large  numbers  of  the  people  were  reduced  to  earning  a  precarious 
subsistence,  supplemented  by  frequent  doles  and  largesses. 

The  social  aspect  of  Greek  life  henceforward  becomes  its  most 
attractive  feature.  After  a  long  period  of  storm  and  stress,  the 
European  Hellenes  had  relapsed  into  a  quiet  and  resigned 
frame  of  mind  which  stands  in  sharp  contrast  on  the  one  hand 
with  the  energy  and  ability,  and  on  the  other  with  the  vulgar 
intriguing  of  their  Asiatic  kinsmen.  Seeing  no  future  before 
them,  the  inhabitants  were  content  to  dwell  in  contemplation 
amid  the  glories  of  the  past.  National  pride  was  fostered  by  the 
undisguised  respect  with  which  the  leading  Romans  of  the  age 
treated  Hellenic  culture.  And  although  this  sentiment  could 
degenerate  into  antiquarian  pedantry  and  vanity,  such  as  finds 
its  climax  in  the  diatribes  of  Apollonius  of  Tyana  against  the 
"  barbarians,"  it  prevented  the  nation  from  sinking  into  some 
of  the  worst  vices  of  the  age.  A  healthy  social  tone  repressed 
extravagant  luxury  and  the  ostentatious  display  of  wealth,  and 
good  taste  long  checked  the  spread  of  gladiatorial  contests 
beyond  the  Italian  community  of  Corinth.  The  most  widespread 
abuse  of  that  period,  the  adulation  and  adoration  of  emperors, 
was  indeed  introduced  into  European  Greece  and  formed  an 
essential  feature  of  the  proceedings  at  the  Delphic  amphictyony, 
but  it  never  absorbed  the  energies  of  the  people  in  the  same 
way  as  it  did  in  Asia.  In  order  to  perpetuate  their  old  culture, 
the  Greeks  continued  to  set  great  store  by  classical  education, 
and  in  Athens  they  possessed  an  academic  centre  which  gradually 
became  the  chief  university  of  the  Roman  empire.  The  highest 
representatives  of  this  type  of  old-world  refinement  are  to  be 
found  in  Dio  Chrysostom  and  especially  in  Plutarch  of  Chaeroneia 
(?-».). 

The  relations  between  European  Greece  and  Rome  were 
practically  confined  to  the  sphere  of  scholarship.  The  Hellenes 
had  so  far  lost  their  warlike  qualities  that  they  supplied  scarcely 
any  recruits  to  the  army.  They  retained  too  much  local  patriot- 
ism to  crowd  into  the  official  careers  of  senators  or  imperial 
servants.  Although  in  the  ist  century  A.D.  the  astute  Greek 


man  of  affairs  and  the  Graeculus  esuriens  of  Juvenal  abounded 
in  Rome,  both  these  classes  were  mainly  derived  from  the 
less  pure-blooded  population  beyond  the  Aegean. 

The  influx  of  Greek  rhetoricians  and  professors  into  Italy 
during  the  2nd  and  3rd  centuries  was  balanced  by  the  large 
number  of  travellers  who  came  to  Greece  to  frequent  its  sanatoria, 
and  especially  to  admire  its  works  of  art;  the  abundance  in 
which  these  latter  were  preserved  is  strikingly  attested  in  the 
extant  record  of  Pausanias  (about  A.D.  170). 

The  experience  of  the  Greeks  under  their  earliest  governors 
seems  to  have  been  unfortunate,  for  in  A.D.  15  they  petitioned 
Tiberius  to  transfer  the  administration  to  an  imperial 
legate.     This  new  arrangement  was  sanctioned,  but     a^mia 
only  lasted  till  A.D.  44,  when  Claudius  restored  the     tratioa. 
province  to  the  senate.    The  proconsuls  of  the  later 
ist  and  and  centuries  were  sometimes  ill  qualified  for  their  posts, 
but   cases  of  oppression  are  seldom  recorded  against   them. 
The  years  66  and  67  were  marked  by  a  visit  of  the  emperor  Nero, 
who  made  a  prolonged  tour  through  Greece  in  order  to  display 
his  artistic  accomplishments  at  the  various  national  festivals.  In 
return  for  the  flattering  reception  accorded  to  him  he  bestowed 
freedom  and  exemption  from  tribute  upon  the  country.     But 
this  favour  was  almost  neutralized  by  the  wholesale  depredations 
which  he  committed  among  the  chief  collections  of  art.     A 
scheme  for  cutting  through  the   Corinthian  isthmus  and  so 
reviving  the  Greek  carrying  trade  was  inaugurated  in  his  presence, 
but  soon  abandoned. 

As  Nero's  grant  of  self-government  brought  about  a  recrudes- 
cence of  misplaced  ambition  and  party  strife,  Vespasian  revoked 
the  gift  and  turned  Achaea  again  into  a  province,  at  the  same 
time  burdening  it  with  increased  taxes.  In  the  2nd  century  a 
succession  of  genuinely  phil-Hellenic  emperors  made  serious 
attempts  to  revive  the  nation's  prosperity.  Important  material 
benefits  were  conferred  by  Hadrian,  who  made  a  lengthy  visit  to 
Greece.  Besides  erecting  useful  public  works  in  many  cities, 
he  relieved  Achaea  of  its  arrears  of  tribute  and  exempted  it  from 
various  imposts.  In  order  to  check  extravagance  on  the  part 
of  the  free  cities,  he  greatly  extended  the  practice  of  placing 
them  under  the  supervision  of  imperial  functionaries  known  as 
correctores.  Hadrian  fostered  national  sentiment  by  establishing 
a  new  pan-Hellenic  congress  at  Athens,  while  he  gave  recognition 
to  the  increasing  ascendancy  of  Hellenic  culture  at  Rome  by 
his  institution  of  the  Athenaeum. 

In  the  3rd  century  the  only  political  event  of  importance  was 
the  edict  of  Caracalla  which  threw  open  the  Roman  citizenship 
to  large  numbers  of  provincials.  Its  chief  effect  in  Greece  was 
to  diminish  the  preponderance  of  the  wealthy  classes,  who 
formerly  had  used  their  riches  to  purchase  the  franchise  and  so 
to  secure  exemption  from  taxation.  The  chief  feature  of  this 
period  is  the  renewal  of  the  danger  from  foreign  invasions. 
Already  in  175  a  tribe  named  Costoboci  had  penetrated  into 
central  Greece,  but  was  there  broken  up  by  the  local  militia. 
In  253  a  threatened  attack  was  averted  by  the  stubborn  resistance 
of  Thessalonica.  In  267-268  the  province  was  overrun  by 
Gothic  bands,  which  captured  Athens  and  some  other  towns, 
but  were  finally  repulsed  by  the  Attic  levies  and  exterminated 
with  the  help  of  a  Roman  fleet. 

(iii.)  The  Late  Roman  Empire. — After  the  reorganization  of  the 
empire  by  Diocletian,  Achaea  occupied  a  prominent  position 
in  the  "  diocese  "  of  Macedonia.  Under  Constantine  I.  it  was 
included  in  the  "  prefecture  "  of  Illyricum.'  It  was  subdivided 
into  the  "  eparchies  "  of  Hellas,  Peloponnesus,  Nicopolis  and 
the  islands,  with  headquarters  at  Thebes,  Corinth,  Nicopolis 
and  Samos.  Thessaly  was  incorporated  with  Macedonia.  A 
complex  hierarchy  of  imperial  officials  was  now  introduced  and 
the  system  of  taxation  elaborated  so  as  to  yield  a  steady  revenue 
to  the  central  power.  The  levying  of  the  land-tax  was  imposed 
upon  the  SeKawpoiroi  or  "  ten  leading  men,"  who,  like  the  Latin 
decuriones,  were  entrusted  henceforth  with  the  administration 
in  most  cities.  The  tendency  to  reduce  all  constitutions  to  the 
Roman  municipal  pattern  became  prevalent  under  the  rulers 
of  this  period,  and  the  greater  number  of  them  was  stereotyped 


HISTORY] 


GREECE 


463 


the  general  regulations  of  the  Codex  Theodosianus  (438). 
Although  the  elevation  of  Constantinople  to  the  rank  of  capital 
was  prejudicial  to  Greece,  which  felt  the  competition  of  the 
new  centre  of  culture  and  learning  and  had  to  part  with  numerous 
works  of  art  destined  to  embellish  its  privileged  neighbour,  the 
general  level  of  prosperity  in  the  4tb  century  was  rising.  Com- 
mercial stagnation  was  checked  by  a  renewed  expansion  of 
trade  consequent  upon  the  diversion  of  the  trade  routes  to 
the  east  from  Egypt  to  the  Euxine  and  Aegean  Seas.  Agri- 
culture remained  in  a  depressed  condition,  and  many  small 
proprietors  were  reduced  to  serfdom;  but  the  fiscal  interests 
of  the  government  called  for  the  good  treatment  of  this  class, 
whose  growth  at  the  expense  of  the  slaves  was  an  important 
step  in  the  gradual  equalization  of  the  entire  population  under  the 
central  despotism  which  restored  solidarity  to  the  Greek  nation. 

This  prosperity  received  a  sharp  set-back  by  a  series  of  un- 
usually severe  earthquakes  in  375  and  by  the  irruption  of  a  host 
of  Visigoths  under  Alaric  (395-396),  whom  the  imperial  officers 
allowed  to  overrun  the  whole  land  unmolested  and  the  local 
levies  were  unable  to  check.  Though  ultimately  hunted  down 
in  Arcadia  and  induced  to  leave  the  province,  Alaric  had  time 
to  execute  systematic  devastations  which  crippled  Greece  for 
several  decades.  The  arrears  of  taxation  which  accumulated 
in  consequence  were  remitted  by  Theodosius  II.  in  428. 

The  emperors  of  the  4th  century  made  several  attempts  to 
stamp  out  by  edict  the  old  pagan  religion,  which,  with  its 
accompaniment  of  festivals,  oracles  and  mysteries,  still  main- 
tained an  outward  appearance  of  vigour,  and,  along  with  the 
philosophy  in  which  the  intellectual  classes  found  comfort, 
retained  the  affection  of  the  Greeks.  Except  for  the  decree  of 
Theodosius  I.  by  which  the  Olympian  games  were  interdicted 
(394),  these  measures  had  no  great  effect,  and  indeed  were  not 
rigorously  enforced.  Paganism  survived  in  Greece  till  about 
600,  but  the  interchange  of  ideas  and  practices  which  the  long- 
continued  contact  with  Christianity  had  effected  considerably 
modified  its  character.  Hence  the  Christian  religion,  though 
slow  in  making  its  way,  eventually  gained  a  sure  footing  among 
a  nation  which  accepted  it  spontaneously.  The  hold  of  the 
Church  upon  the  Greeks  was  strengthened  by  the  judicious 
manner  in  which  the  clergy,  unsupported  by  official  patronage 
and  often  out  of  sympathy  with  the  Arian  emperors,  identified 
itself  with  the  interests  of  the  people.  Though  in  the  days  when 
the  orthodox  Church  found  favour  at  court  corruption  spread 
among  its  higher  branches,  the  clergy  as  a  whole  rendered 
conspicuous  service  in  opposing  the  arbitrary  interferences  of 
the  central  government  and  in  upholding  the  use  of  the  Hellenic 
tongue,  together  with  some  rudiments  of  Hellenic  culture. 

The  separation  of  the  eastern  and  western  provinces  of  the 
empire  ultimately  had  an  important  effect  in  restoring  the 
language  and  customs  of  Greece  to  their  predominant  position 
in  the  Levant.  This  result,  however,  was  long  retarded  by  the 
romanizing  policy  of  Constantine  and  his  successors.  The 
emperors  of  the  sth  and  6th  centuries  had  no  regard  for  Greek 
culture,  and  Justinian  I.  actively  counteracted  Hellenism  by 
propagating  Roman  law  in  Greece,  by  impairing  the  powers  of 
the  self-governing  cities,  and  by  closing  the  philosophical  schools 
at  Athens  (529).  In  course  of  time  the  inhabitants  had  so  far 
forgotten  their  ancient  culture  that  they  abandoned  the  name 
of  Hellenes  for  that  of  Romans  (Rhomaioi).  For  a  long  time 
Greece  continued  to  be  an  obscure  and  neglected  province,  with 
no  interests  beyond  its  church  and  its  commercial  operations, 
and  its  culture  declined  rapidly.  Its  history  for  some  centuries 
dwindles  into  a  record  of  barbarian  invasions  which,  in  addition 
to  occasional  plagues  and  earthquakes,  seem  to  have  been  the 
only  events  found  worthy  Of  record  by  the  contemporary 
chroniclers. 

In  the  5th  century  Greece  was  only  subjected  to  brief  raids 
by  Vandal  pirates-(466-474)  and  Ostrogoths  (482).  In  Justinian's 
reign  irruptions  by  Huns  and  Avars  took  place,  but  led  to  no 
far-reaching  results.  The  emperor  had  endeavoured  to  strengthen 
the  country's  defences  by  repairing  the  fortifications  of  cities 
and  frontier  posts  (530),  but  his  policy  of  supplanting  the  local 


guards  by  imperial  troops  and  so  rendering  the  natives  incapable 
of  self-defence  was  ill-advised;  fortunately  it  was  never  carried 
out  with  energy,  and  so  the  Greek  militias  were  occasionally 
able  to  render  good  service  against  invaders. 

Towards  the  end  of  the  century  mention  is  made  for  the  first 
time  of  an  incursion  by  Slavonic  tribes  (581).  These  invaders 
are  to  be  regarded  as  merely  the  forerunners  of  a 
steady  movement  of  immigration  by  which  a  con-  Slavonic 
siderable  part  of  Greece  passed  for  a  time  into  foreign  aons!™' 
hands.  It  is  doubtful  how  far  the  newcomers  won 
their  territory  by  force  of  arms;  in  view  of  the  desolation  of 
many  rural  tracts,  which  had  long  been  in  progress  as  a  result 
of  economic  changes,  it  seems  probable  that  numerous  settle- 
ments were  made  on  unoccupied  land  and  did  not  challenge 
serious  opposition.  At  any  rate  the  effect  upon  the  Greek  popula- 
tion was  merely  to  accelerate  its  emigration  from  the  interior 
to  the  coastland  and  the  cities.  The  foreigners,  consisting  mainly 
of  Slovenes  and  Wends,  occupied  the  mountainous  inland, 
where  they  mostly  led  a  pastoral  life ;  the  natives  retained  some 
strips  of  plain  and  dwelt  secure  in  their  walled  towns,  among 
which  the  newly-built  fortresses  of  Monemvasia,  Corone  and 
Calamata  soon  rose  to  prosperity.  The  Slavonic  element,  to 
judge  by  the  geographical  names  in  that  tongue  which  survive 
in  Greece,  is  specially  marked  in  N.W.  Greece  and  Peloponnesus; 
central  Greece  appears  to  have  been  protected  against  them 
by  the  fortress-square  of  Chalcis,  Thebes,  Corinth  and  Athens. 
For  a  long  time  the  two  nations  dwelt  side  by  side  without  either 
displacing  the  other.  The  Slavs  were  too  rude  and  poor,  and 
too  much  distracted  with  cantonal  feuds,  to  make  any  further 
headway;  the  Greeks,  unused  to  arms  and  engrossed  in  com- 
merce, were  content  to  adopt  a  passive  attitude.  The  central 
government  took  no  steps  to  dislodge  the  invaders,  until  in  783 
the  empress  Irene  sent  an  expedition  which  reduced  most  of 
the  tribes  to  pay  tribute.  In  810  a  desperate  attempt  by  the 
Slavs  to  capture  Patrae  was  foiled;  henceforth  their  power 
steadily  decreased  and  their  submission  to  the  emperor  was 
made  complete  by  850.  A  powerful  factor  in  their  subjugation 
was  the  Greek  clergy,  who  by  the  loth  century  had  christianized 
and  largely  hellenized  all  the  foreigners  save  a  remnant  in  the 
peninsula  of  Maina. 

II.  THE  BYZANTINE  PERIOD. — In  the  7th  century  the  Greek 
language  made  its  way  into  the  imperial  army  and  civil  service, 
but  European  Greece  continued  to  have  little  voice  in  the 
administration.  The  land  was  divided  into  four  "  themes  " 
under  a  yearly  appointed  civil  and  military  governor.  Imperial 
troops  were  stationed  at  the  chief  strategic  points,  while  the 
natives  contributed  ships  for  naval  defence.  During  the  dispute 
about  images  the  Greeks  were  the  backbone  of  the  image- 
worshipping  party,  and  the  iconoclastic  edicts  of  Leo  III.  led 
to  a  revolt  in  727  which,  however,  was  easily  crushed  by  the 
imperial  fleet;  a  similar  movement  in  823,  when  the  Greeks 
sent  350  ships  to  aid  a  pretender,  met  with  the  same  fate.  The 
firm  government  of  the  Isaurian  dynasty  seems  to  have  benefited 
Greece,  whose  commerce  and  industry  again  became  flourishing. 
In  spite  of  occasional  set-backs  due  to  the  depredations  of 
pirates,  notably  the  Arab  corsairs  who  visited  the  Aegean  from 
the  7th  century  onwards,  the  Greeks  remained  the  chief  carriers 
in  the  Levant  until  the  rise  of  the  Italian  republics,  supplying 
all  Europe,  with  its  silk  fabrics. 

In  the  loth  century  Greece  experienced  a  renewal  of  raids 
from  the  Balkan  tribes.  The  Bulgarians  made  incursions  after 
929  and  sometimes  penetrated  to  the  Isthmus;  but  they  mostly 
failed  to  capture  the  cities,  and  in  995  their  strength  was  broken 
by  a  crushing  defeat  on  the  Spercheius  at  the  hands  of  the 
Byzantine  army.  Yet  their  devastations  greatly  thinned  the 
population  of  northern  Greece,  and  after  1084  Thessaly  was 
occupied  without  resistance  by  nomad  tribes  of  Vlachs.  In 
1084  also  Greece  was  subjected  to  the  first  attack  from  the  new 
nations  of  the  west,  when  the  Sicilian  Normans  gained  a  footing 
in  the  Ionian  islands.  The  same  people  made  a  notable  raid  upon 
the  seaboard  of  Greece  in  1145-1146,  and  sacked  the  cities  of 
Thebes  and  Corinth.  The  Venetians  also  appear  as  rivals  of 


GREECE 


[HISTORY 


the  Greeks,  and  after  1122  their  encroachments  in  the  Aegean 
Sea  never  ceased. 

In  spite  of  these  attacks,  the  country  on  the  whole  maintained 
its  prosperity.  The  travellers  Idrlsl  of  Palermo  (1153)  and 
Benjamin  of  Tudela  (1161)  testify  to  the  briskness  of  commerce, 
which  induced  many  foreign  merchants  to  take  up  their  residence 
in  Greece.  But  this  prosperity  revived  an  aristocracy  of  wealth 
which  used  its  riches  and  power  for  purely  selfish  ends,  and  under 
the  increasing  laxity  of  imperial  control  the  archontes  or  municipal 
rulers  often  combined  with  the  clergy  in  oppressing  the  poorer 
classes.  Least  of  all  were  these  nobles  prepared  to  become  the 
champions  of  Greece  against  foreign  invaders  at  a  time  when  they 
alone  could  have  organized  an  effectual  resistance. 

III.  The  Latin  Occupation  and  Turkish  Conquest. — The 
capture  of  Constantinople  and  dissolution  of  the  Byzantine 
empire  by  the  Latins  (1204)  brought  in  its  train  an  invasion  of 
Greece  by  Prankish  barons  eager  for  new  territory.  The 
natives,  who  had  long  forgotten  the  use  of  arms  and  dreaded 
no  worse  oppression  from  their  new  masters,  submitted  almost 
without  resistance,  and  only  the  N.W.  corner  of  Greece,  where 
Michael  Angelus,  a  Byzantine  prince,  founded  the  "despotat" 
of  Epirus,  was  saved  from  foreign  occupation.  The  rest  of  the 
country  was  divided  up  between  a  number  of  Prankish  barons, 
chief  among  whom  were  the  dukes  of  Achaea  (or  Peloponnese) 
and  "  grand  signers  "  of  Thebes  and  Athens,  the  Venetians,  who 
held  naval  stations  at  different  points  and  the  island  of  Crete, 
and  various  Italian  adventurers  who  mainly  settled  in  the 
Cyclades.  The  conquerors  transplanted  their  own  language, 
customs  and  religion  to  their  new  possessions,  and  endeavoured 
to  institute  the  feudal  system  of  land-tenure.  Yet  recognizing 
the  superiority  of  Greek  civil  institutions  they  allowed  the 
natives  to  retain  their  law  and  internal  administration  and  con- 
firmed proprietors  in  possession  of  their  land  on  payment  of  a 
rent;  the  Greek  church- was  subordinated  to  the  Roman  arch- 
bishops, but  upheld  its  former  control  over  the  people.  The 
commerce  and  industry  of  the  Greek  cities  was  hardly  affected 
by  the  change  of  government. 

Greek  history  during  the  Latin  occupation  loses  its  unity  and 
has  to  be  followed  in  several  threads.  In  the  north  the  "  despots  " 
of  Epirus  extended  their  rule  to  Thessaly  and  Macedonia,  but 
eventually  were  repulsed  by  the  Asiatic  Greeks  of  Nicaea,  and 
after  a  decisive  defeat  at  Pelagonia  (1250)  reduced  to  a  small 
dominion  round  lannina.  Thessaly  continued  to  change  masters 
rapidly.  Till  1308  it  was  governed  by  a  branch  line  of  the 
Epirote  dynasty.  When  this  family  died  out  it  fell  to  the  Grand 
Catalan  Company;  in  1350  it  was  conquered  along  with  Epirus 
by  Stephen  Dushan,  king  of  Servia.  About  1397  it  was  annexed 
by  the  Ottoman  Turks,  who  after  1431  also  gradually  wrested 
Epirus  from  its  latest  possessors,  the  Beneventine  family  of 
Tocco  (1390-1469). 

The  leading  power  in  central  Greece  was  the  Burgundian 
house  de  la  Roche,  which  established  a  mild  and  judicious  govern- 
ment in  Boeotia  and  Attica  and  in  I26r  was  raised  to  ducal  rank 
by  the  French  king  Louis  IX.  A  conflict  with  the  Grand  Catalan 
Company  resulted  in  a  disastrous  defeat  of  the  Franks  on  the 
Boeotian  Cephissus  (1311)  and  the  occupation  of  central  Greece 
by  the  Spanish  mercenaries,  who  seized  for  themselves  the  barons' 
fiefs  and  installed  princes  from  the  Sicilian  house  of  Aragon  as 
"  dukes  of  Athens  and  Neopatras  "  (Thessaly).  After  seventy- 
five  years  of  oppressive  rule  and  constant  wars  with  their 
neighbours  the  Catalans  were  expelled  by  the  Peloponnesian 
baron  Nerio  Acciaiuoli.  The  new  dynasty,  whose  peaceful 
government  revived  its  subjects'  industry,  became  tributary  to 
the  Turks  about  1415,  but  was  deposed  by  Sultan  Mahommed  II., 
who  annexed  central  Greece  in  1456. 

The  conquest  of  the  Peloponnese  was  effected  by  two  French 
knights,  William  Champlitte  and  Geoffrey  Villehar.douin,  the 
latter  of  whom  founded  a  dynasty  of  "  princes  of  all  Achaea." 
The  rulers  of  this  line  were  men  of  ability,  who  controlled  their 
barons  and  spiritual  vassals  with  a  firm  hand  and  established 
good  order  throughout  their  province.  The  Franks  of  the 
Morea  maintained  as  high  a  standard  of  culture  as  their  com- 


patriots at  home,  while  the  natives  grew  rich  enough  from  their 
industry  to  pay  considerable  taxes  without  discontent.  The 
climax  of  the  Villehardouins'  power  was  attained  under  Prince 
William,  who  subdued  the  last  independent  cities  of  the  coast 
and  the  mountaineers  of  Maina  ( 1 246-1 248) .  In  1 2  59,  however, 
the  same  ruler  was  involved  in  the  war  between  the  rulers  of 
Epirus  and  Nicaea,  and  being  captured  at  the  battle  of  Pela- 
gonia, could  only  ransom  himself  by  the  cession  of  Laconia 
to  the  restored  Byzantine  empire.  This  new  dependency  after 
1349  was  treated  with  great  care  by  the  Byzantine  monarchs, 
who  sought  to  repress  the  violence  of  the  local  aristocracies  by 
sending  their  kinsmen  to  govern  under  the  title  of  "  despots." 
On  the  other  hand,  with  the  extinction  of  the  Villehardouin 
dynasty  the  Prankish  province  fell  more  and  more  into  anarchy; 
at  the  same  time  the  numbers  of  the  foreigners  were  constantly 
dwindling  through  war,  and  as  they  disdained  to  recruit  them 
by  intermarriage,  the  preponderance  of  the  native  element 
in  the  Morea  eventually  became  complete.  Thus  by  1400  the 
Byzantines  were  enabled  to  recover  control  over  almost  the 
whole  peninsula  and  apportion  it  among  several  "  despots." 
But  the  mutual  quarrels  of  these  princes  soon  proved  fatal  to 
their  rule.  Already  in  the  I4th  century  they  had  employed 
Albanians  and  the  Turkish  pirates  who  harried  their  coasts  as 
auxiliaries  in  their  wars.  The  Albanians  largely  remained  as 
settlers,  and  the  connexion  with  the  Turks  could  no  longer  be 
shaken  off.  In  spite  of  attempts  to  fortify  the  Isthmus  (14 15)  an 
Ottoman  army  penetrated  into  Morea  and  deported  many 
inhabitants  in  1423.  An  invasion  of  central  Greece  by  the  despot 
Constantine  was  punished  by  renewed  raids  in  1446  and  1450. 
In  1457  the  despot  Thomas  withheld  the  tribute  which  he  had 
recently  stipulated  to  pay,  but  was  reduced  to  obedience  by  an 
expedition  under  Mahommed  II.  (1458).  A  renewed  revolt  in 
1459  was  punished  by  an  invasion  attended  with  executions  and 
deportations  on  a  large  scale,  and  by  the  annexation  of  the 
Morea  to  Turkey  (1460). 

IV.  The  Turkish  Dominion  till  1800. — Under  the  Ottoman 
government  Greece  was  split  up  into  six  sanjaks  or  military 
divisions:  (i)  Morea,  (2)  Epirus,  (3)  Thessaly,  (4)  Euboea, 
Boeotia  and  Attica,  (5)  Aetolia  and  Acarnania,  (6)  the  rest  of 
central  Greece,  with  capitals  at  Nauplia,  Jannina,  Trikkala, 
Negropont  (Chalkis),  Karlili  and  Lepanto;  further  divisions 
were  subsequently  composed  of  Crete  and  the  islands.  In  each 
sanjak  a  number  of  fiefs  was  apportioned  to  Turkish  settlers, 
who  were  bound  in  return  to  furnish  some  mounted  men  for 
the  sultan's  army,  the  total  force  thus  held  in  readiness  being 
over  7000.  The  local  government  was  left  in  the  hands  of  the 
archontes  or  primates  in  each  community,  who  also  undertook 
the  farming  of  the  taxes  and  the  policing  of  their  districts.  Law 
was  usually  administered  by  the  Greek  clergy.  The  natives 
were  not  burdened  with  large  imposts,  but  the  levying  of  the 
land-tithes  was  effected  in  an  inconvenient  fashion,  and  the 
capitation-tax,  to  which  all  Christians  were  subjected  was  felt 
as  a  humiliation.  A  further  grievance  lay  in  the  requisitions 
of  forced  labour  which  the  pashas  were  entitled  to  call  for;  but 
the  most  galling  exaction  was  the  tribute  of  children  for  the 
recruiting  of  the  Janissaries  (q.v.),  which  was  often  levied  with 
great  ruthlessness.  The  habitual  weakness  of  the  central  govern- 
ment also  left  the  Greeks  exposed  to  frequent  oppression  by  the 
Turkish  residents  and  by  their  own  magistrates  and  clergy. 
But  the  new  rulers  met  with  singularly  little  opposition.  The 
dangerous  elements  of  the  population  had  been  cleared  away  by 
Mahommed's  executions;  the  rest  were  content  to  absorb 
their  energies  in  agriculture  and  commerce,  which  in  spite  of 
preferential  duties  and  capitulations  to  foreign  powers  largely 
fell  again  into  the  hands  of  Greeks.  Another  important  instru- 
ment by  which  the  people  were  kept  down  was  their  own  clergy, 
whom  the  Turkish  rulers  treated  with  marked  favour  and  so 
induced  to  acquiesce  in  their  dominion. 

In  the  following  centuries  Greece  was  often  the  theatre  of 
war  in  which  the  Greeks  played  but  a  passive  part.  Several 
wars  with  Venice  (1463-79,  1498-1504)  put  the  Turks  in  posses- 
sion of  the  last  Italian  strongholds  on  the  mainland.  But  the 


HISTORY] 


GREECE 


465 


issue  was  mainly  fought  out  on  sea;  the  conflicts  which  had 
never  ceased  in  the  Aegean  since  the  coming  of  the  Italians 
now  grew  fiercer  than  ever;  Greek  ships  and  sailors  were 
frequently  requisitioned  for  the  Turkish  fleets,  and  the  damage 
done  to  the  Greek  seaboard  by  the  belligerents  and  by  fleets  of 
adventurers  and'  corsairs  brought  about  the  depopulation  of 
many  islands  and  coast-strips.  The  conquest  of  the  Aegean 
by  the  Ottomans  was  completed  by  1570;  but  Venice  retained 
Crete  till  1669  and  never  lost  Corfu  until  its  cession  to  France 
in  1797. 

In  1684  the  Venetians  took  advantage  of  the  preoccupation  of 
Turkey  on  the  Danube  to  attack  the  Morea.  A  small  mercenary 
army  under  Francesco  Morosini  captured  the  strong  places 
with  remarkable  ease,  and  by  1687  had  conquered  almost  the 
whole  peninsula.  In  1687  the  invaders  also  captured  Athens 
and  Lepanto;  but  the  former  town  had  soon  to  be  abandoned, 
and  with  their  failure  to  capture  Negropont  (1688)  the  Venetians 
were  brought  to  a  standstill.  By  the  peace  of  Karlowitz  (1699) 
the  Morea  became  a  possession  of  Venice.  The  new  rulers,  in 
spite  of  the  commercial  restrictions  which  they  imposed  in  favour 
of  their  own  traders,  checked  the  impoverishment  and  decrease 
of  population  (from  300,000  to  86,000)  which  the  war  had 
caused.  By  their  attempts  to  cooperate  with  the  native  magis- 
trates and  the  mildness  of  their  administration  they  improved 
the  spirit  of  their  subjects.  But  they  failed  to  make  their 
government  popular,  and  when  in  1715  the  Ottomans  with 
a  large  and  well-disciplined  army  set  themselves  to  recover 
the  Morea,  the  Venetians  were  left  without  support  from  the 
Greeks.  The  peninsula  was  rapidly  recaptured  and  by  the  peace 
of  Passarowitz  (1718)  again  became  a  Turkish  dependency. 
The  gaps  left  about  this  time  in  the  Greek  population  were 
largely  made  up  by  an  immigration  from  Albania. 

The  condition  of  the  Greeks  in  the  i8th  century  showed  a 
great  improvement  which  gave  rise  to  yet  greater  hopes.  Already 
in  the  I7th  century  the  personal  services  of  the  subjects  had 
been  commuted  into  money  contributions,  and  since  1676  the 
tribute  of  children  fell  into  abeyance.  The  increasing  use  of 
Greek  officials  in  the  Turkish  civil  service,  coupled  with  the 
privileges  accorded  to  the  Greek  clergy  throughout  the  Balkan 
countries,  tended  to  recall  the  consciousness  of  former  days  of 
predominance  in  the  Levant.  Lastly,  the  education  of  the 
Greeks,  which  had  always  remained  on  a  comparatively  high 
level,  was  rapidly  improved  by  the  foundation  of  new  schools 
and  academies. 

The  long  neglect  which  Greece  had  experienced  at  the  hands 
of  the  European  Powers  was  broken  in  1764,  when  Russian 
agents  appeared  in  the  country  with  promises  of  a  speedy 
deliverance  from  the  Turks.  A  small  expedition  under  Feodor 
and  Alexis  Orloff  actually  landed  in  the  Morea  in  1769,  but  failed 
to  rouse  national  sentiment.  Although  the  Russian  fleet  gained 
a  notable  victory  •  off  Chesme  near  Chios,  a  heavy  defeat  near 
Tripolitza  ruined  the  prospects  of  the  army.  The  Albanian 
troops  in  the  Turkish  army  subsequently  ravaged  the  country 
far  and  wide,  until  in  1779  they  were  exterminated  by  a  force 
of  Turkish  regulars.  In  1774  a  concession,  embodied  in  the 
treaty  of  Kuchuk  Kainarji,  by  which  Greek  traders  were  allowed 
to  sail  under  the  protection  of  the  Russian  flag,  marked  an 
important  step  in  the  rehabilitation  of  the  country  as  an  inde- 
pendent power.  Greek  commerce  henceforth  spread  swiftly 
over  the  Mediterranean,  and  increased  intercourse  developed  a 
new  sense  of  Hellenic  unity.  Among  the  pioneers  who  fostered 
this  movement  should  be  mentioned  Constantine  Rhigas,  the 
"  modern  Tyrtaeus,"  and  Adamantios  Corae's  (q.v.),  the  reformer 
of  the  Greek  tongue.  The  revived  memories  of  ancient  Hellas 
and  the  impression  created  by  the  French  revolution  combined 
to  give  the  final  impulse  which  made  the  Greeks  strike  for 
freedom.  By  1800  the  population  of  Greece  had  increased  to 
1,000,000,  and  although  200,000  of  these  were  Albanians,  the 
common  aversion  to  the  Moslem  united  the  two  races.  The 
military  resources  of  the  country  alone  remained  deficient,  for 
the  armatoli  or  local  militias,  which  had  never  been  quite  dis- 
banded since  Byzantine  times,  were  at  last  suppressed  by  Ali 


Pasha  of  lannina  and  found  but  a  poor  substitute  in  the  klephts 
who  henceforth  spring  into  prominence.  But  at  the  first  sign 
of  weakness  in  the  Turkish  dominion  the  Greek  nation  was 
ready  to  rise,  and  the  actual  outbreak  of  revolt  had  become 
merely  a  question  of  time. 

AUTHORITIES.— General :  G.  Finlay,  History  of  Greece  (ed.  Tozer, 
Oxford,  1877),  especially  vols.  L,  iv.,  v. ;  K.  Paparrhigopoulos, 
'laropia  TOV  'EXXrjvucoD  Wvoin  (4th  ed.,  Athens,  1903),  vols.  ii.-v. ; 
Histoire  de  la  civilisation  heltenique  (Paris,  1878);  R.  v.  Scala, 
Das  Griechentum  seit  Alexander  dent  Grossen  (Leipzig  and  Vienna, 
1904) ;  and  specially  W.  Miller,  The  Latins  in  the  Levant  (1908). 

Special — (a)  The  Roman  period :  Strabo,  bks.  yiii.-x. ;  Pausanias, 
Descriptio  Graeciae;  G.  F.  Hertzberg,  Die  Geschichte  Griechenlands 
unter  der  Herrschaft  der  Rdmer  (Halle,  1866-1875);  Sp.  Lampros, 
'laTopla.  rrjs  'EXXdSos  (Athens,  1888  sqq.),  vol.  iii. ;  A.  Holm, 
History  of  Greece  (Eng.  trans.,  London,  1894-1898),  vol.  iv.,  chs. 
19,  24,  26,  28  seq. ;  Th.  Mommsen,  The  Provinces  of  the  Roman 
Empire  (Eng.  trans.,  London,  1886,  ch.  7);  J.  P.  Mahaffy,  The 
Greek  World  under  Roman  Sway,  from  Polybius  to  Plutarch  (London, 
1890) ;  W.  Miller,  "  The  Romans  in  Greece  "  (Westminster  Review, 
August  1903,  pp.  186-210);  L.  Friedlander,  "  Griechenland  unter 
den  Romern  "  (Deutsche  Rundschau,  1899,  pp.  251-274,  402-430). 
(b)  The  Byzantine  and  Latin  periods:  G.  F.  Hertzberg,  Geschichte 
Griechenlands  seit  dem  Absterben  des  antiken  Lebens  (Gotha,  1876— 
1879),  vols.  i.,  ii.;  C.  Hopf,  Geschichte  Griechenlands  im  Mittelalter 
(Leipzig,  1868);  J.  A.  Buchon,  Histoire  des  conquetes  et  de  I'etablisse- 
ment  des  Franc,ais  dans  les  Etats  de  I'ancienne  Grece  (Paris,  1846) ; 
G.  Schmitt,  The  Chronicle  of  Morea  (London,  1904);  W.  Miller, 
"  The  Princes  of  the  Peloponnese  "  (Quarterly  Review,  July  1905, 
pp.  109-135);  D.  Bikelas,  Seven  Essays  on  Christian  Greece  (Paisley 
and  London,  1890);  La  Grece  byzantine  et  moderne  (Paris,  1893), 
pp.  1-193.  (c)  The  Turkish  and  Venetian  periods:  Hertzberg, 
op.  cit.,  vol.  iii. ;  K.  M.  Barthpldy,  Geschichte  Griechenlands  von  der 
Eroberung  Konstantinopels  (Leipzig,  1870),  bks.  i.  and  ii.,  pp.  1-155; 
K.  N.  Sathas,  ToupKOKparoviuvri  'EXXAs  (Athens,  1869) ;  W.  Miller, 
"  Greece  under  the  Turks "  (Westminster  Review,  August  and 
September  1904,  pp.  195-210,  304-320;  English  Historical  Review, 
1904,  pp.  646-668);  L.  Ranke,  "Die  Venetianer  in  Morea" 
(Historisch-politische  Zeitschrift,  ii.  405-502).  (d)  Special  subjects: 
Religion.  E.  Hatch,  The  Influence  of  Greek  Ideas  and  Usages  upon 
the  Christian  Church  (London,  1890).  Ethnology.  J.  P.  Fallmerayer, 
Geschichte  der  Halbinsel  Morea  wdhrend  des  Mittelalters  (Stuttgart 
and  Tubingen,  1830) ;  S.JZampelios,  Uepl  miyuv  veoeXXTji-ucijs  Wvbrtrr°* 
(Athens,  1857) ;  A.  Philippson,  "  Zur  Ethnographic  des  Peloponnes  " 
Petermann's  Mitteilungen  36  (1890),  pp.  i-u,  33-41];  A.  Vasiljev, 
"  Die  Slaven  in  Griechenland  "  [  VizanttjskyVremennik,  St  Petersburg, 
5  (1898),  pp.  404-438,  626-670]. 

See  also  ROMAN  EMPIRE,  LATER;  ATHENS.  (M.  O.  B.  C.) 

c.  Modern  History:  1800-1908. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  igth  century  Greece  was  still  under 
Turkish  domination,  but  the  dawn  of  freedom  was  already 
breaking,  and  a  variety  of  forces  were  at  work  which 
prepared  the  way  for  the  acquisition  of  national  'tledec*a~ 
independence.  The  decadence  of  the  Ottoman  empire,  Turkey. 
which  began  with  the  retreat  of  the  Turks  from  Vienna 
in  1683,  was  indicated  in  the  i8th  century  by  the  weakening  of 
the  central  power,  the  spread  of  anarchy  in  the  provinces,  the 
ravages  of  the  janissaries,  and  the  establishment  of  practically 
independent  sovereignties  or  fiefs,  such  as  those  of  Mehemet 
of  Bushat  at  Skodra  and  of  Ali  Pasha  of  Tepelen  at  lannina; 
the  i  gth  century  witnessed  the  first  uprisings  of  the  Christian 
populations  and  the  detachment  of  the  outlying  portions  of 
European  Turkey.  Up  to  the  end  of  the  i8th  century  none  of 
the  subject  races  had  risen  in  spontaneous  revolt  against  the 
Turks,  though  in  some  instances  they  rendered  aid  to  the  sultan's 
enemies;  the  spirit  of  the  conquered  nations  had  been  broken 
by  ages  of  oppression.  In  some  of  the  remoter  and  more  moun- 
tainous districts,  however,  the  authority  of  the  Turks  had  never 
been  completely  established;  in  Montenegro  a  small  fragment 
of  the  Serb  race  maintained  its  independence;  among  the  Greeks, 
the  Mainotes  in  the  extreme  south  of  the  Morea  and  the  Sphakiote 
mountaineers  in  Crete  had  never  been  completely  subdued. 
Resistance  to  Ottoman  rule  was  maintained  sporadically  in  the 
mountainous  districts  by  the  Greek  klephts  or  brigands,  the 
counterpart  of  the  Slavonic  haiduks,  and  by  the  pirates  of  the 
Aegean;  the  armaloles  or  bodies  of  Christian  warriors,  recognized 
by  the  Turks  as  a  local  police,  often  differed  little  in  their 
proceedings  from  the  brigands  whom  they  were  appointed  to 
pursue. 


466 


GREECE 


[HISTORY 


Of  the  series  of  insurrections  which  took  place  in  the  ipth 
century,  the  first  in  order  of  time  was  the  Servian,  which  broke 
out  in  1804;  the  second  was  the  Greek,  which  began 
in  l821-  In  botl1  these  movements  the  influence  of 
Russia  played  a  considerable  part.  In  the  case  of 
the  Servians  Russian  aid  was  mainly  diplomatic,  in  that  of  the 
Greeks  it  eventually  took  a  more  material  form.  Since  the  days 
of  Peter  the  Great,  the  eyes  of  Russia  had  been  fixed  on  Con- 
stantinople, the  great  metropolis  of  the  Orthodox  faith.  The 
policy  of  inciting  the  Greek  Christians  to  revolt  against  their 
oppressors,  which  was  first  adopted  in  the  reign  of  the  empress 
Anna,  was  put  into  practical  operation  by  the  empress  Catharine 
II.,  whose  favourite,  Orlov,  appeared  in  the  Aegean  with  a  fleet 
in  1769  and  landed  in  the  Morea,  where  he  organized  a  revolt. 
The  attempt  proved  a  failure;  Orlov  re-embarked,  leaving  the 
Greeks  at  the  mercy  of  the  Turks,  and  terrible  massacres  took 
place  at  Tripolitza,  Lemnos  and  elsewhere.  By  the  treaty  of 
Kutchuk-Kainarji  (July  21,  1774)  Russia  obtained  a  vaguely- 
defined  protectorate  over  the  Orthodox  Greek  subjects  of  Turkey, 
and  in  1781  she  arrived  at  an  arrangement  with  Austria,  known 
as  the  "  Greek  project,"  for  a  partition  of  Turkish  territory 
and  the  restoration  of  the  Byzantine  empire  under  Constantine, 
the  son  of  Catharine  II.  The  outbreak  of  the  French  Revolution 
distracted  the  attention  of  the  two  empires,  but  Russia  never 
ceased  to  intrigue  among  the  Christian  subjects  of  Turkey.  A 
revolt  of  the  inhabitants  of  Suli  in  1790  took  place  with  her 
connivance,  and  in  the  two  first  decades  of  the  igth  century 
her  agents  were  active  and  ubiquitous. 

The  influence  of  the  French  Revolution,  which  pervaded 
all  Europe,  extended  to  the  shores  of  the  Aegean.  The  Greeks, 
Greek  who  had  hitherto  been  drawn  together  mainly  by  a 
revohi-  common  religion,  were  now  animated  by  the  sentiment 
ttonary  of  nationality  and  by  an  ardent  desire  for  political 
freedom.  The  national  awakening,  as  in  the  case  of 
the  other  subject  Christian  nations,  was  preceded  by  a  literary 
revival.  Literary  and  patriotic  societies,  the  Philhellenes,  the 
Philomousi,  came  into  existence;  Greek  schools  were  founded 
everywhere;  the  philological  labours  of  Coraes,  which  created 
the  modern  written  language,  furnished  the  nation  with  a  mode 
of  literary  expression;  the  songs  of  Rhigas  of  Velestino  fired 
the  enthusiasm  of  the  people.  In  1815  was  founded  the  cele- 
brated Philike  Hetaerea,  or  friendly  society,  a  revolutionary 
organization  with  centres  at  Moscow,  Bucharest,  Triest,  and  in 
all  the  cities  of  the  Levant;  it  collected  subscriptions,  issued 
manifestos,  distributed  arms  and  made  preparations  for  the 
coming  insurrection.  The  revolt  of  Ali  Pasha  of  lannina  against 
the  authority  of  the  sultan  in  1820  formed  the  prelude  to  the 
Greek  uprising;  this  despot,  who  had  massacred  the  Greeks 
by  hundreds,  now  declared  himself  their  friend,  and  became 
a  member  of  the  Hetaerea.  In  March  1821  Alexander  Ypsi- 
lanti,  a  former  aide-de-camp  of  the  tsar  Alexander  I.,  and 
president  of  the  Hetaerea,  entered  Moldavia  from  Russian 
territory  at  the  head  of  a  small  force;  in  the  same  month 
Archbishop  Germanos  of  Patras  unfurled  the  standard  of  revolt 
at  Kalavryta  in  the  Morea. 

For  the  history  of  the  prolonged  struggle  which  followed 
see  GREEK  WAR  OF  INDEPENDENCE.  The  warfare  was  practically 
brought  to  a  close  by  the  annihilation  of  the  Egyptian 
fleet  at  Navarino  by  the  fleets  of  Great  Britain,  France 
Greece.  and  Russia  on  the  2oth  of  October  1827.  Nine  months 
previously,  Count  John  Capo  d'Istria  (q.v.),  formerly 
minister  of  foreign  affairs  of  the  tsar  Alexander,  had  been 
elected  president  of  the  Greek  republic  for  seven  years  beginning 
on  January  18,  1828.  By  the  protocol  of  London  (March  22, 
1829)  the  Greek  mainland  south  of  a  line  drawn  from  the  Gulf 
of  Arta  to  the  Gulf  of  Volo,  the  Morea  and  the  Cyclades  were 
declared  a  principality  tributary  to  the  sultan  under  a  Christian 
prince.  The  limits  drawn  by  the  protocol  of  London  were 
confirmed  by  the  treaty  of  Adrianople  (September  14,  1829), 
by  which  Greece  was  constituted  an  independent  monarchy. 
The  governments  of  Russia,  France  and  England  were  far 
from  sharing  the  enthusiasm  which  the  gallant  resistance  of  the 


Greeks  had  excited  among  the  peoples  of  Europe,  and  which 
inspired  the  devotion  of  Byron,  Cochrane,  Sir  Richard  Church, 
Fabvier  and  other  distinguished  Philhellenes;  jealousies 
prevailed  among  the  three  protecting  powers,  and  the  newly- 
liberated  nation  was  treated  in  a  niggardly  spirit;  its  narrow 
limits  were  reduced  by  a  new  protocol  (February  3,  1830),  which 
drew  the  boundary  line  at  the  Aspropotamo,  the  Spercheios  and 
the  Gulf  of  Lamia.  Capo  d'Istria,  whose  Russian  proclivities 
and  arbitrary  government  gave  great  offence  to  the  Greeks,  was 
assassinated  by  two  members  of  the  Mavromichalis  family 
(October  9,  1831),  and  a  state  of  anarchy  followed.  Before  his 
death  the  throne  of  Greece  had  been  offered  to  Prince  Leopold 
of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,  afterwards  king  of  the  Belgians,  who 
declined  it,  basing  his  refusal  on  the  inadequacy  of  the  limits 
assigned  to  the  new  kingdom  and  especially  the  exclusion  of 
Crete. 

By  the  convention  of  London  (May  7,  1832)  Greece  was 
declared  an  independent  kingdom  under  the  protection  of 
Great  Britain,  France  and  Russia  with  Prince  Otto,  Kl  ato 
son  of  King  Louis  I.  of  Bavaria,  as  king.  The  frontier 
line,  now  traced  from  the  Gulf  of  Arta  to  the  Gulf  of  Lamia, 
was  fixed  by  the  arrangement  of  Constantinople  (July  21,  1832). 
King  Otto,  who  had  been  brought  up  in  a  despotic  court, 
ruled  absolutely  for  the  first  eleven  years  of  his  reign;  he 
surrounded  himself  with  Bavarian  advisers  and  Bavarian  troops, 
and  his  rule  was  never  popular.  The  Greek  chiefs  and  politicians, 
who  found  themselves  excluded  from  all  influence  and  advance- 
ment, were  divided  into  three  factions  which  attached  themselves 
respectively  to  the  three  protecting  powers.  On  the  isth  of 
September  1843  a  military  revolt  broke  out  which  compelled  the 
king  to  dismiss  the  Bavarians  and  to  accept  a  constitution.  A 
responsible  ministry,  a  senate  nominated  by  the  king,  and  a 
chamber  elected  by  universal  suffrage  were  now  instituted. 
Mavrocordatos,  the  leader  of  the  English  party,  became  the  first 
prime  minister,  but  his  government  was  overthrown  at  the 
ensuing  elections,  and  a  coalition  of  the  French  and  Russian 
parties  under  Kolettes  and  Metaxas  succeeded  to  power.  The 
warfare  of  factions  was  aggravated  by  the  rivalry  between  the 
British  and  French  ministers,  Sir  Edmond  Lyons  and  M. 
Piscatory;  King  Otto  supported  the  French  party,  and  trouble 
arose  with  the  British  government,  which  in  1847  despatched 
warships  to  enforce  the  payment  of  interest  on  the  loan  con- 
tracted after  the  War  of  Independence.  A  British  fleet  subse- 
quently blockaded  the  Peiraeus  in  order  to  obtain  satisfaction 
for  the  claims  of  Pacifico,  a  Portuguese  Jew  under  British 
protection,  whose  house  had  been  plundered  during  a  riot.  On 
the  outbreak  of  hostilities  between  Russia  and  Turkey  in  1853 
the  Greeks  displayed  sympathy  with  Russia;  armed  bands 
were  sent  into  Thessaly,  and  an  insurrection  was  fomented  in 
Epirus  in  the  hope  of  securing  an  accession  of  territory.  In 
order  to  prevent  further  hostile  action  on  the  part  of  Greece, 
British  and  French  fleets  made  a  demonstration  against  the 
Peiraeus,  which  was  occupied  by  a  French  force  during  the 
Crimean  War.  The  disappointment  of  the  national  hopes 
increased  the  unpopularity  of  King  Otto,  who  had  never 
acquiesced  in  constitutional  rule.  In  1862  a  military  revolt 
broke  out,  and  a  national  assembly  pronounced  his  deposition. 
The  vacant  throne  was  offered  by  the  assembly  to  Duke  Nicholas 
of  Leuchtenberg,  a  cousin  of  the  tsar,  but  the  mass  of  the  people 
desired  a  constitutional  monarchy  of  the  British  type;  a 
plebiscite  was  taken,  and  Prince  Alfred  of  England  was  elected 
by  an  almost  unanimous  vote.  The  three  protecting  powers, 
however,  had  bound  themselves  to  the  exclusion  of  any  member 
of  their  ruling  houses.  In  the  following  year  Prince  William 
George  of  Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Gliicksburg,  whom 
the  British  government  had  designated  as  a  suitable  candidate, 
was  elected  by  the  National  Assembly  with  the  title  "  George  I., 
king  of  the  Hellene^"  Under  the  treaty  of  London  (July  13, 
1863)  the  change  of  dynasty  was  sanctioned  by  the  three  protect- 
ing powers,  Great  Britain  undertaking  to  cede  to  Greece  the 
seven  Ionian  Islands,  which  since  1815  had  formed  a  common- 
wealth under  British  protection. 


HISTORY] 


GREECE 


467 


On  the  zgth  of  October  1863  the  new  sovereign  arrived  in 
Athens,  and  in  the  following  June  the  British  authorities  handed 

over   the   Ionian   Islands  to  a  Greek  commissioner. 

KinS  George  thus  began  his  reign  under  the  most 
George  I.  favourable  auspices,  the  patriotic  sentiments  of  the 

Greeks  being  flattered  by  the  acquisition  of  new  territory. 
He  was,  however,  soon  confronted  with  constitutional  difficulties ; 
party  spirit  ran  riot  at  Athens,  the  ministries  which  he  appointed 
proved  short-lived,  his  counsellor,  Count  Sponneck,  became 
the  object  of  violent  attacks,  and  at  the  end  of  1864  he  was 
compelled  to  accept  an  ultra-democratic  constitution,  drawn 
up  by  the  National  Assembly.  This,  the  sixth  constitution  voted 
since  the  establishment  of  the  kingdom,  is  that  which  is  still  in 
force.  In  the  following  year  Count  Sponneck  left  Greece,  and 
the  attention  of  the  nation  was  concentrated  on  the  affairs  of 
Crete.  The  revolution  which  broke  out  in  that  island  received 
moral  and  material  support  from  the  Greek  government,  with 
the  tacit  approval  of  Russia;  military  preparations  were 
pressed  forward  at  Athens,  and  cruisers  were  purchased,  but  the 
king,  aware  of  the  inability  of  Greece  to  attain  her  ends  by 
warlike  means,  discouraged  a  provocative  attitude  towards 
Turkey,  and  eventually  dismissed  the  bellicose  cabinet  of 
Koumoundouros.  The  removal  of  a  powerful  minister  command- 
ing a  large  parliamentary  majority  constituted  an  important 
precedent  in  the  exercise  of  the  royal  prerogative;  the  king 
adopted  a  similar  course  with  regard  to  Delyannes  in  1892  and 
1897.  The  relations  with  the  porte,  however,  continued  to  grow 
worse,  and  Hobart  Pasha,  with  a  Turkish  fleet,  made  a  demonstra- 
tion off  Syra.  The  Cretan  insurrection  was  finally  crushed  in 
the  spring  of  1869,  and  a  conference  of  the  powers,  which 
assembled  that  year  at  Paris,  imposed  a  settlement  of  the 
Turkish  dispute  on  Greece,  but  took  no  steps  on  behalf  of  the 
Cretans.  In  1870  the  murder  of  several  Englishmen  by  brigands 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Athens  produced  an  unfavourable 
impression  in  Europe;  in  the  following  year  the  confiscation 
of  the  Laurion  mines,  which  had  been  ceded  to  a  Franco-Italian 
company,  provoked  energetic  action  on  the  part  of  France  and 
Italy.  In  1875,  after  an  acute  constitutional  crisis,  Charilaos 
Trikoupes,  who  but  ten  months  previously  had  been  imprisoned 
for  denouncing  the  crown  in  a  newspaper  article,  was  summoned 
to  form  a  cabinet.  This  remarkable  man,  the  only  great  states- 
man whom  modern  Greece  has  produced,  exercised  an  extra- 
ordinary influence  over  his  countrymen  for  the  next  twenty 
years;  had  he  been  able  to  maintain  himself  uninterruptedly 
in  power  during  that  period,  Greece  might  have  escaped  a  long 
succession  of  misfortunes.  His  principal  opponent,  Theodore 
Delyannes,  succeeded  in  rallying  a  strong  body  of  adherents, 
and  political  parties,  hitherto  divided  into  numerous  factions, 
centred  around  these  two  prominent  figures. 

In  1877  the  outbreak  of  the  Russo-Turkish  War  produced  a 
fever  of  excitement   in  Greece;   it  was  felt  that  the  quarrels 

of  the  party  leaders  compromised  the  interests  of  the 
froatier  country,  and  the  populace  of  Athens  insisted  on  the 
1881.  formation  of  a  coalition  cabinet.  The  "  great  "  or 

"  oecumenical  "  ministry,  as  it  was  called,  now  came 
into  existence  under  the  presidency  of  the  veteran  Kanares;  in 
reality,  however,  it  was  controlled  by  Trikoupes,  who,  recognizing 
the  unpreparedness  of  the  country,  resolved  on  a  pacific  policy. 
The  capture  of  Plevna  by  the  Russians  brought  about  the  fall 
of  the  "  oecumenical "  ministry,  and  Koumoundouros  and 
Delyannes,  who  succeeded  to  power,  ordered  the  invasion  of 
Thessaly.  Their  warlike  energies,  however,  were  soon  checked 
by  the  signing  of  the  San  Stefano  Treaty,  in  which  the  claims 
of  Greece  to  an  extension  of  frontier  were  altogether  ignored. 
At  the  Berlin  congress  two  Greek  delegates  obtained  a  hearing 
on  the  proposal  of  Lord  Salisbury.  The  congress  decided  that 
the  rectification  of  the  frontier  should  be  left  to  Turkey  and 
Greece,  the  mediation  of  the  powers  being»proposed  in  case  of 
non-agreement;  it  was  suggested,  however,  that  the  rectified 
frontier  should  extend  from  the  valley  of  the  Peneus  on  the  east 
to  the  mouth  of  the  Kalamas,  opposite  the  southern  extremity 
of  Corfu,  on  the  west.  In  1879  a  Greco-Turkish  commission 


for  the  delimitation  met  first  at  Prevesa,  and  subsequently  at 
Constantinople,  but  its  conferences  were  without  result,  the 
Turkish  commissioners  declining  the  boundary  suggested  at 
Berlin.  Greece  then  invoked  the  arbitration  of  the  powers, 
and  the  settlement  of  the  question  was  undertaken  by  a  confer- 
ence of  ambassadors  at  Berlin  (1880).  The  line  approved  by 
the  conference  was  practically  that  suggested  by  the  congress; 
Turkey,  however,  refused  to  accept  it,  and  the  Greek  army  was 
once  more  mobilized.  In  was  evident,  however,  that  nothing 
could  be  gained  by  an  appeal  to  arms,  the  powers  not  being 
prepared  to  apply  coercion  to  Turkey.  By  a  convention  signed 
at  Constantinople  in  July  1881,  the  demarcation  was  entrusted 
to  a  commission  representing  the  six  powers  and  the  two 
interested  parties.  The  line  drawn  ran  westwards  from  a  point 
between  the  mouth  of  the  Peneus  and  Platamona  to  the  summits 
of  Mounts  Kritiri  and  Zygos,  thence  following  the  course  of 
the  river  Arta  to  its  mouth.  An  area  of  13,395  square  kilometres, 
with  a  population  of  300,000  souls,wasthus  added  to  the  kingdom, 
while  Turkey  was  left  in  possession  of  lannina,  Metzovo  and 
most  of  Epirus.  The  ceded  territory  was  occupied  by  Greek 
troops  before  the  close  of  the  year. 

In  1882  Trikoupes  came  into  power  at  the  head  of  a  strong 
party,  over  which  he  exercised  an  influence  and  authority 
hitherto  unknown  in  Greek  political  life.  With  the 
exception  of  three  brief  intervals  (May  1885  to  May  Tr"">aPes 
1886,  October  1890  to  February  1892,  and  a  few  Deiyaaaes. 
months  in  1893),  he  continued  in  office  for  the  next 
twelve  years.  The  reforms  which  he  introduced  during  this  period 
were  generally  of  an  unpopular  character,  and  were  loudly 
denounced  by  his  democratic  rivals;  most  of  them  were  cancelled 
during  the  intervals  when  his  opponent  Delyannes  occupied  the 
premiership.  The  same  want  of  continuity  proved  fatal  to  the 
somewhat  ambitious  financial  programme  which  he  now  inaugur- 
ated. While  pursuing  a  cautious  foreign  policy,  and  keeping 
in  control  the  rash  impetuosity  of  his  fellow-countrymen,  he 
shared  to  the  full  the  national  desire  for  expansion,  but  he  looked 
to  the  development  of  the  material  resources  of  the  country 
as  a  necessary  preliminary  to  the  realization  of  the  dreams  of 
Hellenism.  With  this  view  he  endeavoured  to  attract  foreign 
capital  to  the  country,  and  the  confidence  which  he  inspired  in 
financial  circles  abroad  enabled  him  to  contract  a  number  of 
loans  and  to  better  the  financial  situation  by  a  series  of  con- 
versions. Under  a  stable,  wise,  and  economical  administration 
this  far-reaching  programme  might  perhaps  have  been  carried 
out  with  success,  but  the  vicissitudes  of  party  politics  and  the 
periodical  outbursts  of  national  sentiment  rendered  its  realization 
impossible.  In  April  1885  Trikoupes  fell  from  power,  and  a 
few  months  later  the  indignation  excited  in  Greece  by  the  revolu- 
tion of  Philippopolis  placed  Delyannes  once  more  at  the  head 
of  a  warlike  movement.  The  army  and  fleet  were  again 
mobilized  with  a  view  to  exacting  territorial  compensation 
for  the  aggrandizement  of  Bulgaria,  and  several  conflicts  with 
the  Turkish  troops  took  place  on  the  frontier.  The  powers, 
after  repeatedly  inviting  the  Delyannes  cabinet  to  disarm, 
established  a  blockade  of  Peiraeus  and  other  Greek  ports  (8th 
May  1886),  France  alone  declining  to  co-operate  in  this  measure. 
Delyannes  resigned  (nth  May)  and  Trikoupes,  who  succeeded 
to  power,  issued  a  decree  of  disarmament  (2$th  May).  Hostilities, 
however,  continued  on  the  frontier,  and  the  blockade  was  not 
raised  till  7th  June.  Trikoupes  had  now  to  face  the  serious 
financial  situation  brought  about  by  the  military  activity  of  his 
predecessor.  He  imposed  heavy  taxation,  which  the  people, 
for  the  time  at  least,  bore  without  murmuring,  and  he  continued 
to  inspire  such  confidence  abroad  that  Greek  securities  maintained 
their  price  in  the  foreign  market.  It  was  ominous,  however, 
that  a  loan  which  he  issued  in  1890  was  only  partially  covered. 
Meanwhile  the  Cretan  difficulty  had  become  once  more  a  source 
of  trouble  to  Greece.  In  1889  Trikoupes  was  grossly  deceived 
by  the  Turkish  government,  which,  after  inducing  him  to 
dissuade  the  Cretans  from  opposing  the  occupation  of  certain 
fortified  posts,  issued  a  firman  annulling  many  important 
provisions  in  the  constitution  of  the  island.  The  indignation 


468 


GREECE 


[HISTORY 


in  Greece  was  intense,  and  popular  discontent  was  increased 
by  the  success  of  the  Bulgarians  in  obtaining  the  exequatur  of 
the  sultan  for  a  number  of  bishops  in  Macedonia.  In  the 
autumn  of  1890  Trikoupes  was  beaten  at  the  elections,  and 
Delyannes,  who  had  promised  the  people  a  radical  reform  of 
the  taxation,  succeeded  to  power.  He  proved  unequal,  however, 
to  cope  with  the  financial  difficulty,  which  now  became  urgent; 
and  the  king,  perceiving  that  a  crisis  was  imminent,  dismissed 
him  and  recalled  Trikoupes.  The  hope  of  averting  national 
bankruptcy  depended  on  the  possibility  of  raising  a  loan  by 
which  the  rapid  depreciation  of  the  paper  currency  might  be 
arrested,  but  foreign  financiers  demanded  guarantees  which 
seemed  likely  to  prove  hurtful  to  Greek  susceptibilities;  an 
agitation  was  raised  at  Athens,  and  Trikoupes  suddenly  resigned 
(May  1893).  His  conduct  at  this  juncture  appears  to  have  been 
due  to  some  misunderstandings  which  had  arisen  between  him 
and  the  king.  The  Sotiropoulos-Rhalles  ministry  which  followed 
effected  a  temporary  settlement  with  the  national  creditors, 
but  Trikoupes,  returning  to  power  in  the  autumn,  at  once 
annulled  the  arrangement.  He  now  proceeded  to  a  series  of 
arbitrary  measures  which  provoked  the  severest  criticism 
throughout  Europe  and  exposed  Greece  to  the  determined 
hostility  of  Germany.  A  law  was  hastily  passed  which  deprived 
the  creditors  of  70%  of  their  interest,  and  the  proceeds  of  the 
revenues  conceded  to  the  monopoly  bondholders  were  seized 
(December  1893).  Long  negotiations  followed,  resulting  in  an 
arrangement  which  was  subsequently  reversed  by  the  German 
bondholders.  In  January  1895  Trikoupes  resigned  office,  in 
consequence  of  a  disagreement  with  the  crown  prince  on  a 
question  of  military  discipline.  His  popularity  had  vanished, 
his  health  was  shattered,  and  he  determined  to  abandon  his 
political  career.  His  death  at  Cannes  (nth  April  1896),  on  the 
eve  of  a  great  national  convulsion,  deprived  Greece  of  his 
masterly  guidance  and  sober  judgment  at  a  critical  moment 
in  her  history. 

His  funeral  took  place  at  Athens  on  23rd  April,  while  the  city 
was  still  decorated  with  flags  and  garlands,  after  the  celebration 
Nation-  °f  *-he  CMymPic  games.  The  revival  of  the  ancient 
aiist  festival,  which  drew  together  multitudes  of  Greeks 

agitation,  frOm  abroad,  led  to  a  lively  awakening  of  the  national 
1896'  sentiment,  hitherto  depressed  by  the  economic  mis- 
fortunes of  the  kingdom,  and  a  secret  patriotic  society,  known 
as  the  Ethnike  Hetaerea,  began  to  develop  prodigious  activity, 
enrolling  members  from  every  rank  of  life  and  establishing 
branches  in  all  parts  of  the  Hellenic  world.  The  society  had 
been  founded  in  1894,  by  a  handful  of  young  officers  who  con- 
sidered that  the  military  organization  of  the  country  was 
neglected  by  the  government;  its  principal  aim  was  the  pre- 
paration of  an  insurrectionary  movement  in  Macedonia,  which, 
owing  to  the  activity  of  the  Bulgarians  and  the  reconciliation 
of  Prince  Ferdinand  with  Russia,  seemed  likely  to  be  withdrawn 
for  ever  from  the  domain  of  Greek  irredentism.  The  outbreak 
of  another  insurrection  in  Crete  supplied  the  means  of  creating 
a  diversion  for  Turkey  while  the  movement  in  Macedonia  was 
being  matured;  arms  and  volunteers  were  shipped  to  the 
island,  but  the  society  was  as  yet  unable  to  force  the  hand  of  the 
government,  and  Delyannes,  who  had  succeeded  Trikoupes  in 
1895,  loyally  aided  the  powers  in  the  restoration  of  order  by 
advising  the  Cretans  to  accept  the  constitution  of  1896.  The 
appearance  of  strong  insurgent  bands  in  Macedonia  in  the 
summer  of  that  year  testified  to  the  activity  of  the  society  and 
provoked  the  remonstrances  of  the  powers,  while  the  spread 
of  its  propaganda  in  the  army  led  to  the  issue  of  a  royal  rescript 
announcing  grand  military  manoeuvres,  the  formation  of  a 
standing  camp,  and  the  rearmament  of  the  troops  with  a  new 
weapon  (6th  December).  The  objects  of  the  society  were 
effectually  furthered  by  the  evident  determination  of  the  porte 
to  evade  the  application  of  the  stipulated  reforms  in  Crete;  the 
Cretan  Christians  lost  patience,  and  indignation  was  widespread 
in  Greece.  Emissaries  of  the  society  were  despatched  to  the 
island,  and  affairs  were  brought  to  a  climax  by  an  outbreak 
at  Canea  on  4th  February  1897.  The  Turkish  troops  fired  on 


the  Christians,  thousands  of  whom  took  refuge  on  the  warships 
of  the  powers,  and  a  portion  of  the  town  was  consumed  by  fire. 

Delyannes  now  announced  that  the  government  had 
abandoned  the  policy  of  abstention.  On  the  6th  two  warships 
were  despatched  to  Canea,  and  on  the  loth  a  torpedo 
flotilla,  commanded  by  Prince  George,  left  Peiraeus  Cretan 
amid  tumultuous  demonstrations.  The  ostensible  object  ASP/*' 
of  these  measures  was  the  protection  of  Greek  subjects 
in  Crete,  and  Delyannes  was  still  anxious  to  avoid  a  definite 
rupture  with  Turkey,  but  the  Ethnike  Hetaerea  had  found 
means  to  influence  several  members  of  the  ministry  and  to  alarm 
the  king.  Prince  George,  who  had  received  orders  to  prevent 
the  landing  of  Turkish  reinforcements  on  the  island,'  soon  with- 
drew from  Cretan  waters  owing  to  the  decisive  attitude  adopted 
by  the  commanders  of  the  international  squadron.  A  note  was 
now  addressed  by  the  government  to  the  powers,  declaring 
that  Greece  could  no  longer  remain  a  passive  spectator  of  events 
in  Crete,  and  on  the  i3th  of  February  a  force  of  1500  men,  under 
Colonel  Vassos,  embarked  at  Peiraeus.  On  the  same  day  a 
Greek  warship  fired  on  a  Turkish  steam  yacht  which  was  convey- 
ing troops  from  Candia  to  Sitia.  Landing  near  Canea  on  the 
night  of  the  i4th,  Colonel  Vassos  issued  a  proclamation  announc- 
ing the  occupation  of  Crete  in  the  name  of  King  George.  He 
had  received  orders  to  expel  the  Turkish  garrisons  from  the 
fortresses,  but  his  advance  on  Canea  was  arrested  by  the  inter- 
national occupation  of  that  town,  and  after  a  few  engagements 
with  the  Turkish  troops  and  irregulars  he  withdrew  into  the 
interior  of  the  island.  Proposals  for  the  coercion  of  Greece  were 
now  put  forward  by  Germany,  but  Great  Britain  declined  to 
take  action  until  an  understanding  had  been  arrived  at  with 
regard  to  the  future  government  of  Crete.  Eventually  (and 
March)  collective  notes  were  addressed  to  the  Greek  and  Turkish 
governments  announcing  the  decision  of  the  powers  that  (i) 
Crete  could  in  no  case  in  present  circumstances  be  annexed  to 
Greece;  (2)  in  view  of  the  delays  caused  by  Turkey  in  the  appli- 
cation of  the  reforms,  Crete  should  be  endowed  with  an  effective 
autonomous  administration,  calculated  to  ensure  it  a  separate 
government,  under  the  suzerainty  of  the  sultan.  'Greece  was  at 
the  same  time  summoned  to  remove  its  army  and  fleet  within 
the  space  of  six  days,  and  Turkey  was  warned  that  its  troops 
must  for  the  present  be  concentrated  in  the  fortified  towns  and 
ultimately  withdrawn  from  the  island.  The  action  of  the  powers 
produced  the  utmost  exasperation  at  Athens;  the  populace 
demanded  war  with  Turkey  and  the  annexation  of  Crete,  and 
the  government  drew  up  a  reply  to  the  powers  in  which,  while 
expressing  the  conviction  that  autonomy  would  prove  a  failure, 
it  indicated  its  readiness  to  withdraw  some  of  the  ships,  but 
declined  to  recall  the  army.  A  suggestion  that  the  troops  might 
receive  a  European  mandate  for  the  preservation  of  order  in 
the  island  proved  unacceptable  to  the  powers,  owing  to  the 
aggressive  action  of  Colonel  Vassos  after  his  arrival.  Meanwhile 
troops,  volunteers  and  munitions  of  war  were  hurriedly 
despatched  to  the  Turkish  frontier  in  anticipation  of  an  inter- 
national blockade  of  the  Greek  ports,  but  the  powers  contented 
themselves  with  a  pacific  blockade  of  Crete,  and  military  pre- 
parations went  on  unimpeded. 

While  the  powers  dallied,  the  danger  of  war  increased;  on 
2gth  March  the  crown  prince  assumed  command  of  the  Greek 
troops  in  Thessaly,  and  a  few  days  later  hostilities 
were  precipitated  by  the  irregular  forces  of  the  Ethnike  Turkey, 
Hetaerea,  which  attacked  several  Turkish  outposts 
near  Grevena.  According  to  a  report  of  its  proceedings,  subse- 
quently published  by  the  society,  this  invasion  received  the 
previous  sanction  of  the  prime  minister.  On  1 7th  April  Turkey 
declared  war.  The  disastrous  campaign  which  followed  was  of 
short  duration ,  and  it  was  evident  from  the  outset  that  the 
Greeks  had  greatly  underrated  the  military  strength  of  their 
opponents  (see  GRECO-TURKISH  WAR).  After  the  evacuation 
of  Larissa  on  the  24th,  great  discontent  prevailed  at  Athens; 
Delyannes  was  invited  by  the  king  to  resign,  but  refusing  to  do 
so  was  dismissed  (2gth  April).  His  successor,  Rhalles,  after 
recalling  the  army  from  Crete  (gth  May)  invoked  the  mediation 


HISTORY] 


GREECE 


469 


of  the  powers,  and  an  armistice  was  concluded  on  the  igth  of 
that  month.  Thus  ended  an  unfortunate  enterprise,  which 
was  undertaken  in  the  hope  that  discord  among  the  powers 
would  lead  to  a  European  war  and  the  dismemberment  of  Turkey. 
Greek  interference  in  Crete  had  at  least  the  result  of  compelling 
Europe  to  withdraw  the  island  for  ever  from  Turkish  rule.  The 
conditions  of  peace  put  forward  by  Turkey  included  a  war 
indemnity  of  £10,000,000  and  the  retention  of  Thessaly;  the 
latter  demand,  however,  was  resolutely  opposed  by  Great 
Britain,  and  the  indemnity  was  subsequently  reduced  to 
£4,000,000.  The  terms  agreed  to  by  the  powers  were  rejected 
by  Rhalles;  the  chamber,  however,  refused  him  a  vote  of 
confidence  and  King  George  summoned  Zaimes  to  power 
(October  3) .  The  definitive  treaty  of  peace,  which  was  signed 
at  Constantinople  on  the  6th  of  December,  contained  a  provision 
for  a  slight  modification  of  the  frontier,  designed  to  afford 
Turkey  certain  strategical  advantages;  the  delimitation  was 
carried  out  by  a  commission  composed  of  military  delegates  of 
the  powers  and  representatives  of  the  interested  parties.  The 
evacuation  of  Thessaly  by  the  Turkish  troops  was  completed 
in  June  1898.  An  immediate  result  of  the  war  was  the  institution 
of  an  international  financial  commission  at  Athens,  charged  with 
the  control  of  certain  revenues  assigned  to  the  service  of  the 
national  debt.  The  state  of  the  country  after  the  conclusion  of 
hostilities  was  deplorable;  the  towns  of  northern  Greece  and 
the  islands  were  crowded  with  destitute  refugees  from  Thessaly ; 
violent  recriminations  prevailed  at  Athens,  and  the  position  of 
the  dynasty  seemed  endangered.  A  reaction,  however,  set  in, 
in  consequence  of  an  attempt  to  assassinate  King  George  (28th 
February  1898),  whose  great  services  to  the  nation  in  obtaining 
favourable  terms  from  the  powers  began  to  receive  general 
recognition.  In  the  following  summer  the  king  made  a  tour 
through  the  country,  and  was  everywhere  received  with 
enthusiasm.  In  the  autumn  the  powers,  on  the  initiative  of 
Russia,  decided  to  entrust  Prince  George  of  Greece  with  the 
government  of  Crete;  on  26th  November  an  intimation  that 
the  prince  had  been  appointed  high  commissioner  in  the  island 
was  formally  conveyed  to  the  court  of  Athens,  and  on  2ist 
December  he  landed  in  Crete  amid  enthusiastic  demonstrations 
(see  CRETE). 

In  April  1899  Zaimes  gave  way  to  Theotokes,  the  chief  of 
the  Trikoupist  party,  who  introduced  various  improvements  in 

the  administration  of  justice  and  other  reforms  includ- 
Mace-  jng  a  measure  transferring  the  administration  of  the 

army  from  the  minister  of  war  to  the  crown  prince. 

In  May  1901  a  meeting  took  place  at  Abbazia,  under  the 
auspices  of  the  Austro-Hungarian  government,  between  King 
George  and  King  Charles  of  Rumania  with  a  view  to  the  conclusion 
of  a  Graeco-Rumanian  understanding  directed  against  the  growth 
of  Slavonic,  and  especially  Bulgarian,  influence  in  Macedonia. 
The  compact,  however,  was  destined  to  be  short-lived  owing 
to  the  prosecution  of  a  Rumanian  propaganda  among  the 
semi-HeUenized  Vlachs  of  Macedonia.  In  November  riots  took 
place  at  Athens,  the  patriotic  indignation  of  the  university 
students  and  the  populace  being  excited  by  the  issue  of  a  transla- 
tion of  the  Gospels  into  modern  Greek  at  the  suggestion  of  the 
queen.  The  publication  was  attributed  to  Panslavist  intrigues 
against  Greek  supremacy  over  the  Orthodox  populations  of 
the  East,  and  the  archbishop  of  Athens  was  compelled  to  resign. 
Theotokes,  whose  life  was  attempted,  retired  from  power,  and 
Zaimes  formed  a  cabinet.  In  1902  the  progress  of  the  Bulgarian 
movement  in  Macedonia  once  more  caused  great  irritation  in 
Greece.  Zaimes,  having  been  defeated  at  the  elections  in 
December,  resigned,  and  was  succeeded  by  Delyannes,  whose 
popularity  had  not  been  permanently  impaired  by  the  misfortunes 
of  the  war.  Delyannes  now  undertook  to  carry  out  extensive 
economic  reforms,  and  introduced  a  measure  restoring  the 
control  of  the  army  to  the  ministry  of  war.  He  failed,  however, 
to  carry  out  his  programme,  and,  being  deserted  by  a  section 
of  his  followers,  resigned  in  June  1903,  when  Theotokes  again 
became  prime  minister.  The  new  cabinet  resigned  within  a 
month  owing  to  the  outbreak  of  disturbances  in  the  currant- 


tlonian 
troubles. 


growing  districts,  and  Rhalles  took  office  for  the  second  time 
(July  8).  The  Bulgarian  insurrection  in  Macedonia  during  the 
autumn  caused  great  excitement  in  Athens,  and  Rhalles  adopted 
a  policy  of  friendship  with  Turkey  (see  MACEDONIA).  The 
co-operation  of  the  Greek  party  in  Macedonia  with  the  Turkish 
authorities  exposed  it  to  the  vengeance  of  the  insurgents,  and 
in  the  following  year  a  number  of  Greek  bands  were  sent  into 
that  country.  The  campaign  of  retaliation  was  continued  in 
subsequent  years. 

In  December  Rhalles,  who  had  lost  the  support  of  the 
Delyannist  party,  was  replaced  by  Theotokes,  who  promulgated 
a  scheme  of  army  reorganization,  introduced  various 
economies  and  imposed  fresh  taxation.  In  December  "eiyaaaes 
the  government  was  defeated  on  a  vote  of  confidence 
and  Delyannes  once  more  became  prime  minister,  obtaining  a 
considerable  majority  in  the  elections  which  followed  (March 
1905),  but  on  the  i3th  of  June  he  was  assassinated.  He  was 
succeeded  by  Rhalles,  who  effected  a  settlement  of  the  currant 
question  and  cultivated  friendly  relations  with  Turkey  in  regard 
to  Macedonia. 

In  the  autumn  anti-Greek  demonstrations  in  Rumania  led 
to  a  rupture  of  relations  with  that  country.  In  December  the 
ministry  resigned  owing  to  an  adverse  vote  of  the  chamber, 
and  Theotokes  formed  a  cabinet.  The  new  government,  as  a 
preliminary  to  military  and  naval  reorganization,  introduced 
a  law  directed  against  the  candidature  of  military  officers  for 
parliament.  Owing  to  obstruction  practised  by  the  military 
members  of  the  chamber  a  dissolution  took  place,  and  at  the 
subsequent  elections  (April  1906)  Theotokes  secured  a  large 
majority.  In  the  autumn  various  excesses  committed  against 
the  Greeks  in  Bulgaria  in  reprisal  for  the  depredations  of  the 
Greek  bands  in  Macedonia  caused  great  indignation  in  Greece, 
but  diplomatic  relations  between  the  two  countries  were  not 
suspended.  On  the  26th  of  September  Prince  George,  who  had 
resigned  the  high  commissionership  of  Crete,  returned  to  Athens; 
the  designation  of  his  successors  was  accorded  by  the  protecting 
powers  to  King  George  as  a  satisfaction  to  Greek  national  senti- 
ment (see  CRETE).  The  great  increase  in  the  activity  of  the 
Greek  bands  in  Macedonia  during  the  following  spring  and  summer 
led  to  the  delivery  of  a  Turkish  note  at  Athens  (July  1907), 
which  was  supported  by  representations  of  the  powers. 

In  October  1908  the  proclamation  by  the  Cretan  assembly  of 
union  with  Greece  threatened  fresh  complications,  the  cautious 
attitude  of  the  Greek  government  leading  to  an  agitation  in  the 
army,  which  came  to  a  head  in  1909.  On  the  i8th  of  July  a 
popular  demonstration  against  his  Cretan  policy  led  to  the 
resignation  of  Theotokes,  whose  successor,  Rhalles,  announced 
a  programme  of  military  and  economical  reform.  The  army, 
however,  took  matters  into  its  own  hands,  and  on  the  23rd  of 
August  Rhalles  was  replaced  by  Mavromichales,  the  nominee  of 
the  "  Military  League."  For  the  next  six  months  constitutional 
government  was  practically  superseded  by  that  of  the  League, 
and  for  a  while  the  crown  itself  seemed  to  be  in  danger.  The 
influence  of  the  League;  however,  rapidly  declined;  army  and 
navy  quarrelled;  and  a  fresh  coup  d'itat  at  the  beginning  of  1910 
failed  of  its  effect,  owing  to  the  firmness  of  the  king.  On  the  7th 
of  February  Mavromichales  resigned,  and  his  successor,  Dra- 
goumis,  accepting  the  Cretan  leader  Venezelo's  suggestion  of  a 
national  assembly,  succeeded  in  persuading  the  League  to 
dissolve  (March  29)  on  receiving  the  king's  assurance  that  such 
an  assembly  would  be  convened.  On  the  3ist,  accordingly, 
King  George  formally  proclaimed  the  convocation  of  a  national 
assembly  to  deal  with  the  questions  at  issue. 

AUTHORITIES. — Finlay,  History  of  Greece  (Oxford,  1877);  K.  N. 
Sathas,  Utatuuvuc/i  /3i/3Xto0ii/c)7  (7  vols.,  Venice,  1872-1894);  and 
Mnj/ie?a  'EXXijvutfjs  Joropias.  Documents  in&dits  relatifs  dl'liistoire  du 
moyen  &ge  (9  vols.,  Paris,  1880-1890);  Sp.  Trikoupes,  'laropla  rfjt 
'EXXTjKurfjs  iTravaariaftas  (4  vols.,  3rd  ed.,  Athens,  1888) ;  K. 
Paparrhegopoulos,  'loropia  roD  'EXXjji-ucoO  Wviw  (5  vols.,  4th  ed., 
Athens,  1903) ;  I.  Philemon,  bcxltuov  Imopm&v  rtpl  TJJS  'E\\rivixfjt 
bcavoLaTiurtuK  (Athens,  1859-1861) ;  P.  Kontoyannes,  01  "EXXijres  xorA 
T&ir  -rp&Tov  4irJ  Aixarep/VTjs  'Pw<raoTovpnuc6i>  7r6XejioJ'  (Athens,  1903) ; 
D.  G.  Kampouroglos,  'laropia.  TUV  'Mitve.lwv.  Toupxoxparia,  1458-1687 
(2  vols.,  Athens,  1889-1890)  ;  and  Mxi)/ma  rfjs  laroplat  rwt>  ' 


470 


GREEK  ART 


(3  vols.,  Athens,  1889-1892) ;  G.E.Mavrogiannes,  'laropla  T&V  'Ionian 
vivav,  1797-1815  (2  vols.,  Athens,  1889);  P.  Karolides,  'laropia.  TOU 
,£' al&vos,  1814-1892  (Athens,  1891-1893);  E.  Kyriakides,  'laropia 
TOV  avy-xfovoy  'EXX^urMoO  1832-1892  (2  vols.,  Athens,  1892);  G. 
Konstantinides.'Ioropia rlav  'ABTivuv  diri Xpiarou  yew/ieeus  nt\pl  TOU  1821 
(2nd  ed.,  Athens,  1894);  D.  Bikelas,  La  Grece  byzantine  et  moderne 
(Paris,  1893).  (J.  D.  B.) 

GREEK  ART.  It  is  proposed  in  the  present  article  to  give  a 
brief  account  of  the  history  of  Greek  art  and  of  the  principles 
embodied  in  that  history.  In  any  broad  view  of  history,  the 
products  of  the  various  arts  practised  by  a  people  constitute  an 
objective  and  most  important  record  of  the  spirit  of  that  people. 
But  all  nations  have  not  excelled  in  the  same  way:  some  have 
found  their  best  expression  in  architecture,  some  in  music,  some 
in  poetry.  The  Greeks  most  fully  embodied  their  ideas  in  two 
ways,  first  in  their  splendid  literature,  both  prose  and  verse,  and 
secondly,  in  their  plastic  and  pictorial  art,  in  which  matter  they 
have  remained  to  our  days  among  the  greatest  instructors  of 
mankind.  The  three  arts  of  architecture,  sculpture  and  painting 
were  brought  by  them  into  a  focus;  and  by  their  aid  they  pro- 
duced a  visible  splendour  of  public  life  such  as  has  perhaps  been 
nowhere  else  attained. 

The  volume  of  the  remains  of  Greek  civilization  is  so  vast,  and 
the  learning  with  which  these  have  been  discussed  is  so  ample, 
that  it  is  hopeless  to  attempt  to  give  in  a  work  like  the  present 
any  complete  account  of  either.  Rather  we  shall  be  frankly 
eclectic,  choosing  for  consideration  such  results  of  Greek  art 
as  are  most  noteworthy  and  most  characteristic.  In  some  cases 
it  will  be  possible  to  give  a  reference  to  a  more  detailed  treat- 
ment of  particular  monuments  in  these  volumes  under  the 
heading  of  the  places  to  which  they  belong.  Architectural 
detail  is  relegated  to  ARCHITECTURE  and  allied  architectural 
articles.  Coins  (see  NUMISMATICS)  and  gems  (see  GEMS)  are 
treated  apart,  as  are  vases  (CERAMICS),  and  in  the  bibliography 
which  closes  this  article  an  effort  is  made  to  direct  those  who 
wish  for  further  information  in  any  particular  branch  of  our 
subject. 

i.  The  Rediscovery  of  Greek  Art. — The  visible  works  of  Greek 
architect,  sculptor  and  painter,  accumulated  in  the  cities  of 
Greece  and  Asia  Minor  until  the  Roman  conquest.  And  in  spite 
of  the  ravages  of  conquering  Roman  generals,  and  the  more 
systematic  despoilings  of  the  emperors,  we  know  that  when 
Pausanias  visited  Greece,  in  the  age  of  the  Antonines,  it  was  from 
coast  to  coast  a  museum  of  works  of  art  of  all  ages.  But  the  tide 
soon  turned.  Works  of  originality  were  no  longer  produced,  and 
a  succession  of  disasters  gradually  obliterated  those  of  previous 
ages.  In  the  course  of  the  Teutonic  and  Slavonic  invasions  from 
the  north,  or  in  consequence  of  earthquakes,  very  frequent  in 
Greece,  the  splendid  cities  and  temples  fell  into  ruins;  and 
with  the  taking  of  Constantinople  by  the  Franks  in  1 204  the  last 
great  collection  of  works  of  Greek  sculpture  disappeared.  But 
while  paintings  decayed,  and  works  in  metal  were  melted  down, 
many  marble  buildings  and  statues  survived,  at  least  in  a 
mutilated  condition,  while  terra-cotta  is  almost  proof  against 
decay. 

With  the  Renaissance  attention  was  directed  to  the  extant 
remains  of  Greek  and  Roman  art;  as  early  as  the  isth  century 
collections  of  ancient  sculpture,coins  and  gems  began  to  be  formed 
in  Italy;  and  in  the  i6th  the  enthusiasm  spread  to  Germany  and 
France.  The  earl  of  Arundel,  in  the  reign  of  James  I.,  was  the 
first  Englishman  to  collect  antiques  from  Italy  and  Asia  Minor : 
his  marbles  are  now  in  the  Ashmolean  Museum  at  Oxford. 
Systematic  travel  in  Greece  for  the  discovery  of  buildings  and 
works  of  art  was  begun  by  Spon  and  Wheler  (1675-1676);  and 
the  discovery  of  Pompeii  in  1748  opened  a  new  chapter  in  the 
history  of  ancient  art. 

But  though  kings  delighted  to  form  galleries  of  ancient  statues, 
and  the  great  Italian  artists  of  the  Renaissance  drew  from  them 
inspiration  for  their  paintings  and  bronzes,  the  first  really 
critical  appreciation  of  Greek  art  belongs  to  Winckelmann 
(Geschichte  der  Kunst  des  Allertums,  1764).  The  monuments 
I  accessible  to  Winckelmann  were  but  a  very  small  proportion  of 
those  we  now  possess,  and  in  fact  mostly  works  of  inferior  merit : 


but  he  was  the  first  to  introduce  the  historical  method  into  the 
treatment  of  ancient  art,  and  to  show  how  it  embodied  the 
ideas  of  the  great  peoples  of  the  ancient  world.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Lessing,  and  the  waves  of  thought  and  feeling  set 
in  motion  by  these  two  affected  the  cultivated  class  in  all  nations, 
— they  inspired  in  particular  Goethe  in  Germany  and  Lord  Byron 
in  England. 

The  second  stage  in  the  recovery  of  Greek  art  begins  with  the 
permission  accorded  by  the  Porte  to  Lord  Elgin  in  1800  to  re- 
move to  England  the  sculptural  decoration  of  the  Parthenon 
and  other  buildings  of  Athens.  These  splendid  works,  after 
various  vicissitudes,  became  the  property  of  the  English  nation, 
and  are  now  the  chief  treasures  of  the  British  Museum.  The 
sight  of  them  was  a  revelation  to  critics  and  artists,  accustomed 
only  to  the  base  copies  which  fill  the  Italian  galleries,  and  a  new 
epoch  in  the  appreciation  of  Greek  art  began.  English  and 
German  savants,  among  whom  Cockerell  and  Stackelberg  were 
conspicuous,  recovered  the  glories  of  the  tamples  of  Aegina  and 
Bassae.  Leake  and  Ross,  and  later  Curtius,  journeyed  through 
the  length  and  breadth  of  Greece,  identifying  ancient  sites  and 
studying  the  monuments  which  were  above  ground.  Ross  re- 
constructed the  temple  of  Athena  Nike  on  the  Acropolis  of  Athens 
from  fragments  rescued  from  a  Turkish  bastion. 

Meantime  more  methodical  exploration  brought  to  light  the 
remains  of  remarkable  civilizations  in  Asia,  not  only  in  the  valley 
of  the  Euphrates,  but  in  Lycia,  whence  Sir  Charles  Fellows 
brought  to  London  the  remains  of  noteworthy  tombs,  among 
which  the  so-called  Harpy  Monument  and  Nereid  Monument 
take  the  first  place.  Still  mere  important  were  the  accessions 
derived  from  the  excavations  of  Sir  Charles  Newton,  who  in  the 
years  1852-1859  resided  as  consul  in  Asia  Minor,  and  explored 
the  sites  of  the  mausoleum  at  Halicarnassus  and  the  shrine  of 
Demeter  at  Cnidus.  Pullan  at  Priene,  and  Wood  at  Ephesus  also 
made  fruitful  excavations. 

The  next  landmark  is  set  by  the  German  excavations  at 
Olympia(i876  and  foil.),  which  not  only  were  conducted  with 
a  scientific  completeness  before  unknown,  and  at  great  cost,  but 
also  established  the  principle  that  in  future  all  the  results  of 
excavations  in  Greece  must  remain  in  the  country,  the  right  of 
first  publication  only  remaining  with  the  explorers.  The  dis- 
covery of  the  Hermes  of  Praxiteles,  almost  the  only  certain 
original  of  a  great  Greek  sculptor  which  we  possess,  has  fur- 
nished a  new  and  invaluable  fulcrum  for  the  study  of  ancient  art. 
In.  emulation  of  the  achievements  of  the  Germans  at  Olympia, 
the  Greek  archaeological  society  methodically  excavated  the 
Athenian  acropolis,  and  were  rewarded  by  finding  numerous 
statues  and  fragments  of  pediments  belonging  to  the  age  of 
Peisistratus,  an  age  when  the  promise  of  art  was  in  full  bud. 
More  recently  French  explorers  have  made  a  very  thorough 
examination  of  the  site  of  Delphi,  and  have  succeeded  in  recover- 
ing almost  complete  two  small  treasuries,  those  of  the  people  of 
Athens  and  of  Cnidus  or  Siphnos,  the  latter  of  6th-century 
Ionian  work,  and  adorned  with  extremely  important  sculpture. 

No  other  site  of  the  same  importance  as  Athens,  Olympia  and 
Delphi  remains  for  excavation  in  Greece  proper.  But  in  all 
parts  of  the  country,  at  Tegea,  Corinth,  Sparta  and  on  a  number 
of  other  ancient  sites,  striking  and  important  monuments  have 
come  to  light.  And  at  the  same  time  monuments  already  known 
in  Italy  and  Sicily,  such  as  the  temples  of  Paestum,  Selinus  and 
Agrigentum  have  been  re-examined  with  fuller  knowledge  and 
better  system.  Only  Asia  Minor,  under  the  influence  of  Turkish 
rule,  has  remained  a  country  where  systematic  exploration  is 
difficult.  Something,  however,  has  been  accomplished  atEphesus, 
Priene,  Assos  and  Miletus,  and  great  works  of  sculpture  such  as 
the  reliefs  of  the  great  altar  at  Pergamum,  now  at  Berlin,  and  the 
splendid  sarcophagi  from  Sidon,  now  at  Constantinople,  show 
what  might  be  expected  from  methodic  investigation  of  the 
wealthy  Greek  cities  of  Asia. 

From  further  excavations  at  Herculaneum  we  may  expect  a 
rich  harvest  of  works  of  art  of  the  highest  class,  such  as  have 
already  been  found  in  the  excavations  on  that  site  in  the  past; 
and  the  building  operations  at  Rome  are  constantly  bringing 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES] 


GREEK  ART 


47 


to  light  fine  statues  brought  from  Greece  in  the  time  of  the 
Empire,  which  are  now  placed  in  the  collections  of  the  Capitol 
and  the  Baths  of  Diocletian. 

The  work  of  explorers  on  Greek  sites  requires  as  its  comple- 
ment and  corrective  much  labour  in  the  great  museums  of 
Europe.  As  museum  work  apart  from  exploration  tends  to 
dilettantism  and  pedantry,  so  exploration  by  itself  does  not 
produce  reasoned  knowledge.  When  a  new  building,  a  great 
original  statue,  a  series  of  vases  is  discovered,  these  have  to  be 
fitted  in  to  the  existing  frame  of  our  knowledge;  and  it  is  by 
such  fitting  in  that  the  edifice  of  knowledge  is  enlarged.  In  all 
the  museums  and  universities  of  Europe  the  fresh  examination 
of  new  monuments,  the  study  of  style  and  subject,  and  attempts 
to  work  out  points  in  the  history  of  ancient  art,  are  incessantly 
going  on.  Such  archaeological  work  is  an  important  element  in 
the  gradual  education  of  the  world,  and  is  fruitful,  quite  apart 
from  the  particular  results  attained,  because  it  encourages  a 
method  of  thought.  Archaeology,  dealing  with  things  which 
can  be  seen  and  handled,  yet  being  a  species  of  historic  study, 
lies  on  the  borderland  between  the  province  of  natural  science 
and  that  of  historic  science,  and  furnishes  a  bridge  whereby  the 
methods  of  investigation  proper  to  physical  and  biological  study 
may  pass  into  the  human  field. 

These  investigations  and  studies  are  recorded,  partly  in  books,  but 
more  particularly  in  papers  in  learned  journals  (see  bibliography), 
such  as  the  Mitteilungen  of  the  German  Institute,  and  the  English 
Journal  of  Hellenic  Studies. 

An  example  or  two  may  serve  to  give  the  reader  a  clearer 
notion  of  the  recent  progress  in  the  knowledge  of  Greek  art. 

To  begin  with  architecture.  Each  of  the  palmary  sites  of 
which  we  have  spoken  has  rendered  up  examples  of  early  Greek 
temples.  At  Olympia  there  is  the  Heraeum,  earliest  of  known 
temples  of  Greece  proper,  which  clearly  shows  the  process 
whereby  stone  gradually  superseded  wood  as  a  constructive 
material.  At  Delphi  the  explorers  have  been  so  fortunate  as  to 
be  able  to  put  together  the  treasuries  of  the  Cnidians  (or 
Siphnians)  and  of  the  Athenians.  The  former  (see  fig.  17)  is  a 
gem  of  early  Ionic  art,  with  two  Caryatid  figures  in  front  in  the 
place  of  columns,  and  adorned  with  the  most  delicate  tracery 
and  fine  reliefs.  On  the  Athenian  acropolis  very  considerable 
remains  have  been  found  of  temples  which  were  destroyed  by 
the  Persians  when  they  temporarily  occupied  the  site  in  480  B.C. 
And  recently  the  ever-renewed  study  of  the  Erechtheum  has 
resulted  in  a  restoration  of  its  original  form  more  valuable  and 
trustworthy  than  any  previously  made. 

In  the  field  of  sculpture  recent  discoveries  have  been  too  many 
and  too  important  to  be  mentioned  at  any  length.  One  instance 
may  serve  to  mark  the  rapidity  of  our  advance.  When  the 
remains  of  the  Mausoleum  were  brought  to  London  from  the 
excavations  begun  by  Sir  Charles  Newton  in  1856  we  knew  from 
Pliny  that  four  great  sculptors,  Scopas,  Bryaxis,  Leochares  and 
Timotheus,  had  worked  on  the  sculpture;  but  we  -knew  of  these 
artists  little  more  than  the  names.  At  present  we  possess  many 
fragments  of  two  pediments  at  Tegea  executed  under  the  direction 
of  Scopas,  we  have  a  basis  with  reliefs  signed  by  Bryaxis,  we 
have  identified  a  group  in  the  Vatican  museum  as  a  copy  of  the 
Ganymede  of  Leochares,  and  we  have  pedimental  remains  from 
Epidaurus  which  we  know  from  inscriptional  evidence  to  be 
either  the  works  of  Timotheus  or  made  from  his  models.  Any  one 
can  judge  how  enormously  our  power  of  criticizing  the  Mausoleum 
sculptures,  and  of  comparing  them  with  contemporary  monu- 
ments, has  increased. 

In  regard  to  ancient  painting  we  can  of  course  expect  no  such 
fresh  illumination.  Many  important  wall-paintings  of  the  Roman 
age  have  been  found  at  Rome  and  Pompeii:  but  we  have  no 
certain  or  even  probable  work  of  any  great  Greek  painter.  We 
have  to  content  ourselves  with  studying  the  colouring  of  reliefs, 
such  as  those  of  the  sarcophagi  at  Constantinople,  and  the 
drawings  on  vases,  in  order  to  get  some  notion  of  the  composition 
and  drawing  of  painted  scenes  in  the  great  age  of  Greece.  As 
to  the  portraits  of  the  Roman  age  painted  on  wood  which  have 
come  in  considerable  quantities  from  Egypt,  they  stand  at  a  far 


lower  level  than  even  the  paintings  of  Pompeii.  The  number  of 
our  vase-paintings,  however,  increases  steadily,  and  whole 
classes,  such  as  the  early  vases  of  Ionia,  are  being  marked  off 
from  the  crowd,  and  so  becoming  available  for  use  in  illustrating 
the  history  of  Hellenic  civilization. 

The  study  of  Greek  art  is  thus  one  which  is  eminently  pro- 
gressive. It  has  over  the  study  of  Greek  literature  the  immense 
advantage  that  its  materials  increase  far  more  rapidly.  And  it 
is  becoming  more  and  more  evident  that  a  sound  and  methodic 
study  of  Greek  art  is  quite  as  indispensable  as  a  foundation  for 
an  artistic  and  archaeological  education  as  the  study  of  Greek 
poets  and  orators  is  as  a  basis  of  literary  education.  The  extreme 
simplicity  and  thorough  rationality  of  Greek  art  make  it  an 
unrivalled  field  for  the  training  and  exercise  of  the  faculties 
which  go  to  the  making  of  the  art-critic  and  art  historian. 

2.  The  General  Principles  of  Greek  Art. — Before  proceeding 
to  sketch  the  history  of  the  rise  and  decline  of  Greek  art,  it  is 
desirable  briefly  to  set  forth  the  principles  which  underlie  it 
(see  also  P.  Gardner's  Grammar  of  Greek  Art). 

As  the  literature  of  Greece  is  composed  in  a  particular  language, 
the  grammar  and  the  syntax  of  which  have  to  be  studied  before 
the  works  in  poetry  and  prose  can  be  read,  so  Greek  works  of  art 
are  composed  in  what  may  be  called  an  artistic  language.  To 
the  accidence  of  a  grammar  may  be  compared  the  mere  technique 
of  sculpture  and  painting:  to  the  syntax  of  a  grammar  corre- 
spond the  principles  of  composition  and  grouping  of  individual 
figures  into  a  relief  or  picture.  By  means  of  the  rules  of  this 
grammar  the  Greek  artist  threw  into  form  the  ideas  which 
belonged  to  him  as  a  personal  or  a  racial  possession. 

We  may  mention  first  some  of  the  more  external  conditions 
of  Greek  art;  next,  some  of  those  which  the  Greek  spirit  posited 
for  itself. 

No  nation  is  in  its  works  wholly  free  from  the  domination  of 
climate  and  geographical  position;  least  of  all  a  people  so  keenly 
alive  to  the  influence  of  the  outer  world  as  the  Greeks.  They 
lived  in  a  land  where  the  soil  was  dry  and  rocky,  far  less  hospitable 
to  vegetation  than  that  of  western  Europe,  while  on  all  sides 
the  horizon  of  the  land  was  bounded  by  hard  and  jagged  lines 
of  mountain.  The  sky  was  extremely  clear  and  bright,  sunshine 
for  a  great  part  of  the  year  almost  perpetual,  and  storms,  which 
are  more  than  passing  gales,  rare.  It  was  in  accordance  with  these 
natural  features  that  temples  and  other  buildings  should  be 
simple  in  form  and  bounded  by  clear  lines.  Such  forms  as 
the  cube,  the  oblong,  the  cylinder,  the  triangle,  the  pyramid 
abound  in  their  constructions.  Just  as  in  Switzerland  the  gables 
of  the  chalets  match  the  pine-clad  slopes  and  lofty  summits  of 
the  mountains,  so  in  Greece,  amid  barer  hills  of  less  elevation, 
the  Greek  temple  looks  thoroughly  in  place.  But  its  construction 
is  related  not  only  to  the  surface  of  the  land,  but  also  to  the 
character  of  the  race.  M.  Emile  Boutmy,  in  his  interesting 
Philosophie  de  I' architecture  en  Grece,  has  shown  how  the  temple 
is  a  triumph  of  the  senses  and  the  intellect,  not  primarily 
emotional,  but  showing  in  every  part  definite  purpose  and 
design.  It  also  exhibits  in  a  remarkable  degree  the  love  of 
balance,  of  symmetry,  of  a  mathematical  proportion  of  parts  and 
correctness  of  curvature  which  belong  to  the  Greek  artist. 

The  purposes  of  a  Greek  temple  may  be  readily  judged  from 
its  plan.  Primarily  it  was  the  abode  of  the  deity,  whose  statue 
dwelt  in  it  as  men  dwell  in  their  own  houses.  Hence  the  cella 
or  naos  is  the  central  feature  of  the  building.  Here  was  placed 
the  image  to  which  worship  was  brought,  while  the  treasures 
belonging  to  the  god  were  disposed  partly  in  the  cella  itself, 
partly  in  a  kind  of  treasury  which  often  existed,  as  in  the 
Parthenon,  behind  the  cella.  There  was  in  large  temples  a 
porch  of  approach,  the  pronaos,  and  another  behind,  the  opistho- 
domos.  Temples  were  not  meant  for,  nor  accommodated  to, 
regular  services  or  a  throng  of  worshippers.  Processions  and 
festivals  took  place  in  the  open  air,  in  the  streets  and  fields,  and 
men  entered  the  abodes  of  the  gods  at  most  in  groups  and 
families,  commonly  alone.  Thus  when  a  place  had  been  found 
for  the  statue,  which  stood  for  the  presence  of  the  god,  for  the 
small  altar  of  incense,  for  the  implements  of  cult  and  the  gifts  of 


472 


GREEK  ART 


[GENERAL  PRINCIPLES 


votaries,  little  space  remained  free,  and  great  spaces  or  subsidiary 
chapels  such  as  are  usual  in  Christian  cathedrals  did  not  exist 
(see  TEMPLE). 

Here  our  concern  is  not  with  the  purposes  or  arrangements 
of  a  temple,  but  with  its  appearance  and  construction,  regarded 
as  a  work  of  art,  and  as  an  embodiment  of  Greek  ideas.  A  few 
simple  and  striking  principles  may  be  formulated,  which  are 
characteristic  of  all  Greek  buildings: — 

(i.)  Each  member  of  the  building  has  one  function,  and  only 
one,  and  this  function  controls  even  the  decoration  of  that 
member.  The  pillar  of  a  temple  is  made  to  support  the  architrave 
and  is  for  that  purpose  only.  The  flutings  of  the  pillar,  being 
perpendicular,  emphasize  this  fact.  The  line  of  support  which 
runs  up  through  the  pillar  is  continued  in  the  triglyph,  which 
also  shows  perpendicular  grooves.  On  the  other  hand,  the  wall 
of  a  temple  is  primarily  meant  to  divide  or  space  off;  thus  it 
may  well  at  the  top  be  decorated  by  a  horizontal  band  of  relief, 
which  belongs  to  it  as  a  border  belongs  to  a  curtain.  The  base  of 
a  column,  if  moulded,  is  moulded  in  such  a  way  as  to  suggest 
support  of  a  great  weight;  the  capital  of  a  column  is  so  carved 
as  to  form  a  transition  between  the  column  and  the  cornice  which 
it  supports. 

(ii.)  Greek  architects  took  the  utmost  pains  with  the  propor- 
tions, the  symmetry  as  they  called  it,  of  the  parts  of  their 
buildings.  This  was  a  thing  in  which  the  keen  and  methodical 
eyes  of  the  Greeks  delighted,  to  a  degree  which  a  modern  finds 
it  hard  to  understand.  Simple  and  natural  relations,  i :  2, 
1:3,  2:3  and  the  like,  prevailed  between  various  members  of  a 
construction.  All  curves  were  planned  with  great  care,  to 
please  the  eye  with  their  flow;  and  the  alternations  and  corre- 
spondences of  features  is  visible  at  a  glance.  For  example,  the 
temple  must  have  two  pediments  and  two  porches,  and  on  its 
sides  and  fronts  triglyph  and  metope  must  alternate  with 
unvarying  regularity. 

(Hi.)  Rigidity  in  the  simple  lines  of  a  temple  is  avoided  by  the 
device  that  scarcely  any  outline  is  actually  straight.  All  are 
carefully  planned  and  adapted  to  the  eye  of  the  spectator.  In 
the  Parthenon  the  line  of  the  floor  is  curved,  the  profiles  of  the 
columns  are  curved,  the  corner  columns  slope  inward  from  their 
bases,  the  columns  are  not  even  equidistant.  This  elaborate 
adaptation,  called  entasis,  was  expounded  by  F.  C.  Penrose  in 
his  work  on  Athenian  architecture,  and  has  since  been  observed 
in  several  of  the  great  temples  of  Greece. 

(iv.)  Elaborate  decoration  is  reserved  for  those  parts  of  the 
temple  which  have,  or  at  least  appear  to  have,  no  strain  laid  upon 
them.  It  is  true  that  in  the  archaic  age  experiments  were  made 
in  carving  reliefs  on  the  lower  drums  of  columns  (as  at  Ephesus) 
and  on  the  line  of  the  architrave  (as  at  Assus).  But  such  examples 
were  not  followed.  Nearly  always  the  spaces  reserved  for 
mythological  reliefs  or  groups  are  the  tops  of  walls,  the  spaces 
between  the  triglyphs,  and  particularly  the  pediments  surmount- 
ing the  two  fronts,  which  might  be  left  hollow  without  danger 
to  the  stability  of  the  edifice.  Detached  figures  in  the  round  are 
in  fact  found  only  in  the  pediments,  or  standing  upon  the  tops 
of  the  pediments.  And  metopes  are  sculptured  in  higher  relief 
than  friezes. 

"  When  we  examine  in  detail  even  the  simplest  architectural 
decoration,  we  discover  a  combination  of  care,  sense  of  proportion, 
and  reason.  The  flutings  of  an  Ionic  column  are  not  in  section  mere 
arcs  of  a  circle,  but  made  up  of  a  combination  of  curves  which  produce 
a  beautiful  optical  effect;  the  lines  of  decoration,  as  may  be  best 
seen  in  the  case  of  the  Erechtheum,  are  cut  with  a  marvellous 
delicacy.  Instead  of  trying  to  invent  new  schemes,  the  mason 
contents  himself  with  improving  the  regular  patterns  until  they 
approach  perfection,  and  he  takes  everything  into  consideration. 
Mouldings  on  the  outside  of  a  temple,  in  the  full  light  of  the  sun,  are 
differently  planned  from  those  in  the  diffused  light  of  the  interior. 
Mouldings  executed  in  soft  stone  are  less  fine  than  those  in  marble. 
The  mason  thinks  before  he  works,  and  while  he  works,  and  thinks 
in  entire  correspondence  with  his  surroundings."  1 

Greek  architecture,  however,  is  treated  elsewhere  (see  ARCHI- 
TECTURE); we  will  therefore  proceed  to  speak  briefly  of  the 
principles  exemplified  in  sculpture.     Existing  works  of  Greek 
1  Grammar  of  Greek  Art. 


sculpture  fall  easily  into  two  classes.  The  first  class  comprises 
what  may  be  called  works  of  substantive  art,  statues  or  groups 
made  for  their  own  sake  and  to  be  judged  by  themselves.  Such 
are  cult-statues  of  gods  and  goddesses  from  temple  and  shrine, 
honorary  portraits  of  rulers  or  of  athletes,  dedicated  groups 
and  the  like.  The  second  class  comprises  decorative  sculptures, 
such  as  were  made,  usually  in  relief,  for  the  decoration  of  temples 
and  tombs  and  other  buildings,  and  were  intended  to  be  sub- 
ordinate to  architectural  effect. 

Speaking  broadly,  it  may  be  said  that  the  works  of  substantive 
sculpture  in  our  museums  are  in  the  great  majority  of  cases 
copies  of  doubtful  exactness  and  very  various  merit.  The 
Hermes  of  Praxiteles  is  almost  the  only  marble  statue  which  can 
be  assigned  positively  to  one  of  the  great  sculptors;  we  have  to 
work  back  towards  the  productions  of  the  peers  of  Praxiteles 
through  works  of  poor  execution,  often  so  much  restored  in  modern 
times  as  to  be  scarcely  recognizable.  Decorative  works,  on  the 
other  hand,  are  very  commonly  originals,  and  their  date  can  often 
be  accurately  fixed,  as  they  belong  to  known  buildings.  They  are 
thus  infinitely  more  trustworthy  and  more  easy  to  deal  with  than 
the  copies  of  statues  of  which  the  museums  of  Europe,  and  more 
especially  those  of  Italy,  are  full.  They  are  also  more  commonly 
unrestored.  But  yet  there  are  certain  disadvantages  attaching 
to  them.  Decorative  works,  even  when  carried  out  under  the 
supervision  of  a  great  sculptor,  were  but  seldom  executed  by  him. 
Usually  they  were  the  productions  of  his  pupils  or  masons. 
Thus  they  are  not  on  the  same  level  of  art  as  substantive  sculpture. 
And  they  vary  in  merit  to  an  extraordinary  extent,  according 
to  the  capacity  of  the  man  who  happened  to  have  them  in  hand, 
and  who  was  probably  b'ut  little  controlled.  Every  one  knows 
how  noble  are  the  pedimental  sculptures  of  the  Parthenon.  But 
we  know  no  reason  why  they  should  be  so  vastly  superior  to  the 
frieze  from  Phigalia;  nor  why  the  heads  from  the  temple  at  Tegea 
should  be  so  fine,  while  those  from  the  contemporary  temple 
at  Epidaurus  should  be  comparatively  insignificant.  From  the 
records  of  payments  made  to  the  sculptors  who  worked  on  the 
Erechtheum  at  Athens  it  appears  that  they  were  ordinary  masons, 
some  of  them  not  even  citizens,  and  paid  at  the  rate  of  60  drachms 
(about  60  francs)  for  each  figure,  whether  of  man  or  horse,  which 
they  produced.  Such  piece-work  would  not,  in  our  days,  produce 
a  very  satisfactory  result. 

Works  of  substantive  sculpture  may  be  divided  into  two 
classes,  the  statues  of  human  beings  and  those  of  the  gods. 
The  line  between  the  two  is  not,  however,  very  easy  to  draw, 
or  very  definite.  For  in  representing  men  the  Greek  sculptor 
had  an  irresistible  inclination  to  idealize,  to  represent  what  was 
generic  and  typical  rather  than  what  was  individual,  and  the 
essential  rather  than  the  accidental.  And  in  representing 
deities  he  so  fully  anthropomorphized  them  that  they  became 
men  and  women,  only  raised  above  the  level  of  everyday  life 
and  endowed  with  a  superhuman  stateliness.  Moreover,  there 
was  a  class  of  heroes  represented  largely  in  art  who  covered 
the  transition  from  men  to  gods.  For  example,  if  one  regards 
Heracles  as  a  deity  and  Achilles  as  a  man  of  the  heroic  age  and  of 
heroic  mould,  the  line  between  the  two  will  be  found  to  be  very 
narrow. 

Nevertheless  one  may  for  convenience  speak  first  of  human 
and  afterwards  of  divine  figures.  It  was  the  custom  from  the 
6th  century  onwards  to  honour  "those  who  had  done  any  great 
achievement  by  setting  up  their  statues  in  conspicuous  positions. 
One  of  the  earliest  examples  is  that  of  the  tyrannicides,  Harmodius 
and  Aristogiton,  a  group,  a  copy  of  which  has  come  down  to  us 
(Plate  I.  fig.  50 2).  Again,  people  who  had  not  won  any  distinc- 
tion were  in  the  habit  of  dedicating  to  the  deities  portraits  of 
themselves  or  of  a  priest  or  priestess,  thus  bringing  themselves, 
as  it  were,  constantly  under  the  notice  of  a  divine  patron.  The 
rows  of  statues  before  the  temples  at  Miletus,  Athens  and 

2  It  may  here  be  pointed  out  that  it  was  found  impossible,  with 
any  regard  for  the  appearance  of  the  pages,  to  arrange  the  Plates  for 
this  article  so  as  to  preserve  a  chronological  order  in  the  individual 
figures;  they  are  not  arranged  consecutively  as  regards  the  history 
or  the  period,  and  are  only  grouped  for  convenience  in  paging. — Ed. 


GREEK  ART 


PLATE  I. 


Photo,  Brogi. 

FIG.  50.— HARMODIUS  AND  ARISTOGITON. 
(NAT.  Mus.,  NAPLES.) 


Photo,  Brogi. 


FIG.  51.— FARNESE  BULL.     (NAPLES.) 


Photo,  A  nderson. 

FIG.  52— LAOCOON  GROUP.    (VATICAN.) 

XII.  472. 


Photo,  Anderson. 

FIG.  53.— GANYMEDE  OF  LEOCHARES.     (VATICAN.) 


PLATE  II. 


GREEK  ART 


Photo,  Anderson. 

FIG.  54—  FLAYING  OF 
MARSYAS.  (VILLA  AL- 
BANI,  ROME.) 


Photo,  A  nderson. 

FIG.  55.— APOLLO  OF  THE  BELVIDERE.     (VATICAN.) 


FIG.  58.— THESEUS  AND 
AMAZON   (ERETRIA).    . 


Photo,  Manscll. 

FIG.  59— DRUM  OF  COLUMN  FROM  EPHESUS. 
(BRIT.  Mus.) 


FIG.  56.— HEAD  OF  YOUNG 
ALEXANDER.      (BRIT.  Mus.) 


Photo,  Seebah. 

FIG.  57.— HERMES  OF  ALCA- 
MENES.     (CONSTANTINOPLE.) 


Photo,   Baldwin  Cnolidge. 

FIG.  60.— YOUNG   HERMES. 
(Mus.  OF  FINE  ARTS,  BOSTON.) 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES] 


GREEK  ART 


473 


elsewhere  came  thus  into  being.  But  from  the  point  of  view  of 
art,  by  far  the  most  important  class  of  portraits  consisted  of 
athletes  who  had  won  victories  at  some  of  the  great  games  of 
Greece,  at  Olympia,  Delphi  or  elsewhere.  Early  in  the  6th 
century  the  custom  arose  of  setting  up  portraits  of  athletic 
victors  in  the  great  sacred  places.  We  have  records  of  number- 
less such  statues  executed  by  all  the  greatest  sculptors.  When 
Pausanias  visited  Greece  he  found  them  everywhere  far  too 
numerous  for  complete  mention. 

It  is  the  custom  of  studying  and  copying  the  forms  of  the 
finest  of  the  young  athletes,  combined  with  the  Greek  habit  of 
complete  nudity  during  the  sports,  which  lies  at  the  basis  of 
Greek  excellence  in  sculpture.  Every  sculptor  had  unlimited 
opportunities  for  observing  young  vigorous  bodies  in  every 
pose  and  in  every  variety  of  strain.  The  natural  sense  of  beauty 
which  was  an  endowment  of  the  Greek  race  impelled  him  to  copy 
and  preserve  what  was  excellent,  and  to  omit  what  was  ungainly 
or  poor.  Thus  there  existed,  and  in  fact  there  was  constantly 
accumulating,  a  vast  series  of  types  of  male  beauty,  and  the 
public  taste  was  cultivated  to  an  extreme  delicacy.  And  of 
course  this  taste,  though  it  took  its  start  from  athletic  customs, 
and  was  mainly  nurtured  by  them,  spread  to  all  branches  of 
portraiture,  so  that  elderly  men,  women,  and  at  last  even  children, 
were  represented  in  art  with  a  mixture  of  ideality  and  fidelity 
to  nature  such  as  has  not  been  reached  by  the  sculpture  of  any 
other  people. 

The  statues  of  the  gods  began  either  with  stiff  and  ungainly 
figures  roughly  cut  out  of  the  trunk  of  a  tree,  or  with  the 
monstrous  and  symbolical  representations  of  Oriental  art.  In 
the  Greece  of  late  times  there  were  still  standing  rude  pillars, 
with  the  tops  sometimes  cut  into  a  rough  likeness  to  the  human 
form.  And  in  early  decoration  of  vases  and  vessels  one  may 
find  Greek  deities  represented  with  wings,  carrying  in  their  hands 
lions  or  griffins,  bearing  on  their  heads  lofty  crowns.  But  as 
Greek  art  progressed  it  grew  out  of  this  crude  symbolism.  In 
the  language  of  Brunn,  the  Greek  artists  borrowed  from  Oriental 
or  Mycenaean  sources  the  letters  used  in  their  works,  but  with 
these  letters  they  spelled  out  the  ideas  of  their  own  nation. 
What  the  artists  of  Babylon  and  Egypt  express  in  the  character 
of  the  gods  by  added  attribute  or  symbol,  swiftness  by  wings, 
control  of  storms  by  the  thunderbolt,  traits  of  character  by 
animal  heads,  the  artists  of  Greece  work  more  and  more  fully 
into  the  sculptural  type;  modifying  the  human  subject  by  the 
constant  addition  of  something  which  is  above  the  ordinary  level 
of  humanity,  until  we  reach  the  Zeus  of  Pheidias  or  the  Demeter 
of  Cnidus.  When  the  decay  of  the  high  ethical  art  of  Greece 
sets  in,  the  gods  become  more  and  more  warped  to  the  merely 
human  level.  They  lose  their  dignity,  but  they  never  lose  their 
charm. 

The  decorative  sculpture  of  Greece  consists  not  of  single 
figures,  but  of  groups;  and  in  the  arrangement  of  these  groups 
the  strict  Greek  laws  of  symmetry,  of  rhythm,  and  of  balance, 
come  in.  We  will  take  the  three  most  usual  forms,  the  pediment, 
the  metope  and  the  frieze,  all  of  which  belong  properly  to  the 
temple,  but  are  characteristic  of  all  decoration,  whether  of  tomb, 
trophy  or  other  monument. 

The  form  of  the  pediment  is  triangular;  the  height  of  the 
triangle  in  proportion  to  its  length  being  about  i  :  8.  The 
conditions  of  space  are  here  strict  and  dominant;  to  comply 
with  them  requires  some  ingenuity.  To  a  modern  sculptor  the 
problem  thus  presented  is  almost  insoluble;  but  it  was  allowable 
in  ancient  art  to  represent  figures  in  a  single  composition  as 
of  various  sizes,  in  correspondence  not  to  actual  physical 
measurement  but  to  importance.  As  the  more  important  figures 
naturally  occupy  the  midmost  place  in  a  pediment,  their  greater 
size  comes  in  conveniently.  And  by  placing  some  of  the  persons 
of  the  group  in  a  standing,  some  in  a  seated,  some  in  a  reclining 
position,  it  can  be  so  contrived  that  their  heads  are  equidistant 
from  the  upper  line  of  the  pediment. 

The  statues  in  a  Greek  pediment,  which  are  after  quite  an 
early  period  usually  executed  in  the  round,  fall  into  three,  five 
or  seven  groups,  according  to  the  size  of  the  whole.  As  examples 


to  illustrate  this  exposition  we  take  the  two  pediments  of  the 
temple  at  Olympia,  the  most  complete  which  have  come  down  to 
us,  which  are  represented  in  figs.  33  and  34.  The  east  pediment 
represents  the  preparation  for  the  chariot  race  between  Pelops 
and  Oenomaus.  The  central  group  consists  of  five  figures,  Zeus 
standing  between  the  two  pairs  of  competitors  and  their  wives. 
In  the  corners  recline  the  two  river-gods  Alpheus  and  Cladeus, 
who  mark  the  locality;  and  the  two  sides  are  filled  up  with  the 
closely  corresponding  groups  of  the  chariots  of  Oenomaus  and 
Pelops  with  their  grooms  and  attendants.  Every  figure  to  the 
left  of  Zeus  balances  a  corresponding  figure  on  his  right,  and  all 
the  lines  of  the  composition  slope  towards  a  point  above  the 
apex  of  the  pediment. 

In  the  opposite  or  western  pediment  is  represented  the  battle 
between  Lapiths  and  Centaurs  which  broke  out  at  the  marriage 
of  Peirithous  in  Thessaly.  Here  we  have  no  less  than  nine  groups. 
In  the  midst  is  Apollo.  On  each  side  of  him  is  a  group  of  three, 
a  centaur  trying  to  carry  off  a  woman  and  a  Lapith  striking  at 
him.  Beyond  these  on  each  side  is  a  struggling  pair,  next  once 
more  a  trio  of  two  combatants  and  a  woman,  and  finally  in  each 
corner  two  reclining  female  figures,  the  outermost  apparently 
nymphs  to  mark  locality.  A  careful  examination  of  these 
compositions  will  show  the  reader  more  clearly  than  detailed 
description  how  clearly  in  this  kind  of  group  Greek  artists 
adhered  to  the  rules  of  rhythm  and  of  balance. 

The  metopes  were  the  long  series  of  square  spaces  which  ran 
along  the  outer  walls  of  temples  between  the  upright  triglyphs 
and  the  cornice.  Originally  they  may  have  been  left -open  and 
served  as  windows;  but  the  custom  came  in  as  early  as  the  7th 
century,  first  of  filling  them  in  with  painted  boards  or  slabs  of 
stone,  and  next  of  adorning  them  with  sculpture.  The  metopes 
of  the  Treasury  of  Sicyon  at  Delphi  (Plate  IV.  fig.  66)  are  as 
early  as  the  first  half  of  the  6th  century.  This  recurrence  of  a 
long  series  of  square  fields  for  occupation  well  suited  the  genius 
and  the  habits  of  the  sculptor.  As  subjects  he  took  the  successive 
exploits  of  some  hero  such  as  Heracles  or  Theseus,  or  the  con- 
temporary groups  of  a  battle.  His  number  of  figures  was 
limited  to  two  or  three,  and  these  figures  had  to  be  worked  into 
a  group  or  scheme,  the  main  features  of  which  were  determined 
by  artistic  tradition,  but  which  could  be  varied  in  a  hundred 
ways  so  as  to  produce  a  pleasing  and  in  some  degree  novel  result. 

With  metopes,  as  regards  shape,  we  may  compare  the  reliefs 
of  Greek  tombs,  which  also  usually  occupy  a  space  roughly 
square,  and  which  also  comprise  but  a  few  figures  arranged 
in  a  scheme  generally  traditional.  A  figure  standing  giving 
his  hand  to  one  seated,  two  men  standing  hand  in  hand,  or  a 
single  figure  in  some  vigorous  pose  is  sufficient  to  satisfy  the 
simple  but  severe  taste  of  the  Greeks. 

In  regard  to  friezes,  which  are  long  reliefs  containing  figures 
ranged  between  parallel  lines,  there  is  more  variety  of  custom. 
In  temples  the  height  of  the  relief  from  the  background  varies 
according  to  the  light  in  which  it  was  to  stand,  whether  direct 
or  diffused.  Almost  all  Greek  friezes,  however,  are  of  great 
simplicity  in  arrangement  and  perspective.  Locality  is  at  most 
hinted  at  by  a  few  stones  or  trees,  never  actually  portrayed. 
There  is  seldom  more  than  one  line  of  figures,  in  combat  or  pro- 
cession, their  heads  all  equidistant  from  the  top  line  of  the 
frieze.  They  are  often  broken  up  into  groups;  and  when  this  is 
the  case,  figure  will  often  balance  figure  on  either  side  of  a  central 
point  almost  as  rigidly  as  in  a  pediment.  An  example  of  this 
will  be  found  in  the  section  of  the  Mausoleum  frieze  shown  in 
fig.  70,  Plate  IV.  Some  of  the  friezes  executed  by  Greek  artists 
for  semi-Greek  peoples,  such  as  those  adorning  the  tomb  at 
Trysa  in  Lycia,  have  two  planes,  the  figures  in  the  background 
being  at  a  higher  level. 

The  rules  of  balance  and  symmetry  in  composition  which  are 
followed  in  Greek  decorative  art  are  still  more  to  be  discerned 
in  the  paintings  of  vases,  which  must  serve,  in  the  absence  of 
more  dignified  compositions,  to  enlighten  us  as  to  the  methods 
of  Greek  painters.  Great  painters  would  not,  of  course,  be  bound 
by  architectonic  rule  in  the  same  degree  as  the  mere  workmen 
who  painted  vases.  Nevertheless  we  must  never  forget  that 


474 


GREEK  ART 


[GENERAL  PRINCIPLES 


Greek  painting  of  the  earlier  ages  was  of  extreme  simplicity. 
It  did  not  represent  localities,  save  by  some  slight  hint;  it  had 
next  to  no  perspective;  the  colours  used  were  but  very  few 
even  down  to  the  days  of  Apelles.  Most  of  the  great  pictures  of 
which  we  hear  consisted  of  but  one  or  two  figures;  and  when 
several  figures  were  introduced  they  were  kept  apart  and 
separately  treated,  though,  of  course,  not  without  relation  to 
one  another.  Idealism  and  ethical  purpose  must  have  pre- 
dominated in  painting  as  in  sculpture  and  in  the  drama  and 
in  the  writing  of  history. 

We  will  take  from  vases  a  few  simple  groups  to  illustrate  the 
laws  of  Greek  drawing;  colouring  we  cannot  illustrate. 

The  fields  offered  to  the  draughtsman  on  Greek  vases  naturally 
follow  the  form  of  the  vase;  but  they  may  be  set  down  as 

approximately  round, 
square  or  oblong.  To 
each  of  these  spaces  the 
artist  carefully  adapts 
his  designs.  In  fig.  i  we 
have  a  characteristic 
adaptation  to  circular 
form  by  the  vase  painter 
Epictetus. 

In  the  early  period  of 
painting  all  the  space  not 
occupied  by  the  figures 
is  filled  with  patterns 
or  accessories,  or  even 
animals  which  have  no 
connexion  with  the  sub- 
ject (fig.  9).  In  later 
and  more  developed  art, 
as  in  this  example,  the  outlines  of  the  figures  are  so  arranged 
as  to  fill  the  space. 

When  the  space  is  square  we  have  much  the  same  problem 
as  is  presented  by  the  metope  spaces  of  a  temple.  In  the  case 
of  both  square  and  oblong  fields  the  laws  of  balance  are  carefully 
observed.  Thus  if  there  is  an  even  number  of  figures  in  the 
scheme,  two  of  them  will  form  a  sort  of  centre-piece,  those  on 
either  side  balancing  one  another.  If  the  number  of  figures 
is  uneven,  either  there  will  be  a  group  of  three  in  the  midst,  or 
the  midmost  figure  will  be  so  contrived  that  he  belongs  wholly 
to  neither  side,  but  is  the  balance  between  them.  These  remarks 
will  be  made  clear  by  figs.  2  and  3,  which  repeat  the  two  sides 


(Brit.  Mus.  Catalogue  of  Vases,  ill.  PI.  vi.  2). 
FIG.  I. — Kylix  by  Epictetus. 


which  represent  the  defeat  of  one  of  these  by  the  other;  the 
vanquished  has  commonly  fallen  on  his  knees,  but  still  defends 
himself.  There  is  a  scheme  for  the  leading  away  of  a  captive 
woman;  the  captor  leads  her  by  the  hand  looking  back  at  her, 
while  a  friend  walks  behind  to  ward  off  pursuit.  Such  schemes 
are  constantly  varied  in  detail,  and  often  very  skilfully  varied; 
but  the  Greek  artist  uses  schemes  as  a  sort  of  shorthand,  to 
show  as  clearly  as  possible  what  he  meant.  They  serve  the 
same  purpose  as  the  mask  in  the  acting  of  a  play,  the  first 
glance  at  which  will  tell  the  spectators  what  they  have  to 
look  for. 

No  doubt  the  great  painters  of  Greece  were  not  so  much  under 
the  dominion  of  these  schemes  as  the  very  inferior  painters  of 
vases.  They  used  the  schemes  for  their  own  purposes  instead 
of  being  used  by  them.  But  as  great  poets  do  not  revolt  against 
the  restrictions  of  the  sonnet  or  of  rhyme,  so  great  artists  in 
Greece  probably  found  recognized  conventions  more  helpful 
than  hurtful. 

Students  of  Greek  sculpture  and  vases  must  be  warned  not 
to  suppose  that  Greek  reliefs  and  drawings  can  be  taken  as 
direct  illustrations  of  Homer  or  the  dramatists.  Book  illustra- 
tion in  the  modern  sense  did  not  exist  in  Greece.  The  poet  and 
the  painter  pursued  courses  which  were  parallel,  but  never  in 
actual  contact.  Each  moved  by  the  traditions  of  his  own  craft. 
The  poet  took  the  accepted  tale  and  enshrined  it  in  a  setting 
of  feeling  and  imagination.  The  painter  took  the  traditional 
schemes  which  were  current,  and  altered  or  enlarged  them, 
adding  new  figures  and  new  motives,  but  not  attempting  to  set 
aside  the  general  scheme.  But  varieties  suitable  to  poetry  were 
not  likely  to  be  suitable  in  painting.  Thus  it  is  but  seldom  that 
a  vase-painter  seems  to  have  had  in  his  mind,  as  he  drew,  passages 
of  the  Homeric  poems,  though  these  might  well  be  familiar  to 
him.  And  almost  never  does  a  vase-painting  of  the  5th  century 
show  any  sign  of  the  influence  of  the  dramatists,  who  were 
bringing  before  the  Athenian  public  on  the  stage  many  of  the 
tales  and  incidents  popular  with  the  vase-painter.  Only  on 
vases  of  lower  Italy  of  the  4th  century  and  later  we  can  occasion- 
ally discern  something  of  Aeschylean  and  Euripidean  influence 
in  the  treatment  of  a  myth;  and  even  in  a  few  cases  we  may 
discern  that  the  vase-painter  has  taken  suggestions  direct  from 
the  actors  in  the  theatre. 

3.  Historic  Sketch. — We  propose  next  to  trace  in  brief  outline 
the  history  of  Greek  art  from  its  rise  to  its  decay.  We  begin 
with  the  rise  of  a  national  art,  after  the  destruction  of  the 


From  Wiener  Vorlegcblaller,  1890,  PI.  viii.,  by  permission  of  the  Director  of  the  K.  K.  Oslerr,  Archiiol.  Instilut. 

FIG.  2.  Vase  Drawings. 

of  an  amphora,  one  of  which  bears  a  design  of  three  figures,  the 
other  of  four. 

The  Greek  artist  not  only  adhered  to  the  architectonic  laws 
of  balance  and  symmetry,  but  he  thought  in  schemes.  Certain 
group  arrangements  had  a  recognized  signification.  There  are 
schemes  for  warriors  fighting  on  equal  terms,  and  schemes 


FIG.  3. 

Minoan  and  Mycenaean  civilizations  of  early  Greece  by  the 
irruption  of  tribes  from  the  north,  that  is  to  say,  about  800  B.C., 
and  we  stop  with  the  Roman  age  of  Greece,  after  which  Greek 
art  works  in  the  service  of  the  conquerors  (see  ROMAN  ART). 
The  period  800-50  B.C.  we  divide  into  four  sections:  (i)  the 
period  down  to  the  Persian  Wars,  800-480  B.C.;  (2)  the  period 


480   B.C.] 


GREEK  ART 


475 


the  early  schools  of  art,  480-400  B.C.;  (3)  the  period  of  the 

great  schools,  400-300  B.C.;  (4)  the  period  of  Hellenistic 

.500-50  B.C.     In  dealing  with  these  successive  periods  we 

oifine  our  sketch  to  the  three  greater  branches  of  representative 

architecture,  sculpture  and  painting,  which  in  Greece  are 

osely  connected.    The  lesser  arts,  of  pottery,  gem-engraving, 

on-stamping  and  the  like,  are  treated  of  under  the  heads  of 

tRAMics,  GEM,  NUMISMATICS,  &c.,  while  the  more  technical 

tatment  of  architectural  construction  are  dealt  with  under 

ACHITECTURE  and  allied  architectural  articles.     Further,  for 

Kef  accounts  of  the  chief  artists  the  reader  is  referred  to  bio- 

hical  articles,  under  such  heads  as  PHEIDIAS,  PRAXITELES, 

PELLES.     We  treat  here  only  of  the  main  course  of  art  in  its 

btoric  evolution. 

Period  I.  800-480  B.C. — The  fact  is  now  generally  allowed 

lat  the  Mycenaean,  or  as  it  is  now  termed  Aegean,  civilization 

was  for  the  most  part  destroyed  by  an  invasion  from 

?asloa.     tne    north.      This   invasion    appears   to   have    been 

gradual;   its   racial   character   is   much   in    dispute. 

rchaeological  evidence   abundantly   proves   that   it   was   the 

mquest  of  a  more  by  a  less  rich  and  civilized  race.    In  the  graves 

f  the  period  (900-600  B.C.)  we  find  none  of  the  wealthy  spoil 

hich  has  made  celebrated  the  tombs  of  Mycenae  andVaphio(?.».) . 

'he  character  of  the  pottery  and  the  bronze-work  which  is  found 

i  these  later  graves  reminds  us  of  the  art  of  the  necropolis 

if  Hallstatt  in  Austria,  and  other  sites  belonging  to  what  is 

ailed   the   bronze   age   of   North   Europe.     Its   predominant 

•haracteristic  is  the  use  of  geometrical  forms,  the  lozenge,  the 

riangle,  the  maeander,  the  circle  with  tangents,  in  place  of  the 

laborate  spirals  and  plant-forms  which  mark  Mycenaean  ware. 

For  this  reason  the  period  from  the  gth  to  the  7th  century  in 

Greece  passes  by  the  name  of  "  the  Geometric  Age."    It  is 

commonly  held  that  in  the  remains  of  the  Geometric  Age  we 

may  trace  the  influence  of  the  Dorians,  who,  coming  in  as  a 

hardy  but  uncultivated  race,  probably  of  purer  Aryan  blood 

than  the  previous  inhabitants  of  Greece,  not  only  brought  to  an 

end  the  wealth  and  the  luxury  which  marked  the  Mycenaean 

age,  but  also  replaced  an  art  which  was  in  character  essentially 

southern  by  one  which  belonged  rather  to  the  north  and  the 

west.     The  great  difficulty  inherent  in  this  view,  a  difficulty 

which  has  yet  to  be  met,  lies  in  the  fact  that  some  of  the  most 

abundant  and  characteristic  remains  of  the  geometric  age  which 

we  possess  come,  not  from  Peloponnesus,  but  from  Athens  and 

Boeotia,  which  were  never  conquered  by  the  Dorians. 

The  geometric  ware  is  for  the  most  part  adorned  with  painted 

patterns  only.    Fig.  4  is  a  characteristic  example,  a  small  two- 

handled  vase  from  Rhodes  in  the  Ashmolean  Museum, 

ware.'*  '   tne  adornment  of  which  consists  in  zigzags,  circles 

with  tangents,  and  lines  of  water  birds,  perhaps  swans. 

Sometimes,  however,  especially  in  the  case  of  large  vases  from 

the  cemetery  at  Athens,  which  adjoins  the  Dipylon  gate,  scenes 


FIG.  4. — Geometric  Vase  from  Rhodes.    (Ashmolean  Museum.) 

from  Greek  life  are  depicted,  from  daily  life,  not  from  legend  or 
divine  myth.  Especially  scenes  from  the  lying-in-state  and  the 
burial  of  the  dead  are  prevalent.  An  excerpt  from  a  Dipylon 
vase  (fig.  5)  shows  a  dead  man  on  his  couch  surrounded  by 
mourners,  male  and  female.  Both  sexes  are  apparently  repre- 
sented naked,  and  are  distinguished  very  simply;  some  of  them 
hold  branches  to  sprinkle  the  corpse  or  to  keep  away  flies.  It 


will  be  seen  how  primitive  and  conventional  is  the  drawing  of 
this  age,  presenting  a  wonderful  contrast  to  the  free  drawing 
and  modelling  of  the  Mycenaean  age.  In  the  same  graves  with 
the  pottery  are  sometimes  found  plaques  of  gold  or  bronze,  and 
towards  the  end  of  the  geometric  age  these  somtimes  bear 
scenes  from  mythology,  treated  with  the  greatest  simplicity. 


A/on.  d.  lust.  ix.  39. 


FIG.  5. — Corpse  with  Mourners. 


For  example,  in  the  museum  of  Berlin  are  the  contents  of  a 
tomb  found  at  Corinth,  consisting  mainly  of  gold  work  of  geo- 
metric decoration.  But  in  the  same  tomb  were  also  found  gold 
plates  or  plaques  of  repousse  work  bearing  subjects  from  Greek 


Arch.  Zcil.  1884,  8. 

FIG.  6. — Gold  Plaques:  Corinth. 

legend.  Two  of  these  are  shown  in  fig.  6.  On  one  Theseus  is 
slaying  the  Minotaur,  while  Ariadne  stands  by  and  encourages 
the  hero.  The  tale  could  not  have  been  told  in  a  simpler  or  more 
straightforward  way.  On  the  other  we  have  an  armed  warrior 
with  his  charioteer  in  a 
chariot  drawn  by  two 
horses.  The  treatment  of 
the  human  body  is  here 
more  advanced  than  on 
the  vases  of  the  Dipylon. 
On  the  site  of  Olympia, 
where  Mycenaean  remains 
are  not  found, .  but  the 
earliest  monuments  show 
the  geometric  style,  a 
quantity  of  dedications 
in  bronze  have  been 
found,  the  decoration  of 
which  belongs  to  this 
style.  Fig.  7  shows  the 
handle  of  a  tripod  from 
Olympia,  which  is 
adorned  with  geometric 
patterns  and  surmounted 
by  the  figure  of  a  horse. 
It  was  about  the  6th 


Olympic  iv.  33. 

FIG.  7.— Handle  of  Tripod. 


century  that  the  genius  of  the  Greeks,  almost  suddenly,  as  it 
seems  to  us,  emancipated  itself  from  the  thraldom  of  tradition, 
and  passed  beyond  the  limits  with  which  the  nations  of  the 
east  and  west  had  hitherto  been  content,  in  a  free  and 
bold  effort  towards  the  ideal.  Thus  the  6th  century  marks 


476 


GREEK  ART 


[800-480  B.C. 


the  stage  in  art  in  which  it  may  be  said  to  have  become 
definitely  Hellenic.  The  Greeks  still  borrowed  many  of  their 
decorative  forms,  either  from  the  prehistoric  remains  in  their 
own  country  or,  through  Phoenician  agency,  from  the  old-world 
empires  of  Egypt  and  Babylon,  but  they  used  those  forms  freely 
to  express  their  own  meaning.  And  gradually,  in  the  course  of 
the  century,  we  see  both  in  the  painting  of  vases  and  in  sculpture 
a  national  spirit  and  a  national  style  forming  under  the  influence 
of  Greek  religion  and  mythology,  Greek  athletic  training,  Greek 
worship  of  beauty.  We  must  here  lay  emphasis  on  the  fact, 
which  is  sometimes  overlooked  in  an  age  which  is  greatly  given 
to  the  Darwinian  search  after  origins,  that  it  is  one  thing  to 
trace  back  to  its  original  sources  the  nascent  art  of  Greece,  and 
quite  another  thing  to  follow  and  to  understand  its  gradual 
embodiment  of  Hellenic  ideas  and  civilization.  The  immense 
success  with  which  the  veil  has  in  late  years  been  lifted  from  the 
prehistoric  age  of  Greece,  and  the  clearness  with  which  we  can 
discern  the  various  strands  woven  into  the  web  of  Greek  art, 
have  tended  to  fix  our  attention  rather  on  what  Greece  possessed 
in  common  with  all  other  peoples  at  the  same  early  stage  of 
civilization  than  on  what  Greece  added  for  herself  to  this  common 
stock.  In  many  respects  the  art  of  Greece  is  incomparable — one 
of  the  great  inspirations  which  have  redeemed  the  world  from 
mediocrity  and  vulgarity.  And  it  is  the  searching  out  and 
appreciation  of  this  unique  and  ideal  beauty  in  all  its  phases, 
in  idea  and  composition  and  execution,  which  is  the  true  task 
of  Greek  archaeological  science. 

In  very  recent  years  it  has  been  possible,  for  the  first  time, 

to  trace  the  influence  of  Ionian  painting,  as  represented  by  vases, 

on  the  rise  of  art.    The  discoveries  at  Naucratis  and 

'VSKS          Daphnae  in  Egypt,  due  to  the  keenness  and  pertinacity 

of  W.M.Flinders  Petrie.threw  new  light  on  this  matter. 

It  became  evident  that  when  those  cities  were  first  inhabited 

by  Ionian  Greeks,  in  the  yth  century,  they  used  pottery  of 

several  distinct  but  allied 
styles,  the  most  notable 
feature  of  which  was  the 
use  of  the  lotus  in  decora- 
tion, the  presence  of  con- 
tinuous friezes  of  animals 
and  of  monsters,  and  the 
filling  up  of  the  back- 
ground with  rosettes, 
lozenges  and  other  forms. 
Fig.  8  shows  a  vase  found 
in  Rhodes  which  illus- 
trates this  Ionian  decora- 
tion. The  sphinx,  the 
deer  and  the  swan  are 
prominent  on  it,  the  last- 
named  serving  as  a  link 
between  the  geometric 
ware  and  the  more 
brilliant  and  varied  ware 
of  the  Ionian  cities.  The 
assignment  of  the  many 
species  of  early  Ionic  ware 
Af«.  Napoiion,  57.  to  various  Greek  localities, 

FIG.  8.— Jug  from  Rhodes.  Miletus,    Samos,    Phocaea 

and  other  cities,  is  a  work  of  great  difficulty,-  which  now  closely 
occupies  the  attention  of  archaeologists.  For  the  results  of 
their  studies  the  reader  is  referred  to  two  recent  German  works, 
Bohlau's  Aus  ionischen  und  italischen  Nekropolen,  and  Endt's 
Eeilrage  zur  ionischen  Vasenmalerei.  The  feature  which  is  most 
interesting  in  this  pottery  from  our  present  point  of  view  is  the 
way  in  which  representations  of  Greek  myth  and  legend  gradually 
make  their  way,  and  relegate  the  mere  decoration  of  the  vases  to 
borders  and  neck.  One  of  the  earliest  examples  of  representation 
of  a  really  Greek  subject  is  the  contest  of  Menelaus  and  Euphorbus 
on  a  plate  found  in  Rhodes.  On  the  vases  of  Melos,  of  the  7th 
century,  which  are,  however,  not  Ionian,  but  rather  Dorian  in 
character,  we  have  a  certain  number  of  mythological  scenes, 


battles  of  Homeric  heroes  and  the  like.  One  of  these  is  shown  in 
fig.  9.  It  represents  Apollo  in  a  chariot  drawn  by  winged  horses, 
playing  on  the  lyre,  and  accompanied  by  a  pair  of  Muses,  meeting 
his  sister  Artemis.  It  is  notable  that  Apollo  is  bearded,  and  that 
Artemis  holds  her  stag  by  the  horns,  much  in  the  manner  of  the 
deities  on  Babylonian  cylinders;  in  the  other  hand  she  carries 
an  arrow;  above  is  a  line  of  water  birds. 

Some  sites  in  Asia  Minor  and  the  islands  adjoining,  such  cities 
as  Samos,  Camirus  in  Rhodes,  and  the  Ionian  colonies  on  the 


Conze,  M el.  Tmgejasse,  4. 

FlG.  9. — Vase  Painting:  Melos. 

Black  Sea,  have  furnished  us  with  a  mass  of  ware  of  the  Ionian 
class,  but  it  seldom  bears  interesting  subjects;  it  is  essentially 
decorative.  For  Ionian  ware  which  has  closer  relation  to  Greek 
mythology  and  history  we  must  turn  elsewhere.  The  cemeteries 
of  the  great  Etruscan  cities,  Caere  in  particular,  have  preserved 
for  us  a  large  number  of  vases,  which  are  now  generally  recognized 
as  Ionian  in  design  and  drawing,  though  they  may  in  some  cases 
be  only  Italian  imitations  of  Ionian  imported  ware.  Thus  has 
been  filled  up  what  was  a  blank  page  in  the  history  of  early 
Greek  art.  The  Ionian  painting  is  unrestrained  in  character, 
characterized  by  a  licence  not  foreign  to  the  nature  of  the  race, 
and  wants  the  self-control  and  moderation  which  belong  to 
Doric  art,  and  to  Attic  art  after  the  first. 

Some  of  the  most  interesting  examples  of  early  Ionic  painting 
are  found  on  the  sarcophagi  of  Clazomenae.  In  that  city  in 
archaic  times  an  exceptional  custom  prevailed  of  burying  the 
dead  in  great  coffins  of  terra-cotta  adorned  with  painted  scenes 
from  chariot-racing,  war  and  the  chase.  The  British  Museum 
possesses  some  remarkable  specimens,  which  are  published  in 
A.  S.  Murray's  Terra-Cotta  Sarcophagi  of  the  British  Museum. 
On  one  of  them  he  sees  depicted  a  battle  between  Cimmerian 
invaders  and  Greeks,  the  former  accompanied  to  the  field  by 
their  great  war-dogs.  In  some  of  the  representations  of  hunting 
on  these  sarcophagi  the  hunters  ride  in  chariots,  a  way  of  hunting 
quite  foreign  to  the  Greeks,  but  familiar  to  us  from  Assyrian 
wall-sculptures.  We  know  that  the  life  of  the  lonians  before 
the  Persian  conquest  was  refined  and  not  untinged  with  luxury, 
and  they  borrowed  many  of  the  stately  ways  of  the  satraps  of 
the  kings  of  Assyria  and  Persia. 

Fig.  10  shows  a  curious  product  of  the  Ionian  workshops,  a 
fish  of  solid  gold,  adorned  with  reliefs  which  represent  a  flying 


Furtwanglcr,  Coldlund  v.  VOterslclde. 

FIG.  io.— Fish  of  Gold. 

eagle,  lions  pulling  down  their  prey,  and  a  monstrous  sea-god 
among  his  fishes.  This  relic  is  the  more  valuable  on  account  of 
the  spot  where  it  was  found — Vettersfelde  in  Brandenburg.  It 


GREEK    ART 


PLATE  III. 


Photo,  Giraudon. 


FIG.  61.— WINGED  VICTORY 
OF  SAMOTHRACE.   (LouvRE.) 


Phnto,  Giraudon. 

FIG.  62.— WINGED  VICTORY  OF 
SAMOTHRACE.     (LOUVRE.) 


FIG.  63.— HEAD  OF  WARRIOR, 
RESTORED,  FROM  TEGEA. 


Plwto,  Anderson. 

FIG.  64.— MARSYAS  OF  MYRON. 
(LATERAN  Mus.) 


Photo,  Ma; 
XII.  476- 


FIG.  65.— EAST  PEDIMENT  OF  THE  PARTHENON;  LEFT  AND  RIGHT  ENDS.     (BRIT.  Mus.) 


PLATE  IV. 


GREEK  ART 


FIG.  66.— METOPE  OF  THE  TREASURY  OF  SICYON 

AT  DELPHI. 
(From  Fouilles  de  Delphes,  by  permission  of  A.  Fontemoing.) 


Plio'o,  F.  Bruckmann. 


FIG.  68.— DISCOBOLUS  OF  MYRON,  RESTORED  BY 
PROF.  FURTWANGLER. 


FIG.  67.— GREEK   PAINTING   OF   WOMAN'S   HEAD. 
(From  Complex  Rendus  of  St.  Petersburg,  1865.     PI.  I.) 


Photo,  Giraudon. 

FIG.  69.— FIGHTER  OF  AGASIAS.     (LOUVRE.) 


Photo,  Mansell. 


FIG.  70.— PORTION  OF  FRIEZE  OF  MAUSOLEUM.     (BRIT.  Mus.) 


800-480   B.C.] 


GREEK  ART 


477 


furnishes  a  proof  that  the  influence  and  perhaps  the  commerce 
of  the  Greek  colonies  on  the  Black  Sea  spread  far  to  the  north 
through  the  countries  of  the  Scythians  and  other  barbarians. 
The  fish  dates  from  the  6th  century  B.C. 

We  may  compare  some  of  the  gold  ornaments  from  Camirus 
in  Rhodes,  which  show  an  Ionian  tendency,  perhaps  combined 
with  Phoenician  elements.  On  one  of  them  (fig.  n)  we  see 
a  centaur  with  human  forelegs  holding  up  a  fawn,  on  the  other 

the  oriental  goddess 
whom  the  Greeks  identi- 
fied with  their  Artemis, 
winged,  and  flanked  by 
lions.  This  form  was 
given  to  Artemis  <5n  the 
Corinthian  chest  of 
Cypselus,  a  work  of  art 
preserved  at  Olympia, 
and  carefully  described 
for  us  by  Pausanias. 

From  Ionia  the  style 
of  vase-painting  which 
has  been  called  by  various 
names,  but  may  best  be 
termed  the  "  orientaliz- 
ing," spread  to  Greece 
proper.  Its  main  home 
here  was  in  Corinth;  and 
small  Corinthian  un- 
guent-vases bearing 

figures  of  swans,  lions,  monsters  and  human  beings,  the  intervals 
between  which  are  filled  by  rosettes,  are  found  wherever 
Corinthian  trade  penetrated,  notably  in  the  cemeteries  of 
Sicily.  For  the  larger  Corinthian  vases,  which  bore  more 
elaborate  scenes  from  mythology,  we  must  again  turn  to  the 
graves  of  the  cities  of  Etruria.  Here,  besides  the  Ionian 
ware,  of  which  mention  has  already  been  made,  we  find 
pottery  of  three  Greek  cities  clearly  defined,  that  of  Corinth, 
that  of  Chalcis  in  Euboea,  and  that  of  Athens.  Corinthian 
and  Chalcidian  ware  is  most  readily  distinguished  by  means 
of  the  alphabets  used  in  the  inscriptions  which  have 
distinctive  forms  easily  to  be  identified.  Whether  in  the  style 
of  the  paintings  coming  from  the  various  cities  any  distinct 
differences  may  be  traced  is  a  far  more  difficult  question,  into 
which  we  cannot  now  enter.  The  subjects  are  mostly  from  heroic 
legend,  and  are  treated  with  great  simplicity  and  directness. 
There  is  a  manly  vigour  about  them  which  distinguishes  them 
at  a  glance  from  the  laxer  works  of  Ionian  style.  Fig.  12  shows 
a  group  from  a  Chalcidian  vase,  which  represents  the  conflict 


Brit.  Uus. 

FlG.  II. — Gold  Ornaments  from 
Camirus. 


Man.  d.  Inst.  i.  51. 

FIG.  12. — Fight  over  the  Body  of  Achilles. 

over  the  dead  body  of  Achilles.  The  corpse  of  the  hero  lies  in 
the  midst,  the  arrow  in  his  heel.  The  Trojan  Glaucus  tries  to 
draw  away  the  body  by  means  of  a  rope  tied  round  the  ankle, 
but  in  doing  so  is  transfixed  by  the  spear  of  Ajax,  who  charges 
under  the  protection  of  the  goddess  Athena.  Paris  on  the  Trojan 
side  shoots  an  arrow  at  Ajax. 

In  fig.  13,  from  a  Corinthian  vase,  Ajax  falls  on  his  sword  in 
the  presence  of  his  colleagues,  Odysseus  and  Diomedes.  The  short 
stature  of  Odysseus  is  a  well-known  Homeric  feature.  These 
vases  are  black-figured;  the  heroes  are  painted  in  silhouette  on 


the  red  ground  of  the  vases.     Their  names  are  appended  in 
archaic  Greek  letters. 

The  early  history  of  vase-painting  at  Athens  is  complicated. 
It  was  only  by  degrees  that  the  geometric  style  gave  way  to, 
or  developed  into,  what  is  known  as  the  black-figured 
style.  It  would  seem  that  until  the  age  of  Peisistratus 
Athens  was  not  notable  in  the  world  of  art,  and  nothing  could 
be.  ruder  than  some  of  the  vases  of  Athens  in  the  yth  century, 


Athene 


Uus.  Napoleon,  66. 


FIG.  13. — Suicide  of  Ajax. 


for  example  that  here  figured,  on  one  side  of  which  are  represented 
the  winged  Harpies  (fig.  14)  and  on  the  other  Perseus  accompanied 
by  Athena  flying  from  the  pursuit  of  the  Gorgons.  This  vase 
retains  in  its  decoration  some  features  of  geometric  style;  but 
the  lotus  and  rosette,  the  lion  and  sphinx  which  appear  on  it, 
belong  to  the  wave  of  Ionian  influence.  Although  it  involves  a 
departure  from  strict  chronological  order,  it  will  be  well  here  to 
follow  the  course  of  development  in  pottery  at  Athens  until  the 
end  of  our  period.  Neighbouring  cities,  and  especially  Corinth, 
seem  to  have  exercised  a  strong  influence  at  Athens  about  the 


Arch.  Zcit.  1883,  g. 


FIG.  14. — Harpies:  Attic  Vase. 


7th  century.  We  have  even  a  class  of  vases  called  by  archae- 
ologists Corintho-Attic.  But  in  the  course  of  the  6th  century 
there  is  formed  at  Athens  a  distinct  and  marked  black-figured 
style.  The  most  remarkable  example  of  this  ware  is  the  so-called 
Francois  vase  at  Munich,  by  Clitias  and  Ergotimus,  which 
contains,  in  most  careful  and  precise  rendering,  a  number  of 
scenes  from  Greek  myth.  One  of  these  vases  is  dated,  since  it 
bears  the  name  and  the  figure  of  Callias  in  his  chariot  (Man. 
dell'  Inst.  iii.  45),  and  this  Callias  won  a  victory  at  Olympia  in 
564  B.C.  Fig.  15  shows  the  reverse  of  a  somewhat  later  black- 
figured  vase  of  the  Panathenaic  class,  given  at  Athens  as  a 
prize  to  the  winner  of  a  foot-race  at  the  Panathenaea,  with  the 
foot-race  (stadion)  represented  on  it.  A  large  number  of  Athenian 
vases  of  the  6th  century  have  reached  us,  which  bear  the  signa- 
tures of  the  potters  who  made,  or  the  artists  who  painted  them: 
lists  of  these  will  be  found  in  the  useful  work  of  Klein,  Griechische 
\  Vasen  mil  -Meistersignaluren.  The  recent  excavations  on  the 


GREEK  ART 


[3OO-48O    B.C. 


Acropolis  have  proved  the  erroneousness  of  the  view,  strongly 
maintained  by  Brunn,  that  the  mass  of  the  black -figured  vases 
were  of  a  late  and  imitative  fabric.  We  now  know  that,  with  a 
few  exceptions,  vases  of  this  class  are  not  later  than  the  early 
part  of  the  5th  century.  The  same  excavations  have  also 
proved  that  red-figured  vase-painting,  that  is,  vase-painting 
in  which  the  background  was  blocked  out  with  black,  and  the 
figures  left  in  the  natural  colour  of  the  vase  originated  at  Athens 
in  the  last  quarter  of  the  6th  century.  We  cannot  here  give  a 


Uon.  d.  Inst.  x.  48  m. 

FIG.  15. — Foot-race:  Panathenaic  Vase. 

detailed  account  of  the  beautiful  series  of  Athenian  vases  of  this 
fabric.  Many  of  the  finest  of  them  are  in  the  British  Museum. 
As  an  example,  fig.  16  presents  a  group  by  the  painter  Pamphaeus, 
representing  Heracles  wrestling  with  the  river-monster  Achelous, 
which  belongs  to  the  age  of  the  Persian  Wars.  The  clear  precision 
of  the  figures,  the  vigour  of  the  grouping,  the  correctness  of  the 
anatomy  and  the  delicacy  of  the  lines  are  all  marks  of  distinction. 
The  student  of  art  will  perhaps  find  the  nearest  parallel  to  these 
vase-pictures  in  Japanese  drawings.  The  Japanese  artists  are 
very  inferior  to  the  Greek  in  their  love  and  understanding  of 
the  human  body,  but  equal  them  in  freshness  and  vigour  of 
design.  At  the  same  time  began  the  beautiful  series  of  white 


l    n 


Wiener  VorlegeblStter,  D.  6. 

FIG.  16. — Heracles  and  Achelous. 

vases  made  at  Athens  for  the  purpose  of  burial  with  the  dead, 
and  found  in  great  quantities  in  the  cemeteries  of  Athens,  of 
Eretria,  of  Gela  in  Sicily,  and  of  some  other  cities.  They  are 
well  represented  in  the  British  Museum  and  that  of  Oxford. 

We  now  return  to  the  early  years  of  the  6th  century,  and 
proceed  to  trace,  by  the  aid  of  recent  discoveries,  the  rise  of 
architecture  and  sculpture.  The  Greek  temple  in  its  character 
and  form  gives  the  clue  to  the  whole  character  of  Greek  art. 
It  is  the  abode  of  the  deity,  who  is  represented  by  his  sacred 
image;  and  the  flat  surfaces  of  the  temple  offer  a  great  field 
to  the  sculptor  for  the  depicting  of  sacred  legend.  The  process 
of  discovery  has  emphasized  the  line  which  divides  Ionian  from 
Dorian  architecture  and  art.  We  will  speak  first  of  the  temples 


and  the  sculpture  of  Ionia.  The  lonians  were  a  people  far  more 
susceptible  than  were  the  Dorians  to  oriental  influences.  The 
dress,  the  art,  the  luxury  of  western  Asia  attracted  them  with 
irresistible  force.  We  may  suspect,  as  Brunn  has  suggested, 
that  Ionian  artists  worked  in  the  great  Assyrian  and  Persian 
palaces,  and  that  the  reliefs  which  adorn  the  walls  of  those 
palaces  were  in  part  their  handiwork.  Seme  of  the  great  temples 
of  Ionia  have  been  excavated  in  recent  years,  notably  those  of 
Apollo  at  Miletus,  of  Hera  at  Samos,  and  of  Artemis  at  Ephesus. 
Very  little,  however,  of  the  architecture  of  the  6th-century  temples 
of  those  sites  has  been  recovered.  Quite  recently,  however,  the 
French  excavators  at  Delphi  have  successfully  restored  the 
treasury  of  the  people  of  Cnidus,  which  is  quite  a  gem 
of  Ionic  style,  the  entablature  being  supported  in  front 
not  by  pillars  but  by  tv/o  maidens  or  Corae,  and  a  frieze  running 
all  round  the  building  above.  But  though  this  building  is  of 


Delphi. 


FIG.  17. — Restoration  of  the 
Treasury  of  Cnidus. 

Ionic  type,  it  is  scarcely  in  the  technical  sense  of 

Ionic  style,  since  the   columns  have  not  Ionic 

capitals,  but  are  carved  with  curious  reliefs.    The 

Ionic  capital    proper    is    developed    in    Asia    by  degrees  (see 

ARCHITECTURE  and  CAPITAL;  also  Perrot  and  Chipiez,  Hist. 

de  I'art,  vii.  ch.  4). 

The  Doric  temple-  is  not  wholly  of  European  origin.  One 
of  the  earliest  examples  is  the  old  temple  of  Assus  in  Troas. 
Yet  it  was  developed  mainly  in  Hellas  and  the  west.  The  most 
ancient  example  is  the  Heraeum  at  Olympia,  next  to  which  come 
the  fragmentary  temples  of  Corinth  and  of  Selinus  in  Sicily. 
With  the  early  Doric  temple  we  are  familiar  from  examples 
which  have  survived  in  fair  preservation  to  our  own  days  at 
Agrigentum  in  Sicily,  Paestum  in  Italy,  and  other  sites. 

Of  the  decorative  sculpture  which  adorned  these  early  temples 
we  have  more  extensive  remains  than  we  have  of  actual  con- 
struction. It  will  be  best  to  speak  of  them  under  their  districts. 
On  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  the  most  extensive  series  of  archaic 
decorative  sculptures  which  has  come  down  to  us  is  that  which 
adorned  the  temple  of  Assus  (fig.  18).  These  were  placed  in  a 
unique  position  on  the  temple,  a  long  frieze  running  along  the 
entablature,  with  representations  of  wild  animals,  of  centaurs, 
of  Hercules  seizing  Achelous,  and  of  men  feasting,  scene  succeed- 
ing scene  without  much  order  or  method.  The  only  figures  from 
Miletus  which  can  be  considered  as  belonging  to  the  original 
temple  destroyed  by  Darius,  are  the  dedicated  seated  statues, 
some  of  which,  brought  away  by  Sir  Charles  Newton,  are  now 
preserved  at  the  British  Museum.  At  Ephesus  Mr  Wood  has 
been  more  successful,  and  has  recovered  considerable  fragments 


800-480    B.C.] 


GREEK  ART 


479 


of  the  temple  of  Artemis,  to  which,  as  Herodotus  tells  us,  Croesus 
presented  many  columns.  The  lower  part  of  one  of  these  columns, 
bearing  figures  in  relief  of  early  Ionian  style,  has  been  put 
together  at  the  British  Museum;  and  remains  of  inscriptions 
recording  the  presentation  by  Croesus  are  still  to  be  traced. 
Reliefs  from  a  cornice  of  somewhat  later  date  are  also  to  be 
found  at  the  British  Museum.  Among  the  Aegean  islands, 


From  Ferret  and  Chipiez,  vii.  pi.  35,  by  permission  <ol  Chapman  and  Hall,  Ltd.,  and 
Hachette  &  Co. 

FIG.  1 8. — Restoration  of  the  Temple  at  Assus. 

Delos  has  furnished  us  with  the  most  important  remains  of  early 
art.  French  excavators  have  there  found  a  very  early  statue  of 
a  woman  dedicated  by  one  Nicandra  to  Artemis,  a  figure  which 
may  be  instructively  compared  with  another  from  Samus, 
dedicated  to  Hera  by  Cheramues.  The  Delian  statue  is  in  shape 
like  a  flat  beam;  the  Samian,  which  is  headless,  is  like  a  round 
tree.  The  arms  of  the  Delian  figure  are  rigid  to  the  sides;  the 
Samian  lady  has  one  arm  clasped  to  her  breast.  A  great  im- 
provement on  these  helpless  and  inexpressive  figures  is  marked 
by  another  figure  found  at  Delos,  and  connected,  though  perhaps 
incorrectly,  with  a  basis  recording  the  execution  of  a  statue  by 
Archermus  and  Micciades,  two  sculptors  who  stood,  in  the 
middle  of  the  6th  century,  at  the  head  of  a  sculptural  school  at 
Chios.  The  representation  (fig.  19)  is  of  a  running  or  flying 
figure,  having  six  wings,  like  the  seraphim  in  the  vision  of 


FIG.  19. — Nike  of  Delos,  restored. 

Isaiah,  and  clad  in  long  drapery.  It  may  be  a  statue  of  Nike  or 
Victory,  who  is  said  to  have  been  represented  in  winged  form 
by  Archermus.  The  figure,  with  its  neatness  and  precision  of 
work,  its  expressive  face  and  strong  outlines,  certainly  marks 
great  progress  in  the  art  of  sculpture.  When  we  examine  the 


early  sculpture  of  Athens,  we  find  reason  to  think  that  the  Chian 
school  had  great  influence  in  that  city  in  the  days  of  Peisistratus. 
At  Athens,  in  the  age  650-480,  we  may  trace  two  quite  distinct 
periods  of  architecture  and  sculpture.  In  the  earlier  of  the  two 
periods,  a  rough  limestone  was  used  alike  for  the  walls 
and  the  sculptural  decoration  of  temples;  in  the 
later  period  it  was  superseded  by  marble,  whether 
native  or  imported.  Every  visitor  to  the  museum  of  the 
Athenian  acropolis  stands  astonished  at  the  recently  recovered 
groups  which  decorated  the  pediments  of  Athenian  temples 


Athen.  Milteil.  x.  237. 

FIG.  20. — Athenian  Pediment :  Heracles  and  Hydra. 

before  the  age  of  Peisistratus — groups  of  large  size,  rudely  cut 
in  soft  stone,  of  primitive  workmanship,  and  painted  with  bright 
red,  blue  and  green,  in  a  fashion  which  makes  no  attempt  to 
follow  nature,  but  only  to  produce  a  vivid  result.  The  two 
largest  in  scale  of  these  groups  seem  to  have  belonged  to  the 
pediments  of  the  early  6th-century  temple  of  Athena.  On  other 
smaller  pediments,  perhaps  belonging  to  shrines  of  Heracles 
and  Dionysus,  we  have  conflicts  of  Heracles  with  Triton  or  with 
other  monstrous  foes.  It  is  notable  how  fond  the  Athenian  artists 
of  this  early  time  are  of  exaggerated  muscles  and  of  monstrous 
forms,  which  combine  the  limbs  of  men  and  of  animals;  the 
measure  and  moderation  which  mark  developed  Greek  art  are 
as  completely  absent  as  are  skill  in  execution  or  power  of  group- 
ing. Fig.  20  shows  a  small  pediment  in  which  appears  in  relief 


Alhen.  Mitleil.  xxii.  3. 

FIG.  21. — Pediment:  Athena  and  Giant. 

the  slaying  of  the  Lernaean  hydra  by  Heracles.  The  hero  strikes 
at  the  many-headed  water-snake,  somewhat  inappropriately, 
with  his  club.  lolaus,  his  usual  companion,  holds  the  reins  of 
the  chariot  which  awaits  Heracles  after  his  victory.  On  the 
extreme  left  a  huge  crab  comes  to  the  aid  of  the  hydra. 

There  can  be  little  doubt  that  Athens  owed  its  great  start  in 
art  to  the  influence  of  the  court  of  Peisistratus,  at  which  artists 
of  all  kinds  were  welcome.  We  can  trace  a  gradual  transforma- 
tion in  sculpture,  in  which  the  influence  of  the  Chian  and  other 
progressive  schools  of  sculpture  is  visible,  not  only  in  the  sub- 
stitution of  island  marble  for  native  stone,  but  in  increased 
grace  and  truth  to  nature,  in  the  toning  down  of  glaring  colour, 
and  the  appearance  of  taste  in  composition.  A  transition 


480 


GREEK  ART 


[800-480 


between  the  older  and  the  newer  is  furnished  by  the  well-known 
statue  of  the  calf-bearer,  an  Athenian  preparing  to  sacrifice  a 
calf  to  the  deities,  which  is  made  of  marble  of  Hymettus,  and  in 
robust  clumsiness  of  forms  is  not  far  removed  from  the  lime- 
stone pediments.  The  sacrificer  has  been 
commonly  spoken  of  as  Hermes  or  Theseus, 
but  he  seems  rather  to  be  an  ordinary 
human  votary. 

In  the  time  of  Peisistratus  or  his  sons  a 
peristyle  of  columns  was  added  to  the  old 
temple  of  Athena;  and  this  necessitated 
the  preparation  of  fresh  pediments.  These 
were  of  marble.  In  one  of  them  was  re- 
presented the  battle  between  gods  and 
giants;  in  the  midst  Athena  herself  strik- 
ing at  a  prostrate  foe  (fig.  21).  In  these 
figures  no  eye  can  fail  to  trace  remarkable 
progress.  On  about  the  same  level  of  art 
are  the  charming  statues  dedicated  to 
Athena,  which  were  set  up  in  the  latter  half 
of  the  6th  century  in  the  Acropolis,  whose 
graceful  though  conventional  forms  and 
delicate  colouring  make  them  one  of  the 
great  attractions  of  the  Acropolis  Museum. 
We  show  a  figure  (fig.  22)  which,  if  it  be 
rightly  connected  with  the  basis  on  which 
it  stands,  is  the  work  of  the  sculptor 
FIG.  22.— Figure  by  Antenor,  who  was  also  author  of  a  celebrated 
Antenor,  restored.  group  representing  the  tyrant-slayers, 
Harmodius  and  Aristogiton.  To  the  same  age  belong  many 
other  votive  reliefs  of  the  Acropolis,  representing  horsemen, 
scribes  and  other  votaries  of  Athena. 

From  Athens  we  pass  to  the  seats  of  Dorian  art.     And  in 
doing  so  we  find  a  complete  .change  of  character.    In  place  of 
draped  goddesses  and  female  figures,  we  find  nude 
sculpture.    ma^e  f°rms.    In  place  of  Ionian  softness  and  elegance, 
we  find  hard,  rigid  outlines,  strong  muscular  develop- 
ment, a  greater  love  of  and  faithfulness  to  the  actual  human 
form — the  influence  of  the  palaestra  rather  than  of  the  harem. 

To  the  known  series 
of  archaic  male 
figures,  recent  years 
have  added  many 
examples.  We  may 
especially  mention  a 
series  of  figures  from 
the  temple  of  Apollo 
Ptoos  in  Boeotia, 
probably  represent- 
ing the  god  himself. 
Still  more  note- 
worthy are  two 
colossal  nude  figures 
of  Apollo,  remarkable 
both  for  force  and 
for  rudeness,  found 
at  Delphi,  the  in- 
scriptions of  which 
prove  them  to  be 
the  work  of  an 
Argive  sculptor. 
(Plate  V.  fig.  76.) 

E.  From  Crete  we  have 

FIG.  23. — Bust  from  Crete. 

acquired    the    upper 

part  of  a  draped  figure  (fig.  23),  whether  male  or  female  is  not 
certain,  which  should  be  an  example  of  the  early  Daedalid 
school,  whence  the  art  of  Peloponnesus  was  derived;  but  we 
can  scarcely  venture  to  treat  it  as  a  characteristic  product  of 
that  school;  rather  the  likeness  to  the  dedication  of  Nicandra 
is  striking. 

Another  remarkable  piece  of  Athenian  sculpture,  of  the  time 
of  the  Persian  Wars,  is  the  group  of  the  tyrannicides  Harmodius 


Olympla, 

Sparta, 

SeUnuf. 

Notable 


and  Aristogiton,  set  up  by  the  people  of  Athens,  and  made  by 
the  sculptors  Critius  and  Nesiotes.  These  figures  were  hard  and 
rigid  in  outline,  but  showing  some  progress  in  the  treatment  of 
the  nude.  Copies  are  preserved  in  the  museum  of  Naples  (Plate  I. 
fig.  50).  It  should  be  observed  that  one  of  the  heads  does  not 
belong. 

Next  in  importance  to  Athens,  as  a  find-spot  for  works  of 
early  Greek  art,  ranks  Olympia.  Olympia,  however,  did  not 
suffer  like  Athens  from  sudden  violence,  and  the 
explorations  there  have  brought  to  light  a  continuous 
series  of  remains,  beginning  with  the  bronze  tripods 
of  the  geometric  age  already  mentioned  and  ending 
at  the  barbarian  invasions  of  the  4th  century  A.D. 
among  the  6th-century  stone-sculpture  of  Olympia  are  the 
pediment  of  the  treasury  of 
the  people  of  Megara,  in 
which  is  represented  a  battle 
of  gods  and  giants,  and  a 
huge  rude  head  of  Hera  (fig. 
24),  which  seems  to  be  part  of 
the  image  worshipped  in  the 
Heraeum.  Its  flatness  and 
want  of  style  are  noteworthy. 
Among  the  temples  of  Greece 
proper  the  Heraeum  of 
Olympia  stands  almost  alone 
for  antiquity  and  interest,  its 
chief  rival,  besides  the  temples 
of  Athens,  being  the  other 
temple  of  Hera  at  Argos.  It 
appears  to  have  been  origin- 
ally constructed  of  wood,  for 
which  stone  was  by  slow 
degrees,  part  by  part,  sub- 
stituted. In  the  time  of 
Pausanias  one  of  the  pillars  FIG.  24. — Head  of  Hera :  Olympia. 
was  still  of  oak,  and  at  the 

present  day  the  varying  diameter  of  the  columns  and  other 
structural  irregularities  bear  witness  fo  the  process  of  constant 
renewal  which  must  have  taken  place.  The  early  small 
bronzes  of  Olympia  form  an  important  series,  figures  of  deities 
standing  or  striding,  warriors  in  their  armour,  athletes  with 
exaggerated  muscles,  and 
women  draped  in  the 
Ionian  fashion,  which  did 
not  become  unpopular  in 
Greece  until  after  the 
Persian  Wars.  Excava- 
tions at  Sparta  have  re- 
vealed interesting  monu- 
ments belonging  to  the 
worship  of  ancestors, 
which  seems  in  the  con- 
servative Dorian  states  of 
Greece  to  have  been  more 
strongly  developed  than 
elsewhere.  On  some  of 
these  stones,  which  doubt- 
less belonged  to  the  family 
cults  of  Sparta,  we  see 
the  ancestor  seated  hold- 
ing a  wine-cup,  accom- 
panied by  his  faithful 
horse  or  dog;  on  some  we  FIG. 25.-Spartan Tombstone: Berlin. 

see  the  ancestor  and  ancestress  seated  side  by  side  (fig.  25), 
ready  to  receive  the  gifts  of  their  descendants,  who  appear 
in  the  corner  of  the  relief  on  a  much  smaller  scale.  The  male 
figure  holds  a  wine-cup,  in  allusion  to  the  libations  of  wine 
made  at  the  tomb.  The  female  figure  holds  her  veil  and  the 
pomegranate,  the  recognized  food  of  the  dead.  A  huge 
serpent  stands  erect  behind  the  pair.  The  style  of  these 
sculptures  is  as  striking  as  the  subjects;  we  see  lean,  rigid 


GREEK  ART 


PLATE  V. 


From  a  Cast. 


Photo,  Anderson, 


FIG.  71.— APHRODITE  OF  CNIDUS.         FIG.  72.— BRONZE  BOXER  OF  TERME. 
(VATICAN.)  (ROME.) 


FIG.  73.— BRONZE  OF  CERIGOTTO. 

(ATHENS.)  Found  in  the  sea  near  Cythera. 


FIG.  74.— AGIASAT  DELPHI. 
(From  Fouilles  de  Delphes,  by 
permission  of  A.  Fontemoing.) 

XII.  ,180. 


. 


FIG.  75— CORA  (KORE)  OF  ERECHTHEUM. 
(ATHENS.) 


FIG.  76.— APOLLO  AT  DELPHI. 
(From  Fouilles  de  Delplies,  by 
permission  of  A.  Fontemoing.) 


PLATE  VI. 


GREEK  ART 


Photo,  Giraudon. 

FIG.  77.— APHRODITE  OF 
MELOS.     (LouvRE.) 


Photo,  Alinari. 

FIG.  78.— NIOBE  AND  HER  YOUNGEST 
DAUGHTER.  (FLORENCE.) 


Photo,  Anderson. 

FIG.  79.— APOXYOMENUS. 
(VATICAN.) 


Pholo,  Brogi.  Photo,  Alinari. 

FIG.  80— DORYPHORUS  OF  POLY-        FIG.  81.— ANTIOCH  SEATED  ON  A  ROCK. 
CLITUS.     (NAT.  Mus.,  NAPLES.)  (VATICAN.) 


Photo,  English  Photographic  Co. 

FIG.  82.— HERMES  OF  PRAXI- 
TELES.     (OLYMPIA.) 


480-400  B.C.] 


GREEK  ART 


481 


forms  with  severe  outline  carved  in  a  very  low  relief, 
the  surface  of  which  is  not  rounded  but  flat.  The  name  of 
Selinus  in  Sicily,  an  early  Megarian  colony,  has  long  been  associ- 
ated with  some  of  the  most  curious  of  early  sculptures,  the 
metopes  of  ancient  temples,  representing  the  exploits  of  Heracles 
and  of  Perseus.  -Even  more  archaic  metopes  have  in  recent 
years  been  brought  to  light,  one  representing  a  seated  sphinx, 
one  the  journey  of  Europa  over  the  sea  on  the  back  of  the 
amorous  bull  (fig.  26),  a  pair  of  dolphins  swimming  beside  her. 
In  simplicity  and  in  rudeness  of  work  these  reliefs  remind  us 
of  the  limestone  pediments  of  Athens  (fig.  20),  but  yet  they  are 
of  another  and  a  severer  style;  the  Ionian  laxity  is  wanting. 

The  recent  French  excavations  at  Delphi  add  a  new  and 
important  chapter  to  the  history  of  6th-century  art.  Of  three 
Delphi.  treasure-houses,  those  of  Sicyon,  Cnidus  and  Athens, 
the  sculptural  adornments  have  been  in  great  part 
recovered.  These  sculptures  form  a  series  almost  covering  the 
century  570-470  B.C.,  and  include  representations  of  some  myths 

of  which  we  have  hither- 
to had  no  example.  We 
may  say  here  a  few 
words  as  to  the  sculpture 
which  has  been  dis- 
covered, leaving  to  the 
article  DELPHI  an 
account  of  the  topo- 
graphy and  the  buildings 
of  the  sacred  site.  Of 
the  archaic  temple  of 
Apollo,  built  as  Hero- 
dotus tells  us  by  the 
Alcmaeonidae  of  Athens, 
the  only  sculptural  re- 
mains which  have  come 
down  to  us  are  some 
fragments  of  the  pedi- 
mental  figures.  Of  the 
treasuries  which  con- 
tained the  offerings  of 
the  pious  at  Delphi,  the 
most  archaic  of  which 


FIG.  26. — Metope;  Europa  on  Bull: 
Palermo. 


there  are  remains  is  that  belonging  to  the  people  of  Sicyon. 
To  it  appertain  a  set  of  exceedingly  primitive  metopes. 
One  represents  Idas  and  Dioscuri  driving  off  cattle  (Plate  IV. 
fig.  66);  another,  the  ship  Argo;  another,  Europa  on  the  bull, 
others  merely  animals,  a  ram  or  a  boar.  The  treasury  of  the 
people  of  Cnidus  (or  perhaps  Siphnos)  is  in  style  some  half  a 
century  later  (see  fig.  17).  To  it  belongs  a  long  frieze  representing 
a  variety  of  curious  subjects:  a  battle,  perhaps  between  Greeks 


Castor  and  Pollux;  Aeolus  holding  the  winds  in  sacks.  The 
Treasury  of  the  Athenians,  erected  at  the  time  of  the  Persian 
Wars,  was  adorned  with  metopes  of  singularly  clear-cut  and 
beautiful  style,  but  very  fragmentary,  representing  the  deeds 
of  Heracles  and  Theseus. 

We  have  yet  to  speak  of  the  most  interesting  and  important  of 
all  Greek  archaic  sculptures,  the  pediments  of  the  temple  at 
Aegina  (q.v.).  These  groups  of  nude  athletes  fighting  Aeiiaa 
over  the  corpses  of  their  comrades  are  preserved  at 
Munich,  and  are  familiar  to  artists  and  students.  But  the  very 
fruitful  excavations  of  Professor  Furtwangler  have  put  them  in 
quite  a  new  light.  Furtwangler  (Aegina:  Heiligtum  der  Aphaia) 
has  entirely  rearranged  these  pediments,  in  a  way  which  removes 
the  extreme  simplicity  and  rigour  of  the  composition,  and 
introduces  far  greater  variety  of  attitudes  and  motive.  We 
repeat  here  these  new  arrangements  (figs.  27  and  28),  the  reasons 
for  which  must  be  sought  in  Furtwangler's  great  publication. 
The  individual  figures  are  not  much  altered,  as  the  restorations  of 
Thorwaldsen,  even  when  incorrect,  have  now  a  prescriptive  right 
of  which  it  is  not  easy  to  deprive  them.  Besides  the  pediments  of 
Aegina  must  be  set  the  remains  of  the  pediments  of  the  temple 
of  Apollo  at  Eretria  in  Euboea,  the  chief  group  of  which  (Plate  II. 
fig.  58),  Theseus  carrying  off  an  Amazon,  is  one  of  the  most 
finely  executed  works  of  early  Greek  art. 

Period  II.  480-400  B.C. — The  most  marvellous  phenomenon 
in  the  whole  history  of  art  is  the  rapid  progress  made  by  Greece 
in  painting  and  sculpture  during  the  sth  century  B.C.  As  in 
literature  the  sth  century  takes  us  from  the  rude  peasant  plays 
of  Thespis  to  the  drama  of  Sophocles  and  Euripides;  as  in 
philosophy  it  takes  us  from  Pythagoras  to  Socrates;  so  in 
sculpture  it  covers  the  space  from  the  primitive  works  made  for 
the  Peisistratidae  to  some  of  the  most  perfect  productions  of  the 
chisel. 

In  architecture  the  5th  century  is  ennobled  by  the  Theseum, 
the  Parthenon  and  the  Erechtheum,  the  temples  of  Zeus  at 
Olympia,  of  Apollo  at  Phigalia,  and  many  other  central 
shrines,  as  well  as  by  the  Hall  of  the  Mystae  at  Eleusis 
and  the  Propylaea  of  the  Acropolis.  Some  of  the  most 
important  of  the  Greek  temples  of  Italy  and  Sicily,  such  as  those 
of  Segesta  and  Selinus,  date  from  the  same  age.  It  is,  however, 
only  of  their  sculptural  decorations,  carried  out  by  the  greatest 
masters  in  Greece,  that  we  need  here  treat  in  any  detail. 

It  is  the  rule  in  the  history  of  art  that  innovations  and  technical 
progress  are  shown  earlier  in  the  case  of  painting  than  in  that  of 
sculpture,  a  fact  easily  explained  by  the  greater  ease     pajatja 
and  rapidity  of  the  brush  compared  with  the  chisel. 
That  this  was  the, order  of  development  in  Greek  art  cannot  be 
doubted.     But  our  means  for  judging  of  the  painting  of  the 
5th  century  are  very  slight.    The  noble  paintings  of  such  masters 


Archi- 
tecture. 


FIG.  27. — Restoration  of  West  Pediment,  Aegina. 

and  Trojans,  with  gods  and  goddesses  looking  on;  a  giganto- 
machy  in  which  the  figures  of  Poseidon,  Athena,  Hera,  Apollo, 
Artemis  and  Cybele  can  be  made  out,  with  their  opponents, 
who  are  armed  like  Greek  hoplites;  Athena  and  Heracles  in  a 
chariot;  the  carrying  off  of  the  daughters  of  Leucippus  by 
xn.  1 6 


FIG.  28. — Restoration  of  East  Pediment,  Aegina. 

as  Polygnotus,  Micon  and  Panaenus,  which  once  adorned  the 
walls  of  the  great  porticoes  of  Athens  and  Delphi,  have  dis- 
appeared. There  remain  only  the  designs  drawn  rather  than 
painted  on  the  beautiful  vases  of  the  age,  which  in  some  degree 
help  us  to  realize,  not  the  colouring  or  the  charm  of  contemporary 


482 


GREEK  ART 


[480-400  B.C 


paintings,  but  the  principle  of  their  composition  and  the  accuracy 
of  their  drawing. 

Polygnotus  of  Thasos  was  regarded  by  his  compatriots  as  a 
great  ethical  painter.  His  colouring  and  composition  were  alike 
very  simple,  his  figures  quiet  and  statuesque,  his  drawing  careful 
and  precise.  He  won  his  fame  largely  by  incorporating  in  his 
works  the  best  current  ideas  as  to  mythology,  religion  and  morals. 
In  particular  his  painting  of  Hades  with  its  rewards  and  punish- 


From  Monumenti  dell'  Institute  di  Cbrrespondenxa  archeologica,  xi.  40. 

FIG.  29. — Vase  of  Orvieto.    (The  Children  of  Niobe.) 

ments,  which  was  on  the  walls  of  the  building  of  the  people  of 
Cnidus  at  Delphi,  might  be  considered  as  a  great  religious  work, 
parallel  to  the  paintings  of  the  Campo  Santo  at  Pisa  or  to  the 
painted  windows  of  such  churches  as  that  at  Fairford.  But  he 
also  introduced  improvements  in  perspective  and  greater  freedom 
in  grouping. 

It  is  fortunate  for  us  that  the  Greek  traveller  Pausanias  has 
left  us  very  careful  and  detailed  descriptions  of  some  of  the  most 
important  of  the  frescoes  of  Polygnotus,  notably  of  the  Taking 
of  Troy  and  the  Visit  to  Hades,  which  were  at  Delphi.  A  com- 
parison of  these  descriptions  with  vase  paintings  of  the  middle 
of  the  sth  century  has  enabled  us  to  discern  with  great  pro- 
bability the  principles  of  Polygnotan  drawing  and  perspective. 
Professor  Robert  has  even  ventured  to  restore  the  paintings 
on  the  evidence  of  vases.  We  here  represent  one  of  the  scenes 
depicted  on  a  vase  found  at  Orvieto  (fig.  29),  which  is  certainly 
Polygnotan  in  character.  It  represents  the  slaying  of  the 

children  of  Niobe 
by  Apollo  and 
Artemis.  Here  we 
may  observe  a 
.remarkable  per- 
spective. The 
different  heights 
of  the  rocky  back- 
ground are  repre- 
sented by  lines 
traversing  the 
picture  on  which 
the  figures  stand; 
but  the  more 
distant  figures  are 
no  smaller  than 
the  nearer.  The 
forests  of  Mount 
Sipylus  are  repre- 
sented by  a  single 
conventional  tree. 
The  figures  are 

beautifully  drawn,  and  full  of  charm;  but  there  is  a  want  of 
energy  in  the  action. 

There  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  school  of  Polygnotus 
exercised  great  influence  on  contemporary  sculpture.  Panaenus, 
brother  of  Pheidias,  worked  with  Polygnotus,  and  many  of  the 
groupings  found  in  the  sculptures  of  the  Parthenon  remind  us  of 
those  usual  with  the  Thasian  master.  At  this  simple  and  early 
stage  of  art  there  was  no  essential  difference  between  fresco- 


Arch.  Zeit.  1878,  pi.  11. 

FIG.  30. — Vase  Drawing 


painting  and  coloured  relief,  light  and  shade  and  aerial  per- 
spective being  unknown.  We  reproduce  two  vase-paintings, 
one  (fig.  30)  a  group  of  man  and  horse  which  closely  resembles 
figures  in  the  Panathenaic  frieze  of  the  Parthenon  (fig.  31); 
the  other  (fig.  32)  representing  Victory  pouring  water  for  a 
sacrificial  ox  to  drink,  which  reminds  us  of  the  balustrade  of  the 
shrine  of  Wingless  Victory  at  Athens. 

Most  writers  on  Greek  painting  have  supposed  that  after  the 
middle  of  the  5th  century  the  technique  of  painting  rapidly 
improved.  This 
may  well  have 
been  the  case ; 
but  we  have 
little  means  of 
testing  the  ques- 
tion. Such  im- 
p  ro  ve  ments 
would  soon  raise 
such  a  barrier 
between  fresco- 
painting  and 
vase-painting, — 
which  by  its 
very  nature 
must  be  simple 
and  architect- 


FlG.  31. — Part  of  Frieze  of  the  Parthenon. 


onic, — that  vases  can  no  longer  be  used  with  confidence  as 
evidence  for  contemporary  painting.  The  stories  told  us  by 
Pliny  of  the  lives  of  Greek  painters  are  mostly  of  a  trivial  and 
untrustworthy  character.  Some  of  them  are  mentioned  in  this 
Encyclopaedia  under  the  names  of  individual  artists.  We  can 
only  discern  a  few  general  facts.  Of  Agatharchus  of  Athens  we 
learn  that  he  painted,  under  compulsion,  the  interior  of  the  house 
of  Alcibiades.  And  we  are  told  that  he  painted  a  scene  for  the 
tragedies  of  Aeschylus  or  Sophocles.  This  has  led  some  writers 
to  suppose  that  he  attempted  illusive  landscape;  but  this  is 
contrary  to  the  possibilities  of  the  time;  and  it  is  fairly  certain 
that  what  he  really  did  was  to  paint  the  wooden  front  of  the 
stage  building  in  imitation  of  architecture;  in  fact  he  painted 
a  permanent  architectural  background,  and  not  one  suited  to 
any  particular  play.  Of  other  painters  who  flourished  at  the 
end  of  the  century,  such  as  Zeuxis  and  Aristides,  it  will  be  best 
to  speak  under  the  next  period. 

It  is  now  generally  held,  in  consequence  of  evidence  furnished 
by  tombs,  that  the  5th  century  saw  the  end  of  the  making  of 


From  Gerhard's  Auserlesenc  Vasenbilder,  ii.  p! .  i. 

FIG.  32. — Nike  and  Bull. 

vases  on  a  great  scale  at  Athens  for  export  to  Italy  and  Sicily. 
And  in  fact  few  things  in  the  history  of  art  are  more  remarkable 
than  the  rapidity  with  which  vase-painting  at  Athens  reached 
its  highest  point  and  passed  it  on  the  downward  road.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  century  black-figured  ware  was  scarcely  out 
of  fashion,  and  the  masters  of  the  severe  red-figured  style, 
Pamphaeus,  Epictetus  and  their  contemporaries,  were  in  vogue. 


480-400  B.C.] 


GREEK  ART 


483 


The  schools  of  Euphronius,  Hiero  and  Duris  belong  to  the  age 
of  the  Persian  wars.  With  the  middle  of  the  century  the  works 
of  these  makers  are  succeeded  by  unsigned  vases  of  most  beautiful 
design,  some  of  them  showing  the  influence  of  Polygnotus.  In 
the  later  years  of  the  century,  when  the  empire  of  Athens  was 
approaching  its  fall,  drawing  becomes  laxer  and  more  careless, 
and  in  the  treatment  of  drapery  we  frequently  note  the  over- 
elaboration  of  folds,  the  want  of  simplicity,  which  begin  to  mark 
contemporary  sculpture.  These  changes  of  style  can  only  be 


stood  Zeus  the  supreme  arbiter.  On  one  side  of  him  stood 
Oenomaiis  with  his  wife  Sterope,  on  the  other  Pelops  and  Hippo- 
dameia,  the  daughter  of  Oenomaiis,  whose  position  at  once 
indicates  that  she  is  on  the  side  of  the  newcomer,  whatever  her 
parents  may  feel.  Next  on  either  side  are  the  four-horse  chariots 
of  the  two  competitors,  that  of  Oenomaus  in  the  charge  of  his 
perfidious  groom  Myrtilus,  who  contrived  that  it  should  break 
down  in  the  running,  that  of  Pelops  tended  by  his  grooms. 
At  either  end,  where  the  pediment  narrows  to  a  point,  reclines  a 


FIG.  33. — East  Pediment,  Olympia.  Two  Restorations. 


'rempieof  tnat  temple> 


Zeus. 


.satisfactorily  followed  in  the  vase  rooms  of  the  British  Museum, 
or  other  treasuries  of  Greek  art  (see  also  A.  B.  Walters,  History 
of  Ancient  Pottery;  and  the  article  CERAMICS). 

Among  the  sculptural  works  of  this  period  the  first  place  may 
be  given  to  the  great  temple  of  Zeus  at  Olympia.  The  statue  by 
Pheidias  which  once  occupied  the  place  of  honour  in 
was  regarded  as  the  noblest  monu- 
ment  of  Greek  religion,  has  of  course  disappeared,  nor 
are  we  able  with  confidence  to  restore  it.  But  the  plan 
of  the  temple,  its  pavement,  some  of  its  architectural  ornaments, 
remain.  The  marbles  which  occupied  the  pediments  and  the 
metopes  of  the  temple  have  been  in  large  part  recovered,  having 
been  probably  thrown  down  by  earthquakes  and  gradually  buried 
in  the  alluvial  soil.  The  utmost  ingenuity  and  science  of  the 
archaeologists  of  Germany  have  been  employed  in  the  recovery 
of  the  composition  of  these  groups;  and  although  doubt  remains 
as  to  the  places  of  some  figures,  and  their  precise  attitudes,  yet 
we  may  fairly  say  that  we  know  more  about  the  sculpture  of 


river  god,  at  one  end  Alpheus,  the  chief  stream  of  Olympia,  at 
the  other  end  his  tributary  Cladeus.  Only  one  figure  remains, 
not  noticed  in  the  careful  description  of  Pausanias,  the  figure 
of  a  handmaid  kneeling,  perhaps  one  of  the  attendants  of  Sterope. 
Our  engraving  gives  two  conjectural  restorations  of  the  pediment, 
that  of  Treu  and  that  of  Kekule,  which  differ  principally  in  the 
arrangement  of  the  corners  of  the  composition;  the  position 
of  the  central  figures  and  of  the  chariots  can  scarcely  be  called 
in  question.  The  moment  chosen  is  one,  not  of  action,  but  of 
expectancy,  perhaps  of  preparation  for  sacrifice.  The  arrange- 
ment is  undeniably  stiff  and  formal,  and  in  the  figures  we  note 
none  of  the  trained  perfection  of  style  which  belongs  to  the 
sculptures  of  the  Parthenon,  an  almost  contemporary  temple. 
Faults  abound,  alike  in  the  rendering  of  drapery  and  in  the 
representation  of  the  human  forms,  and  the  sculptor  has 
evidently  trusted  to  the  painter  who  was  afterwards  to  colour 
his  work,  to  remedy  some  of  his  clumsiness,  or  to  make  clear  the 
ambiguous.  Nevertheless  there  is  in  the  whole  a  dignity,  a 


FIG.  34. — West  Pediment,  Olympia.    Two  Restorations. 


the  Olympian  temple  of  Zeus  than  about  the  sculpture  of  any 
other  great  Greek  temple.  The  exact  date  of  these  sculptures 
is  not  certain,  but  we  may  with  some  confidence  give  them  to 
470-460  B.C.  (In  speaking  of  them  we  shall  mostly  follow  the 
opinion  of  Dr  Treu,  whose  masterly  work  in  vol.  iii.  of  the  great 
German  publication  on  Olympia  is  a  model  of  patience  and  of 
science.)  In  the  eastern  pediment  (fig.  33),  as  Pausanias  tells 
us,  were  represented  the  preparations  for  the  chariot-race 
between  Oenomaus  and  Pelops,  the  result  of  which  was  to 
determine  whether  Pelops  should  find  death  or  a  bride  and  a 
kingdom.  In  the  midst,  invisible  to  the  contending  heroes, 


sobriety,  and  a  simplicity,  which  reconcile  us  to  the  knowledge 
that  this  pediment  was  certainly  regarded  in  antiquity  as  a  noble 
work,  fit  to  adorn  even  the  palace  of  Zeus.  In  the  other,  the 
western  pediment  (fig.  34),  the  subject  is  the  riot  of  the  Centaurs 
when  they  attended  the  wedding  of  Peirithous  in  Thessaly,  and, 
attempting  to  carry  off  the  bride  and  her  comrades,  were  slain 
by  Peirithous  and  Theseus.  In  the  midst  of  the  pediment, 
invisible  like  Zeus  in  the  eastern  pediment,  stands  Apollo,  while 
on  either  side  of  him  Theseus  and  Peirithous  attack  the  Centaurs 
with  weapons  hastily  snatched.  Our  illustration  gives  two 
possible  arrangements.  The  monsters  are  in  various  attitudes 


GREEK  ART 


[480-400   B.C 


of  attempted  violence,  of  combat  and  defeat;  with  each  grapples 
one  of  the  Lapith  heroes  in  the  endeavour  to  rob  them  of  their 
prey.  In  the  corners  of  the  pediment  recline  female  figures, 
perhaps  attendant  slaves,  though  the  farthest  pair  may  best  be 
identified  as  local  Thessalian  nymphs,  looking  on  with  the 
calmness  of  divine  superiority,  yet  not  wholly  unconcerned  in 
what  is  going  forward.  Though  the  composition  of  the  two 
pediments  differs  notably,  the  one  bearing  the  impress  of  a 
parade-like  repose,  the  other  of  an  overstrained  activity,  yet 


Olympia,  Hi.  45. 

FIG.  35. — Metope :  Olympia ;  restored. 

the  style  and  execution  are  the  same  in  both,  and  the  short- 
comings must  be  attributed  to  the  inferior  skill  of  a  local  school 
of  sculptors  compared  with  those  of  Athens  or  of  Aegina.  It 
even  appears  likely  that  the  designs  also  belong  to  a  local  school. 
Pausanias,  it  is  true,  tells  us  that  the  pediments  were  the  work 
of  Alcamenes,  the  pupil  of  Pheidias,  and  of  Paeonius,  a  sculptor 
of  Thrace,  respectively;  but  it  is  almost  certain  that  he  was 

misled  by  the  local  guides, 
who  would  naturally  be 
anxious  to  connect  the 
sculptures  of  their  great 
temple  with  well  -  known 
names. 

The  metopes  of  the 
temple  are  in  the  same  style 
of  art  as  the  pediments,  but 
the  defects  of  awkwardness 
and  want  of  mastery  are 
less  conspicuous,  because 
the  narrow  limits  of  the 
metope  exclude  any  elabo- 
rate grouping.  The  sub- 
jects are  provided  by  the 
twelve  labours  of  Heracles; 
the  figures  introduced  in 
each  metope  are  but  two  or 
at  most  three;  and  the 
action  is  simplified  as  much 
as  possible.  The  example 


FIG.  36.-Nike  of  Paeonius;  restored.   ™raues    Aiding    up    the 

sky  on  a  cushion,  with  the 

friendly  aid  of  a  Hesperid  nymph,  while  Atlas,  whom  he  has 
relieved  of  his  usual  burden,  approaches  bringing  the  apples 
which  it  was  the  task  of  Heracles  to  procure. 

Another  of  the  fruits  of  the  excavations  of  Olympia  is  the 
floating  Victory  by  Paeonius,  unfortunately  faceless  (fig.  36), 
which  was  set  up  in  all  probability  in  memory  of  the  victory  of 
the  Athenians  and  their  Messenian  allies  at  Sphacteria  in  425  B.C. 
The  inscription  states  that  it  was  dedicated  by  the  Messenians 


and  people  of  Naupactus  from  the  spoils  of  their  enemies,  but 
the  name  of  the  enemy  is  not  mentioned  in  the  inscription. 
The  statue  of  Paeonius,  which  comes  floating  down  through  the 
air  with  drapery  borne  backward,  is  of  a  bold  and  innovating 
type,  and  we  may  trace  its  influence  in  many  works  of  the  next 
age. 

Among  the  discoveries  at  Delphi  none  is  so  striking  and 
valuable  to  us  as  the  life-size  statue  in  bronze  of  a  charioteer 
holding  in  his  hand  the  reins.  This  is  maintained  Delphic 
by  M.  Homolle  to  be  part  of  a  chariot-group  set  up  charioteer. 
by  Polyzalus,  brother  of  Gelo  and  Hiero  of  Syracuse, 
in  honour  of  a  victory  won  in  the  chariot-race  at  the  Pythian 
games  at  Delphi  (fig.  37).  The  charioteer  is  evidently  a  high-born 
youth,  and  is  clad  in  the  long  chiton  which  was  necessary  to 
protect  a  driver  of  a  chariot  from  the  rush  of  air.  The  date 
would  be  about  480-470  B.C.  Bronze  groups  representing 
victorious  chariots  with  their  drivers  were  among  the  noblest 
and  most  costly  dedications  of  antiquity;  the  present  figure 
is  our  only  satisfactory  representative  of  them.  In  style  the 
figure  is  very  notable,  tall  and  slight  beyond  all  contemporary 
examples.  The  contrast  between  the  conventional  decorousness 
of  face  and  drapery  and  the  lifelike  accuracy  of  hands  and 


M  (moires,  Piot,  1897,  16. 

FIG.  37. — Bronze  Charioteer:  Delphi. 

feet  is  very  striking,  and  indicates  the  clashing  of  various 
tendencies  in  art  at  the  time  when  the  great  style  was  formed 
in  Greece. 

The  three  great  masters  of  the  5th  century,  Myron,  Pheidias 
and  Polyclitus  are  all  in  some  degree  known  to  us  from  their 
works.  Of  Myron  we  have  copies  of  two  works,  the  Marsyas 
(Plate  III.  fig.  64)  and  the  Discobolus.  The  Marsyas  (a  copy  in 
the  Lateran  Museum)  represents  the  Satyr  so  named  in  the 
grasp  of  conflicting  emotions,  eager  to  pick  up  the  flutes  which 
Athena  has  thrown  down,  but  at  the  same  time  dreading  her 
displeasure  if  he  does  so.  The  Discobolus  has  usually  been 
judged  from  the  examples  in  the  Vatican  and  the  British  Museum, 
in  which  the  anatomy  is  modernized  and  the  head  wrongly  put  on. 
We  have  now  photographs  of  the  very  superior  replica  in  the 
Lancelotti  gallery  at  Rome,  the  pose  of  which  is  much  nearer 
to  the  original.  Our  illustration  represents  a  restoration  made 
at  Munich,  by  combining  the  Lancelotti  head  with  the  Vatican 
body  (Plate  IV.  fig.  68). 

Of  the  works  of  Pheidias  we  have  unfortunately  no  certain 
copy,  if  we  except  the  small  replicas  at  Athens  of  his  Athena 
Parthenos.  The  larger  of  these  (fig.  38)  was  found  in  1880: 
it  is  very  clumsy,  and  the  wretched  device  by  which  a  pillar 
is  introduced  to  support  the  Victory  in  the  hand  of  Athena  can 
scarcely  be  supposed  to  have  belonged  to  the  great  original. 
Tempting  theories  have  been  published  by  Furtwangler  (Master- 
pieces of  Greek  Sculpture)  and  other  archaeologists,  which 
identify  copies  of  the  Athena  Lemnia  of  Pheidias,  his  Pantarces, 


480-400  B.C.] 


GREEK  ART 


485 


his  Aphrodite  Urania  and  other  statues;  but  doubt  hangs  over 
all  these  attributions. 

A  more  pertinent  and  more  promising  question  is,  how  far 
we  may  take  the  decorative  sculpture  of  the  Parthenon,  since 
Lord  Elgin's  time  the  pride  of  the  British  Museum,  as  the 
actual  work  of  Pheidias,  or  as  done  from  his  designs.  Here 
again  we  have  no  conclusive  evidence;  but  it  appears  from  the 
testimony  of  inscriptions  that  the  pediments  at  all  events  were 
not  executed  until  after  Pheidias's  death. 

Of  course  the  pediments  and  frieze  of  the  Parthenon  (q.v), 
whose  work  soever  they  may  be,  stand  at  the  head  of  all  Greek 

decorative  s  c  u  1  pt  u  r  e. 
Whether  we  regard  the 
grace  of  the  composi- 
tion, the  exquisite  finish 
of  the  statues  in  the 
round,  or  the  delightful 
atmosphere  of  poetry 
and  religion  which  sur- 
rounds these  sculptures, 
they  rank  among  the 
masterpieces  of  the 
world.  The  Greeks 
esteemed  them  far  below 
the  statue  which  the 
temple  was  made  to 
shelter;  but  to  us,  who 
have  lost  the  great 
figure  in  ivory  and  gold, 
the  carvings  of  the  casket 
which  once  contained  it 
are  a  perpetual  source  of 
instruction  and  delight. 
The  whole  is  repro- 
FIG.  38. — Statuette  of  Athena  Parthenos.  duced  by  photography 
in  A.  S.  Murray's  Sculptures  of  the  Parthenon. 

An  abundant  literature  has  sprung  up  in  regard  to  these 
sculptures  in  recent  years.  It  will  suffice  here  to  mention  the 
discussions  in  Furtwangler's  Masterpieces,  and  the  very  ingenious 
attempts  of  Sauer  to  determine  by  a  careful  examination  of  the 
bases  and  backgrounds  of  the  pediments  as  they  now  stand  how 
the  figures  must  have  been  arranged  in  them.  The  two  ends 
of  the  eastern  pediment  (Plate  III.  fig.  65)  are  the  only  fairly 
well-preserved  part  of  the  pediments. 

Among  the  pupils  of  Pheidias  who  may  naturally  be  supposed 
to  have  worked  on  the  sculptures  of  the  Parthenon,  the  most 
notable  were  Alcamenes  and  Agoracritus.  Some  fragments 
remain  of  the  great  statue  of  Nemesis  at  Rhamnus  by  Agoracritus. 
And  an  interesting  light  has  been  thrown  on  Alcamenes  by  the 
discovery  at  Pergamum  of  a  professed  copy  of  his  Hermes  set 
up  at  the  entrance  to  the  Acropolis  at  Athens  (Plate  II. 
fig.  57).  The  style  of  this  work,  however,  is  conventional 
and  archaistic,  and  we  can  scarcely  regard  it  as  typical  of  the 
master. 

Another  noted  contemporary  who  was  celebrated  mainly  for 
his  portraits  was  Cresilas,  a  Cretan.  Several  copies  of  his 
portrait  of  Pericles  exist,  and  testify  to  the  lofty  and  idealizing 
style  of  portraiture  in  this  great  agej 

We  possess  also  admirable  sculpture  belonging  to  the  other 
important  temples  of  the  Acropolis,  the  Erechtheum  and  the 
temple  of  Nike.  The  temple  of  Nike  is  the  earlier,  being  possibly 
a  memorial  of  the  Spartan  defeat  at  Sphacteria.  The  Erech- 
theum belongs  to  the  end  of  our  period,  and  embodies  the 
delicacy  and  finish  of  the  conservative  school  of  sculpture  at 
Athens  just  as  the  Parthenon  illustrates  the  ideas  of  the  more 
progressive  school.  The  reconstruction  of  the  Erechtheum  has 
been  a  task,  which  has  long  occupied  the  attention  of  archaeo- 
logists (see  the  paper  by  Mr  Stevens  in  the  American  Journal 
of  Archaeology,  1906).  Our  illustration  (Plate  V.  fig.  75)  shows 
one  of  the  Corae  or  maidens  who  sttpport  the  entablature  of  the 
south  porch  of  the  Erechtheum  in  her  proper  setting.  This 
use  of  the  female  figure  in  place  of  a  pillar  is  based  on  old  Ionian 


precedent  (see  fig.  17)  and  is  not  altogether  happy;  but  the 
idea  is  carried  out  with  remarkable  skill,  the  perfect  repose 
and  solid  strength  of  the  maiden  being  emphasized. 

Beside  Pheidias  of  Athens  must  be  placed  the  greatest  of  early 
Argive  sculptors,  Polyclitus.  His  two  typical  athletes,  the 
Doryphorus  or  spear-bearer  (Plate  VI.  fig.  80)  and  the  Diadu- 
menus,  have  long  been  identified,  and  though  the  copies  are  not 
first-rate,  they  enable  us  to  recover  the  principles  of  the  master's 
art. 

Among  the  bases  discovered  at  Olympia,  whence  the  statues 
had  been  removed,  are  three  or  four  which  bear  the  name  of 
Polyclitus,  and  the  definite  evidence  furnished  by  pb/  ^ 
these  bases  as  to  the  position  of  the  feet  of  the 
statues  which  they  once  bore  has  enabled  archaeologists, 
especially  Professor  Furtwangler,  to  identify  copies  of  those 
statues  among  known  works.  Also  newly  discovered  copies  of 
Polyclitan  works  have  made  their  appearance.  At  Delos  there 
has  been  found  a  copy  of  the  Diadumenus,  which  is  of  much 
finer  work  than  the  statue  in  the  British  Museum  from  Vaison. 
The  Museum  of  Fine  Arts  at  Boston,  U.S.A.,  has  secured  a  very 
beautiful  statue  of  a  young  Hermes,  who  but  for  the  wings  on 
the  temples  might  pass  as  a  boy  athlete  of  Polyclitan  style 
(Plate  II.  fig.  60).  In  fact,  instead  of  relying  as  regards  the 
manner  of  Polyclitus  on  Roman  copies  of  the  Doryphorus  and 
Diadumenus,  we  have  quite  a  gallery  of  athletes,  boys  and  men, 
who  all  claim  relationship,  nearer  or  more  remote,  to  the  school 
of  the  great  Argive  master.  It  might  have  been  hoped  that  the 
excavations,  made  under  the  leadership  of  Professor  Waldstein 
at  the  Argive  Heraeum,  would  have  enlightened  us  as  to  the 
style  of  Polyclitus.  Jus.t  as  the  sculptures  of  the  Parthenon 
are  the  best  monument  of  Pheidias,  so  it  might  seem  likely  that 
the  sculptural  decoration  of  the  great  temple  which  contained 
the  Hera  of  Polyclitus  would  show  us  at  large  how  his  school 
worked  in  marble.  Unfortunately  the  fragments  of  sculpture 
from  the  Heraeum  are  few.  The  most  remarkable  is  a  ferriaie 
head,  which  may  perhaps  come  from  a  pediment  (fig.  39).  But 
archaeologists  are  not  in  agreement  whether  it  is  in  style  Poly- 


FIG.  39. — Female  Head :  Heraeum. 

clitan  or  whether  it  rather  resembles  in  style  Attic  works.  Other 
heads  and  some  highly-finished  fragments  of  bodies  come 
apparently  from  the  metopes  of  the  same  temple.  (See  also 
article  ARGOS.) 

Another  work  of  Polyclitus  was  his  Amazon,  made  it  is  said 
in  competition  with  his  great  contemporaries,  Pheidias,  Cresilas 
and  Phradmon,  all  of  whose  Amazons  were  preserved  in  the 
great  temple  of  Artemis  at  Ephesus.  In  our  museums  are  many 
statues  of  Amazons  representing  sth  century  originals.  These 
have  usually  been  largely  restored,  and  it  is  no  easy  matter  to 
discover  their  original  type.  Professor  Michaelis  has  recovered 


486 


GREEK  ART 


[400-300    B.C. 


successfully  three  types  (fig.  40).  The  attribution  of  these  is  a 
matter  of  controversy.  The  first  has  been  given  to  the  chisel 
of  Polyclitus;  the  second  seems  to  represent  the  Wounded 
Amazon  of  Cresilas;  the  third  has  by  some  archaeologists  been 
given  to  Pheidias.  It  does  not  represent  a  wounded  amazon, 
but  one  alert,  about  to  leap  upon  her  horse  with  the  help  of  a 
spear  as  a  leaping  pole. 

We  can  devote  little  more  than  a  passing  mention  to  the 
sculpture  of  other  temples  and  shrines  of  the  later  5th  century, 
,  .  which  nevertheless  deserve  careful  study.  The  frieze 

from  the  temple  of  Apollo  at  Phigalia,  representing 
Centaur  and  Amazon  battles,  is  familiar  to  visitors  of  the  British 
Museum,  where,  however,  its  proximity  to  the  remains  of  the 


FIG.  40, — Types  of  Amazons  (Michaelis.) 

Parthenon  lays  stress  upon  the  faults  of  grouping  and  execution 
which  this  frieze  presents.  It  seems  to  have  been  executed  by 
local  Arcadian  artists.  More  pleasing  is  the  sculpture  of  the 
Ionic  tomb  called  the  Nereid  monument,  brought  by  Sir  Charles 
Fellows  from  Lycia.  Here  we  have  not  only  a  series  of  bands 
of  relief  which  ran  round  the  tomb,  but  also  detached  female 
figures,  whence  the  name  which  it  bears  is  derived.  A  recent 
view  sees  in  these  women  with  their  fluttering  drapery  not 
nymphs  of  the  sea,  but  personifications  of  sea-breezes. 

The  series  of  known  Lycian  tombs  has  been  in  recent  years 
enriched  through  the  acquisition  by  the  museum  of  Vienna  of 
the  sculptured  friezes  which  adorned  a  heroon  near  Geul  Bashi. 
In  the  midst  of  the  enclosure  was  a  tomb,  and  the  walls  of  the 
enclosure  itself  were  adorned  within  and  without  with  a  great 
series  of  reliefs,  mostly  of  mythologic  purport.  Many  subjects 
which  but  rarely  occur  in  early  Greek  art,  the  siege  of  Troy,  the 
adventure  of  the  Seven  against  Thebes,  the  carrying*off  of  the 
daughters  of  Leucippus,  Ulysses  shooting  down  the  Suitors,  are 
here  represented  in  detail.  Professor  Benndorf,  who  has  pub- 
lished these  sculptures  in  an  admirable  volume,  is  disposed  to 
see  in  them  the  influence  of  the  Thasian  painter  Polygnotus. 
Any  one  can  see  their  kinship  to  painting,  and  their  subjects 
recur  in  some  of  the  great  frescoes  painted  by  Polygnotus, 
Micon  and  others  for  the  Athenians.  Like  other  Lycian  sculp- 
tures, they  contain  non-Hellenic  elements;  in  fact  Lycia  forms 
a  link  of  the  chain  which  extends  from  the  wall-paintings  of 
Assyria  to  works  like  the  columns  of  Trajan  and  of  Antoninus, 
but  is  not  embodied  in  the  more  purely  idealistic  works  of  the 
highest  Greek  art.  The  date  of  the  Vienna  tomb  is  not  much 
later  than  the  middle  of  the  sth  century.  A  small  part  of  the 
frieze  of  this  monument  is  shown  in  fig.  41.  It  will  be  seen  that 
in  this  fragment  there  are  two  scenes,  one  directly  above  the  other. 
In  the  upper  line  Ulysses,  accompanied  by  his  son  Telemachus, 
is  in  the  act  of  shooting  the  suitors,  who  are  reclining  at  table 
in  the  midst  of  a  feast;  a  cup-bearer,  possibly  Melanthius,  is 
escaping  by  a  door  behind  Ulysses.  In  the  lower  line  is  the 
central  group  of  a  frieze  which  represents  the  hunting  of  the 


Calydonian  boar,  which  is  represented,  as  is  usual  in  the  best  time 
of  Greek  art,  as  an  ordinary  animal  and  no  monster. 

Archaeologists  have  recently  begun  to  pay  more  attention 
to  an  interesting  branch  of  Greek  art  which  had  until  recently 
been  neglected,  that  of  sculptured  portraits.  The  „  rt  ft 
known  portraits  of  the  5th  century  now  include 
Pericles,  Herodotus,  Thucydides,  Anacreon,  Sophocles,  Euripides, 
Socrates  and  others.  As  might  be  expected  in  a  time  when  style 
in  sculpture  was  so  strongly  pronounced,  these  portraits,  when  not 
later  unfaithful  copies,  are  notably  ideal.  They  represent  the 
great  men  whom  they  portray  not  in  the  spirit  of  realism. 
Details  are  neglected,  expression  is  not  elaborated;  the  sculptor 
tries  to  represent  what  is  permanent  in  his  subject  rather  than 
what  is  temporary.  Hence  these  portraits  do  not  seem  to  belong 
to  a  particular  time  of  life;  they  only  represent  a  man  in  the 
perfection  of  physical  force  and  mental  energy.  And  the  race 
or  type  is  clearly  shown  through  individual  traits.  In  some 
cases  it  is  still  disputed  whether  statues  of  this  age  represent 
deities  or  mortals,  so  notable  are  the  repose  and  dignity  which 
even  human  figures  acquire  under  the  hands  of  sth-century 
masters.  The  Pericles  after  Cresilas  in  the  British  Museum, 
and  the  athlete-portraits  of  Polyclitus,  are  good  examples. 

Period  III.  400-300  B.C. — The  high  ideal  level  attained  by 
Greek  art  at  the  end  of  the  5th  century  is  maintained  in  the  4th. 
There  cannot  be  any  question  of  decay  in  it  save  at  Athens, 
where  undoubtedly  the  loss  of  religion  and  the  decrease  of 
national  prosperity  acted  prejudicially.  But  in  Peloponnesus 
the  time  was  one  of  expansion;  several  new  and  important  cities, 
such  as  Messene,  Megalopolis  and  Mantinea,  arose  under  the 
protection  of  Epaminondas.  And  in  Asia  the  Greek  cities  were 
still  prosperous  and  artistic,  as  were  the  cities  of  Italy  and  Sicily 
which  kept  their  independence.  On  the  whole  we  find  during 
this  age  some  diminution  of  the  freshness  and  simplicity  of  art; 


Heroon  of  Cyeul  Bashi  Trysa.  PI.  7. 

FIG.  41. — Odysseus  and  Suitors;  Hunting  of  Boar. 

it  works  less  in  the  service  of  the  gods  and  more  in  that  of  private 
patrons;  it  becomes  less  ethical  and  more  sentimental  and 
emotional.  On  the  other  hand,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
technique  both  in  painting  and  sculpture  advanced  with  rapid 
strides;  artists  had  a  greater  mastery  of  their  materials,  and 
ventured  on  a  wider  range  of  subject. 

In  the  4th  century  no  new  temples  of  importance  rose  at 
Athens;  the  Acropolis  had  taken  its  final  form;  but  at  Messene, 
Tegea,  Epidaurus  and  elsewhere,  very  admirable  buildings  arose. 
The  remains  of  the  temple  at  Tegea  are  of  wonderful  beauty 
and  finish;  as  are  those  of  the  theatre  and  the  so-called  Tholus 
of  Epidaurus.  In  Asia  Minor  vast  temples  of  the  Ionic  order 
arose,  especially  at  Miletus  and  Ephesus.  The  colossal  pillars 
of  Miletus  astonish  the  visitors  to  the  Louvre;  while  the 
sculptured  columns  of  Ephesus  in  the  British  Museum  (Plate  II. 
fig.  59)  show  a  high  level  of  artistic  skill.  The  Mausoleum 
erected  about  350  B.C.  at  Halicarnassus  in  memory  of  Mausolus, 
king  of  Caria,  and  adorned  with  sculpture  by  the  most  noted 


400-300   B.C.] 


GREEK  ART 


487 


artists  of  the  day,  was  reckoned  one  of  the  wonders  of  the  world. 
It  has  been  in  part  restored  in  the  British  Museum.  Mr  Oldfield's 
conjectural  restoration,  published  in  Archaeologia  for  1895, 
though  it  has  many  rivals,  surpasses  them  all  in  the  lightness 
of  the  effect,  and  in  close  correspondence  to  the  description  by 
Pliny.  We  show  a  small  part  of  the  sculptural  decoration, 
representing  a  battle  between  Greeks  and  Amazons  (Plate  IV. 
fig.  70),  wherein  the  energy  of  the  action  and  the  careful  balance 
of  figure  against  figure  are  remarkable.  We  possess  also  the 
fine  portraits  of  Mausolus  himself  and  his  wife  Artemisia,  which 
stood  in  or  on  the  building,  as  well  as  part  of  a  gigantic  chariot 
with  four  horses  which  surmounted  it. 

Another  architectural  work  of  the  4th  century,  in  its  way  a 
gem,  is  the  structure  set  up  at  Athens  by  Lysicrates,  in  memory 
of  a  choragic  victory.  This  still  survives,  though  the  reliefs 
with  which  it  is  adorned  have  suffered  severely  from  the  weather. 

The  4th  century  is  the  brilliant  period  of  ancient  painting. 
It  opens  with  the  painters  of  the  Asiatic  School,  Zeuxis  and  Par- 
rhasius  and  Protogenes,  with  their  contemporaries  Nicias  and 
Apollodorus  of  Athens,  Timanthes  of  Sicyon  or  Cythnus,  and 


AAEZANAPOI 

A0HNA10Z 

EPPAIJIEN 


NIOBH 


<(>OIBH 


IAEA1PA 


Nat.  Mus.,  Naples. 

FIG.  42. — Greek  Drawing  of  Women  playing  at  Knucklebones. 

Euphranor  of  Corinth.  It  witnesses  the  rise  of  a  great  school 
at  Sicyon,  under  Eupompus  and  Pamphilus,  which  was  noted 
for  its  scientific  character  and  the  fineness  of  its  drawing,  and 
which  culminated  in  Apelles,  the  painter  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
and  probably  the  greatest  master  of  the  art  in  antiquity.  To 
each  of  these  painters  a  separate  article  is  given,  fixing  their 
place  in  the  history  of  the  art.  Of  their  paintings  unfortunately 
we  can  form  but  a  very  inadequate  notion.  Vase-paintings, 
which  in  the  sth  century  give  us  some  notion  at  least  of  con- 
temporary drawing,  are  less  careful  in  the  4th  century.  Now 
and  then  we  find  on  them  figures  admirably  designed,  or  success- 
fully foreshortened;  but  these  are  rare  occurrences.  The  art 
of  the  vase  decorator  has  ceased  to  follow  the  methods  and 
improvements  of  contemporary  fresco  painters,  and  is  pursued 
as  a  mere  branch  of  commerce. 

But  very  few  actual  paintings  of  the  age  survive,  and  even 
these  fragmentary  remains  have  with  time  lost  the  freshness  of 
their  colouring;  nor  are  they  in  any  case  the  work  of  a  note- 
worthy hand.  We  reproduce  two  examples.  The  first  is  from 
a  stone  of  the  vault  of  a  Crimean  grave  (Plate  IV.  fig.  67).  The 
date  of  the  grave  is  fixed  to  the  4th  century  by  ornaments  found 
in  it,  among  which  was  a  gold  coin  of  Alexander  the  Great.  The 


Praxi- 
teles. 


representation  is  probably  of  Demeter  or  her  priestess,  her  hair 
bound  with  poppies  and  other  flowers.  The  original  is  of  large 
size.  The  other  illustration  (fig.  42)  represents  the  remains  of 
a  drawing  on  marble,  representing  a  group  of  women  playing 
knucklebones.  It  was  found  at  Herculaneum.  Though  signed 
by  one  Alexander  of  Athens,  who  was  probably  a  worker  of  the 
Roman  age,  Professor  Robert  is  right  in  maintaining  that 
Alexander  only  copied  a  design  of  the  age  of  Zeuxis  and  Par- 
rhasius.  In  fact  the  drawing  and  grouping  is  so  closely  like  that 
of  reliefs  of  about  400  B.C.  that  the  drawing  is  of  great  historic 
value,  though  there  be  no  colouring.  Several  other  drawings 
of  the  same  class  have  been  found  at  Herculaneum,  and  on  the 
walls  of  the  Transtiberine  Villa  at  Rome  (now  in  the  Terme 
Museum). 

Until  about  the  year  1880,  our  knowledge  of  the  great  Greek 
sculptors  of  the  4th  century  was  derived  mostly  from  the 
statements  of  ancient  writers  and  from  Roman 
copies,  or  what  were  supposed  to  be  copies,  of 
their  works.  We  are  now  in  a  far  more  satisfactory 
position.  We  now  possess  an  original  work  of  Praxiteles,  and 
sculptures  executed  under  the  immediate  direction  of,  if  not  from 
the  hand  of,  other  great  sculptors  of  that  age — Scopas,  Timotheus 
and  others.  Among  all  the  discoveries  made  at  Olympia,  none 
has  become  so  familiar  to  the  artistic  world  as  that  of  the  Hermes 
of  Praxiteles.  It  is  the  first  time  that  we  have  become  possessed 
of  a  first-rate  Greek  original  by  one  of  the  greatest  of  sculptors. 
Hitherto  almost  all  the  statues  in  our  museums  have  been  either 
late  copies  of  Greek  works  of  art,  or  else  the  mere  decorative 
sculpture  of  temples  and  tombs,  which  was  by  the  ancients 
themselves  but  little  regarded.  But  we  can  venture  without 
misgiving  to  submit  the  new  Hermes  to  the  strictest  examination, 
sure  that  in  every  line  and  touch  we  have  the  work  of  a  great 
artist.  This  is  more  than  we  can  say  of  any  of  the  literary 
remains  of  antiquity — poem,  play  or  oration.  Hermes  is  repre- 
sented by  the  sculptor  (fig.  43 
and  Plate  VI.  fig.  82)  in  the  act 
of  carrying  the  young  child 
Dionysus  to  the  nymphs  who 
were  charged  with  his  rearing. 
On  the  journey  he  pauses  and 
amuses  himself  by  holding  out  to 
the  child-god  a  bunch  of  grapes, 
and  watching  his  eagerness  to 
grasp  them.  To  the  modern  eye 
the  child  is  not  a  success;  only 
the  latest  art  of  Greece  is  at  home 
in  dealing  with  children.  But  the 
Hermes,  strong  without  excessive 
muscular  development,  and  grace- 
ful without  leanness,  is  a  model 
of  physical  formation,  and  his 
face  expresses  the  perfection  of 
health,  natural  endowment  and 
sweet  nature.  The  statue  can 
scarcely  be  called  a  work  of 
religious  art  in  the  modern  or 
Christian  sense  of  the  word  _ 

religious,  but  from  the  Greek  ^''43 .—Hermes  of  Praxiteles; 
point  of  view  it  is  religious,  as  restored, 

embodying  the  result  of  the  har- 
monious development  of  all  human  faculties  and  life  in  accord- 
ance with  nature. 

The  Hermes  not  only  adds  to  our  knowledge  of  Praxiteles, 
but  also  confirms  the  received  views  in  regard  to  him.  Already 
many  works  in  galleries  of  sculpture  had  been  identified  as 
copies  of  statues  of  his  school.  Noteworthy  among  these  are, 
the  group  at  Munich  representing  Peace  nursing  the  infant 
Wealth,  from  an  original  by  Cephisodotus,  father  of  Praxiteles; 
copies  of  the  Cnidian  Aphrodite  of  Praxiteles,  especially  one  in 
the  Vatican  which  is  here  illustrated  (Plate  V.  fig.  71);  copies 
of  the  Apollo  slaying  a  lizard  (Sauroctonus),  of  a  Satyr  (in  the 
Capitol  Museum),  and  others.  These  works,  which  are  noted 


Olympic,  iii.  53. 


GREEK  ART 


[400-300  B.C. 


for  their  softness  and  charm,  make  us  understand  the  saying  of 
ancient  critics  that  Praxiteles  and  Scopas  were  noted  for  the 
pathos  of  their  works,  as  Pheidias  and  Polyclitus  for  the  ethical 
quality  of  those  they  produced.  But  the  pathos  of  Praxiteles 
is  of  a  soft  and  dreamy  character;  there  is  no  action,  or  next 
to  none;  and  the  emotions  which  he  rouses  are  sentimental 
rather  than  passionate.  Scopas,  as  we  shall  see,  was  of  another 
mood.  The  discovery  of  the  Hermes  has  naturally  set  archae- 
ologists searching  in  the  museums  of  Europe  for  other  works 
which  may  from  their  likeness  to  it  in  various  respects  be  set 
down  as  Praxitelean  in  character.  In  the  case  of  many  of  the 
great  sculptors  of  Greece — Strongylion,  Silanion,  Calamis  and 
others — it  is  of  little  use  to  search  for  copies  of  their  works, 
since  we  have  little  really  trustworthy  evidence  on  which  to 
base  our  inquiries.  But  in  the  case  of  Praxiteles  we  really  stand 
on  a  safe  level.  Naturally  it  is  impossible  in  these  pages  to  give 
any  sketch  of  the  results,  some  almost  certain,  some  very  doubtful, 
of  the  researches  of  archaeologists  in  quest  of  Praxitelean  works. 
But  we  may  mention  a  few  works  which  have  been  claimed 
by  good  judges  as  coming  from  the  master  himself.  Professor 
Brunn  claimed  as  work  of  Praxiteles  a  torso  of  a  satyr  in  the 
Louvre,  in  scheme  identical  with  the  well-known  satyr  of  the 
Capitol.  Professor  Furtwangler  puts  in  the  same  category  a 
delicately  beautiful  head  of  Aphrodite  at  Petworth.  And  his 
translator,  Mrs  Strong,  regards  the  Aberdeen  head  of  a  young 
man  in  the  British  Museum  as  the  actual  work  of  Praxiteles. 
Certainly  this  last  head  does  not  suffer  when  placed  beside  the 
Olympian  head  of  Hermes.  At  Mantinea  has  been  found  a  basis 
whereon  stood  a  group  of  Latona  and  her  two  children,  Apollo 
and  Artemis,  made  by  Praxiteles.  This  base  bears  reliefs 
representing  the  musical  contest  of  Apollo  and  Marsyas,  with  the 
Muses  as  spectators,  reliefs  very  pleasing  in  style,  and  quite 
in  the  manner  of  Attic  artists  of  the  4th  century.  But  of  course 
we  must  not  ascribe  them  to  the  hand  of  Praxiteles  himself; 
great  sculptors  did  not  themselves  execute  the  reliefs  which 
adorned  temples  and  other  monuments,  but  reserved  them  for 
their  pupils.  Yet  the  graceful  figures  of  the  Muses  of  Mantinea 
suggest  how  much  was  due  to  Praxiteles  in  determining  the  tone 
and  character  of  Athenian  art  in  relief  in  the  4th  century. 
Exactly  the  same  style  which  marks  them  belongs  also  to  a  mass 
of  sepulchral  monuments  at  Athens,  and  such  works  as  the 
Sidonian  sarcophagus  of  the  Mourning  Women,  to  be  presently 
mentioned. 

Excavation  on  the  site  of  the  temple  of  Athena  Alea  at  Tegea 
has  resulted  in  the  recovery  of  works  of  the  school  of  Scopas. 
Scopas  Pausanias  tells  us  that  Scopas  was  the  architect  of 
the  temple,  and  so  important  in  the  case  of  a  Greek 
temple  is  the  sculptural  decoration,  that  we  can  scarcely 
doubt  that  the  sculpture  also  of  the  temple  at  Tegea  was 
under  the  supervision  of  Scopas,  especially  as  he  was  more 
noted  as  a  sculptor  than  as  an  architect.  In  the  pediments 
of  the  temple  were  represented  two  scenes  from  mythology, 
the  hunting  of  the  Calydonian  boar  and  the  combat  between 
Achilles  and  Telephus.  To  one  or  other  of  these  scenes  belong 
several  heads  of  local  marble  discovered  on  the  spot,  which  are 
very  striking  from  their  extraordinary  life  and  animation. 
Unfortunately  they  are  so  much  injured  that  they  can  scarcely 
be  made  intelligible  except  by  the  help  of  restoration;  we 
therefore  engrave  one  of  them,  the  helmeted  head,  as  restored 
by  a  German  sculptor  (Plate  III.  fig.  63).  The  strong  bony 
frame  of  this  head,  and  its  depth  from  front  to  back,  are  not 
less  noteworthy  than  the  parted  lips  and  deeply  set  and  strongly 
shaded  eye;,  the  latter  features  impart  to  the  head  a  vividness 
of  expression  such  as  we  have  found  in  no  previous  work  of  Greek 
art,  but  which  sets  the  key  to  the  developments  of  art  which 
take  place  in  the  Hellenistic  age.  A  draped  torso  of  Atalanta 
from  the  same  pediment  has  been  fitted  to  one  of  these  heads. 
Hitherto  Scopas  was  known  to  us,  setting  aside  literary  records, 
only  as  one  of  the  sculptors  who  had  worked  at  the  Mausoleum. 
Ancient  critics  and  travellers,  however,  bear  ample  testimony  to 
his  fame,  and  the  wide  range  of  his  activity,  which  extended  to 
northern  Greece,  Peloponnese  and  Asia  Minor.  His  Maenads 


and  his  Tritons  and  other  beings  of  the  sea  were  much  copied  in 
antiquity.  But  perhaps  he  reached  his  highest  level  in  statues 
such  as  that  of  Apollo  as  leader  of  the  Muses,  clad  in  long  drapery. 

The  interesting  precinct  of  Aesculapius  at  Epidaurus  has 
furnished  us  with  specimens  of  the  style  of  an  Athenian  con- 
temporary of  Scopas,  who  worked  with  him  on  the 
Mausoleum.  An  inscription  which  records  the  sums  Timotheut, 
spent  on  the  temple  of  the  Physician-god,  informs  us  i,^^«w». 
that  the  models  for  the  sculptures  of  the  pediments,  and 
one  set  of  acroteria  or  roof  adornments,  were  the  work  of  Timo- 
theus.  Of  the  pedimental  figures  and  the  acroteria  considerable 
fragments  have  been  recovered,  and  we  may  with  confidence 
assume  that  at  all  events  the  models  for  these  were  by  Timotheus. 
It  is  strange  that  the  unsatisfactory  arrangement  whereby  a 
noted  sculptor  makes  models  and  some  local  workman  the 
figures  enlarged  from  those  models,  should  have  been  tolerated 
by  so  artistic  a  people  as  the  Greeks.  The  subjects  of  the  pedi- 
ments appear  to  have  been  the  common  ones  of  battles  between 
Greek  and  Amazon  and  between  Lapith  and  Centaur.  We 
possess  fragments  of  some  of  the  Amazon  figures,  one  of  which, 
striking  downwards  at  the  enemy,  is  here  shown  (fig.  44).  Their 
attitudes  are  vigorous  and  alert;  but  the  work  shows  no  delicacy 
of  detail.  Figures  of 
Nereids  riding  on 
horses,  which  were 
found  on  the  same  site,  | 
may  very  probably  be 
roof  ornaments  (acro- 
teria) of  the  temple. 
We  have  also  several 
figures  of  Victory, 
which  probably  were 
acroteria  on  some 
smaller  temple,  per- 
haps that  of  Artemis. 
A  base  found  at 
Athens,  sculptured 
with  figures  of  horse- 
men in  relief,  bears  the 
name  of  Bryaxis,  and 
was  probably  made  by 
a  pupil  of  his.  Prob- 
able conjecture  assigns 
to  Leochares  the 
originals  copied  in  the  FIG.  44. — Amazon  from  Epidaurus. 
Ganymede  of  the  Vatican,  borne  aloft  by  an  eagle  (Plate  I. 
fig-  S3)  and  the  noble  statue  of  Alexander  the  Great  at  Munich 
(see  LEOCHARES).  Thus  we  may  fairly  say  that  we  are  now 
acquainted  with  the  work  of  all  the  great  sculptors  who  worked 
on  the  Mausoleum — Scopas,  Bryaxis,  Leochares  and  Timotheus; 
and  are  in  a  far  more  advantageous  position  than  were  the 
archaeologists  of  1880  for  determining  the  artistic  problems 
connected  with  that  noblest  of  ancient  tombs. 

Contemporary  with  the  Athenian  school  of  Praxiteles  and 
Scopas  was  the  great  school  of  Argos  and  Sicyon,  of  which 
Lysippus  was  the  most  distinguished  member.  Lysippus  con- 
tinued the  academic  traditions  of  Polyclitus,  but  he  was  far 
bolder  in  his  choice  of  subjects  and  more  innovating  in  style. 
Gods,  heroes  and  mortals  alike  found  in  him  a  sculptor  who  knew 
how  to  combine  fine  ideality  with  a  vigorous  actuality.  He 
was  at  the  height  of  his  fame  during  Alexander's  life,  and  the 
grandiose  ambition  of  the  great  Macedonian  found  him  ample 
employment,  especially  in  the  frequent  representation  of  himself 
and  his  marshals. 

We  have  none  of  the  actual  works  of  Lysippus;  but  our  best 
evidence  for  his  style  will  be  found  in  the  statue  of  Agias  an 
athlete  (Plate  V.  fig.  74)  found  at  Delphi,  and  shown  by  an 
inscription  to  be  a  marble  copy  of  a  bronze  original  by  Lysippus. 
The  Apoxyomenus  of  the  Vatican  (man  scraping  himself  with  a 
strigil)  (Plate  VI.  fig.  79)  has  hitherto  been  regarded  as  a  copy 
from  Lysippus;  but  of  this  there  is  no  evidence,  and  the  style 
of  that  statue  belongs  rather  to  the  3rd  century  than  the  4th. 


40O-300   B.C.] 


GREEK  ART 


489 


The  Agias,  on  the  other  hand,  is  in  style  contemporary  with  the 
works  of  4th-century  sculptors. 

Of  the  elaborate  groups  of  combatants  with  which  Lysippus 
enriched  such  centres  as  Olympia  and  Delphi,  or  of  the  huge  bronze 
statues  which  he  erected  in  temples  and  shrines,  we  can  form  no 
adequate  notion.  Perhaps  among  the  extant  heads  of  Alexander 
the  one  which  is  most  likely  to  preserve  the  style  of  Lysippus 
is  the  head  from  Alexandria  in  the  British  Museum  (Plate  II. 
fig-  56),  though  this  was  executed  at  a  later  time. 

Many  noted  extant  statues  may  be  attributed  with  probability 
to  the  latter  part  of  the  4th  or  the  earlier  part  of  the  3rd  century. 
We  will  mention  a  few  only.  The  celebrated  group  at  Florence 
representing  Niobe  and  her  children  falling  before  the  arrows  of 
Apollo  and  Artemis  is  certainly  a  work  of  the  pathetic  school, 
and  may  be  by  a  pupil  of  Praxiteles.  Niobe,  in  an  agony  of 
grief,  which  is  in  the  marble  tempered  and  idealized,  tries  to 
protect  her  youngest  daughter  from  destruction  (Plate  VI.  fig.  78). 
Whether  the  group  can  have  originally  been  fitted  into  the  gable 
of  a  temple  is  a  matter  of  dispute. 

Two  great  works  preserved  in  the  Louvre  are  so  noted  that  it  is 
but  necessary  to  mention  them,  the  Aphrodite  of  Melos  (Plate 
VI.  fig.  77),  in  which  archaeologists  are  now  disposed  to  see  the 
influence  of  Scopas,  and  the  Victory  of  Samothrace  (Plate  III.  figs. 
61  and  62),  an  original  set  up  by  Demetrius  Poliorcetes  after  a 
naval  victory  won  at  Salamis  in  Cyprus  in  306  B.C.  over  the 
fleet  of  Ptolemy,  king  of  Egypt. 

Nor  can  we  pass  over  without  notice  two  works  so  celebrated 
as  the  Apollo  of  the  Belvidere  in  the  Vatican  (Plate  II.  fig.  55), 
and  the  Artemis  of  Versailles.  The  Apollo  is  now  by  most 
archaeologists  regarded  as  probably  a  copy  of  a  work  of  Leochares, 
to  whose  Ganymede  it  bears  a  superficial  resemblance.  The 
Artemis  is  regarded  as  possibly  due  to  some  artist  of  the  same 
age.  But  it  is  by  no  means  clear  that  we  have  the  right  to 
remove  either  of  these  figures  from  among  the  statues  of  the 
Hellenistic  age.  The  old  theory  of  Preller,  which  saw  in  them 
copies  from  a  trophy  set  up  to  commemorate  the  repulse  of  the 
Gauls  at  Delphi  in  278  B.C.,  has  not  lost  its  plausibility. 

This  may  be  the  most  appropriate  place  for  mentioning  the 
remarkable  find  made  at  Sidon  in  1886  of  a  number  of  sarcophagi, 
which  once  doubtless  contained  the  remains  of  kings 
of  Sidon.  They  are  now  in  the  museum  of  Constanti- 
nople, and  are  admirably  published  by  Hamdy  Bey 
and  T.  Reinach  (Une  Necropole  royale  d  Sidon,  1892- 
The  sarcophagi  in  date  cover  a  considerable  period. 
The  earlier  are  made  on  Egyptian  models,  the  covers  shaped 
roughly  in  the  form  of  a  human  body  or  mummy.  The  later, 
however,  are  Greek  in  iorm,  and  are  clearly  the  work  of  skilled 

Greek  sculptors,  who  seem 
to  have  been  employed  by 
the  grandees  of  Phoenicia 
in  the  adornment  of  their 
last  resting-places.  Four 
of  these  sarcophagi  in  par- 
ticular claim  attention, 
and  in  fact  present  us 
with  examples  of  Greek 
art  of  the  sth  and  4th 
centuries  in  several  of  its 
aspects.  To  the  sth 
century  belong  the  tomb 
of  the  Satrap,  the  reliefs  of 
which  bring  before  us  the 
activities  and  glories  of 
some  unknown  king,  and 
the  Lycian  sarcophagus, 
so  called  from  its  form, 
which  resembles  that  of 
tombs  found  in  Lycia,  and  which  is  also  adorned  with  reliefs 
which  have  reference  to  the  past  deeds  of  the  hero  buried  in  the 
tomb,  though  these  deeds  are  represented,  not  in  the  Oriental 
manner  directly,  but  in  the  Greek  manner,  clad  in  mythological 
forms.  To  the  4th  century  belong  two  other  sarcophagi.  One 


San-o- 
pting! of 
Sidon. 

1896). 


Hamdy  et  Reinach,  Nicropole  A  Sidon,  PI.  7. 
FIG.  45. — Tomb  of  Mourning  Women : 
Sidon. 


of  these  is  called  the  Tomb  of  Mourning  Women.  On  all  sides 
of  it  alike  are  ranged  a  series  of  beautiful  female  figures,  separated 
by  Ionic  pillars,  each  in  a  somewhat  different  attitude,  though  all 
attitudes  denoting  grief  (fig.  45).  The  pediments  at  the  ends  of  the 
cover  are  also  closely  connected  with  the  mourning  for  the  loss  of 
a  friend  and  protector,  which  is  the  theme  of  the  whole  decoration 
of  the  sarcophagus.  We  see  depicted  in  them  the  telling  of  the 
news  of  the  death,  with  the  results  in  the  mournful  attitude  of  the 
two  seated  figures.  The  mourning  women  must  be  taken,  not 
as  the  representation  of  any  persons  in  particular,  but  generally 
as  the  expression  of  the  feeling  of  a  city.  Such  figures  are  familiar 
to  us  in  the  art  of  the  second  Attic  school;  we  could  easily  find 
parallels  to  the  sarcophagus  among  the  4th-century  sepulchral 
reliefs  of  Athens.  We  can  scarcely  be  mistaken  in  attributing 
the  workmanship  of  this  beautiful  sarcophagus  to  some  sculptor 
trained  in  the  school  of  Praxiteles.  And  it  is  a  conjecture  full  of 
probability  that  it  once  contained  the  body  of  Strato,  king  of 
Sidon,  who  ruled  about  380  B.C.,  and  who  was  proxenos  or  public 
friend  of  the  Athenians. 

More  celebrated  is  the  astonishing  tomb  called  that  of 
Alexander,  though  there  can  be  no  doubt  that,  although  it 
commemorates  the  victories  and  exploits  of  Alexander,  it  was 
made  not  to  hold  his  remains,  but  those  of  some  ruler  of  Sidon 
who  was  high  in  his  favour.  Among  all  the  monuments  of  anti- 
quity which  have  come  down  to  us,  none  is  more  admirable  than 
this,  and  none  more  characteristic  of  the  Greek  genius.  We  give, 
in  two  lines,  the  composition  which  adorned  one  of  the  sides  of 
this  sarcophagus.  It  represents  a  victory  of  Alexander,  probably 
that  of  the  Granicus  (fig.  46).  On  the  left  we  see  the  Macedonian 
king  charging  the  Persian  horse,  on  the  right  his  general 
Parmenio,  and  in  the  midst  a  younger  officer,  perhaps  Cleitus. 
Mingled  with  the  chiefs  are  foot-soldiers,  Greek  and  Macedonian, 
with  whom  the  Persians  are  mingled  in  unequal  fray.  What 
most  strikes  the  modern  eye  is  the  remarkable  freshness  and 
force  of  the  action  and  the  attitudes.  Those,  however,  who 
have  seen  the  originals  have  been  specially  impressed  with  the 
colouring,  whereof,  of  course,  our  engraving  gives  no  hint,  but 
which  is  applied  to  the  whole  surface  of  the  relief  with  equal 
skill  and  delicacy.  There  are  other  features  in  the  relief  on 
which  a  Greek  eye  would  have  dwelt  with  special  pleasure — the 
exceedingly  careful  symmetry  of  the  whole,  the  balancing  of 
figure  against  figure,  the  skill  with  which  the  result  of  the  battle 
is  hinted  rather  than  depicted.  The  composition  is  one  in  which 
the  most  careful  planning  and  the  most  precise  calculation  are 
mingled  with  freedom  of  hand  and  expressiveness  in  detail. 
The  faces  in  particular  show  more  expression  than  would  be 
tolerated  in  art  of  the  previous  century.  We  are  unable  as  yet 
to  assign  an  author  or  even  a  school  to  the  sculptor  of  this 
sarcophagus;  he  comes  to  us  as  a  new  and  striking  phenomenon 
in  the  history  of  ancient  art.  The  reliefs  which  adorn  the  other 
sides  of  the  sarcophagus  are  almost  equally  interesting.  On 
one  side  we  see  Alexander  again,  in  the  company  of  a  Persian 
noble,  hunting  a  lion.  The  short  sides  also  show  us  scenes  of 
fighting  and  hunting.  In  fact  it  can  scarcely  be  doubted  that 
if  we  had  but  a  clue  to  the  interpretation  of  the  reliefs,  they 
would  be  found  to  embody  historic  events  of  the  end  of  the  4th 
century.  There  are  but  a  few  other  works  of  art,  such  as  the 
Bayeux  tapestry  and  the  Column  of  Trajan,  which  bring  con- 
temporary history  so  vividly  before  our  eyes.  The  battles  with 
the  Persians  represented  in  some  of  the  sculpture  of  the  Parthenon 
and  the  temple  of  Nike  at  Athens  are  treated  conventionally 
and  with  no  attempt  at  realism;  but  here  the  ideal  and  the  actual 
are  blended  into  a  work  of  consummate  art,  which  is  at  the  same 
time,  to  those  who  can  read  the  language  of  Greek  art,  a  historic 
record.  The  portraits  of  Alexander  the  Great  which  appear  on 
this  sarcophagus  are  almost  contemporary,  and  the  most 
authentic  likenesses  of  him  which  we  possess.  The  great  Mace- 
donian exercised  so  strong  an  influence  on  contemporary  art 
that  a  multitude  of  heads  of  the  age,  both  of  gods  and  men,  and 
even  the  portraits  of  his  successors,  show  traces  of  his  type. 

We  have  yet  to  mention  what  are  among  the  most  charming 
and  the  most  characteristic  products  of  the  Greek  chisel,  the 


490 


GREEK  ART 


[300-50  B.C. 


beautiful  tombs,  adorned  with  seated  or  standing  portraits  or 
with  reliefs,  which  were  erected  in  great  numbers  on  all  the  main 
roads  of  Greece.  A  great  number  of  these  from  the  Dipylon 
cemetery  are  preserved  in  the  Central  Museum  at  Athens,  and 


Hamdy  et  Reinacb.    Nicropole  A  Sidon,  PI.  30. 

FIG.  46. — Battle  of  The  Granicus :  Sarcophagus  from  Sidon. 


impress  all  visitors  by  the  gentle  sentiment  and  the  charm  of 
grouping  which  they  display  (  Gardner,  Sculptured  Tombs  of 
Hellas). 

Period  IV.  300-50  B.C. — There  can  be  no  question  but  that 
the  period  which  followed  the  death  of  Alexander,  commonly 
called  the  age  of  Hellenism,  was  one  of  great  activity  and  expan- 
sion in  architecture.  The  number  of  cities  founded  by  himself 
and  his  immediate  successors  in  Asia  and  Egypt  was  enormous. 
The  remains  of  these  cities  have  in  a  few  cases  (Ephesus, 
Pergamum,  Assus,  Priene,  Alexandria)  been  partially  excavated. 
But  the  adaptation  of  Greek  architecture  to  the  needs  of  the 
semi-Greek  peoples  included  in  the  dominions  of  the  kings  of 
Egypt,  Syria  and  Pergamum  is  too  vast  a  subject  for  us  to  enter 
upon  here  (see  ARCHITECTURE). 

Painting  during  this  age  ceased  to  be  religious.  It  was  no 
longer  for  temples  and  public  stoae  that  artists  worked,  but  for 
private  persons;  especially  they  made  frescoes  for  the  decoration 
of  the  walls  of  houses,  and  panel  pictures  for  galleries  set  up  by 
rich  patrons.  The  names  of  very  few  painters  of  the  Hellenistic 
age  have  come  down  to  us.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the 
character  of  the  art  declined,  and  there  were  no  longer  produced 
great  works  to  be  the  pride  of  cities,  or  to  form  an  embodiment 
for  all  future  time  of  the  qualities  of  a  deity  or  the  circumstances 
of  scenes  mythical  or  historic.  But  at  the  same  time  the  mural 
paintings  of  Pompeii  and  other  works  of  the  Roman  age,  which 
are  usually  more  or  less  nearly  derived  from  Hellenistic  models, 
prove  that  in  technical  matters  painting  continued  to  progress. 
Colouring  became  more  varied,  groups  more  elaborate,  per- 
spective was  worked  out  with  greater  accuracy,  and  imagination 
shook  itself  free  from  many  of  the  conventions  of  early  art. 
Pompeian  painting,  however,  must  be  treated  of  under  Roman, 
not  under  Greek  art.  We  figure  a  single  example,  to  show  the 
elaboration  of  painting  at  Alexandria  and  elsewhere,  the  wonder- 


ful Pompeian  mosaic  (fig.  47),  which  represents  the  victory  of 
Alexander  at  Issus.  This  work  being  in  stone  has  preserved  it 
colouring;  and  it  stands  at  a  far  higher  level  of  art  than  ordinary 
Pompeian  paintings,  which  are  the  work  of  mere  house-decorators. 

This  on  the  contrary  is 
certainly  copied  from 
the  work  of  a  great 
master.  It  is  instructive 
to  compare  it  with  the 
sarcophagus  illustrated 
in  Fig.46,  whichit  excels 
in  perspective  and  in 
the  freedom  of  indi- 
vidual figures,  though 
thecompositionismuch 
less  careful  and  precise. 
Alexanderchargesfrom 
the  left  (his  portrait 
being  the  least  success- 
ful part  of  the  picture), 
and  bears  downayoung 
Persian;  Darius  in  his 
chariot  flees  towards  the 
right ;  in  the  foreground 
a  young  knight  is  trying 
to  manage  a  restive 
horse.  It  will  be  ob- 
served how  very  simple 
is  the  Indication  of 
locality:  a  few  stones 
and  a  broken  tree  stand 
for  rocks  and  woods. 

Among  the  original 
sculptural  creations  of 
the  early  Hellenistic 
age,  a  prominent  place 
is  claimed  by  the  statue 
of  Fortune,  typifying 
the  city  of  Antioch 


(Plate  VI.  fig.  81),  a  work  of  Eutychides,  a  pupil  of  Lysippus.  Of 
this  we  possess  a  small  copy,  which  is  sufficient  to  show  how 
worthy  of  admiration  was  the  original.  We  have  a  beautiful 
embodiment  of  the  personality  of  the  city,  seated  on  a  rock, 
holding  ears  of  corn,  while  the  river  Orontes,  embodied  in  a 
young  male  figure,  springs  forth  at  her  feet. 

This  is,  so  far  as  we  know,  almost  the  only  work  of  the  early 
part  of  the  3rd  century  which  shows  imagination.  Sculptors 
often  worked  on  a  colossal  scale,  producing  such  monsters  as 
the  colossal  Apollo  at  Rhodes,  the  work  of  Chares  of  Lindus, 
which  was  more  than  100  ft.  in  height.  But  they  did  not  show 
freshness  or  invention;  and  for  the  most  part  content  themselves 


From  a  photograph  by  G.  Brogi. 

FIG.  47. — Mosaic  of  the  Battle  of  Issus  (Naples). 

with  varying  the  types  produced  in  the  great  schools  of  the  4th 
century.  The  wealthy  kings  of  Syria,  Egypt  and  Asia  Minor 
formed  art  galleries,  and  were  lavish  in  their  payments;  but 
it  has  often  been  proved  in  the  history  of  art  that  originality 
cannot  be  produced  by  mere  expenditure. 


-SO   B.C.] 


GREEK  ART 


491 


A  great  artist,  whose  date  has  been  disputed,   but  who  is 
ow  assigned  to  the  Hellenistic  age,  Damophon  of  Messene, 
known  to  us  from  his  actual  works.    He  set  up  in  the  shrine 
if  the  Mistress  (Despoena)  at  Lycosura  in  Arcadia  a  great 
•oup  of  figures  consisting  of  Despoena,   Demeter,   Artemis 
d  the  Titan  Anytus.    Three  colossal  heads  found  on  the  spot 
robably    belong    to    the   three   last-mentioned    deities.      We 
ustrate  the  head  of  Anytus,  with  wild  disordered  hair  and 
rbulent  expression  (fig.  48).     Dr  Dorpfeld  has  argued,  on 

architectural  grounds,  that 
shrine  and  images  alike 
must  be  given  to  a  later 
time  than  the  4th  century; 
and  this  judgment  is  now 
confirmed  by  inscriptional 
and  other  evidence. 

In  one  important  direc- 
tion sculpture  certainly 
made  progress.  Hitherto 
Greek  sculptors  had  con- 
tented themselves  with 

-•'•fjw.    ft T»*SLi  studying  the  human   body 

JwBallM  -flreWrJfyM  whether  in  rest  or  motion, 
gKgpala.  J^Jfym  from  outside.  The  dissec- 
tPNy*  '.affiiSytf'SUB'  tion  of  the  human  body, 

6  "EM  ^iBlurHS  with  a  consequent  increase 

K,  -  in  knowledge  of   anatomy, 

^1  ~  ©""^^llllllT  became  usual  at  Alexan